Greek Bronzes: In The Metropolitan Museum of Art: The Metropolitan ...
Greek Bronzes: In The Metropolitan Museum of Art: The Metropolitan ...
Greek Bronzes: In The Metropolitan Museum of Art: The Metropolitan ...
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BY JOAN R. M\ERTENS
Bulletin~,:- ,i,IE')~~~~~~~~~,_~~~~~a1985FallE'~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i<strong>The</strong> <strong>Metropolitan</strong> <strong>Museum</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Art</strong>is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve, and extend access to<strong>The</strong> <strong>Metropolitan</strong> <strong>Museum</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Art</strong> Bulletin ®www.jstor.org
FRONT covE: Herakles (no. 14), last quarter <strong>of</strong> the sixth century B.C.INSIDE FRONT COVER: Head <strong>of</strong> a griffin (no. 9), third quarter <strong>of</strong> the seventh century B.C.BACK COVER: Hermes (no. 43), first century B.C. to first century A.D.<strong>The</strong> translations are based upon those <strong>of</strong> the Loeb Classical Library.Reprinted from <strong>The</strong> <strong>Metropolitan</strong> <strong>Museum</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Art</strong> Bulletin (Fall 1985). ? 1985 by <strong>The</strong> <strong>Metropolitan</strong><strong>Museum</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Art</strong>. Photography by Walter J. F. Yee, <strong>Metropolitan</strong> <strong>Museum</strong> Photograph Studio.Design: Peter Oldenburg<strong>The</strong> <strong>Metropolitan</strong> <strong>Museum</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Art</strong>is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve, and extend access to<strong>The</strong> <strong>Metropolitan</strong> <strong>Museum</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Art</strong> Bulletin ®www.jstor.org
S ince antiquity the Age <strong>of</strong> Bronze has been customarily characterized as a rude sequel to theglorious ages <strong>of</strong> gold and silver. This third generation <strong>of</strong> mortals created by the gods on MountOlympos was, according to Hesiod, "a brazen race, sprung from ash-trees; ... in no way equal to [thepreceding] silver age, but was terrible and strong." Lovers <strong>of</strong> violence, they developed unconquerablestrength. <strong>The</strong>ir armor was <strong>of</strong> bronze, their houses <strong>of</strong> bronze, and they used bronze implements. <strong>The</strong>irbrutality was such that they destroyed themselves. Given Hesiod's description, one might expect thatfrom this early time <strong>Greek</strong> bronze workers devoted themselves to the production <strong>of</strong> weapons andarmor. <strong>The</strong> <strong>Museum</strong>'s collection <strong>of</strong> <strong>Greek</strong> bronzes provides striking evidence to the contrary. Out <strong>of</strong>the durable medium <strong>of</strong> bronze skilled <strong>Greek</strong> craftsmen created some <strong>of</strong>the most beautiful and memorableworks in the history <strong>of</strong> Western art. Graceful figures, charming animals, luxurious utensils, andhandsomely decorated armor were all fashioned with great sensitivity from bronze.While ancient literary sources tell us that many bronzes were melted down-as were objects <strong>of</strong> goldand silver-a far greater number <strong>of</strong> works survive than those made <strong>of</strong> more precious metals. It takes asharp eye, perseverance, an innate sense <strong>of</strong> quality, and careful scholarship to form a first-rank collection<strong>of</strong> bronzes. <strong>The</strong> <strong>Metropolitan</strong> has been fortunate to have had the support <strong>of</strong> knowledgeabledonors as well as an inspired curatorial staff in assembling a group <strong>of</strong> <strong>Greek</strong> bronzes that is one <strong>of</strong>the finest and richest anywhere.<strong>The</strong>re was no question <strong>of</strong> presenting the collection here in its entirety; indeed, in order to allow forplentiful illustrations, only forty-four pieces were selected for inclusion in this Bulletin. Chosen for theirexceptional quality and their historic or iconographic interest, these bronzes span the history <strong>of</strong> <strong>Greek</strong>art from the eighth century B.C. to Roman times. Most <strong>of</strong> them are small objects, and here, reproducedin several views, they can be fully appreciated as impressive sculptures. For example, the little centaur(no. 26) hurls his rock with all the force <strong>of</strong> his larger counterparts, despite the fact that he is only oneand three-quarters inches high.As distinguished as the works themselves are many <strong>of</strong> the collectors who at one time or anotherowned these objects. Foremost among them is the late Walter C. Baker, whose bequest in 1971brought a bounty <strong>of</strong> masterpieces, the best known being the veiled dancer (no. 32); ten worksfrom his collection are included in this publication. Other distinguished connoisseurs <strong>of</strong> bronzesrepresented by works reproduced on these pages are Count Michael Tyszkiewicz and VladimirSimkhovitch. An accomplished museum curator ranks with these discerning private collectors. UnderDietrich von Bothmer, Chairman <strong>of</strong> the Department <strong>of</strong> <strong>Greek</strong> and Roman <strong>Art</strong>, significant objects havebeen added to our holdings, including the majestic rams (no. 17) and the poignant artisan (no. 41).Norbert Schimmel has been a true friend <strong>of</strong>the department-in this area as in many others-allowingus to exhibit his grand Dionysiac mask (no. 40) alongside the <strong>Museum</strong>'s two masks (nos. 38,39) inthe galleries.I wish to express my gratitude to the anonymous donor <strong>of</strong> the Classical Fund and to GeorgeOrtiz for enabling the <strong>Museum</strong> to publish this Bulletinas full and generously illustrated fashion asit is. Written by Joan R. Mertens, Curator and Administrator <strong>of</strong> the Department <strong>of</strong> <strong>Greek</strong> and Roman<strong>Art</strong>, this issue is intended as an introduction to <strong>Greek</strong> bronzes-revealing their variety, their quality<strong>of</strong> execution, and the pleasure <strong>of</strong> viewing them. I hope that it will encourage readers to make a leisurelyvisit to the galleries-or several visits-and to take the time to thoroughly study and enjoythese masterpieces. It is also my hope that in the near future their present installation in the <strong>Metropolitan</strong>,which has been provisional for all too long, will be changed to one that is worthy <strong>of</strong> thesesplendid bronzes.Philippe de MontebelloDirector<strong>The</strong> <strong>Metropolitan</strong> <strong>Museum</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Art</strong>is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve, and extend access to<strong>The</strong> <strong>Metropolitan</strong> <strong>Museum</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Art</strong> Bulletin ®www.jstor.org
INTRODUCTION"And your own images in Greece, how are they fashioned?... Your artists, then,like Phidias and like Praxiteles went up, I suppose, to heaven and made a model<strong>of</strong> the forms <strong>of</strong> the gods and then reproduced them by their art, or was theresomething else that attended upon them as they did their molding?""<strong>The</strong>re was," said Apollonius, "something else, full <strong>of</strong> wisdom [sophia].""What was that," said the other, "for surely you would not say that it was somethingother than imitation [mimesis]?""Imagination[phantasia],"he said, "wrought these works, a wiser craftsman thanimitation; for imitation crafts what it has seen, while imagination crafts what ithas not seen; for it conceives according to the standard <strong>of</strong> what exists. Shock<strong>of</strong>ten deadens imitation, but nothing affects phantasy, which marches undauntedtoward the goal that it has set itself"Flavius Philostratus, <strong>The</strong> Life <strong>of</strong> Apollonius <strong>of</strong> Tyana (6.19)<strong>The</strong> <strong>Metropolitan</strong> <strong>Museum</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Art</strong>is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve, and extend access to<strong>The</strong> <strong>Metropolitan</strong> <strong>Museum</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Art</strong> Bulletin ®www.jstor.org
K( een observation combined with seemingly inexhaustible creativity is ahallmark <strong>of</strong> <strong>Greek</strong> art in all <strong>of</strong> its forms. Nowhere does it impress us more immediately,however, than in the statuettes and utensils <strong>of</strong> bronze that were an integralpart <strong>of</strong> <strong>Greek</strong> life. <strong>The</strong>y survive from the ninth century B.C. through the period <strong>of</strong>assimilation to Roman styles that began during the second century B.C. Althoughthe paintings on <strong>Greek</strong> vases <strong>of</strong>fer pictures <strong>of</strong> contemporary men, women, andchildren-what they did and how they visualized their gods and heroes-bronzestatuettes have the property <strong>of</strong> being three-dimensional, <strong>of</strong> being palpably real.While large-scale sculpture survives, much <strong>of</strong> it consists <strong>of</strong> copies after originalsthat no longer exist. <strong>The</strong> majority <strong>of</strong> bronze statuettes, by contrast, have the distinction<strong>of</strong> being the original works that the ancient artists made.When these artists dealt with things that they saw around them-humanbeings, animals, utensils-our admiration is directed particularly to the way inwhich they captured and depicted the distinctive qualities <strong>of</strong> the subject. Whatwe may not sufficiently consider today is the tangible form that the craftsmengave to a wide range <strong>of</strong> subjects upon which no one had ever set eyes: the heroHerakles, the goddess Athena, Eros, the personification <strong>of</strong> love, griffins, centaurs,and satyrs, to mention only examples that occur here. While these inhabitants <strong>of</strong>the imagination acquired attributes by which to be recognized-the club andlion skin <strong>of</strong> Herakles, for instance-every artist contributed his own interpretation.<strong>The</strong> resulting statuettes are <strong>of</strong>ten memorable because the form perfectlysuits the subject and the articulation is so precise that, thanks to our eyes and fingertips,we have a real presence before us.<strong>The</strong> bronzes represent one <strong>of</strong> two kinds <strong>of</strong> object: either they were made to befreestanding, in which case they normally stand on their own base, or they werethe decorative adjuncts to a utensil. <strong>The</strong>ir beauty might suggest that in antiquity,as in modem times, they were collected and enjoyed for their own sake. <strong>In</strong> fact,they were intended to serve a purpose, their aesthetic qualities being secondary.Through the fifth century B.C., at least, freestanding figural bronzes were producedas dedications, <strong>of</strong>ferings to a god frequently placed in a sanctuary andinscribed with a text to that effect; the lyre player (no. 15), for instance, hasinscribed on the back, "Dolichos dedicated me." <strong>The</strong> hydria, or water jar (no.23), shows engraved around the top <strong>of</strong> the mouth, "one <strong>of</strong> the prizes from ArgiveHera." Such utilitarian objects, actually made to be used, might ultimately also bededicated as <strong>of</strong>ferings.<strong>The</strong>se two considerations-that the objects had a function to perform and thata figure <strong>of</strong> a human or an animal could be integrated naturally into a utensil-areabsolutely basic to an understanding <strong>of</strong> <strong>Greek</strong> bronzes. <strong>The</strong> artist's hand in theservice <strong>of</strong> his eye fashioned the upper body <strong>of</strong> a woman (opposite) that isimmediately recognizable and remarkable for the articulation <strong>of</strong> her face, garment,and hair. His hand working in the service <strong>of</strong> his imagination leaves us withno sense <strong>of</strong> discomfort or incongruity that she forms the transition between themouth and handle <strong>of</strong> a water jar. <strong>The</strong> figure embellishes the utensil; the utensilgives purpose to the figure. Moreover, as the object is used, the mutually reinforcingthree-dimensionality <strong>of</strong> vase and figure comes to the fore.By the eighth century B.C., the date <strong>of</strong> the earliest object in this Bulletin, bronzeworking had already enjoyed a long history in the <strong>Greek</strong> world. <strong>In</strong>deed, theAbove: Detail <strong>of</strong> the hydria (no. 23)showing the inscriptionOpposite: Woman at the handle <strong>of</strong>the hydria5
Bronze Age is the name conventionally applied to the latest period <strong>of</strong> <strong>Greek</strong> prehistory,about 3200 to 1200 B.C. Preserved objects and ancient literary sources testifyto the use <strong>of</strong> other metals at that time: gold, silver, lead, tin, electrum, and,rarely, iron. Bronze, the alloy composed <strong>of</strong> approximately 90 percent copper and10 percent tin, by far predominated, however, for weapons, tools, and vessels, aswell as for statuettes. Among the available metals, it was the hardest and strongest;at the same time, it could be formed into complex shapes, like fishhooks.<strong>The</strong> technology <strong>of</strong> preparing the alloys, <strong>of</strong> casting or hammering the object, and<strong>of</strong> finishing it had been fully mastered so that, in this respect, there were noobstacles to production. (A description <strong>of</strong> how bronzes were made appears atthe end <strong>of</strong> this essay.) <strong>The</strong> most common material for containers, loom weights,dedicatory objects, and other necessities <strong>of</strong> daily life was fired clay. Wheredurability and/or the distinction <strong>of</strong> a rarer material came into play, bronzewas used.Archaeological investigation makes it possible to follow the evidence forbronze working back into the fourth millennium B.C. Yet, it is really only in thepoems <strong>of</strong> Homer, who is generally believed to have lived during the eighth centuryB.C., that we are given a social and human context within which to relate thesurviving material. <strong>The</strong> poet, for instance, vividly describes a forge in the course<strong>of</strong> recounting how <strong>The</strong>tis went to the divine smith Hephaistos to obtain a secondset <strong>of</strong> armor for her son Achilles.So saying he left her there and went to his bellows, and he turned these towardthe fire and bade them work. And the bellows, twenty in all, blew upon the meltingvats, sending forth a ready blast <strong>of</strong> every force, now to further him as helabored hard, and again in whatsoever way Hephaistos might wish and his workgo on. And on the fire he put stubborn copper and tin and precious gold and silver;and thereafter he set on the anvil-block a great anvil, and took in one hand amassive hammer, and in the other he took the tongs (Iliad 18.468-477).Homer lived about five hundred years later than the Trojan War and its aftermathtreated in his poems. While perhaps not so barren as once thought, theintervening centuries produced virtually no great art in any form. During thetenth century, however, artistic creativity reawakened and, by 750 B.C., the prevailingstyle, called "Geometric" in modem scholarship, was reaching its apogee.<strong>The</strong> name derives from such simple geometric shapes as triangles, circles, andrectangles that were used as filling ornament as well as elaborated into the subjects<strong>of</strong> figural scenes. Vase painting and bronze working were the primarymedia.<strong>The</strong> Geometric period (about 1000-700 B.C.) is <strong>of</strong> considerable importance forbronze working. First, it introduces many figure types that remained in the repertoirefor centuries. <strong>The</strong> male occurs in various guises-nude, as a warrior, or as avotary. <strong>The</strong>re are animals, notably horses and birds, as well as mythical creaturessuch as centaurs and griffins. Most remarkable is the style, which presents anygiven subject in its most elemental form, practically devoid <strong>of</strong> detail. Thus, statuettes<strong>of</strong> horses (nos. 3,4) show us little more than essentials: the head, archingneck, body, four legs, and tail that anyone would enumerate in describing thecreature. Similarly, an armorer (no. 8) consists fundamentally <strong>of</strong> the torso andlimbs <strong>of</strong> a human figure disposed so that his legs indicate that he is sitting on theground and his upper body and arms are directed toward the helmet before him.<strong>The</strong> manner <strong>of</strong> representation is perfectly clear and immediate, <strong>of</strong>ten also consummatelyelegant. <strong>The</strong> basic <strong>Greek</strong> iconographical types were born, so to speak,in the simplest, most expressive forms possible.A second significant feature <strong>of</strong> Geometric bronze work is that it documents the6
asic ways <strong>of</strong> using the material: in three dimensions, for statuettes and utensils;in relief to decorate objects such as tripod cauldrons, which were popular at thistime; and as the surface for incised decoration, best illustrated by a class <strong>of</strong> fibula,or safety pin. Thus, in the revival that took place during the early first millenniumB.C., the various possibilities for artistic expression developed hand in hand withsubject and style.A third significant aspect <strong>of</strong> Geometric bronzes concerns the geographical centerswhere, on the one hand, works were produced and where, on the other,they were particularly favored as dedications. Although scholars may disagree onthe localization <strong>of</strong> a specific object, there is little doubt that major centers <strong>of</strong> productionexisted in Laconia, the Argolid, Corinth, Attica, Boeotia, and <strong>The</strong>ssaly, aswell as on Crete and other islands. <strong>The</strong> single most important sanctuary at whichGeometric bronzes were dedicated is Olympia, but major concentrations <strong>of</strong>material have also come to light in Athens, Sparta, Delphi, the Argive Heraion,and on Samos. (See map on p. 14.)However one approaches these early works-technically, iconographically,geographically-they are very much at the head <strong>of</strong> a long tradition. <strong>The</strong>y enjoythe additional distinction <strong>of</strong> representing probably the most progressive area <strong>of</strong>sculptural creativity in their day. Apart from primitive images <strong>of</strong> wood describedin literary sources, there was no large-scale sculpture, and contemporary terracottascannot match the effect <strong>of</strong> volume and vitality in a work like the man andcentaur (no. 7). It is quite fair to say that for roughly a hundred years, until theend <strong>of</strong> the eighth century B.C., bronzes were at the forefront <strong>of</strong> <strong>Greek</strong> sculpturaldevelopment.<strong>The</strong> Archaic period, which is conventionally dated from about 700 B.C. to thePersian sack <strong>of</strong> the Athenian Akropolis in 480 B.C., saw the first flowering <strong>of</strong> <strong>Greek</strong>sculpture in stone, terracotta, and bronze. Our knowledge <strong>of</strong> artistic developmentsis enhanced by ancient literary evidence, <strong>of</strong> which two passages are particularlypertinent to bronzes: they are from the history <strong>of</strong> the Persian Wars writtenby Herodotos, who lived in the fifth century B.C., and they give us a point <strong>of</strong>chronological reference through the mention <strong>of</strong> Croesus, king <strong>of</strong> Lydia, whoreigned from about 561 to 546 B.C. <strong>The</strong> objects described in the quotations; theglimpse into relations between Sparta, Lydia, and Samos, three important statesthat were also centers <strong>of</strong> metalworking; the colorful exaggeration <strong>of</strong> theaccounts-all <strong>of</strong> these features provide a fitting introduction to this time <strong>of</strong> spectacular,perhaps even unparalleled, achievement in <strong>Greek</strong> bronze working. (<strong>In</strong>the quotation, the Lacedaemonians are the people <strong>of</strong> Lacedaemon, the regionwith its center at Sparta; "Laconia" is a short variant <strong>of</strong> Lacedaemon.)<strong>The</strong> Lacedaemonians declared themselves ready to serve Croesus, king <strong>of</strong> Lydia,when he should require, and moreover they made a bowl <strong>of</strong> bronze, with figuresin relief outside round the rim, and large enough to hold twenty-seven hundredgallons.... <strong>The</strong> bowl never came to Sardis, and for this two reasons are given: theLacedaemonians say that when the bowl was near Samos on its way to Sardis, theSamians descended upon them in warships and carried it <strong>of</strong>f; but the Samiansthemselves say that the Lacedaemonians who were bringing the bowl, being toolate, and learning that Sardis and Croesus were taken, sold it in Samos to certainprivate men, who set it up in the temple <strong>of</strong> Hera. And it may be that the sellers <strong>of</strong>the bowl, when they returned to Sparta, said that they had been robbed <strong>of</strong> it bythe Samians (<strong>The</strong> Persian Wars 1. 70).<strong>In</strong> another passage, Herodotos tells <strong>of</strong> a dedication made by a group <strong>of</strong>Samians with a tithe <strong>of</strong> their pr<strong>of</strong>its reaped from a trading voyage to southernSpain, probably for ores: "<strong>The</strong> Samians took six talents... and made therewith a7
Copper ingot, twelfth century B.c. RogersFund, 1911 (11.140.7)bronze vessel, like an Argolic krater, with griffins' heads projecting from the rimall around; this they set up in their temple <strong>of</strong> Hera, supporting it with threecolossal kneeling figures <strong>of</strong> bronze, each seven cubits high" (4.152).An important fact brought out by these passages is how Archaic bronzes, fromtheir production to their distribution, effectively linked one end <strong>of</strong> the Mediterraneanworld to the other. To begin with the metal ores required for the bronzeindustry, copper was mined at Chalkis on Euboea, in Macedonia, in <strong>The</strong>ssaly, onvarious islands (most conspicuously Cyprus), as well as in southwestern Spainand northern Italy; a copper ingot in the <strong>Museum</strong>'s collections, probably <strong>of</strong> thetwelfth century B.C., shows one <strong>of</strong> the forms in which ores were transportedthroughout antiquity. Tin had to be imported from Britain and Spain. Dangerousas these expeditions must have been, the rewards were handsome, as indicatedby Herodotos's account <strong>of</strong> the tithe in the form <strong>of</strong> a griffin cauldron dedicated bythe Samians.While Herodotos particularly highlights Laconia and Samos in the selectionscited, the number <strong>of</strong> places where the raw materials were made into objects continuedto proliferate, throughout the <strong>Greek</strong> mainland and islands as well as fartherafield. <strong>In</strong> the west there were workshops in the <strong>Greek</strong> colonies <strong>of</strong> southernItaly, notably Locri and Tarentum. By stylistic comparison with stone sculptureand terracottas, bronzes have also been attributed to eastern Greece, the coastalcities <strong>of</strong> Asia Minor, although the major centers have not so far been adequatelyidentified and characterized.<strong>The</strong> subsequent movement <strong>of</strong> finished pieces destined for dedications, forgifts, or for trade, which were occasionally carried <strong>of</strong>f as plunder, is vividlydescribed by Herodotos as well. Within the present selection, the mirror (no. 11)is a good example; it was probably made in the northeastern Peloponnesos andcame to light in Cyprus. Whatever the original purpose <strong>of</strong> these objects may havebeen, they <strong>of</strong>ten ultimately became <strong>of</strong>ferings. <strong>In</strong>deed, thanks to such sanctuarysites as Olympia, Samos, Delphi, Dodona, and Perachora, the archaeologicalrecord for the Archaic period is extremely rich, providing evidence for theexpanded range <strong>of</strong>figural subjects and types <strong>of</strong> object. <strong>The</strong> female figure, forinstance, which had been rare in Geometric art, now comes into its own, <strong>of</strong>ten inconnection with utensils, such as mirrors, that one assumes were favored bywomen. Similarly, armor and weapons have come down to us in quantity and inexamples <strong>of</strong> superlative workmanship. Body armor-helmets, cuirasses, thighguards, shin guards, and ankle guards-deserves close attention, being shapedand articulated in accordance with the part <strong>of</strong> the body that it covered. <strong>In</strong> theabsence <strong>of</strong> life-size bronze sculpture, the cuirasses particularly illustrate the evolution<strong>of</strong> anatomical rendering from stylization to greater naturalism.If, indeed, the major accomplishment <strong>of</strong> Archaic bronze statuettes were to becharacterized, it might legitimately be said that the essential forms developed byGeometric artists now acquired flesh and blood. <strong>The</strong> warrior (no. 1) impresses usby the clarity and economy with which he conveys the ideas <strong>of</strong> being a man andwielding a weapon. <strong>The</strong> youth (no. 13) invites us to admire the modeling <strong>of</strong> hisbody, the detail <strong>of</strong> his long hair, his lifelikeness. This development is as evident insubjects <strong>of</strong> the imagination, like griffins (no. 9) and gorgon heads (no. 19), as inthose that the artists saw around them. When Herodotos was writing, bronzeobjects <strong>of</strong> the Geometric period were still visible. Thus, in his descriptions <strong>of</strong> theenormous Laconian bowl with decoration around the rim, or <strong>of</strong> the Samiankrater with griffins and kneeling figures, his sense <strong>of</strong> wonder may have beendirected not only at the size <strong>of</strong> the respective dedications but also at the vividness<strong>of</strong> the subjects represented.8
<strong>The</strong> ramifications <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Greek</strong> victory over Persia and the resulting preeminence<strong>of</strong> Athens extended to art, leaving their mark even in the domain <strong>of</strong> utensilsand statuettes. During the Classic period, which spans the fifth and fourthcenturies up to the death <strong>of</strong> Alexander the Great in 323 B.C., the major achievementslay in architecture, monumental sculpture in stone, bronze, ivory andgold, as well as in wall painting. Literary texts, in the form <strong>of</strong> descriptions,accounts, decrees, and so on, give the names <strong>of</strong> masters, major and minor,together with the works attributed to them, or they pertain to specific monuments.<strong>In</strong>dividuals such as the architect Iktinos, the sculptor Pheidias, and thepainter Polygnotos <strong>of</strong>Thasos set the standards for and introduced the innovationsinto their respective arts; therefore, considerations <strong>of</strong> models and influencesnow enter into the study <strong>of</strong> a work in a way that they had not previously.Bronze sculpture on a scale <strong>of</strong> halflife-size or greater can be traced back to agroup <strong>of</strong> figures <strong>of</strong> the mid-seventh century B.c. from Dreros on Crete, or to awinged figure <strong>of</strong> the first half <strong>of</strong> the sixth century from Olympia. <strong>The</strong>se workswere hammered rather than cast, and they must have been exceptionalglorifiedexperiments, so to speak-even allowing for a very poor rate <strong>of</strong> survival.At the end <strong>of</strong> the sixth century B.C., production <strong>of</strong> monumental cast-bronze statuarybegan to gain momentum. Our knowledge <strong>of</strong> it derives mainly from ancientliterary evidence, which, together with Roman marble copies, is also our chiefsource for that <strong>of</strong> subsequent centuries. To suggest the amount <strong>of</strong> materialost toDetail <strong>of</strong> an Attic red-figured cup depictinga foundry, about 490 to 480 B.C.Attributed to the Foundry Painter.Antikenmuseum, Berlin, 22949
Detail <strong>of</strong> a mirror (no. 22)us, it has been calculated that in the second century A.D. over one thousandbronze statues <strong>of</strong> victorious athletes were still standing in Olympia alone. <strong>The</strong>celebrated charioteer <strong>of</strong> Delphi, probably set up in 477 B.c., exemplifies how veryfine examples <strong>of</strong> victor dedications looked. <strong>The</strong> equally familiar statue <strong>of</strong> Zeus,found in the sea <strong>of</strong>f Cape <strong>Art</strong>emision and now in Athens, was made closer to themid-fifth century and conveys the impressiveness <strong>of</strong> large-scale images <strong>of</strong> godsthat stood in temples and sanctuaries.It is against such developments that small-scale bronzes from the fifth centuryB.C. on must be considered. If we look at the Archaic woman (no. 10) or theHerakles (no. 14) and question whether anything in them requires a large-scaleprototype, the answer is likely to be negative, primarily because <strong>of</strong> the perfectcorrespondence between the intention <strong>of</strong> the piece and its realization. By con-trast, the early Classic diskos thrower (no. 21) presents an understanding <strong>of</strong> thewhole human figure, <strong>of</strong> the interrelation between mind and body, that is morelikely to have been achieved on a scale approaching life-size than in that <strong>of</strong> a statuette.Ancient sources tell, for instance, <strong>of</strong> Pythagoras, a sculptor <strong>of</strong> bronze whowas active during the second quarter <strong>of</strong> the fifth century and specialized in athletes.Works such as his would have inspired others in a variety <strong>of</strong> sizes, materials,degrees <strong>of</strong> similarity, and levels <strong>of</strong> quality. Bronze statuettes from the Classicperiod are in no respect inferior to their predecessors. Many are simply some-what different, in that the questions <strong>of</strong> to what degree and in what way a piece isderivative play a more important part in evaluating style and iconography.Expressed in different terms, one may say that in the evolution <strong>of</strong> <strong>Greek</strong> sculpturesmall bronzes became reflections rather than milestones <strong>of</strong> innovation.<strong>The</strong> corollary <strong>of</strong> this situation, however, is that a great many works <strong>of</strong>fer a distillate<strong>of</strong> the finest qualities <strong>of</strong> Classic art in the compact, intimate form <strong>of</strong> a statuette.Supporting the reflecting surface <strong>of</strong> the mirror (no. 22) is a woman whostands quietly but has the potential <strong>of</strong> immediate action, as indicated by the position<strong>of</strong> her head, arms, and feet. Perfectly balanced also is the articulation <strong>of</strong> herbody and <strong>of</strong> the drapery, each distinct yet both integrated to convey the grace <strong>of</strong>the figure. One could imagine that she represented an aesthetic ideal to whichusers <strong>of</strong> the mirror might well aspire.<strong>The</strong> fusion <strong>of</strong> form, function, and execution into a whole in which no oneaspect predominates is an achievement <strong>of</strong> the Classic period that, indeed, is basicto the meaning <strong>of</strong> the word "classical." During the last phase <strong>of</strong> <strong>Greek</strong> art, knownas Hellenistic, new elements entered into the vocabulary <strong>of</strong> artistic expressionthat were <strong>of</strong>ten at considerable odds with the standard <strong>of</strong> Classic equilibrium butthat significantly widened the existing range <strong>of</strong> styles and subject matter.A consideration <strong>of</strong> the major historical and artistic developments <strong>of</strong> this timeshows that Greece lost her traditional center, not to say centers. For centuries, theheartland had existed in an area that might be circumscribed by a circle includingDodona in the north and Sparta in the south. <strong>The</strong> first major change took placeduring the fourth century B.C. when Philip II and Alexander the Great subjugatedthe rest <strong>of</strong> Greece to Macedonian rule. After Alexander's death, during theHellenistic period proper, although the old cities and sanctuaries remained inexistence, the shift continued eastward and southward to the three powerful newkingdoms, those <strong>of</strong> the Attalids in Pergamon, the Seleucids in Syria, and thePtolemies in Egypt. <strong>The</strong> traditional heartland gave way to an ever-wideningperiphery, much like the circles that spread from a pebble thrown into still water.<strong>The</strong> ramifications <strong>of</strong> these developments also altered a world that had previouslyconsisted <strong>of</strong> many states, with Athens <strong>of</strong>ten predominant but not in control. <strong>The</strong>establishment <strong>of</strong> Macedonian supremacy brought unprecedented political sub-10
ordination and centralization, not only throughout Greece as a whole but alsowithin the individual states.<strong>In</strong> art, where the Classic period had attained a balance <strong>of</strong> every constituent element<strong>of</strong> a work-whether building, statue, or water jar-the Hellenistic ageintroduced the tendency to select and develop a specific feature or detail beyondall others; observation was now pushed toward acute realism, even as far as caricature.This development gained further impetus from the new subjects thatentered the iconographical repertoire as a result <strong>of</strong> the displacement <strong>of</strong> artisticcenters to the east, notably to Pergamon and other cities <strong>of</strong> Asia Minor, Alexandria,Rhodes, and Kos. Africans (see no. 35) and orientals occurred more frequentlythan they had previously. Subjects drawn from daily life, which beforewere exceptional, became common: men and women with all the marks <strong>of</strong> age,young children, artisans, actors, dwarfs, cripples. <strong>The</strong> changes in <strong>Greek</strong> art at thistime were fundamental, yet the old traditions did not die out. <strong>The</strong> interplaybetween the classical, on the one hand, and contemporary innovation, on theother, represents an ever-present factor in the consideration <strong>of</strong> works <strong>of</strong> theHellenistic period.<strong>The</strong> range <strong>of</strong>iconographic and stylistic possibilities is suggested by a com-parison <strong>of</strong> the dancing youth (no. 31) with the artisan (no. 41). <strong>The</strong> former givesthe sense <strong>of</strong> a Classic creation infused with energy rather than serene repose. <strong>The</strong>manifest beauty <strong>of</strong> the figure and <strong>of</strong> the articulation <strong>of</strong> his body depends uponthe past. <strong>The</strong> complexity <strong>of</strong> his movement, which is the real subject <strong>of</strong> the work,makes this a product <strong>of</strong> a new age. Where the youth might have stepped out <strong>of</strong> apoem by Keats, one could have met the artisan in any industrial quarter in anycity <strong>of</strong> the ancient <strong>Greek</strong> world. <strong>The</strong>re is no attempt at idealizing the compact,work-hardened body, its muscles and skin now grown less taut. At the same time,every sensitivity remains in the weary, pensive, dignified face.As significant as the differences between these two works may be, the figuresshare a quality <strong>of</strong> overriding importance, a vigor that imparts life as much to themundane man as to the arcadian youth. <strong>The</strong> same quality is perceptible in theDionysiac masks (nos. 38-40), which are datable to the first century A.D. andwhich, for our purposes, may demonstrate the continuity <strong>of</strong> the most time-honored<strong>Greek</strong> subjects into Roman art.<strong>The</strong>se works, however, represent only part <strong>of</strong> a complex and varied artistic situation.<strong>The</strong> Hermes (no. 43) shows something quite different, an image <strong>of</strong> thefinest craftsmanship utterly devoid <strong>of</strong> inner conviction. <strong>The</strong> standard <strong>of</strong> executionand the heritage <strong>of</strong> which it is a product are immediately recognizable, yetequally apparent is an emptiness conveyed by more than just the disproportionatelysmall head, the unfocused glance, and the s<strong>of</strong>t body in a passive pose.<strong>The</strong> intention <strong>of</strong> the representation here is no longer clear or definite; onlythe form remains. <strong>The</strong> horse (no. 42) <strong>of</strong>fers another example <strong>of</strong> the samephenomenon.<strong>Greek</strong> mythology provides a noteworthy parallel to these two small sculpturesin the figure <strong>of</strong> Talos, the giant <strong>of</strong> bronze. He is best described by ApolloniusRhodius, a <strong>Greek</strong> writer <strong>of</strong> the third century B.c.He was <strong>of</strong> the stock <strong>of</strong> bronze, <strong>of</strong> the men sprung from ash trees, the last leftamong the sons <strong>of</strong> the gods; and the son <strong>of</strong> Kronos gave him to Europa to be thewarder <strong>of</strong> Crete and to stride round the island thrice a day with his feet <strong>of</strong> bronze.Now in all the rest <strong>of</strong> his body and limbs he was fashioned <strong>of</strong> bronze and invulnerable;but beneath the sinew <strong>of</strong> his ankle was a blood-red vein; and this, withits issues <strong>of</strong> life and death, was covered by a thin skin (Argonautica 4. 1639-1648).Young African, detail <strong>of</strong>no. 35His death was brought about by the sorceress Medea. According to the prin-11
cipal version <strong>of</strong> the legend, Talos's one vein, that ran from his neck to his ankle,was plugged at the ankle by a bronze nail. Medea drew out the nail, causing hislife-blood (ichor) to pour forth and his body to collapse. <strong>The</strong> episode is depictedon a vase made in Athens about 400 B.C., showing the giant keeling backward intothe arms <strong>of</strong>Kastor and Polydeukes while Medea looks on at the left. <strong>The</strong> quality<strong>of</strong> the statuette <strong>of</strong> Hermes, <strong>of</strong>ten characterized as "academic," is that <strong>of</strong> a figurewho has lost his ichor.Within this brief conspectus <strong>of</strong> the development <strong>of</strong> <strong>Greek</strong> bronze working, themyth <strong>of</strong> Talos proves instructive in several respects. Beside contributing to ourunderstanding <strong>of</strong> certain objects that mark the transition from Hellenistic toRoman art, it is a forceful reminder <strong>of</strong> the readiness <strong>of</strong> the ancient <strong>Greek</strong>s toendow works <strong>of</strong> art with the qualities <strong>of</strong> animate beings. <strong>The</strong> concept recurs inDetail <strong>of</strong> an Attic red-figured volute-kratershowing the death <strong>of</strong> Talos, about 400 B.C.Attributed to the Talos Painter. Ruvo, JattaCollection, 1501many stories-those <strong>of</strong> Pandora, <strong>of</strong> Pygmalion, and <strong>of</strong> the bull made by Daidalosfor Pasiphae, to name a very few. <strong>In</strong> the hands <strong>of</strong> an inspired craftsman, theproper combination <strong>of</strong> imitation and imagination could result in a creation <strong>of</strong>extraordinary potential. <strong>The</strong> Talos myth reminds us also that these creations werealways made to serve a purpose-in the case <strong>of</strong>the giant, to guard the island <strong>of</strong>Crete. <strong>The</strong> myth also relates in an interesting way to the production <strong>of</strong> bronzeobjects. One's attention is drawn to the mention <strong>of</strong> a single vein running throughTalos's body and plugged at the ankle, a detail that may possibly have been takenfrom the molds for casting by the lost-wax technique.<strong>The</strong> objects in this Bulletin were produced by casting, hammering, or a combination<strong>of</strong> both. Casting was used for all <strong>of</strong> the freestanding statuettes, for thehandles <strong>of</strong> the vessels, the disks <strong>of</strong> the mirrors, and adjuncts like those decoratingthe periphery <strong>of</strong> the disk on no. 22. While a number <strong>of</strong> refinements existed,the basic process was a simple one.12
<strong>The</strong> first step was to prepare a core in a malleable matenal, like a mixture <strong>of</strong>soil and clay, that would serve as a support over which the figure would be modeledin wax. Around this wax figure was applied very fine clay, into which thedetails <strong>of</strong> the figure became impressed. <strong>The</strong> layer <strong>of</strong> fine clay, backed with coarserclay, constituted the actual mold; its relation to the figure was like a tight glove toa hand. It surrounded the figure entirely except at two points on the underside <strong>of</strong>the feet or base, where the wax was left exposed. This initial operation resultedin a three-layer construction, with the core in the center, the wax representationaround it, and the clay mold over the wax. Metal pins called chaplets, driven atintervals through the three layers, kept them aligned. When the outer clay moldhad dried, it was fired, which also caused the wax to melt and run out throughthe two openings. Molten bronze was then poured into the void left by the wax.After the bronze had cooled, the clay was removed to reveal a figure <strong>of</strong> bronzewhere originally there had been one <strong>of</strong> wax. With respect to Talos, it must be saidthat, in reality, such a large statue would have been assembled out <strong>of</strong> separatelycast pieces. Nonetheless, the idea <strong>of</strong> one vein within the otherwise solid bodymay have been suggested by the channel through which the bronze was pouredinto the mold.<strong>The</strong> figure emerging from the mold would have had a rough surface, and perhapsalso imperfections where the liquid metal had not filled the mold completely.Such casting flaws were repaired and the surface smoothed and polished.Details like locks <strong>of</strong> hair, eyelids, or borders <strong>of</strong> a garment that did not appearcrisp were reworked. Other embellishments-like the triple dots on the garment<strong>of</strong> no. 15, the scales on the griffin head (no. 9), the silver inlays on the foreheads<strong>of</strong> nos. 38 and 39, or the inscriptions on nos. 15 and 23-were added at this stageas well. <strong>The</strong> natural appearance <strong>of</strong> the bronze would have been copper coloredand rather shiny, with inlays or other additions prominent; as ancient textsindicate, the surface could be treated to modify the color or sheen. Ancientbronzes that have survived untouched show a patina consisting <strong>of</strong> layers <strong>of</strong>mineral corrosion products formed by the interaction <strong>of</strong> the metal with theenvironment in which it was buried. <strong>The</strong> tonality <strong>of</strong> this mineral accretion <strong>of</strong>tencontributes significantly to our perception <strong>of</strong> the beauty <strong>of</strong> an object, although itis foreign to the bronze's original state.Objects that were not made by casting were hammered, or raised, from a disk<strong>of</strong> sheet bronze. This process was standard for the bodies <strong>of</strong> vessels and forarmor. As metal tends to lose its resilience in the course <strong>of</strong> being worked, it mustbe repeatedly annealed, or heated to a red-hot temperature, in order to regain itsmalleability. Annealing results in relatively thin metal that, in the course <strong>of</strong> time,tends to survive less well than the more solid cast pieces. Thus the cast handles <strong>of</strong>water jars, jugs, lavers, and other utensils exist in greater number than the hammeredparts to which they were soldered or riveted.Although every technique had its refinements-casting could be done in openmolds, with the lost-wax or sand-core process-and although innovations, suchas the lathe, were introduced, the fundamental technology <strong>of</strong> bronze workingwas already known to Geometric artists and was fully mastered by their Archaicsuccessors. <strong>The</strong> continuity afforded by these consistent, long-lived methods addssignificantly to the picture <strong>of</strong> cohesiveness and progressive evolution presentedby the almost thousand-year history <strong>of</strong> <strong>Greek</strong> bronzes. <strong>The</strong> forms, subjects, purposes,and techniques were quite limited, but the ever-new creations <strong>of</strong> the artistsseem very nearly infinite, thanks to their gifts <strong>of</strong> observation and imagination.13
1. Nude warrior, second half <strong>of</strong> theeighth century B.C.<strong>The</strong> nude male figure stands on a smallrectangular base, with which it hasbeen cast. While his legs are set slightlyaskew, his wide, flat chest is parallelto the viewer. His massive but subtlyarticulated neck ends in a small head,which is tilted back. Protuberancesindicate the ears and nose; twoscarcely visible forms in relief mark theeyes. <strong>In</strong> his raised right hand he wouldundoubtedly have held a spear; theobject originally in his left hand cannotbe determined. Two dowels fasten thewarrior to a thinner sheet <strong>of</strong> bronze,indicating that he originally decorateda vessel. It was almost certainly a tripodcauldron, a deep bowl, in this casemade <strong>of</strong> hammered sheet bronze, supportedon three legs and providedwith two large ring handles that rosevertically above the mouth. <strong>The</strong> warriorwould have stood beside one <strong>of</strong>the handles.Although it is difficult to localize theworkshop where the figure was made,one possibility is that it was in Elis, theregion in which Olympia is located.<strong>The</strong> statuette is wonderfully direct inconveying the essential features <strong>of</strong> theman's body and <strong>of</strong> his action. <strong>The</strong>small dislocations in the pose contributeto his lack <strong>of</strong> rigidity. <strong>In</strong>deed, hisproportions, with long legs and a compacthead and neck, his stance, and theposition <strong>of</strong> his arms make the warriora lineal ancestor <strong>of</strong> the diskos thrower(no. 21).Said to come from Olympia or Crete.H. 713/16 in. (19.6 cm). Fletcher Fund, 1936(36.11.8)
2. Man seated on a ball, last quarter<strong>of</strong> the eighth century B.C.This object consists <strong>of</strong> a bearded manseated atop a hollow ball. <strong>The</strong> latter,pierced with eight vertical slashes, surmountsa short cylindrical stem endingin a flat, round foot. Attached to thetop <strong>of</strong> the ball is another cylinder thatsupports a "bench'" which has a holeat either end. A thong presumablypassed through the holes. <strong>The</strong> man sitssquarely on the "bench," resting hishands on his knees and his feet on theshoulder <strong>of</strong> the ball. <strong>In</strong>cised on theman's back is a circle made with thesame tool used for the eyes, an "X" thatruns to each shoulder and, below that,a series <strong>of</strong> horizontals; since the front<strong>of</strong> the body is entirely plain, the incisionsmay be purely decorative or theymay represent equipment, such as abelt, two crossed baldrics, and a shield.Given its assemblage <strong>of</strong> elementsand its style, this work could only haveGreece.come from <strong>The</strong>ssaly, in northernOnly six examples <strong>of</strong> the specifictype are known, yet pendantscomposed <strong>of</strong> spheres elaborated in agreat variety <strong>of</strong> ways are characteristically<strong>The</strong>ssalian; so also is the use <strong>of</strong> aseated figure as a finial and the wirybuild. Our principal evidence forestablishing the purpose <strong>of</strong> the piececonsists <strong>of</strong> the holes for suspensionand the fact that many such pendantswere ultimately <strong>of</strong>fered as dedications.Here, as in the bird (no. 6), provision ismade for both standing and hanging. Adefinitive solution to the question <strong>of</strong>function must await more information.What the work itself shows, however, isan extraordinary sense <strong>of</strong>three-dimensionality,expressed not only by thetreatment <strong>of</strong> the forms but also by thejuxtaposition <strong>of</strong> mass and void.H. 33/4 in. (9.5 cm). Ex colls. Tyszkiewicz,Pozzi, Simkhovitch. Edith Perry ChapmanFund, 1947 (47.11.7)
3-6. Two horses, a ram, and a bird,second half <strong>of</strong> the eighth centuryB.C.<strong>In</strong> Geometric art animals far outnumberhuman figures, with birds,horses, sheep, bulls, and other quadrupedsbeing particularly common.<strong>The</strong> ring with a ram illustrates an animalserving as a decorative adjunct.<strong>The</strong> exact function <strong>of</strong> the object isunclear, but the possibilities include itshaving been the ring handle <strong>of</strong> a smalltripod, part <strong>of</strong> a harness, or a pendant,like no. 2, that could either be hung or,in this case, be let into a base. <strong>The</strong> ram,decorated with circles, is remarkablefor its flatness, which is mitigated onlyby the curved horns. <strong>The</strong> three otheranimals introduce a feature that ismore important in Geometric art thanat any later time. <strong>The</strong>y have bases withelaborate patternwork whose purpose,beyond that <strong>of</strong> decoration, is not clear;the theory that these objects couldbe used as stamp seals to identifyownership is appealing. Aesthetically,the bases significantly influence thethree-dimensional effect <strong>of</strong> the pieces;although both horses are comparablylean and sparse in their articulation,the rectangle below one accentuates itslength and angularity, while the diskunder the other defines a circularspace and emphasizes volume. <strong>The</strong>bird is especially successful, with thefullness <strong>of</strong> its body enhanced by theround base and the thin subdivisionswithin the base repeated in the crestand tail. <strong>The</strong> centers <strong>of</strong> productionrepresented by these four works covermuch <strong>of</strong> Greece. <strong>The</strong> bird was probablymade in the Argolid and the horseon the rectangular base in Corinth.Despite the presence <strong>of</strong> Corinthian fea-tures, the horse on the disk has beenattributed to Locris in central Greece,while the ram may well come fromthe north.Horse (left): H. 33/8 in. (8.4 cm). Gift <strong>of</strong>H.L. Bache Foundation, 1969 (69.61.4).Horse (center): H. 37/16 in. (8.8 cm).Bequest <strong>of</strong> Walter C. Baker, 1971(1972.118.49). Ram on ring: H. 33/4 in.(9.5 cm). Gift <strong>of</strong> Mr. and Mrs. HenriSeyrig, 1954 (54.137.2). Bird: Said to befrom the Argive Heraion. H. 315/6 in.(9.9 cm). Fletcher Fund, 1935 (35.11.14)17
f_1 &ll iI -_FWgrounds, it can be assigned to a Lacoa_!i ,'^ ^*,j 'nian workshop. <strong>The</strong> group is made up:l'& ~' -'i.. . .<strong>of</strong> a man, wearing a belt and a conical_BI_, .L iB~ i.; i i ,- *icap, .standing before a centaur, who is a-r ' 'L_Jsmaller version <strong>of</strong> his counterpart--_'H^^^^ - r . , : , even to the cap-with the addition <strong>of</strong>*,I-^^^; '. I the body and hindquarters <strong>of</strong> a horse.-_:H * i \ H * 1 ; ; * <strong>The</strong> nature <strong>of</strong> their relation to eachother is indicated by the spearhead_l _; ,,? | !projecting from the centaur's left side,- H ~_; i, 1 q,, his firm grasp <strong>of</strong> the man's right fore-' 1 ;....cE iJ,^t a_ _ !?taur'srih right arm, which w is now missingL^'l _j~.!!.~I S' *";i~ *~ ,1,,^*abovethe elbow but which probably.. . L i'~, would have brandished a branch.<strong>The</strong> base contributes significantly tothe composition <strong>of</strong> the'h ' piece by joinen"I'"~ing the figures on a common ground1 _ and dition: emphasizing te the centaur through~itsI 111 irregular 1 shape; it even suggestsI;II I I ~11 _Srough terrain through the cutouts. <strong>The</strong>effect and complexity <strong>of</strong> the impliedspace would have been still greaterwhen the work was in its original condition:the spear in the man's right-4~:~. i:::;i,i:; :..7. Man and centaur, mid-eighthcentury B.C.Figural groups, occasionally with animplied narrative context, are rareamong Geometric statuettes and ~. .become even rarer after the Geometricperiod. Of these groups, which include ...a lion hunt, a ring dance, and menwith animals, this one is unrivaled inits clarity and intensity. On stylistic18
hand and a weapon <strong>of</strong> some kindabove the centaur's head would haveadded width and height. Within thecomposition that even now is verytight and closed, there is virtually noincidental detail to divert us from theconfrontation <strong>of</strong> the two antagonists.<strong>The</strong> spearhead in the centaur's flankinforms us <strong>of</strong> the outcome, yet one isinclined to attribute his opponent'ssuperiority not only to the spear butalso to the glance <strong>of</strong> the man's deeplyhollowed eyes. Scholars have proposeda variety <strong>of</strong> specific identifica-tions, such as Zeus and one <strong>of</strong> theTitans or Herakles and one <strong>of</strong> the centaurs,perhaps Pholos. Beyond speculation,however, are the timelessness anduniversality <strong>of</strong> the motionless confrontationbetween the warrior and hissemihuman adversary.Said to be from Olympia. H. 45A6 in.(11.1 cm). Gift <strong>of</strong> J. Pierpont Morgan, 191717.190.2072)8. Armorer working on a helmet,end <strong>of</strong> eighth to early seventhcentury B.C.<strong>The</strong> statuette <strong>of</strong> an armorer is quintessentiallyGeometric in its sparsenessand in the generally rectangular formatwithin which it is composed; at thesame time, it shows an unprecedentedlimberness. <strong>The</strong> craftsman is beardedbut otherwise nude, unless the caplikeform on his head represents not hairbut a skullcap <strong>of</strong>ten worn by ancientartisans. He sits on the ground with hisright foot against the base <strong>of</strong> a shaft,probably a stake, supporting thehelmet. With his left hand he holds thehelmet by a cheekpiece; in his righthand he held a tool, perhaps a mallet,<strong>of</strong> which only the handle remains. <strong>The</strong>helmet is Corinthian in type, like no.18, with a nose guard and a tall crest, <strong>of</strong>which the crest holder is preserved.Because the helmet appears fullyformed and the craftsman has no toolin his left hand, he is probably hammeringit into its final shape. A fewcontemporary statuettes <strong>of</strong> genresubjects survive; among them are acharioteer and an archer both found atOlympia. While all three figures arerendered with a keen sense <strong>of</strong> observation,the armorer is significantly different:he sits directly on the ground,without a base. A freestanding work,such as this one, must rely on its compositionand execution to ensure balance.<strong>In</strong>deed, during the whole history<strong>of</strong> <strong>Greek</strong> bronze statuettes, freestand-ing examples without a base <strong>of</strong> theirown or provision for being let into asupport are exceptional.H. 2 in. (5.1 cm). Fletcher Fund, 1942(42.11.42)19
-v. . k,L V:l 5 Cr-cIr2?,pCra r ea rl%i-Y? .c: I,- '1. ??..?'hr??.?? Et;.,cP PN I-'?jLLB `1\'JI?;?mYR?'Cjll ?il-*??rJYlc'-'I lurr r I -pT 'C-CSl(m .`. -?Tl??.\i- it;..,.J--%t: c; ..':'?i :1 ?? :Y ..:hrLi, i?c.-. p.r Cki c r=,? ?? c?4-I?u?rt. Irc Y ? rii??I? \. rd.- I. n ??II.?i?. ". 4 c;r 21 I ? :? rr.r?'`h;'rC:?l .'^ r ??`L?,!`, .LFPr? 4'???:: I?- C Y r '1 ??. r.. ?:. ?' ??,.,.? 4i3Vl`iI'1.rr I.*? ,?IC*)
9. Head <strong>of</strong> a griffin, third quarter <strong>of</strong>the seventh century B.C.During the second half <strong>of</strong>the eighthcentury, protomes <strong>of</strong> griffins, or morerarely lions, began to appear attachedaround the shoulder <strong>of</strong> a new type <strong>of</strong>tripod cauldron that was replacingthose with figures at the handles (seeno. 1). <strong>The</strong> function <strong>of</strong> the protomeswas decorative and symbolic ins<strong>of</strong>ar asthese creatures inspired respect inthose who saw them. <strong>The</strong>y did notserve any purpose related to the carrying<strong>of</strong> the cauldrons; for that, someexamples had small ring handlesfastened to the shoulder. Griffincauldrons achieved great favor in theseventh century, as has been documentedby over six hundred survivingprotomes as well as by Herodotos'smention <strong>of</strong> the Samian dedication(p. 7). Significantly, most <strong>of</strong> the preservedpieces were discovered inSamos and Olympia. <strong>The</strong> <strong>Museum</strong>'sgriffin head can be connected with thelatter site and a Peloponnesian, possiblyCorinthian, workshop. While thehead is cast, a neck hammered fromsheet bronze once formed the transitionto the cauldron; considering theweight <strong>of</strong> the head, it is not surprisingthat the neck no longer exists in thiscase, nor in virtually all <strong>of</strong> the otherscombining cast and hammeredelements.<strong>The</strong> griffin, a winged lion with thehead <strong>of</strong> a bird <strong>of</strong> prey and ears <strong>of</strong> ahorse, was introduced to Greece duringthe eighth century along with agreat number <strong>of</strong> other iconographicaland technical innovations from theEast. <strong>The</strong> griffin protome, however,was a purely <strong>Greek</strong> creation, and the<strong>Museum</strong>'s example is one <strong>of</strong> the veryfinest. <strong>The</strong> integration <strong>of</strong> compositionand execution is here complete. <strong>The</strong>play <strong>of</strong> curves between tongue andbeak is tangibly emphasized by theslight relief line around the mouth.Similarly, the shape <strong>of</strong> the great archingeye, which was probably once inlaid,reechoes in the three folds <strong>of</strong> the "eyelid."One can well understand whyHerodotos was impressed by a hugebowl ringed with heads such as these.From Olympia. H. 10Y in. (25.8 cm).Bequest <strong>of</strong> Walter C. Baker, 1971(1972.118.54)10. Standing woman wearing apeplos, second quarter <strong>of</strong> the sixthcentury B.C.This bronze brings us into the Archaicperiod; it carries over from Geometricart a clear sense <strong>of</strong> structure whileintroducing a new concern for renderingthe volumes <strong>of</strong> the body and differentiating them through garments.<strong>The</strong> figure wears a peplos, a longstraight tunic; a belt at the waist; and anepiblema, a kind <strong>of</strong> bolero that was fastenedat each shoulder. Her hair isbound with a fillet, or band, and restingon top <strong>of</strong> her head is a flat diskwith traces <strong>of</strong> an iron pin in the center,which indicates that the woman supportedsome kind <strong>of</strong> utensil, perhapsan incense burner. <strong>The</strong> figure standsstiffly, but her large eyes, full cheeks,the mass <strong>of</strong> hair-differentiated bothabove and below the fillet-and thecontrast <strong>of</strong> the volume <strong>of</strong> her chest toher narrow waist contribute considerables<strong>of</strong>tness and grace. <strong>The</strong> skirt,feet, and hands appear less preciselyworked than the face and upper body;in fact, technical examination revealsthat the two parts are the products <strong>of</strong>two different castings. <strong>The</strong> figure mayhave been damaged during the originalcasting, making the replacement nec-essary at the outset, or it may have brokenlater and a replacement was caston to salvage it. <strong>The</strong> workshop thatproduced the piece has been identifiedas Peloponnesian, possibly Laconian.While evidence drawn fromdifferent media and regions must beused with care, parallels for the dress<strong>of</strong> the figure, the pinning <strong>of</strong> the epiblemaon the shoulders, and the character <strong>of</strong>the articulation occur in Attic vasepainting and sculpture <strong>of</strong> about 570 to560 B.C.; thus a date in the secondquarter <strong>of</strong> the century seems justified.H. 71616 in. (19.5 cm). Ex coll. Simkhovitch.Bequest <strong>of</strong>Walter C. Baker, 1971(1972.118.57)
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11, 12. Nude girl and a mirror with asupport in the form <strong>of</strong> anude girl, second half <strong>of</strong> thesixth century B.C.<strong>In</strong> Archaic art the utensil that most<strong>of</strong>ten included a female figure as a supportwas the so-called caryatid mirror.<strong>The</strong> two examples presented herewere made in Laconia ten to twentyyears apart; no. 11 can be dated about540 to 530 B.C. and no. 12 about 520 B.C.<strong>In</strong> each case the girl is nude except fora necklace with a pendant in the centerand a band, from which hang acrescent-shaped amulet and a ring.<strong>The</strong> earlier figure (no. 11) has twomore amulets hanging on the left side<strong>of</strong> her back. She also wears a netlikesnood that leaves only the edge <strong>of</strong> herhair exposed, while her counterpart(no. 12) has a flower on either side <strong>of</strong>her head just above her ears. <strong>The</strong> earlierfigure holds cymbals, and theother grasps a pomegranate by thestalk with her left hand; the objectoriginally in her right hand can nolonger be identified. <strong>The</strong> stance <strong>of</strong> thegirls differs significantly, as does whatthey stand on. <strong>The</strong> support <strong>of</strong> the earlierone consists <strong>of</strong> a folding stool withequine legs, on which crouches a largefrog that appears to grip the front andsides with its feet. <strong>The</strong> girl stands onthe frog's back, with her left footadvanced slightly before her right. Herupper body turns toward her right,creating the same effect <strong>of</strong> ease shownto a more limited degree by the warrior(no. 1). <strong>The</strong> feline feet attached toher elbows and shoulders are remains<strong>of</strong> creatures-perhaps griffins-thatsupported the disk, as they do on themirror at the right. Here, the figure
Istands on a lion, which is curled upand rests its head between its paws.<strong>The</strong> disk, steadied by the well-preservedgriffins, is let into an openingon the top <strong>of</strong> the figure's head.Although the pose <strong>of</strong> this slightly latergirl lacks the torsion <strong>of</strong> her counterpartand may seem stiffer, the parts <strong>of</strong>her body are better integrated and proportioned;in every respect she seemsmore composed.<strong>The</strong> function <strong>of</strong> a mirror evokesAphrodite, the goddess <strong>of</strong> beauty andlove, whose origins are ultimately NearEastern. Because they are nude andcarry amulets and cymbals, these figuresare closer to Aphrodite's orientalaspect, in which she is connected withfertility, than to her Archaic <strong>Greek</strong>form, in which, <strong>of</strong>ten elaboratelyclothed, she appears in mythologicalscenes, such as the Judgment <strong>of</strong> Paris,or in depictions <strong>of</strong> the life <strong>of</strong>women.<strong>The</strong> frog and pomegranate are attributesassociated with procreation,while the lion accompanies other easterngoddesses, like Cybele. It is impossibleto identify the caryatid figuresexactly; they may be attendants <strong>of</strong>Aphrodite or women embodying cer-tain <strong>of</strong> her qualities.Girl: Said to be from Kourion. H. 85/8 in.(21.9 cm). <strong>The</strong> Cesnola Collection,Purchased by subscription, 1874-76(74.51.5680). Mirror: Said to be fromsouthern Italy. H. 135/8 in. (33.8 cm).Fletcher Fund, 1938 (38.11.3)
13. Nude youth, third quarter <strong>of</strong> thesixth century B.C.<strong>The</strong> Archaic male figure par excellenceis the nude youth standing at rest, oneleg before the other, his arms usually athis sides, without attribute or gestureto introduce any specific or episodicfeature. <strong>The</strong> sculptural form, bestexemplified in marble, is <strong>of</strong>ten calleda "kouros," the <strong>Greek</strong> word for a"youth." This statuette, despite theposition <strong>of</strong> his arms and the objectin his right hand, is as direct a representation<strong>of</strong> a beautiful youth as anykouros. His body is long and slim, withdeveloped musculature in the chestand shoulders. <strong>The</strong> even modeling isboth complemented and emphasizedby the mass <strong>of</strong> hair, articulated intoshort tight locks on the top <strong>of</strong> his headand falling in longer, looser tressesalmost to the small <strong>of</strong> his back. Whilethe figure seems to direct his attentiontoward something in front <strong>of</strong> him, thesituation is impossible to determine;so is the object he holds, which looksmost like the stalk <strong>of</strong> a plant, perhaps apoppy. <strong>The</strong> rendering <strong>of</strong> the body suggestsa date almost contemporary withthat <strong>of</strong> the caryatid supporting the mirror(no. 12). <strong>The</strong> style has been comparedwith both Peloponnesian piecesand others from eastern Greece, spe-cifically Samos. <strong>The</strong> combination isnot problematic in view <strong>of</strong> the communicationbetween Laconia andthe eastern Aegean during the Archaicperiod: ancient literary sources tell <strong>of</strong>Bathykles <strong>of</strong> Magnesia who madean elaborately decorated throne atAmyklai near Sparta; <strong>of</strong> <strong>The</strong>odoros <strong>of</strong>Samos who constructed a buildingnear Sparta; and <strong>of</strong> the great bronzebowl intended as a gift from Sparta toCroesus, king <strong>of</strong> Lydia (p. 7). Suchinterchange can account for the presence<strong>of</strong> a s<strong>of</strong>tness usually associatedwith East <strong>Greek</strong> sculptural styles in afigure that retains the structure andfirmness <strong>of</strong> Peloponnesian works.H. 6 in. (15.2 cm). Bequest <strong>of</strong>Walter C.Baker, 1971 (1972.118.101)I _ _25
14. Herakles, last quarter <strong>of</strong> the sixthcentury B.C.<strong>In</strong> this forceful representationHerakles is the virtual personification<strong>of</strong> controlled strength. <strong>The</strong> compactbody shows a thorough integration <strong>of</strong>bony structure and musculature. <strong>The</strong>outstretched arm with its clenched fist,the formidable right arm with the clubthat is almost half as tall as the figure,the right foot modeled to suggest greatpower behind the forward stride -such details establish his physicalprowess. At the same time, his finebeard and particularly the impeccableprecision <strong>of</strong> his hair, bound with afillet, mark the man as civilized.Herakles can be placed among theforemost <strong>Greek</strong> heroes for the laborsand adventures that linked him with allparts <strong>of</strong> Greece, and for the fact that,ultimately, he was accepted among theimmortals on Mount Olympos. Hewas depicted with great frequency andin all media during the Archaic period.<strong>The</strong> present statuette is particularlyremarkable for the economy withwhich it expresses both strength andcivility. Its reputed find spot supplementsstylistic criteria for associating itwith bronze figures from the centralPeloponnesos, which are commonlycalled "Arcadian" when they are peasanttypes, <strong>of</strong>ten bearing animals, or"Argive" when their physical build ismuscular and compact but the level <strong>of</strong>execution superior. Although the baseupon which Herakles stands is piercedin two corers, he is not likely to havedecorated a vessel; the shape <strong>of</strong> thebase and the pronounced threedimensionality<strong>of</strong> the figure indicatethat it was probably a dedication.Said to be from Mantinea in Arkadia. H.5Y16 in. (12.8 cm). Fletcher Fund, 1928(28.77)
15. Man playing the lyre, late sixth toearly fifth century B.C.<strong>The</strong> statuette represents a beardedman wearing a long chiton, belted atthe waist and ornamented with tripledots and a guilloche pattern on itslower border. His hair is bound with afillet, which may well retain the originalgilding. <strong>The</strong> long belted garment isa special form <strong>of</strong> dress usually seen onflute and lyre players and on charioteers.<strong>The</strong> instrument, held in themusician's left arm, shows careful articulation<strong>of</strong> the strings, arms, and tortoiseshellsound box. <strong>The</strong> musicianholds the plektron in his right hand.Like the armorer (no. 8) and the"Arcadian" peasants mentioned onpage 27, the musician belongs to thetradition <strong>of</strong> subjects <strong>of</strong> daily life, whichare represented less frequently inbronzes than in vase painting. <strong>The</strong>iconographical interest <strong>of</strong>the pieceis heightened by the inscriptionengraved in Attic letters over the back<strong>of</strong> the legs and buttocks: "Dolichosdedicated me." <strong>The</strong> formula is typicalfor such <strong>of</strong>ferings <strong>of</strong> the Archaicperiod, as is the placement <strong>of</strong> the textover part <strong>of</strong> the figure's body. We donot know why this statuette was madeor dedicated. It should be noted, however,that lyre players were not onlymusicians in the restricted sense butalso poets and preservers <strong>of</strong> orallytransmitted historical knowledge.Dolichos may have made this <strong>of</strong>feringafter a victory in a contest <strong>of</strong> musical ormnemonic skills, or simply out <strong>of</strong> gratitudeto a benevolent muse.H. 3/8 in. (7.9 cm). Rogers Fund, 1908(08.28.5)28
16. Horse, second quarter <strong>of</strong> the sixthcentury B.C.Because <strong>of</strong> the greater expressive possibilitiesthat the human form <strong>of</strong>feredto Archaic artists, there are fewer animalbronzes than in the Geometricperiod; horses and lions, however,continued to be popular. This statuetteevokes its antecedents through thelong narrow base, to which even thetail is attached. <strong>The</strong> cylindrical bodyand large, generally triangular hindquartersperpetuate the earlier emphasison strong, clear forms as well. Whatis new, however, is the subtly modeledneck and chest, the elegant legs, andthe luxuriant mane, which is given asmuch attention as the hair <strong>of</strong> the youth(no. 13). It is evident that the horsewas made by an artist who had lookedat living models, even if he has left acertain awkwardness in the proportionsand composed the legs not asthey move in nature but to stressthe strength <strong>of</strong> the hindquarters. <strong>The</strong>piece was reputedly found in southernItaly, in Locri Epizephyrii ("Toward theWestern Winds"), founded by mainland<strong>Greek</strong>s from the region <strong>of</strong> Locris.It is one <strong>of</strong> the earliest bronzes associatedwith a center that later was wellknown for the production <strong>of</strong> caryatidmirrors. Chronological evidence forthe piece exists in Corinthian and Atticvases <strong>of</strong> the very end <strong>of</strong> the seventhcentury and <strong>of</strong> the first half <strong>of</strong> the sixththat show horses with the same horizontallystriated manes. Comparisonwith other bronzes from southernItaly, notably a group <strong>of</strong> a horse andrider in the British <strong>Museum</strong>, suggests adate about 570 to 560 B.C.Said to be from Locri. H. 65/8 in. (16.8 cm).Ex coll. Junius S. Morgan. Lent in 1907 byJunius Spencer Morgan (1867-1932) andgiven by his heirs in 1958-1959 (58.180.1)29
17. Two rams, third quarter <strong>of</strong> thesixth century B.C.<strong>The</strong> tradition <strong>of</strong> utilitarian objectsembellished with sculptural adjuncts,last encountered on these pages in thegriffin cauldrons (see no. 9), continuedto flourish during the sixth century B.C.<strong>The</strong>se rams were attached with bronzedowels, still preserved, to a utensil thatis difficult to identify. <strong>The</strong> underside<strong>of</strong> the animals is both hollowed andcurved, indicating that they fitted ontoa rolled or tubular surface that wasabout 2 cm in diameter. Because <strong>of</strong>their considerable weight, roughlythree pounds apiece, and because theobject may well have had more thanthe two attachments, a sturdy supportwould have been required. It may havebeen the rim <strong>of</strong> some kind <strong>of</strong> basin orstand rather than the shoulder <strong>of</strong> acauldron. <strong>The</strong> animals introduce anew stylistic mixture. <strong>The</strong>y show1976.11.21976.11.3
ather broad smooth planes, with virtuallyno detail or indication <strong>of</strong> underlyingstructure. <strong>The</strong> salient features,like the limbs, horns, eyes, andmuzzles are boldly modeled and articulatedwith highly stylized markings.<strong>The</strong> rams do not give the impressionthat they could stand up and move, oreven that this is a potential that the artistparticularly wished to convey. <strong>The</strong>approach differs perceptibly from thatin the horse (no. 16) and in the humanfigures just considered, and it points toinfluence from the Near East. Recumbentanimals with heads at right anglesto their bodies and legs folded symmetricallyunder them occur in smallobjects <strong>of</strong> gold, electrum, ivory, andlimestone found at Ephesos, Sardis,and other sites where <strong>Greek</strong>s <strong>of</strong> thesixth century came in contact withLydian, Achaemenian, and perhapseven Scythian craftsmen or theirworks. Pieces as finely executed asthese rams make clear how significantlyEastern admixtures modified<strong>Greek</strong> artistic expression.Front: L. 59/16 in. (14 cm). Back: L. 5/8 in.(14.2 cm). Purchase, Rogers Fund andNorbert Schimmel Gift, 1976 (1976.11.2,3)18. Helmet, first third <strong>of</strong> the sixth centuryB.C.Body armor occupied a special place thanamong the various categories <strong>of</strong> metalwork,for the craftsman devoted all <strong>of</strong>his technical and aesthetic talents tothe protection and appearance <strong>of</strong> aperson. <strong>The</strong> helmet illustrated here is<strong>of</strong> the "Corinthian" type, which ischaracterized by a bell-like form, longnosepiece, and cheekpieces that leavelittle but the eyes exposed. While theshape is, <strong>of</strong> course, determined by that<strong>of</strong> the human head, the graceful curveoutward at the nape <strong>of</strong> the neck andaround the lower part <strong>of</strong> the face suggeststhat the armorer exploited themalleability <strong>of</strong> the bronze for morepractical purposes. Every edge isfinished with incised lines and theupper curve <strong>of</strong> the eye is slightly thick-ened, a device seen previously on thegriffin protome (no. 9). Rising in lowrelief from the bridge <strong>of</strong> the nose aretwo snakes whose bodies double aseyebrows until they curve back intometiculously articulated heads withlarge eyes, razor-sharp teeth, and flickingtongues. <strong>In</strong>cised on the forehead<strong>of</strong> the helmet is a lotos flower with asmall palmette to either side; similarpalmettes occur above the ogee cutinto each side <strong>of</strong> the helmet. Over andabove the technical skills needed tosatisfy the protective requirements, ahelmet like this one challenged acraftsman's artistic sensitivity, producingsuch fine effects as the juxtaposition<strong>of</strong> the lotos with the nosepiece orthe snakes with the line <strong>of</strong> the eyelid.<strong>The</strong> date <strong>of</strong> the work is furnished notonly by comparison with other Corinthianhelmets but also by details likethe palmettes and lotos; the latter suggestsa date about 600 to 570 B.C.Said to be from Olympia. H. 87/8 in.(22.6 cm). Dodge Fund, 1955 (55.11.10)31
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'?f.X?^^ w w v ..,'!"??v -sl}ls w??-r*Xtl19. Neck-amphora with bailhandle, last quarter <strong>of</strong> the sixthcentury B.C.Although this neck-amphora was aestheticmade almost a century later than thehelmet (no. 18), they are relatedthrough their method <strong>of</strong> manufacture.<strong>The</strong> bodies <strong>of</strong> both were hammered,challenging the artist in each case todraw the most functional and beautifulobject possible out <strong>of</strong> a basic deep,round-bottomed form. Each was thenappropriately embellished, the helmetas we have seen, and the amphora witha foot, lip, and side and bail handlesthat had been cast separately. Bronzevessels survive in far smaller numbersthan their ceramic counterpartsbecause fewer were made and becausethe metal deteriorated or was melteddown for reuse; the present shapeis found in less than halfa dozencomplete examples. Composed <strong>of</strong>numerous parts, this object gives animpression <strong>of</strong> organic growth, with theform and placement <strong>of</strong> every elementdetermined by specific functional andrequirements. <strong>The</strong> tonguepattern around the foot recurs at thelip, much as a fine wall has a dado atthe bottom and a cornice at the top.<strong>The</strong> two vertical handles, for pouring,and the swinging bail, for carrying andlifting, are integrated with the vessel insuch a way that they echo both thewidth <strong>of</strong> the shoulder and the height<strong>of</strong>the neck. <strong>The</strong> vertical handles, moreover,are decorated along the centerand each edge with beading, and theirlower attachment to the shoulderassumes the form <strong>of</strong> a gorgon's head,complete with two coiling snakesworked fully in the round. A ring at thetop <strong>of</strong> each handle secures the bail,which is provided with three beadedmoldings, terminals in the form <strong>of</strong> stylizedlotos buds, and another, crowningring for the rope to lower and raise thevase. <strong>The</strong> amphora is covered with alid that is attached to the bail handlewith a chain.Said to be from northern Greece.H. 211116 in. (55.1 cm). Rogers Fund, 1960(60.11.2 a,b)33
20. Hunter, first quarter <strong>of</strong> the fifthcentury B.C.At a glance, this bronze may give theimpression <strong>of</strong> a familiar subject trans-formed. It in fact <strong>of</strong>fers an excellent foilto the Herakles (no. 14), displayinghow representation <strong>of</strong> the humanbody had developed in the course <strong>of</strong> ageneration, from the end <strong>of</strong> the sixthcentury into the fifth. Like Herakles,the figure strides out upon a narrowplinth, his left foot advanced, his leftarm outstretched, and clasping anobject (perhaps a bow)-<strong>of</strong> whichonly traces remain-in his left fist;his right arm is bent up, the handclenched, but evidently not pierced tohold a weapon. He wears a pointedcap, probably the felt pilos worn byhunters. <strong>The</strong> major difference betweenthis piece and the Herakles liesthein the stance. Here, the heel <strong>of</strong> theright foot projects beyond the base,right leg does not duplicate the leftbut turns outward, the torso inclinesforward as well as outward, while thehead more nearly follows the direction<strong>of</strong> the left foot. <strong>The</strong>re is greater opennessin the disposition <strong>of</strong> the limbs,and a concomitant play <strong>of</strong> weightand torsion. A second significant differenceappears in the articulation <strong>of</strong>the body. While the muscles <strong>of</strong> hisarms, buttocks, and calves are prominent,the more elongated, s<strong>of</strong>tly modeledtorso and back complement theposture in conveying the effect <strong>of</strong> controlledand coordinated action. <strong>The</strong>hunter has acquired grace without losingstrength. He has been attributed toa workshop in the Peloponnesos andmay well be a product <strong>of</strong> the sametradition as the Herakles.Said to be from Messenia. H. 52 in.(14 cm). Ex colls. Pozzi, Phelps Stokes.Bequest <strong>of</strong>Walter C. Baker, 1971(1972.118.71)34
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21. Diskos thrower; about 480 to460 B.C.Athletes were a favorite subject in theearly fifth century because they <strong>of</strong>feredartists a perfect form through whichto study the human body in everyattitude, from strenuous exertion torepose. Progressive mastery <strong>of</strong> theworkings <strong>of</strong> the body brought with itgreater sensitivity to the rendering <strong>of</strong>the face, as this beautiful statuette demonstrates:the young man not only hasthe physique to hurl the diskos but hedoes so consciously. He is about tobegin the throw, to swing the diskosforward in his extended left hand, thenback over his head, transfer it to theright hand, and release it with the force<strong>of</strong> the gathered momentum. Thushe stands with the diskos in his lefthand-his missing right arm was perhapsoutstretched slightly-his right,weight-bearing leg advanced, and hisleft leg free but possibly with the heelraised just <strong>of</strong>f the ground. <strong>The</strong> position<strong>of</strong> his limbs is carried into the torso,his left shoulder and hip being higherthan the right. <strong>The</strong> back view and pr<strong>of</strong>ileshow his powerfully developedchest, shoulders, and buttocks, and apronounced hollow in the small <strong>of</strong> hisback. <strong>In</strong> the rendering <strong>of</strong> his head, theears are placed unnaturally high; thehair is unarticulated, suggesting that hewears a close-fitting cap, which is <strong>of</strong>tenrepresented in contemporary vasepaintings <strong>of</strong> athletes. Perhaps the mostsignificant feature <strong>of</strong> the bronze, not tosay innovation, lies in the eyes that aregiven focus and depth by the smallholes <strong>of</strong> the pupils and emphasis bythe prominent cheekbones; the eyesand particularly the mouth suggest thepotential <strong>of</strong> responsiveness. Amongthe works considered thus far, this isthe first in which the mind seems toplay a part in the action <strong>of</strong> the body.Said to come from the Peloponnesos.H. 9% in. (24.5 cm). Rogers Fund, 1907(07.286.87)
22. Mirror with a support in theform <strong>of</strong> a draped woman, midfifthcentury B.C.One <strong>of</strong> the achievements manifest inworks <strong>of</strong> the Classic period is the integration<strong>of</strong> every component part into awhole. <strong>The</strong> diskos thrower (no. 21)reveals a recognition <strong>of</strong> individualcharacter and its incorporation intothe human form. <strong>In</strong> this mirror a diversity<strong>of</strong> elements have been composedinto a magnificent utensil and unifiedby the primacy and perfectly balancedcomposition <strong>of</strong> the figure. Upon abase supported by three lion's pawsstands a woman wearing a long straightgarment pinned at the shoulders anddraped to fall freely over the upperbody. On her extended right handperches a dove. Her hair is carefullyrolled up at the sides and back and isheld in place on the crown by a fillet <strong>of</strong>small beads. <strong>In</strong>serted into the very top<strong>of</strong> her head, and furnishing the transitionto the mirror disk, is a supportwith a palmette ornament. Dependingfrom it are two Erotes (whose wingsare modem restorations). Around itscircumference the disk has a band <strong>of</strong>guilloche and a band <strong>of</strong> beading. Uponthe edge are two hounds, each pursuinga hare, two rosettes, and, at the verytop, a siren who repeats certain decorativeelements with her lion claws,supporting volutes, wings, and coiffurecorresponding to that <strong>of</strong> the caryatid.On the siren's back is a pair <strong>of</strong> verticallypierced loops, presumably for attachment<strong>of</strong> a chain connected to a perfumevessel. This mirror and a closecounterpart in the Louvre are thenucleus <strong>of</strong> a group attributed to theregion <strong>of</strong> Argos.H. 16V8 in. (40.4 cm). Bequest <strong>of</strong> Walter C.Baker, 1971 (1972.118.78)
I23. Hydria, mid-fifth century B.C.Like the preceding mirror, this hydria,or water jar, was surely made in Argosand is its equal in the mastery <strong>of</strong> compositionand technique. <strong>The</strong> body isleft plain from its base to its widestpoint, at which the cast horizontalhandles are attached and a zone <strong>of</strong>tongues begins that extends over theshoulder to the base <strong>of</strong> the neck; theverticality <strong>of</strong> the tongues is repeated bythe ribbing on the cast foot. <strong>The</strong> gentle,almost cushionlike curve <strong>of</strong> theshoulder develops equally gracefullyinto the mouth <strong>of</strong> the vase and thecrowning bust <strong>of</strong> a woman. Shebelongs to the hydria's vertical handle,which is fastened to the mouth bythree rivets and to the body by anattachment ornamented with a palmette.<strong>The</strong> figure, much like her counterparton the mirror, wears a peplosand has her finely detailed hair rolledup over her neck. <strong>The</strong> rotelles to eitherside <strong>of</strong> her give a semblance <strong>of</strong> outstretchedhands; they have smallercounterparts in the rosettes flankingthe siren on the mirror disk.
Viewing the hydria as a whole, onebecomes aware <strong>of</strong> how the componentelements, all necessary and functional,have been combined. <strong>The</strong> play<strong>of</strong> the folds <strong>of</strong> the peplos against thefluting on the shoulder, the rosettesand palmettes used as compositionalpunctuation marks, and the surfacesleft plain to heighten the effect <strong>of</strong> thosedecorated-such features establishcohesiveness not only from top to bottombut also all around the vase. One<strong>of</strong> the purposes served by the hydria isgiven by an inscription on the top <strong>of</strong>the mouth: it was a prize awarded atgames for Hera at Argos (see p. 5).Whether it was specially ordered forthe purpose remains unknown. <strong>In</strong> anycase, the style and inscription indicatethat the piece was made and used inthe same region.Said to come from the Peloponnesos. H.204 in. (51.4 cm). Purchase, JosephPulitzer Bequest, 1926 (26.50)24. Athena flying her owl, about460 B.C.This peplos-clad goddess is Athena,patron <strong>of</strong> Athens. Compared to theseverity <strong>of</strong> the figures on the two precedingworks, her appearance is morerelaxed and appealing, qualities unexpectedin the representation <strong>of</strong> a deity.She is shown in a moment <strong>of</strong> ease, flyingher owl, much as the <strong>Greek</strong> heroesAchilles and Ajax are depicted onvases playing a board game at Troy.Athena wears her garment fastenedover both shoulders and belted ratherhigh. <strong>The</strong> position <strong>of</strong> her left handindicates that she held a spear, and shehas pushed up her Corinthian helmet,leaving her face and much <strong>of</strong> her hairexposed. <strong>The</strong> sense <strong>of</strong> relative informalityis further accentuated by theabsence <strong>of</strong> her aegis and shield. <strong>In</strong> herright hand she holds the owl, heranimal attribute, which seems aboutto fly <strong>of</strong>f<strong>The</strong> statuette is unusual in severalrespects. Her present surface may bepartly a modem application afterunduly harsh cleaning in the nineteenthcentury. <strong>The</strong> angle <strong>of</strong> the spearholdinghand is probably not the originalone, for in this position, the top <strong>of</strong>the shaft would pass behind her leftarm. <strong>The</strong> peplos, which is closed atone side rather than open and whichhas a small overfold as well as ratherlong "shirttails," is an uncommon variant.Nonetheless, in mid-fifth centuryrepresentations <strong>of</strong> the two peploswearingmaiden goddesses-Athenaand <strong>Art</strong>emis-there is a considerablerange in details <strong>of</strong> dress, so the presentscheme is not unique; nor is thechoice <strong>of</strong> a Corinthian rather than themore usual Attic helmet. Through theconnection with Lord Elgin, the statuettehas been associated with Athens,but its idiosyncracies may be easier tounderstand in a different artistic context,specifically that <strong>of</strong> southern Italyor Sicily. A bronze statuette in Naples(National Archaeological <strong>Museum</strong>) <strong>of</strong>Athena with her owl presents the god-dess in a similarly "un<strong>of</strong>ficial" guise.This comparison, together with stylisticaffinities to contemporary western<strong>Greek</strong> art, <strong>of</strong>fers a body <strong>of</strong> works towhich the Elgin Athena can be relatedquite readily.H. 57/8 in. (15 cm). Ex coll. Earl <strong>of</strong> Elgin.Harris Brisbane Dick Fund, 1950 (50.11.1)
25. Handle, fourth century B.C.<strong>The</strong> integration <strong>of</strong> a figure into a utensilcould involve more complex subjectsthan those on the mirror (no. 22)and the hydria (no. 23). This handle,which probably came from a largebowl that had two handles and a foot,displays attachments in the form <strong>of</strong>Nereids seated upon hippocampsand holding pieces <strong>of</strong> armor destinedfor Achilles. (<strong>The</strong>tis, the mother <strong>of</strong>Achilles, was the most famous <strong>of</strong> theNereids, or sea nymphs.) <strong>The</strong> hippocampsface outward; their tall necksand fish bodies applied to the handleprovide a frame within which the figuresare rather languidly disposed. <strong>The</strong>Nereid on the left steadies a roundshield against her mount's tail with herleft hand, while the one on the rightbalances a corselet upon her rightknee.Achilles' first set <strong>of</strong> armor was thewedding present <strong>of</strong> the gods to hisfather, Peleus; it was later given byAchilles to his friend Patroklos tobe used for the combat in whichPatroklos was killed by Hektor. <strong>The</strong>second set, depicted here, was areplacement obtained by <strong>The</strong>tis fromHephaistos in preparation for the finalconfrontation between Achilles andHektor. <strong>The</strong> motif <strong>of</strong> armor-bearingNereids mounted on sea creaturesbecame popular in the mid-fifth centuryand continued into the fourth,especially on the covers <strong>of</strong> bronze boxmirrors and in terracotta appliquesas well as on painted vases. Handleattachments showing a mythologicalepisode rather than a single figureoccurred also in the fourth century onbronze hydriai, although no hydriawith Nereids has yet come to light,probably because their horizontalshape was not appropriate below thevertical handle.L. 73/8 in. (18.7 cm). Classical PurchaseFund, 1978 (1978.11.18)41
26-w26. Centaur hurling a stone, secondhalf <strong>of</strong> the fifth century B.C.<strong>The</strong> centaur rears up to cast a stonetoward something before and belowhim. He would originally have stoodon his hind legs, with his tail, nowlost, providing additional stability. Hiscarefully modeled head shows abald crown, a furrowed brow, clearlydefined eyes, and a broad beard; considerableattention has also been paidto his hands and fingers. All <strong>of</strong> the centaur'senergies are behind his action.What might that be? Literary andarchaeological evidence informs usthat one <strong>of</strong> the subjects favored in thefifth century for major sculpturaland painted programs was the centauromachy,the battle between thecentaurs and Lapiths, a people <strong>of</strong><strong>The</strong>ssaly, that broke out when the centaursbecame drunk at the wedding <strong>of</strong>the Lapith Perithous.As wild creatures <strong>of</strong> nature, centaursarmed themselves with weapons <strong>of</strong>nature, usually boulders and trees.<strong>The</strong>y overcame one <strong>of</strong> their adversaries,Kaineus, who was invulnerable toman-made arms, by thus poundinghim into the ground. This particularincident in the centauromachyrequires an outdoor setting, unlikethe outbreak <strong>of</strong> the conflict, whichoccurred indoors during the weddingfeast. By the inclusion <strong>of</strong> the boulder,the statuette can be associated with the"outdoor centauromachy." Moreover,because the figure's gesture and glancehave such a definite focus and becausethe Kaineus story was so current, it ispossible to interpret the bronze as avignette from the story, which wouldhave been immediately recognized.<strong>The</strong> sources <strong>of</strong> inspiration availableto a bronze worker in the latter part<strong>of</strong> the fifth century were numerous.Centauromachies, and specifically theKaineus episode, were depicted in<strong>Greek</strong> art from the seventh century on.It appeared in the famous wall painting,now lost, in the <strong>The</strong>seion inAthens, probably datable to about 470B.C. <strong>The</strong> motif <strong>of</strong> an attacking centaurrecurs on the south metopes <strong>of</strong> theParthenon. Such great public worksinfluenced artists in other media, notablyvase painting. Whatever the specificsource may have been, the statuettereflects one <strong>of</strong> the major artistic concerns<strong>of</strong> the Classic period.H. 13/4 in. (4.4 cm). Bequest <strong>of</strong> Walter C.Baker, 1971 (1972.118.80)2742
27. Satyr, fourth century B.C.<strong>The</strong> satyr stands with the middle <strong>of</strong>his body frontal, his chest and headdirected toward his right, his left legbent at the knee and drawn backslightly. <strong>The</strong> subtle torsion is reinforcedby the position <strong>of</strong> the arms; theleft one appears behind him with thehand bent up, in much the same wayas the leg below kicks up. <strong>The</strong> satyr'spartially preserved right arm is raised.His head is precisely articulated withcarefully combed hair, beard, andmoustache, large eyes, pug nose, pursedmouth, and ears that stand out likeantennae. His pose may be simply that<strong>of</strong> dancing or capering. If however,his right arm is interpreted as held sothat his hand shielded his eyes, herepresents the popular motif <strong>of</strong> anuncivilized creature gesturing toward amaenad or, alternatively, toward theapparition <strong>of</strong> Dionysos or anotherdeity.Small works like this one allowed forfreer expression and greater experimentationthan those on a larger scale;they can, therefore, be more difficultto date. <strong>The</strong> satyr may be placed inthe second half <strong>of</strong> the fourth century.What the figure retains <strong>of</strong> the fifth centuryand its traditions are the balance<strong>of</strong> weight in the body and the rendering<strong>of</strong> the head. On the other hand,the anatomical detail in the rib cage,the tail that was evidently quite smalland set in the hollow <strong>of</strong> the back, theupraised head, and the agility <strong>of</strong> bothexpression and pose are features <strong>of</strong>Hellenistic art. During the fifth century,the satyr acquired unprecedented freedom<strong>of</strong> action as well as serious sculpturaltreatment, innovations that thisfigure reflects.H. 27/16 in. (6.2 cm). Rogers Fund, 1943(43.11.1)28. Box mirror with the head <strong>of</strong> awoman, second quarter <strong>of</strong> thefourth century B.C. or later<strong>The</strong> interdependence among differentartistic media and iconographicaltypes grows increasingly pronouncedfrom the fifth century on, until, duringthe Hellenistic period, the distinctionbetween motifs found on bronzes,jewelry, coinage, pottery, and terracottasbecomes fluid indeed. This mirroris decorated with a frontal face, animage that had a long and importanthistory in <strong>Greek</strong> art. <strong>The</strong> relief isworked in such a way that it rises graduallyfrom her neck to the top <strong>of</strong> herhead; when the mirror is held, the facegives the impression <strong>of</strong> always lookingright at the viewer. <strong>The</strong> indication <strong>of</strong>the pupils, the heavy eyelids, and thesharp line <strong>of</strong> the eyebrows intensifythe effect. <strong>The</strong> smooth full face is setwithin a mass <strong>of</strong> wiry radiating curls.Amidst the curls the lower part <strong>of</strong> eachear and the rosette earrings are shownfrontally as well.<strong>The</strong> frontal face occurred most commonlyin the gorgoneion, the head <strong>of</strong>Medusa, that evolved from a fearsome,fanged monster into a seductivebeauty. <strong>The</strong> treatment <strong>of</strong> the woman'shair in this relief brings to mind hermythological counterpart. Althoughused in Archaic art for special emphasis,frontal faces began to be exploitedfor their decorative value only towardthe end <strong>of</strong> the fifth century. <strong>The</strong>development is particularly evident oncoins, such as issues <strong>of</strong> Syracuse andother cities <strong>of</strong> Sicily, Amphipolis innorthern Greece, or the Island <strong>of</strong>Rhodes. By the late fourth century thefrontal face was common in all metalworkingarts and in pottery, where itimitated metal. <strong>The</strong> popularity <strong>of</strong>frontal heads may have to do with theiradaptability to a circular format. Cir-cular compositions are remarkably frequentin <strong>Greek</strong> art if one considers thedecoration <strong>of</strong> certain ceramic shapes,like cups and plates, as well as coinsand mirrors. <strong>The</strong> skill that was developedat composing subjects for roundsurfaces also facilitated the applicationfrom one medium to another.Found with no. 30, reputedly at Vonitsain Akamania. Diam. 6Y8 in. (15.5 cm).Rogers Fund, 1907 (07.256 a,b)43
29. Box mirror with the head <strong>of</strong>Pan, end <strong>of</strong> the fourth century B.C.<strong>The</strong> box mirror came into use towardthe end <strong>of</strong> the fifth century and eventuallysupplanted the caryatid type(see nos. 12, 22). <strong>The</strong> mirror consists<strong>of</strong> a protective cover bearing a reliefthat was hammered separately andapplied. <strong>The</strong> head <strong>of</strong> Pan, with its "cutout"edges, clearly shows the procedure.<strong>The</strong> cover is lifted by the ringbelow the relief to reveal the mirror, acast-bronze disk with a highly polishedsurface; the reverse is generallydecorated, as it is here, with groups<strong>of</strong> lathe-turned concentric circles inlow relief<strong>The</strong> head <strong>of</strong> Pan presents something44new in the expression that verges onpathos. A woodland creature like thesatyr, Pan has the legs <strong>of</strong> a goat, as wellas the goat's horns and ears visiblehere. He appears in three-quarter view,looking outward, his head inclined forward;his flowing curls are in disarray,his forehead slightly furrowed, eyebrowsraised, and full lips parted.Around his neck are tied the legs <strong>of</strong>the fawnskin he wears, which can beidentified by the two small hooves atthe ends <strong>of</strong> the knot. Where the Classicfigures conveyed a sense <strong>of</strong> orderand restraint in every aspect <strong>of</strong> theirappearance, this relief gains the fullestpossible expression <strong>of</strong> wistful emotionfrom the artist's use <strong>of</strong> detail. Whetherhe was influenced in his depiction by aspecific image we cannot know. <strong>The</strong>curls that fall to either side in front <strong>of</strong>Pan's horns, however, are a familiar featurein representations <strong>of</strong> Alexanderthe Great, suggesting that a passingreflection <strong>of</strong> the heroized ruler mayhave entered into the characterization<strong>of</strong> this Pan.Diam. 63/4 in. (17.1 cm). Fletcher Fund,1925 (25.78.44 a-d)
30. Box mirror with floral ornamentsecond quarter <strong>of</strong> the fourthcentury or laterDuring the Classic and Hellenistic periodsartistic cross-fertilization occurrednot only in the depiction <strong>of</strong> figuralsubjects but also in nonfigural ones.<strong>The</strong> ornament <strong>of</strong> this mirror is a fineexample <strong>of</strong> the process, and it alsoserves as a reminder <strong>of</strong> the extraordinaryimportance <strong>of</strong> floral and geometricmotifs in <strong>Greek</strong> art, whether asprimary or subsidiary decoration. <strong>The</strong>plant form that has been applied tothe mirror cover as a delicate cut-outrepresents a hybrid created in theimagination. At the bottom appearakanthos leaves, out <strong>of</strong> which a tendrilending in a fruit develops to eitherside. From the same point grows aflowerlike element; its domed centerdoubles as the heart <strong>of</strong> a palmette thatrises assertively upward. <strong>The</strong> configuration<strong>of</strong> the palmette is noteworthy,for instead <strong>of</strong> having tonguelike frondsthat curve outward (see nos. 22, 23), itsfronds are like claws and bend back onthemselves. <strong>The</strong> five disparate componentshave thus been combined into awhole that appears plausibly organic.By the mid-fourth century, motifs <strong>of</strong> abasically floral character consisting <strong>of</strong>one element rising vertically into thenext occur frequently in the arts <strong>of</strong>southern Italy, notably in vase painting.This particular type <strong>of</strong> palmette, however,is typical <strong>of</strong> mainland Greece, andis documented in architectural decorationfrom Corinth and other Peloponnesiansites; the present mirror andno. 28 probably came from a Corinthianworkshop. <strong>The</strong> ornament, therefore,bears witness to the activeexchange <strong>of</strong> ideas conveyed by craftsmenand their creations back and forthacross the Mediterranean.Found with no. 28, reputedly at Vonitsain Akarnania. Diam. 68s in. (15.5 cm).Rogers Fund, 1907 (07.257 a,b)
31. Dancing youth, end <strong>of</strong> the fourthcentury B.C.This beautiful bronze captures amoment when the full achievement <strong>of</strong>Classic art begins to be used for therepresentation <strong>of</strong> a single, transitorystate. <strong>The</strong> youth is nude except for acrown that combines rather sharply triangularelements alternating with whatcould be either a fruit or a flower. Hispose no longer dictates a primary view,for his torso and legs assume a truecontrapposto and his downwardglance reinforced by the direction <strong>of</strong>the arms makes a rather tight spiral <strong>of</strong>the whole composition. <strong>The</strong>re is perfectcongruence among all parts <strong>of</strong> thefigure, but the shifts in direction evidentfrom every angle maintain aneffect <strong>of</strong> instability and impermanence.<strong>The</strong> most specific clue to the identity<strong>of</strong> the youth lies in the crown. Itstriangular components prove difficultto interpret because their stiffnessraises the question <strong>of</strong> whether thecrown is made <strong>of</strong> plant life or metal.Floral or foliate wreaths were moreusual, and the myrtle, with its pointedleaves and flat petals, <strong>of</strong>fers a common<strong>Greek</strong> variety that may be recognized,in somewhat stylized form, on theyouth's head. Although less commonthan grapevine or ivy, myrtle was associatedwith the wine god, Dionysos,and it is as a follower <strong>of</strong> this god thatthe subject <strong>of</strong> the statuette may beidentified. <strong>In</strong>deed, he might almosthave danced <strong>of</strong>f the great bronze volute-kraterfrom Derveni (Archaeological<strong>Museum</strong>, Salonika) decoratedwith Dionysos and his followers; themaenads are comparable in theirposes, while Dionysos illustrates a similarlys<strong>of</strong>t, slim rendering <strong>of</strong> the body.<strong>The</strong> dreamy expressions combinedwith precisely rendered facial featurescontribute further to the conclusionthat in date, as well as in ethos, the figureson the krater have a kinsman inthe bronze youth.H. 77/8 in. (20.1 cm). Bequest <strong>of</strong> Walter C.Baker, 1971 (1972.118.94)
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32. Veiled and masked dancer, latethird to early second century B.C.<strong>The</strong> expressive possibilities <strong>of</strong> drapery,which <strong>Greek</strong> artists pursued mostextensively in the female figure,reached a high point in this statuette <strong>of</strong>a dancing woman. Where in the precedingwork movement was conveyedentirely in terms <strong>of</strong> the nude body,here it is achieved exclusively throughthe interaction <strong>of</strong> a complex pose withseveral layers <strong>of</strong> dress. Over an undergarmentthat falls in deep folds andtrails heavily, the figure wears a lightweightmantle, drawn taut over herhead and body by the pressure appliedto it by her right arm, left hand, andright leg. Its substance is conveyed bythe alternation <strong>of</strong> sharp pleats and flat48surfaces as well as by their contrast toboth the tubular folds pushing throughfrom below and the freely curling s<strong>of</strong>tness<strong>of</strong> the fringe. Her face is coveredby the sheerest <strong>of</strong> veils, discernible atits edge below her hairline and at thecutouts for the eyes. Her extendedright foot shows a laced slipper.Careful consideration <strong>of</strong> the poseand the handling <strong>of</strong> drapery clearlyreveals the artistic tradition out <strong>of</strong>which the figure developed. <strong>The</strong> subject,however, departs radically fromwhat has been illustrated thus far, forthe body is completely covered exceptfor the fingers <strong>of</strong> the left hand. She evokesthe Orient and, indeed, has beenconvincingly identified as one <strong>of</strong> thepr<strong>of</strong>essional entertainers-a combination<strong>of</strong> mime and dancer-for whichAlexandria was famous in antiquity.Although the virtuosic conception,composition, and technical executionplace it in a special category, the figurerepresents as much <strong>of</strong> an innovation in<strong>Greek</strong> art as the deformed, the infirm,and realistically rendered genre subjectsthat Hellenistic Alexandria establishedin the iconographic repertoire.Said to be from Alexandria. H. 8V16 in.(20.5 cm). Bequest <strong>of</strong> Walter C. Baker,1971 (1972.118.95)
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33. Boy wearing a high tiara, third tosecond century B.C. or later<strong>The</strong> expansion <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Greek</strong> world farto the east brought with it exposure tonew religions and their iconographies;although some had been knownbefore, they began to take hold in thelate fourth century B.C. <strong>The</strong> traditional<strong>Greek</strong> gods-the Olympians and theirrelations-became partly supplantedby and partly assimilated to foreigndeities, notably Egyptian ones, such asSarapis, Isis, and Harpokrates. <strong>The</strong>Olympians' omnipotence was furtherchallenged by the unprecedented statusassumed by rulers like the Ptolemiesand Seleucids who succeeded tothe eastern dominions <strong>of</strong> Alexanderthe Great. <strong>The</strong> Hellenistic period, fur-thermore, saw a great flowering <strong>of</strong>mystery cults, especially those atSamothrace and Eleusis. It is againstsuch a background that the figure <strong>of</strong>the boy with the high tiara must beconsidered.<strong>The</strong> boy's costume consists <strong>of</strong> shoes,trousers, and a long-sleeved "shirt:'which may belong to the same garmentas the trousers; on top he wearsa tunic belted above the waist and amantle fastened on the right shoulder.Suspended from a hook or ring at eachhip is a piece <strong>of</strong> cloth that hangs in adeep fold. On his head he has a tallheaddress, four-sided below and risingto a peak, which is decorated with twotiers <strong>of</strong> palmette ornament and providedwith a broad band that falls ontohis back. <strong>In</strong> his right hand he holds theend <strong>of</strong> what appears to be a handle (<strong>of</strong>a sistrum?) or short staff <strong>The</strong> gesture <strong>of</strong>his left hand indicates that it also heldan object. This boy has a virtual twin(in the Walters <strong>Art</strong> Gallery, Baltimore)with whom he was reputedly found.Any identification <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Metropolitan</strong>'sfigure must take into considerationthat they were probably intendedas a pair. Who they are and what theyare doing is unknown. <strong>The</strong> dress, theactive gestures, and the dancelike position<strong>of</strong> the feet suggest that they areparticipating in a ceremony, perhaps asattendants <strong>of</strong> a deity.Said to have been found east <strong>of</strong> the SuezCanal in 1912. H. 25Ys in. (63.8 cm). EdithPerry Chapman Fund, 1949 (49.11.3)
34. Sleeping Eros, third to secondcentury B.C.During the fifth century, when Eros,the god <strong>of</strong> love, first became popular(especially in vase painting), he wasportrayed as an attendant <strong>of</strong> Aphrodite,<strong>of</strong>ten in scenes showing the life <strong>of</strong>women; his youth was implied by featuressuch as his small size and theabsence <strong>of</strong> a beard. <strong>The</strong> Hellenisticperiod introduced the accurate characterization<strong>of</strong> age, and young childrenenjoyed great favor, whether inmythological form, as baby Herakles,Harpokrates, or Eros, or in genrescenes, playing with each other or withpets. This child, with his pudgy bodyand ingenuous pose, is clearly basedon firsthand observation. <strong>The</strong> situationchosen is novel as well. <strong>In</strong> Archaic andClassic art a figure like Alkyoneus orAriadne would have been shownsleeping when required by the story,and Sleep occurs occasionally as apersonification. <strong>The</strong> depiction <strong>of</strong>someone asleep because <strong>of</strong> wearinessor drunkenness, for instance,became accepted with other transient,commonplace situations to whichHellenistic artists were turning theirattention. Equally remarkable in theEros is the manner <strong>of</strong> presentation.Although the stone on which he nowrests is a modern addition, numerousancient versions <strong>of</strong> the subject renderthe child and his support in the samematerial, bronze or marble as the casemay be. <strong>The</strong> way in which the presentwork was made shows that it had aseparate base, most likely <strong>of</strong> stone. <strong>The</strong>figure thus brings his setting with him,making an interesting contrast to thecentaur (no. 26), where an outdoorenvironment is implied by the action.Here, Eros has been brought down toearth and disarmed, a conception thathas changed considerably from that <strong>of</strong>the powerful, <strong>of</strong>ten cruel and capriciousbeing so <strong>of</strong>ten addressed inArchaic poetry.Said to come from Rhodes, L. <strong>of</strong> figure339/6 in. (85.2 cm). Rogers Fund, 1943(43.11.4)52
35. Young African, third to secondcentury B.C.Africans were known to the <strong>Greek</strong>sas early as Homer. <strong>In</strong> the Aithiopis one<strong>of</strong> the prominent allies <strong>of</strong> the Trojans isMemnon, the son <strong>of</strong> Eos and Tithonosand king <strong>of</strong> the Ethiopians, who fallsin single combat with Achilles. Herodotos'sextensive account <strong>of</strong> Egypt,based partly on direct observation, discussesEthiopia as a separate country.What was probably the popular <strong>Greek</strong>image <strong>of</strong> Africans appears in representations<strong>of</strong> the myth <strong>of</strong> Herakles andBusiris, in which vase painters contrastedthe physical appearance <strong>of</strong> thehero and the captors preparing to sac-rifice him. At Naukratis, the settlementin the Delta established specifically for<strong>Greek</strong> traders at the very end <strong>of</strong> theseventh century B.C., these seafarersregularly encountered Egyptian andNorth African peoples as well as theirgoods. After Alexander the Great conqueredEgypt and founded Alexandriain 331 B.C., familiarity with the variouscultures was further increased.<strong>The</strong> statuette <strong>of</strong> a young Africanshows the careful observation and renderingthat reflects firsthand knowledge.He is naked except for thegarment he has wrapped around hiswaist so that it partly covers his buttocksbut leaves most <strong>of</strong> the front <strong>of</strong> hisbody bare. <strong>The</strong> garb is characteristic <strong>of</strong>artisans, especially those working inthe heat <strong>of</strong> a foundry, forge, or brazier.<strong>The</strong> position <strong>of</strong> the arms and hands,moreover, suggests that he was liftingor carrying something heavy enoughto cause him to lean forward slightlyand rest his left foot on a low rise. Hisfacial features and hair are preciselydepicted with no inclination towardcaricature. Like the Eros (no. 34), this isa traditional subject brought to life byan artist's hand in the service <strong>of</strong> awider vision.H. 73?6 in. (18.3 cm). Rogers Fund, 1918(18.145.10), .. .. ~,.~.,::..
36. Drunken Herakles, third tosecond century B.C.This representation <strong>of</strong> Herakles couldnot be more different from the Archaicexample (no. 14). <strong>The</strong> hero's strength isduly emphasized by the exaggeratedmusculature <strong>of</strong> his neck, chest, shoulders,and thighs. <strong>The</strong> tight, orderedcurls <strong>of</strong> his hair and beard serve as areminder that here is a civilized man.<strong>The</strong> reminder is necessary in view <strong>of</strong>his pose: staggering backward onto hisleft leg, his bloated stomach thrust out,and his arms, which were originallyraised at his sides, barely keeping himin balance. <strong>In</strong> Archaic and Classic art,where he was one <strong>of</strong> the most favoredsubjects, Herakles performed hislabors and pursued his adventures<strong>of</strong>ten assisted by Athena, and almostalways, one feels, for good purpose.He was, however, human, which<strong>of</strong>fered later artists such subjects asHerakles resting in his weariness, killinghis children in his madness, orrevealing the potential ugliness <strong>of</strong> hisbody and actions in his drunkenness.While one might be inclined to see anelement <strong>of</strong> tragedy in the juxtaposition<strong>of</strong> the hero's sober face and disorderedcondition, the latter is too greatlyexploited for its picturesqueness, notto say incongruity.Said to come from Smyrna. H. 6Vs in. 37. Hound gnawing a bone, third to(15.6 cm). Samuel P. Avery Memorial second century B.C.Fund, 1915 (15.57)This hound could be the companion<strong>of</strong> almost any <strong>of</strong> the preceding Hellenisticfigures. <strong>The</strong> analogy <strong>of</strong> the Cynicphilosopher Diogenes depicted withhis dog comes to mind. Nonetheless,the work is probably complete as itstands. Every effort has been made tobring out the angularity and elongation<strong>of</strong> the animal's body. <strong>The</strong> fine head,with a long nose and pointed ears,indicates a better than mongrel dog,yet the avidity with which it holds andbites into the bone suggests that thehound has fallen on hard times; itsmomentary contentment, however,may be deduced from the tail wrappedaround the right haunch. During theHellenistic period the trenchant realismexemplified here was also appliedto the animals that served as decorativeadjuncts on utilitarian objects. <strong>The</strong>heads <strong>of</strong> dogs or wolves appear as terminals<strong>of</strong> the handles <strong>of</strong> bronze ladlesand strainers; the heads <strong>of</strong> horses ormules occur at the top <strong>of</strong> the fulcra, orsupports, <strong>of</strong> the headrests <strong>of</strong> couches.<strong>The</strong> use on domestic objects <strong>of</strong> ani-mals <strong>of</strong>ten characterized as wild orfierce is particularly prevalent in thislate period.L. 3 in. (7.6 cm). Ex coll. PaulJacobsthal.Fletcher Fund, 1936 (36.11.12)
38-40. Three Dionysiac masks, firsthalf <strong>of</strong> the first century A.D.For all the change and innovation inHellenistic iconography, there was alsocontinuity. <strong>The</strong>se three masks demonstratethe tendency to perpetuate,if not to revive, styles going back tothe Classic and to even the Archaicperiod, a tendency that gained impetusfrom the second century on as <strong>Greek</strong>artists were being called upon to caterto the tastes <strong>of</strong> their Roman conquerors.<strong>The</strong> masks belong to a group <strong>of</strong>eight known examples. <strong>The</strong>y wereoriginally used in pairs on oppositesides <strong>of</strong> bucket-shaped vessels calledsitulae to accommodate the carryinghandle; its ends would have passedthrough the rings that are preserved onnos. 38 and 39. <strong>The</strong> subject can beinterpreted as either Dionysos or asatyr, depending on whether one considersthe ear predominantly humanor equine; the latter form seems morepronounced on no. 38, and the humanform on no. 40.<strong>The</strong> existence <strong>of</strong> numerous versionssuggests that the source <strong>of</strong> inspirationlay in a model, now lost, that has beenattributed to an artist <strong>of</strong>the third centuryB.C. in Egypt, possibly Alexandria.<strong>The</strong> process <strong>of</strong> reduplication allowedvariation, as our examples illustrate.No. 39 is smaller than the other two,and the horizontal element below thering is decorated with running spirals,while no. 38 has a swastika meander.This mask also shows the finest execution<strong>of</strong> the beard, hair, and wreath,which is made <strong>of</strong> ivy leaves and berriesattached by long stems to a circlet. <strong>The</strong>production <strong>of</strong> a decorative adjunct in"multiples" can be traced back to theArchaic period, with its predilectionfor griffins (see no. 9); so also can theuse <strong>of</strong> inlays for effects <strong>of</strong> color andrealism. <strong>The</strong> mask no. 38, however,conveys something <strong>of</strong> the brilliantdecoration achieved during the lateperiod; both the meander ornamentand the fillet have silver inlays, whilethe lips preserve some traces <strong>of</strong>copper.No. 38: Said to have been found in the sea<strong>of</strong>f Majorca. H. 12 in. (30.5 cm). Ex coll.Henrik G.T. Schlubach. Gift <strong>of</strong> Mrs.Gerald van der Kemp, 1958 (58.140). No.39: H. 10 in. (25.4 cm). Ex colls. Pourtales-Gorgier, Milani, de Nolivos, Strogan<strong>of</strong>lHenry Walters. Bequest <strong>of</strong> Walter C.Baker, 1971 (1972.118.98). No. 40: H. aspreserved 89A6 in. (21.7 cm). Lent byNorbert Schimmel, L. 1985.238
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41. <strong>Art</strong>isan, late first century B.C.This statuette is remarkable for its synthesis<strong>of</strong> Hellenistic immediacy andClassic composure. <strong>The</strong> figure can beidentified as an artisan by his dress. Hewears an exomis, a short tunic knottedover one shoulder, leaving the otherbare and both arms free for maximummovement. <strong>The</strong> artisan's belt, tied infront, also serves to hold a pair <strong>of</strong> waxtablets-the equivalent <strong>of</strong> a note pad-on which he would have writtenwith a pointed stylus. <strong>The</strong> man's squatproportions and muscular legs are inaccord with his dress; unexpected inthe work, however, are the dignity andpensiveness <strong>of</strong> the face. <strong>The</strong> individuality<strong>of</strong> the head, with its short curls,balding pate, pronounced cheek-bones, and faintly curling lip, stronglysuggests that this may be a portrait, andproposals for the identification <strong>of</strong> thesubject have ranged from the mythicalcraftsman Daidalos to philosopherslike Chrysippos. It is instructive tocompare the characterization <strong>of</strong> theartisan with that <strong>of</strong> the drunken Herakles(no. 36). Both bronzes show a pronouncedcontrast between the headand body; predominant in the artisan,however, is a sense <strong>of</strong> introspectionconveyed by the position <strong>of</strong> the headand left arm as well as by the facialexpression.Said to come from North Africa, possiblyCherchel. H. 1651S6 in. (40.3 cm). Ex coll.Balsan. Rogers Fund, 1972 (1972.11.1)
42. Horse, first century B.C. to first centuryA.D.Because <strong>of</strong> the many crosscurrents andthe variations <strong>of</strong> technique existing inthe period when <strong>Greek</strong> styles werebeing assimilated to Roman needs,there are certain works <strong>of</strong> art whosedate and artistic affinities prove difficultto understand today. Such a pieceis the bronze horse, which in the lasttwenty-five years has occasioned muchdebate as to its authenticity and identity.<strong>The</strong> problem is compounded bythe subject, for the representation <strong>of</strong>animals in <strong>Greek</strong> bronze sculptureevolved far less than that <strong>of</strong> humanfigures. <strong>The</strong> absence <strong>of</strong> significantevidence for modem manufacture,however, and the presence <strong>of</strong> featuresin no way at variance with ancientworks increase the need to seek aplace for it.One <strong>of</strong> the horse's most immediatelystriking properties is its size: it is neithera statuette in the literal sense nor astatue. While exceptions have alwaysexisted, the more frequent occurrence<strong>of</strong> large-scale statuettes is a Hellenisticdevelopment, as we have seen in theboy wearing a tiara (no. 33), the Eros(no. 34), and the artisan (no. 41). Thatthe position <strong>of</strong> the horse's legs doesnot reproduce the animal's movementin real life recalls the Archaic example(no. 16) and, indeed, introduces theuseful consideration that the artist <strong>of</strong>this late work was probably not proceedingfrom firsthand observationbut from an idea or another work <strong>of</strong>art. <strong>The</strong> remoteness from a live modelis most apparent in the rigidity <strong>of</strong> themane and forelock as well as in thehorse's head, with its excessivelystraight lines from forehead to noseand from cheek to lower jaw, the flatness<strong>of</strong> the face, and the hardness <strong>of</strong>the eye. <strong>The</strong>re is no sense <strong>of</strong> an organicwhole nor <strong>of</strong> any single quality thatmight animate the whole-the horse'sspeed or its fieriness or the beauty inthe contrasts <strong>of</strong> mane and muscle. Thisadoption <strong>of</strong> form without suggestion<strong>of</strong> the forces motivating it recurs in thearchaizing styles <strong>of</strong> the late Hellenisticperiod and may account for the horse'slifelessness, a quality foreign to<strong>Greek</strong> art.H. 1513A/6 in. (40.2 cm). Fletcher Fund,1923 (23.69)
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43. Hermes, first century B.C. to firstcentury A.D.Hermes, the messenger <strong>of</strong> the gods,stands in a relaxed pose, wearing hiswinged sandals and a short cloak fastenedover his right shoulder andwrapped around his left arm; his rightarm was probably originally extendedbefore him in a gesture as suited tosomeone listening as speaking. <strong>The</strong>reis nothing assertive about him. <strong>The</strong>disproportionately small head has aboyish face; the lips are parted and theeyes appear vaguely focused. <strong>The</strong> bodyis all s<strong>of</strong>tness, with as much flesh asmuscle on the torso and just enoughbone and sinew in the legs to carry theframe. He could be the Eros (no. 34) inyoung manhood; but he evokes evenmore the young Saint Georges andDavids <strong>of</strong> the Renaissance. Hermes,the cattle rustler, the inventor <strong>of</strong> thelyre, the guide <strong>of</strong> souls across the riverStyx, the manly god <strong>of</strong> boundaries,now stands gracefully rather than movingpurposefully. <strong>The</strong> evolution thathas occurred in the <strong>Greek</strong> mastery <strong>of</strong>the human figure, in the progressiveintegration <strong>of</strong> structure, flesh, andcharacter has here run its course, leaving,in a work like this, an exquisite butrather empty shell. <strong>The</strong> forms inventedand endlessly refined by <strong>Greek</strong> artistsin the course <strong>of</strong> roughly a thousandyears were not lost, however, thanks tomajor monuments that remained visiblefor centuries as well as to readilyportable objects like bronze statuettes,coins, and gems. Exposure to theseobjects, from late antiquity on, hascontinued to challenge the imaginationand skills <strong>of</strong> creative artists, so thatevery survival from the past is, in effect,a messenger <strong>of</strong> the gods.H. 1178 in. (29.1 cm). Rogers Fund, 1971(1971.11.11)