Greek Bronzes: In The Metropolitan Museum of Art: The Metropolitan ...

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BY JOAN R. M\ERTENS

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FRONT covE: Herakles (no. 14), last quarter of the sixth century B.C.INSIDE FRONT COVER: Head of a griffin (no. 9), third quarter of the seventh century B.C.BACK COVER: Hermes (no. 43), first century B.C. to first century A.D.The translations are based upon those of the Loeb Classical Library.Reprinted from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin (Fall 1985). ? 1985 by The MetropolitanMuseum of Art. Photography by Walter J. F. Yee, Metropolitan Museum Photograph Studio.Design: Peter OldenburgThe Metropolitan Museum of Artis collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve, and extend access toThe Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin ®www.jstor.org

S ince antiquity the Age of Bronze has been customarily characterized as a rude sequel to theglorious ages of gold and silver. This third generation of mortals created by the gods on MountOlympos was, according to Hesiod, "a brazen race, sprung from ash-trees; ... in no way equal to [thepreceding] silver age, but was terrible and strong." Lovers of violence, they developed unconquerablestrength. Their armor was of bronze, their houses of bronze, and they used bronze implements. Theirbrutality was such that they destroyed themselves. Given Hesiod's description, one might expect thatfrom this early time Greek bronze workers devoted themselves to the production of weapons andarmor. The Museum's collection of Greek bronzes provides striking evidence to the contrary. Out ofthe durable medium of bronze skilled Greek craftsmen created some ofthe most beautiful and memorableworks in the history of Western art. Graceful figures, charming animals, luxurious utensils, andhandsomely decorated armor were all fashioned with great sensitivity from bronze.While ancient literary sources tell us that many bronzes were melted down-as were objects of goldand silver-a far greater number of works survive than those made of more precious metals. It takes asharp eye, perseverance, an innate sense of quality, and careful scholarship to form a first-rank collectionof bronzes. The Metropolitan has been fortunate to have had the support of knowledgeabledonors as well as an inspired curatorial staff in assembling a group of Greek bronzes that is one ofthe finest and richest anywhere.There was no question of presenting the collection here in its entirety; indeed, in order to allow forplentiful illustrations, only forty-four pieces were selected for inclusion in this Bulletin. Chosen for theirexceptional quality and their historic or iconographic interest, these bronzes span the history of Greekart from the eighth century B.C. to Roman times. Most of them are small objects, and here, reproducedin several views, they can be fully appreciated as impressive sculptures. For example, the little centaur(no. 26) hurls his rock with all the force of his larger counterparts, despite the fact that he is only oneand three-quarters inches high.As distinguished as the works themselves are many of the collectors who at one time or anotherowned these objects. Foremost among them is the late Walter C. Baker, whose bequest in 1971brought a bounty of masterpieces, the best known being the veiled dancer (no. 32); ten worksfrom his collection are included in this publication. Other distinguished connoisseurs of bronzesrepresented by works reproduced on these pages are Count Michael Tyszkiewicz and VladimirSimkhovitch. An accomplished museum curator ranks with these discerning private collectors. UnderDietrich von Bothmer, Chairman of the Department of Greek and Roman Art, significant objects havebeen added to our holdings, including the majestic rams (no. 17) and the poignant artisan (no. 41).Norbert Schimmel has been a true friend ofthe department-in this area as in many others-allowingus to exhibit his grand Dionysiac mask (no. 40) alongside the Museum's two masks (nos. 38,39) inthe galleries.I wish to express my gratitude to the anonymous donor of the Classical Fund and to GeorgeOrtiz for enabling the Museum to publish this Bulletinas full and generously illustrated fashion asit is. Written by Joan R. Mertens, Curator and Administrator of the Department of Greek and RomanArt, this issue is intended as an introduction to Greek bronzes-revealing their variety, their qualityof execution, and the pleasure of viewing them. I hope that it will encourage readers to make a leisurelyvisit to the galleries-or several visits-and to take the time to thoroughly study and enjoythese masterpieces. It is also my hope that in the near future their present installation in the Metropolitan,which has been provisional for all too long, will be changed to one that is worthy of thesesplendid bronzes.Philippe de MontebelloDirectorThe Metropolitan Museum of Artis collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve, and extend access toThe Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin ®www.jstor.org

INTRODUCTION"And your own images in Greece, how are they fashioned?... Your artists, then,like Phidias and like Praxiteles went up, I suppose, to heaven and made a modelof the forms of the gods and then reproduced them by their art, or was theresomething else that attended upon them as they did their molding?""There was," said Apollonius, "something else, full of wisdom [sophia].""What was that," said the other, "for surely you would not say that it was somethingother than imitation [mimesis]?""Imagination[phantasia],"he said, "wrought these works, a wiser craftsman thanimitation; for imitation crafts what it has seen, while imagination crafts what ithas not seen; for it conceives according to the standard of what exists. Shockoften deadens imitation, but nothing affects phantasy, which marches undauntedtoward the goal that it has set itself"Flavius Philostratus, The Life of Apollonius of Tyana (6.19)The Metropolitan Museum of Artis collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve, and extend access toThe Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin ®www.jstor.org

K( een observation combined with seemingly inexhaustible creativity is ahallmark of Greek art in all of its forms. Nowhere does it impress us more immediately,however, than in the statuettes and utensils of bronze that were an integralpart of Greek life. They survive from the ninth century B.C. through the period ofassimilation to Roman styles that began during the second century B.C. Althoughthe paintings on Greek vases offer pictures of contemporary men, women, andchildren-what they did and how they visualized their gods and heroes-bronzestatuettes have the property of being three-dimensional, of being palpably real.While large-scale sculpture survives, much of it consists of copies after originalsthat no longer exist. The majority of bronze statuettes, by contrast, have the distinctionof being the original works that the ancient artists made.When these artists dealt with things that they saw around them-humanbeings, animals, utensils-our admiration is directed particularly to the way inwhich they captured and depicted the distinctive qualities of the subject. Whatwe may not sufficiently consider today is the tangible form that the craftsmengave to a wide range of subjects upon which no one had ever set eyes: the heroHerakles, the goddess Athena, Eros, the personification of love, griffins, centaurs,and satyrs, to mention only examples that occur here. While these inhabitants ofthe imagination acquired attributes by which to be recognized-the club andlion skin of Herakles, for instance-every artist contributed his own interpretation.The resulting statuettes are often memorable because the form perfectlysuits the subject and the articulation is so precise that, thanks to our eyes and fingertips,we have a real presence before us.The bronzes represent one of two kinds of object: either they were made to befreestanding, in which case they normally stand on their own base, or they werethe decorative adjuncts to a utensil. Their beauty might suggest that in antiquity,as in modem times, they were collected and enjoyed for their own sake. In fact,they were intended to serve a purpose, their aesthetic qualities being secondary.Through the fifth century B.C., at least, freestanding figural bronzes were producedas dedications, offerings to a god frequently placed in a sanctuary andinscribed with a text to that effect; the lyre player (no. 15), for instance, hasinscribed on the back, "Dolichos dedicated me." The hydria, or water jar (no.23), shows engraved around the top of the mouth, "one of the prizes from ArgiveHera." Such utilitarian objects, actually made to be used, might ultimately also bededicated as offerings.These two considerations-that the objects had a function to perform and thata figure of a human or an animal could be integrated naturally into a utensil-areabsolutely basic to an understanding of Greek bronzes. The artist's hand in theservice of his eye fashioned the upper body of a woman (opposite) that isimmediately recognizable and remarkable for the articulation of her face, garment,and hair. His hand working in the service of his imagination leaves us withno sense of discomfort or incongruity that she forms the transition between themouth and handle of a water jar. The figure embellishes the utensil; the utensilgives purpose to the figure. Moreover, as the object is used, the mutually reinforcingthree-dimensionality of vase and figure comes to the fore.By the eighth century B.C., the date of the earliest object in this Bulletin, bronzeworking had already enjoyed a long history in the Greek world. Indeed, theAbove: Detail of the hydria (no. 23)showing the inscriptionOpposite: Woman at the handle ofthe hydria5

Bronze Age is the name conventionally applied to the latest period of Greek prehistory,about 3200 to 1200 B.C. Preserved objects and ancient literary sources testifyto the use of other metals at that time: gold, silver, lead, tin, electrum, and,rarely, iron. Bronze, the alloy composed of approximately 90 percent copper and10 percent tin, by far predominated, however, for weapons, tools, and vessels, aswell as for statuettes. Among the available metals, it was the hardest and strongest;at the same time, it could be formed into complex shapes, like fishhooks.The technology of preparing the alloys, of casting or hammering the object, andof finishing it had been fully mastered so that, in this respect, there were noobstacles to production. (A description of how bronzes were made appears atthe end of this essay.) The most common material for containers, loom weights,dedicatory objects, and other necessities of daily life was fired clay. Wheredurability and/or the distinction of a rarer material came into play, bronzewas used.Archaeological investigation makes it possible to follow the evidence forbronze working back into the fourth millennium B.C. Yet, it is really only in thepoems of Homer, who is generally believed to have lived during the eighth centuryB.C., that we are given a social and human context within which to relate thesurviving material. The poet, for instance, vividly describes a forge in the courseof recounting how Thetis went to the divine smith Hephaistos to obtain a secondset of armor for her son Achilles.So saying he left her there and went to his bellows, and he turned these towardthe fire and bade them work. And the bellows, twenty in all, blew upon the meltingvats, sending forth a ready blast of every force, now to further him as helabored hard, and again in whatsoever way Hephaistos might wish and his workgo on. And on the fire he put stubborn copper and tin and precious gold and silver;and thereafter he set on the anvil-block a great anvil, and took in one hand amassive hammer, and in the other he took the tongs (Iliad 18.468-477).Homer lived about five hundred years later than the Trojan War and its aftermathtreated in his poems. While perhaps not so barren as once thought, theintervening centuries produced virtually no great art in any form. During thetenth century, however, artistic creativity reawakened and, by 750 B.C., the prevailingstyle, called "Geometric" in modem scholarship, was reaching its apogee.The name derives from such simple geometric shapes as triangles, circles, andrectangles that were used as filling ornament as well as elaborated into the subjectsof figural scenes. Vase painting and bronze working were the primarymedia.The Geometric period (about 1000-700 B.C.) is of considerable importance forbronze working. First, it introduces many figure types that remained in the repertoirefor centuries. The male occurs in various guises-nude, as a warrior, or as avotary. There are animals, notably horses and birds, as well as mythical creaturessuch as centaurs and griffins. Most remarkable is the style, which presents anygiven subject in its most elemental form, practically devoid of detail. Thus, statuettesof horses (nos. 3,4) show us little more than essentials: the head, archingneck, body, four legs, and tail that anyone would enumerate in describing thecreature. Similarly, an armorer (no. 8) consists fundamentally of the torso andlimbs of a human figure disposed so that his legs indicate that he is sitting on theground and his upper body and arms are directed toward the helmet before him.The manner of representation is perfectly clear and immediate, often also consummatelyelegant. The basic Greek iconographical types were born, so to speak,in the simplest, most expressive forms possible.A second significant feature of Geometric bronze work is that it documents the6

asic ways of using the material: in three dimensions, for statuettes and utensils;in relief to decorate objects such as tripod cauldrons, which were popular at thistime; and as the surface for incised decoration, best illustrated by a class of fibula,or safety pin. Thus, in the revival that took place during the early first millenniumB.C., the various possibilities for artistic expression developed hand in hand withsubject and style.A third significant aspect of Geometric bronzes concerns the geographical centerswhere, on the one hand, works were produced and where, on the other,they were particularly favored as dedications. Although scholars may disagree onthe localization of a specific object, there is little doubt that major centers of productionexisted in Laconia, the Argolid, Corinth, Attica, Boeotia, and Thessaly, aswell as on Crete and other islands. The single most important sanctuary at whichGeometric bronzes were dedicated is Olympia, but major concentrations ofmaterial have also come to light in Athens, Sparta, Delphi, the Argive Heraion,and on Samos. (See map on p. 14.)However one approaches these early works-technically, iconographically,geographically-they are very much at the head of a long tradition. They enjoythe additional distinction of representing probably the most progressive area ofsculptural creativity in their day. Apart from primitive images of wood describedin literary sources, there was no large-scale sculpture, and contemporary terracottascannot match the effect of volume and vitality in a work like the man andcentaur (no. 7). It is quite fair to say that for roughly a hundred years, until theend of the eighth century B.C., bronzes were at the forefront of Greek sculpturaldevelopment.The Archaic period, which is conventionally dated from about 700 B.C. to thePersian sack of the Athenian Akropolis in 480 B.C., saw the first flowering of Greeksculpture in stone, terracotta, and bronze. Our knowledge of artistic developmentsis enhanced by ancient literary evidence, of which two passages are particularlypertinent to bronzes: they are from the history of the Persian Wars writtenby Herodotos, who lived in the fifth century B.C., and they give us a point ofchronological reference through the mention of Croesus, king of Lydia, whoreigned from about 561 to 546 B.C. The objects described in the quotations; theglimpse into relations between Sparta, Lydia, and Samos, three important statesthat were also centers of metalworking; the colorful exaggeration of theaccounts-all of these features provide a fitting introduction to this time of spectacular,perhaps even unparalleled, achievement in Greek bronze working. (Inthe quotation, the Lacedaemonians are the people of Lacedaemon, the regionwith its center at Sparta; "Laconia" is a short variant of Lacedaemon.)The Lacedaemonians declared themselves ready to serve Croesus, king of Lydia,when he should require, and moreover they made a bowl of bronze, with figuresin relief outside round the rim, and large enough to hold twenty-seven hundredgallons.... The bowl never came to Sardis, and for this two reasons are given: theLacedaemonians say that when the bowl was near Samos on its way to Sardis, theSamians descended upon them in warships and carried it off; but the Samiansthemselves say that the Lacedaemonians who were bringing the bowl, being toolate, and learning that Sardis and Croesus were taken, sold it in Samos to certainprivate men, who set it up in the temple of Hera. And it may be that the sellers ofthe bowl, when they returned to Sparta, said that they had been robbed of it bythe Samians (The Persian Wars 1. 70).In another passage, Herodotos tells of a dedication made by a group ofSamians with a tithe of their profits reaped from a trading voyage to southernSpain, probably for ores: "The Samians took six talents... and made therewith a7

Copper ingot, twelfth century B.c. RogersFund, 1911 (11.140.7)bronze vessel, like an Argolic krater, with griffins' heads projecting from the rimall around; this they set up in their temple of Hera, supporting it with threecolossal kneeling figures of bronze, each seven cubits high" (4.152).An important fact brought out by these passages is how Archaic bronzes, fromtheir production to their distribution, effectively linked one end of the Mediterraneanworld to the other. To begin with the metal ores required for the bronzeindustry, copper was mined at Chalkis on Euboea, in Macedonia, in Thessaly, onvarious islands (most conspicuously Cyprus), as well as in southwestern Spainand northern Italy; a copper ingot in the Museum's collections, probably of thetwelfth century B.C., shows one of the forms in which ores were transportedthroughout antiquity. Tin had to be imported from Britain and Spain. Dangerousas these expeditions must have been, the rewards were handsome, as indicatedby Herodotos's account of the tithe in the form of a griffin cauldron dedicated bythe Samians.While Herodotos particularly highlights Laconia and Samos in the selectionscited, the number of places where the raw materials were made into objects continuedto proliferate, throughout the Greek mainland and islands as well as fartherafield. In the west there were workshops in the Greek colonies of southernItaly, notably Locri and Tarentum. By stylistic comparison with stone sculptureand terracottas, bronzes have also been attributed to eastern Greece, the coastalcities of Asia Minor, although the major centers have not so far been adequatelyidentified and characterized.The subsequent movement of finished pieces destined for dedications, forgifts, or for trade, which were occasionally carried off as plunder, is vividlydescribed by Herodotos as well. Within the present selection, the mirror (no. 11)is a good example; it was probably made in the northeastern Peloponnesos andcame to light in Cyprus. Whatever the original purpose of these objects may havebeen, they often ultimately became offerings. Indeed, thanks to such sanctuarysites as Olympia, Samos, Delphi, Dodona, and Perachora, the archaeologicalrecord for the Archaic period is extremely rich, providing evidence for theexpanded range offigural subjects and types of object. The female figure, forinstance, which had been rare in Geometric art, now comes into its own, often inconnection with utensils, such as mirrors, that one assumes were favored bywomen. Similarly, armor and weapons have come down to us in quantity and inexamples of superlative workmanship. Body armor-helmets, cuirasses, thighguards, shin guards, and ankle guards-deserves close attention, being shapedand articulated in accordance with the part of the body that it covered. In theabsence of life-size bronze sculpture, the cuirasses particularly illustrate the evolutionof anatomical rendering from stylization to greater naturalism.If, indeed, the major accomplishment of Archaic bronze statuettes were to becharacterized, it might legitimately be said that the essential forms developed byGeometric artists now acquired flesh and blood. The warrior (no. 1) impresses usby the clarity and economy with which he conveys the ideas of being a man andwielding a weapon. The youth (no. 13) invites us to admire the modeling of hisbody, the detail of his long hair, his lifelikeness. This development is as evident insubjects of the imagination, like griffins (no. 9) and gorgon heads (no. 19), as inthose that the artists saw around them. When Herodotos was writing, bronzeobjects of the Geometric period were still visible. Thus, in his descriptions of theenormous Laconian bowl with decoration around the rim, or of the Samiankrater with griffins and kneeling figures, his sense of wonder may have beendirected not only at the size of the respective dedications but also at the vividnessof the subjects represented.8

The ramifications of the Greek victory over Persia and the resulting preeminenceof Athens extended to art, leaving their mark even in the domain of utensilsand statuettes. During the Classic period, which spans the fifth and fourthcenturies up to the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C., the major achievementslay in architecture, monumental sculpture in stone, bronze, ivory andgold, as well as in wall painting. Literary texts, in the form of descriptions,accounts, decrees, and so on, give the names of masters, major and minor,together with the works attributed to them, or they pertain to specific monuments.Individuals such as the architect Iktinos, the sculptor Pheidias, and thepainter Polygnotos ofThasos set the standards for and introduced the innovationsinto their respective arts; therefore, considerations of models and influencesnow enter into the study of a work in a way that they had not previously.Bronze sculpture on a scale of halflife-size or greater can be traced back to agroup of figures of the mid-seventh century B.c. from Dreros on Crete, or to awinged figure of the first half of the sixth century from Olympia. These workswere hammered rather than cast, and they must have been exceptionalglorifiedexperiments, so to speak-even allowing for a very poor rate of survival.At the end of the sixth century B.C., production of monumental cast-bronze statuarybegan to gain momentum. Our knowledge of it derives mainly from ancientliterary evidence, which, together with Roman marble copies, is also our chiefsource for that of subsequent centuries. To suggest the amount of materialost toDetail of an Attic red-figured cup depictinga foundry, about 490 to 480 B.C.Attributed to the Foundry Painter.Antikenmuseum, Berlin, 22949

Detail of a mirror (no. 22)us, it has been calculated that in the second century A.D. over one thousandbronze statues of victorious athletes were still standing in Olympia alone. Thecelebrated charioteer of Delphi, probably set up in 477 B.c., exemplifies how veryfine examples of victor dedications looked. The equally familiar statue of Zeus,found in the sea off Cape Artemision and now in Athens, was made closer to themid-fifth century and conveys the impressiveness of large-scale images of godsthat stood in temples and sanctuaries.It is against such developments that small-scale bronzes from the fifth centuryB.C. on must be considered. If we look at the Archaic woman (no. 10) or theHerakles (no. 14) and question whether anything in them requires a large-scaleprototype, the answer is likely to be negative, primarily because of the perfectcorrespondence between the intention of the piece and its realization. By con-trast, the early Classic diskos thrower (no. 21) presents an understanding of thewhole human figure, of the interrelation between mind and body, that is morelikely to have been achieved on a scale approaching life-size than in that of a statuette.Ancient sources tell, for instance, of Pythagoras, a sculptor of bronze whowas active during the second quarter of the fifth century and specialized in athletes.Works such as his would have inspired others in a variety of sizes, materials,degrees of similarity, and levels of quality. Bronze statuettes from the Classicperiod are in no respect inferior to their predecessors. Many are simply some-what different, in that the questions of to what degree and in what way a piece isderivative play a more important part in evaluating style and iconography.Expressed in different terms, one may say that in the evolution of Greek sculpturesmall bronzes became reflections rather than milestones of innovation.The corollary of this situation, however, is that a great many works offer a distillateof the finest qualities of Classic art in the compact, intimate form of a statuette.Supporting the reflecting surface of the mirror (no. 22) is a woman whostands quietly but has the potential of immediate action, as indicated by the positionof her head, arms, and feet. Perfectly balanced also is the articulation of herbody and of the drapery, each distinct yet both integrated to convey the grace ofthe figure. One could imagine that she represented an aesthetic ideal to whichusers of the mirror might well aspire.The fusion of form, function, and execution into a whole in which no oneaspect predominates is an achievement of the Classic period that, indeed, is basicto the meaning of the word "classical." During the last phase of Greek art, knownas Hellenistic, new elements entered into the vocabulary of artistic expressionthat were often at considerable odds with the standard of Classic equilibrium butthat significantly widened the existing range of styles and subject matter.A consideration of the major historical and artistic developments of this timeshows that Greece lost her traditional center, not to say centers. For centuries, theheartland had existed in an area that might be circumscribed by a circle includingDodona in the north and Sparta in the south. The first major change took placeduring the fourth century B.C. when Philip II and Alexander the Great subjugatedthe rest of Greece to Macedonian rule. After Alexander's death, during theHellenistic period proper, although the old cities and sanctuaries remained inexistence, the shift continued eastward and southward to the three powerful newkingdoms, those of the Attalids in Pergamon, the Seleucids in Syria, and thePtolemies in Egypt. The traditional heartland gave way to an ever-wideningperiphery, much like the circles that spread from a pebble thrown into still water.The ramifications of these developments also altered a world that had previouslyconsisted of many states, with Athens often predominant but not in control. Theestablishment of Macedonian supremacy brought unprecedented political sub-10

ordination and centralization, not only throughout Greece as a whole but alsowithin the individual states.In art, where the Classic period had attained a balance of every constituent elementof a work-whether building, statue, or water jar-the Hellenistic ageintroduced the tendency to select and develop a specific feature or detail beyondall others; observation was now pushed toward acute realism, even as far as caricature.This development gained further impetus from the new subjects thatentered the iconographical repertoire as a result of the displacement of artisticcenters to the east, notably to Pergamon and other cities of Asia Minor, Alexandria,Rhodes, and Kos. Africans (see no. 35) and orientals occurred more frequentlythan they had previously. Subjects drawn from daily life, which beforewere exceptional, became common: men and women with all the marks of age,young children, artisans, actors, dwarfs, cripples. The changes in Greek art at thistime were fundamental, yet the old traditions did not die out. The interplaybetween the classical, on the one hand, and contemporary innovation, on theother, represents an ever-present factor in the consideration of works of theHellenistic period.The range oficonographic and stylistic possibilities is suggested by a com-parison of the dancing youth (no. 31) with the artisan (no. 41). The former givesthe sense of a Classic creation infused with energy rather than serene repose. Themanifest beauty of the figure and of the articulation of his body depends uponthe past. The complexity of his movement, which is the real subject of the work,makes this a product of a new age. Where the youth might have stepped out of apoem by Keats, one could have met the artisan in any industrial quarter in anycity of the ancient Greek world. There is no attempt at idealizing the compact,work-hardened body, its muscles and skin now grown less taut. At the same time,every sensitivity remains in the weary, pensive, dignified face.As significant as the differences between these two works may be, the figuresshare a quality of overriding importance, a vigor that imparts life as much to themundane man as to the arcadian youth. The same quality is perceptible in theDionysiac masks (nos. 38-40), which are datable to the first century A.D. andwhich, for our purposes, may demonstrate the continuity of the most time-honoredGreek subjects into Roman art.These works, however, represent only part of a complex and varied artistic situation.The Hermes (no. 43) shows something quite different, an image of thefinest craftsmanship utterly devoid of inner conviction. The standard of executionand the heritage of which it is a product are immediately recognizable, yetequally apparent is an emptiness conveyed by more than just the disproportionatelysmall head, the unfocused glance, and the soft body in a passive pose.The intention of the representation here is no longer clear or definite; onlythe form remains. The horse (no. 42) offers another example of the samephenomenon.Greek mythology provides a noteworthy parallel to these two small sculpturesin the figure of Talos, the giant of bronze. He is best described by ApolloniusRhodius, a Greek writer of the third century B.c.He was of the stock of bronze, of the men sprung from ash trees, the last leftamong the sons of the gods; and the son of Kronos gave him to Europa to be thewarder of Crete and to stride round the island thrice a day with his feet of bronze.Now in all the rest of his body and limbs he was fashioned of bronze and invulnerable;but beneath the sinew of his ankle was a blood-red vein; and this, withits issues of life and death, was covered by a thin skin (Argonautica 4. 1639-1648).Young African, detail ofno. 35His death was brought about by the sorceress Medea. According to the prin-11

cipal version of the legend, Talos's one vein, that ran from his neck to his ankle,was plugged at the ankle by a bronze nail. Medea drew out the nail, causing hislife-blood (ichor) to pour forth and his body to collapse. The episode is depictedon a vase made in Athens about 400 B.C., showing the giant keeling backward intothe arms ofKastor and Polydeukes while Medea looks on at the left. The qualityof the statuette of Hermes, often characterized as "academic," is that of a figurewho has lost his ichor.Within this brief conspectus of the development of Greek bronze working, themyth of Talos proves instructive in several respects. Beside contributing to ourunderstanding of certain objects that mark the transition from Hellenistic toRoman art, it is a forceful reminder of the readiness of the ancient Greeks toendow works of art with the qualities of animate beings. The concept recurs inDetail of an Attic red-figured volute-kratershowing the death of Talos, about 400 B.C.Attributed to the Talos Painter. Ruvo, JattaCollection, 1501many stories-those of Pandora, of Pygmalion, and of the bull made by Daidalosfor Pasiphae, to name a very few. In the hands of an inspired craftsman, theproper combination of imitation and imagination could result in a creation ofextraordinary potential. The Talos myth reminds us also that these creations werealways made to serve a purpose-in the case ofthe giant, to guard the island ofCrete. The myth also relates in an interesting way to the production of bronzeobjects. One's attention is drawn to the mention of a single vein running throughTalos's body and plugged at the ankle, a detail that may possibly have been takenfrom the molds for casting by the lost-wax technique.The objects in this Bulletin were produced by casting, hammering, or a combinationof both. Casting was used for all of the freestanding statuettes, for thehandles of the vessels, the disks of the mirrors, and adjuncts like those decoratingthe periphery of the disk on no. 22. While a number of refinements existed,the basic process was a simple one.12

The first step was to prepare a core in a malleable matenal, like a mixture ofsoil and clay, that would serve as a support over which the figure would be modeledin wax. Around this wax figure was applied very fine clay, into which thedetails of the figure became impressed. The layer of fine clay, backed with coarserclay, constituted the actual mold; its relation to the figure was like a tight glove toa hand. It surrounded the figure entirely except at two points on the underside ofthe feet or base, where the wax was left exposed. This initial operation resultedin a three-layer construction, with the core in the center, the wax representationaround it, and the clay mold over the wax. Metal pins called chaplets, driven atintervals through the three layers, kept them aligned. When the outer clay moldhad dried, it was fired, which also caused the wax to melt and run out throughthe two openings. Molten bronze was then poured into the void left by the wax.After the bronze had cooled, the clay was removed to reveal a figure of bronzewhere originally there had been one of wax. With respect to Talos, it must be saidthat, in reality, such a large statue would have been assembled out of separatelycast pieces. Nonetheless, the idea of one vein within the otherwise solid bodymay have been suggested by the channel through which the bronze was pouredinto the mold.The figure emerging from the mold would have had a rough surface, and perhapsalso imperfections where the liquid metal had not filled the mold completely.Such casting flaws were repaired and the surface smoothed and polished.Details like locks of hair, eyelids, or borders of a garment that did not appearcrisp were reworked. Other embellishments-like the triple dots on the garmentof no. 15, the scales on the griffin head (no. 9), the silver inlays on the foreheadsof nos. 38 and 39, or the inscriptions on nos. 15 and 23-were added at this stageas well. The natural appearance of the bronze would have been copper coloredand rather shiny, with inlays or other additions prominent; as ancient textsindicate, the surface could be treated to modify the color or sheen. Ancientbronzes that have survived untouched show a patina consisting of layers ofmineral corrosion products formed by the interaction of the metal with theenvironment in which it was buried. The tonality of this mineral accretion oftencontributes significantly to our perception of the beauty of an object, although itis foreign to the bronze's original state.Objects that were not made by casting were hammered, or raised, from a diskof sheet bronze. This process was standard for the bodies of vessels and forarmor. As metal tends to lose its resilience in the course of being worked, it mustbe repeatedly annealed, or heated to a red-hot temperature, in order to regain itsmalleability. Annealing results in relatively thin metal that, in the course of time,tends to survive less well than the more solid cast pieces. Thus the cast handles ofwater jars, jugs, lavers, and other utensils exist in greater number than the hammeredparts to which they were soldered or riveted.Although every technique had its refinements-casting could be done in openmolds, with the lost-wax or sand-core process-and although innovations, suchas the lathe, were introduced, the fundamental technology of bronze workingwas already known to Geometric artists and was fully mastered by their Archaicsuccessors. The continuity afforded by these consistent, long-lived methods addssignificantly to the picture of cohesiveness and progressive evolution presentedby the almost thousand-year history of Greek bronzes. The forms, subjects, purposes,and techniques were quite limited, but the ever-new creations of the artistsseem very nearly infinite, thanks to their gifts of observation and imagination.13

1. Nude warrior, second half of theeighth century B.C.The nude male figure stands on a smallrectangular base, with which it hasbeen cast. While his legs are set slightlyaskew, his wide, flat chest is parallelto the viewer. His massive but subtlyarticulated neck ends in a small head,which is tilted back. Protuberancesindicate the ears and nose; twoscarcely visible forms in relief mark theeyes. In his raised right hand he wouldundoubtedly have held a spear; theobject originally in his left hand cannotbe determined. Two dowels fasten thewarrior to a thinner sheet of bronze,indicating that he originally decorateda vessel. It was almost certainly a tripodcauldron, a deep bowl, in this casemade of hammered sheet bronze, supportedon three legs and providedwith two large ring handles that rosevertically above the mouth. The warriorwould have stood beside one ofthe handles.Although it is difficult to localize theworkshop where the figure was made,one possibility is that it was in Elis, theregion in which Olympia is located.The statuette is wonderfully direct inconveying the essential features of theman's body and of his action. Thesmall dislocations in the pose contributeto his lack of rigidity. Indeed, hisproportions, with long legs and a compacthead and neck, his stance, and theposition of his arms make the warriora lineal ancestor of the diskos thrower(no. 21).Said to come from Olympia or Crete.H. 713/16 in. (19.6 cm). Fletcher Fund, 1936(36.11.8)

2. Man seated on a ball, last quarterof the eighth century B.C.This object consists of a bearded manseated atop a hollow ball. The latter,pierced with eight vertical slashes, surmountsa short cylindrical stem endingin a flat, round foot. Attached to thetop of the ball is another cylinder thatsupports a "bench'" which has a holeat either end. A thong presumablypassed through the holes. The man sitssquarely on the "bench," resting hishands on his knees and his feet on theshoulder of the ball. Incised on theman's back is a circle made with thesame tool used for the eyes, an "X" thatruns to each shoulder and, below that,a series of horizontals; since the frontof the body is entirely plain, the incisionsmay be purely decorative or theymay represent equipment, such as abelt, two crossed baldrics, and a shield.Given its assemblage of elementsand its style, this work could only haveGreece.come from Thessaly, in northernOnly six examples of the specifictype are known, yet pendantscomposed of spheres elaborated in agreat variety of ways are characteristicallyThessalian; so also is the use of aseated figure as a finial and the wirybuild. Our principal evidence forestablishing the purpose of the piececonsists of the holes for suspensionand the fact that many such pendantswere ultimately offered as dedications.Here, as in the bird (no. 6), provision ismade for both standing and hanging. Adefinitive solution to the question offunction must await more information.What the work itself shows, however, isan extraordinary sense ofthree-dimensionality,expressed not only by thetreatment of the forms but also by thejuxtaposition of mass and void.H. 33/4 in. (9.5 cm). Ex colls. Tyszkiewicz,Pozzi, Simkhovitch. Edith Perry ChapmanFund, 1947 (47.11.7)

3-6. Two horses, a ram, and a bird,second half of the eighth centuryB.C.In Geometric art animals far outnumberhuman figures, with birds,horses, sheep, bulls, and other quadrupedsbeing particularly common.The ring with a ram illustrates an animalserving as a decorative adjunct.The exact function of the object isunclear, but the possibilities include itshaving been the ring handle of a smalltripod, part of a harness, or a pendant,like no. 2, that could either be hung or,in this case, be let into a base. The ram,decorated with circles, is remarkablefor its flatness, which is mitigated onlyby the curved horns. The three otheranimals introduce a feature that ismore important in Geometric art thanat any later time. They have bases withelaborate patternwork whose purpose,beyond that of decoration, is not clear;the theory that these objects couldbe used as stamp seals to identifyownership is appealing. Aesthetically,the bases significantly influence thethree-dimensional effect of the pieces;although both horses are comparablylean and sparse in their articulation,the rectangle below one accentuates itslength and angularity, while the diskunder the other defines a circularspace and emphasizes volume. Thebird is especially successful, with thefullness of its body enhanced by theround base and the thin subdivisionswithin the base repeated in the crestand tail. The centers of productionrepresented by these four works covermuch of Greece. The bird was probablymade in the Argolid and the horseon the rectangular base in Corinth.Despite the presence of Corinthian fea-tures, the horse on the disk has beenattributed to Locris in central Greece,while the ram may well come fromthe north.Horse (left): H. 33/8 in. (8.4 cm). Gift ofH.L. Bache Foundation, 1969 (69.61.4).Horse (center): H. 37/16 in. (8.8 cm).Bequest of Walter C. Baker, 1971(1972.118.49). Ram on ring: H. 33/4 in.(9.5 cm). Gift of Mr. and Mrs. HenriSeyrig, 1954 (54.137.2). Bird: Said to befrom the Argive Heraion. H. 315/6 in.(9.9 cm). Fletcher Fund, 1935 (35.11.14)17

f_1 &ll iI -_FWgrounds, it can be assigned to a Lacoa_!i ,'^ ^*,j 'nian workshop. The group is made up:l'& ~' -'i.. . .of a man, wearing a belt and a conical_BI_, .L iB~ i.; i i ,- *icap, .standing before a centaur, who is a-r ' 'L_Jsmaller version of his counterpart--_'H^^^^ - r . , : , even to the cap-with the addition of*,I-^^^; '. I the body and hindquarters of a horse.-_:H * i \ H * 1 ; ; * The nature of their relation to eachother is indicated by the spearhead_l _; ,,? | !projecting from the centaur's left side,- H ~_; i, 1 q,, his firm grasp of the man's right fore-' 1 ;....cE iJ,^t a_ _ !?taur'srih right arm, which w is now missingL^'l _j~.!!.~I S' *";i~ *~ ,1,,^*abovethe elbow but which probably.. . L i'~, would have brandished a branch.The base contributes significantly tothe composition of the'h ' piece by joinen"I'"~ing the figures on a common ground1 _ and dition: emphasizing te the centaur through~itsI 111 irregular 1 shape; it even suggestsI;II I I ~11 _Srough terrain through the cutouts. Theeffect and complexity of the impliedspace would have been still greaterwhen the work was in its original condition:the spear in the man's right-4~:~. i:::;i,i:; :..7. Man and centaur, mid-eighthcentury B.C.Figural groups, occasionally with animplied narrative context, are rareamong Geometric statuettes and ~. .become even rarer after the Geometricperiod. Of these groups, which include ...a lion hunt, a ring dance, and menwith animals, this one is unrivaled inits clarity and intensity. On stylistic18

hand and a weapon of some kindabove the centaur's head would haveadded width and height. Within thecomposition that even now is verytight and closed, there is virtually noincidental detail to divert us from theconfrontation of the two antagonists.The spearhead in the centaur's flankinforms us of the outcome, yet one isinclined to attribute his opponent'ssuperiority not only to the spear butalso to the glance of the man's deeplyhollowed eyes. Scholars have proposeda variety of specific identifica-tions, such as Zeus and one of theTitans or Herakles and one of the centaurs,perhaps Pholos. Beyond speculation,however, are the timelessness anduniversality of the motionless confrontationbetween the warrior and hissemihuman adversary.Said to be from Olympia. H. 45A6 in.(11.1 cm). Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan, 191717.190.2072)8. Armorer working on a helmet,end of eighth to early seventhcentury B.C.The statuette of an armorer is quintessentiallyGeometric in its sparsenessand in the generally rectangular formatwithin which it is composed; at thesame time, it shows an unprecedentedlimberness. The craftsman is beardedbut otherwise nude, unless the caplikeform on his head represents not hairbut a skullcap often worn by ancientartisans. He sits on the ground with hisright foot against the base of a shaft,probably a stake, supporting thehelmet. With his left hand he holds thehelmet by a cheekpiece; in his righthand he held a tool, perhaps a mallet,of which only the handle remains. Thehelmet is Corinthian in type, like no.18, with a nose guard and a tall crest, ofwhich the crest holder is preserved.Because the helmet appears fullyformed and the craftsman has no toolin his left hand, he is probably hammeringit into its final shape. A fewcontemporary statuettes of genresubjects survive; among them are acharioteer and an archer both found atOlympia. While all three figures arerendered with a keen sense of observation,the armorer is significantly different:he sits directly on the ground,without a base. A freestanding work,such as this one, must rely on its compositionand execution to ensure balance.Indeed, during the whole historyof Greek bronze statuettes, freestand-ing examples without a base of theirown or provision for being let into asupport are exceptional.H. 2 in. (5.1 cm). Fletcher Fund, 1942(42.11.42)19

-v. . k,L V:l 5 Cr-cIr2?,pCra r ea rl%i-Y? .c: I,- '1. ??..?'hr??.?? Et;.,cP PN I-'?jLLB `1\'JI?;?mYR?'Cjll ?il-*??rJYlc'-'I lurr r I -pT 'C-CSl(m .`. -?Tl??.\i- it;..,.J--%t: c; ..':'?i :1 ?? :Y ..:hrLi, i?c.-. p.r Cki c r=,? ?? c?4-I?u?rt. Irc Y ? rii??I? \. rd.- I. n ??II.?i?. ". 4 c;r 21 I ? :? rr.r?'`h;'rC:?l .'^ r ??`L?,!`, .LFPr? 4'???:: I?- C Y r '1 ??. r.. ?:. ?' ??,.,.? 4i3Vl`iI'1.rr I.*? ,?IC*)

9. Head of a griffin, third quarter ofthe seventh century B.C.During the second half ofthe eighthcentury, protomes of griffins, or morerarely lions, began to appear attachedaround the shoulder of a new type oftripod cauldron that was replacingthose with figures at the handles (seeno. 1). The function of the protomeswas decorative and symbolic insofar asthese creatures inspired respect inthose who saw them. They did notserve any purpose related to the carryingof the cauldrons; for that, someexamples had small ring handlesfastened to the shoulder. Griffincauldrons achieved great favor in theseventh century, as has been documentedby over six hundred survivingprotomes as well as by Herodotos'smention of the Samian dedication(p. 7). Significantly, most of the preservedpieces were discovered inSamos and Olympia. The Museum'sgriffin head can be connected with thelatter site and a Peloponnesian, possiblyCorinthian, workshop. While thehead is cast, a neck hammered fromsheet bronze once formed the transitionto the cauldron; considering theweight of the head, it is not surprisingthat the neck no longer exists in thiscase, nor in virtually all of the otherscombining cast and hammeredelements.The griffin, a winged lion with thehead of a bird of prey and ears of ahorse, was introduced to Greece duringthe eighth century along with agreat number of other iconographicaland technical innovations from theEast. The griffin protome, however,was a purely Greek creation, and theMuseum's example is one of the veryfinest. The integration of compositionand execution is here complete. Theplay of curves between tongue andbeak is tangibly emphasized by theslight relief line around the mouth.Similarly, the shape of the great archingeye, which was probably once inlaid,reechoes in the three folds of the "eyelid."One can well understand whyHerodotos was impressed by a hugebowl ringed with heads such as these.From Olympia. H. 10Y in. (25.8 cm).Bequest of Walter C. Baker, 1971(1972.118.54)10. Standing woman wearing apeplos, second quarter of the sixthcentury B.C.This bronze brings us into the Archaicperiod; it carries over from Geometricart a clear sense of structure whileintroducing a new concern for renderingthe volumes of the body and differentiating them through garments.The figure wears a peplos, a longstraight tunic; a belt at the waist; and anepiblema, a kind of bolero that was fastenedat each shoulder. Her hair isbound with a fillet, or band, and restingon top of her head is a flat diskwith traces of an iron pin in the center,which indicates that the woman supportedsome kind of utensil, perhapsan incense burner. The figure standsstiffly, but her large eyes, full cheeks,the mass of hair-differentiated bothabove and below the fillet-and thecontrast of the volume of her chest toher narrow waist contribute considerablesoftness and grace. The skirt,feet, and hands appear less preciselyworked than the face and upper body;in fact, technical examination revealsthat the two parts are the products oftwo different castings. The figure mayhave been damaged during the originalcasting, making the replacement nec-essary at the outset, or it may have brokenlater and a replacement was caston to salvage it. The workshop thatproduced the piece has been identifiedas Peloponnesian, possibly Laconian.While evidence drawn fromdifferent media and regions must beused with care, parallels for the dressof the figure, the pinning of the epiblemaon the shoulders, and the character ofthe articulation occur in Attic vasepainting and sculpture of about 570 to560 B.C.; thus a date in the secondquarter of the century seems justified.H. 71616 in. (19.5 cm). Ex coll. Simkhovitch.Bequest ofWalter C. Baker, 1971(1972.118.57)

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11, 12. Nude girl and a mirror with asupport in the form of anude girl, second half of thesixth century B.C.In Archaic art the utensil that mostoften included a female figure as a supportwas the so-called caryatid mirror.The two examples presented herewere made in Laconia ten to twentyyears apart; no. 11 can be dated about540 to 530 B.C. and no. 12 about 520 B.C.In each case the girl is nude except fora necklace with a pendant in the centerand a band, from which hang acrescent-shaped amulet and a ring.The earlier figure (no. 11) has twomore amulets hanging on the left sideof her back. She also wears a netlikesnood that leaves only the edge of herhair exposed, while her counterpart(no. 12) has a flower on either side ofher head just above her ears. The earlierfigure holds cymbals, and theother grasps a pomegranate by thestalk with her left hand; the objectoriginally in her right hand can nolonger be identified. The stance of thegirls differs significantly, as does whatthey stand on. The support of the earlierone consists of a folding stool withequine legs, on which crouches a largefrog that appears to grip the front andsides with its feet. The girl stands onthe frog's back, with her left footadvanced slightly before her right. Herupper body turns toward her right,creating the same effect of ease shownto a more limited degree by the warrior(no. 1). The feline feet attached toher elbows and shoulders are remainsof creatures-perhaps griffins-thatsupported the disk, as they do on themirror at the right. Here, the figure

Istands on a lion, which is curled upand rests its head between its paws.The disk, steadied by the well-preservedgriffins, is let into an openingon the top of the figure's head.Although the pose of this slightly latergirl lacks the torsion of her counterpartand may seem stiffer, the parts ofher body are better integrated and proportioned;in every respect she seemsmore composed.The function of a mirror evokesAphrodite, the goddess of beauty andlove, whose origins are ultimately NearEastern. Because they are nude andcarry amulets and cymbals, these figuresare closer to Aphrodite's orientalaspect, in which she is connected withfertility, than to her Archaic Greekform, in which, often elaboratelyclothed, she appears in mythologicalscenes, such as the Judgment of Paris,or in depictions of the life ofwomen.The frog and pomegranate are attributesassociated with procreation,while the lion accompanies other easterngoddesses, like Cybele. It is impossibleto identify the caryatid figuresexactly; they may be attendants ofAphrodite or women embodying cer-tain of her qualities.Girl: Said to be from Kourion. H. 85/8 in.(21.9 cm). The Cesnola Collection,Purchased by subscription, 1874-76(74.51.5680). Mirror: Said to be fromsouthern Italy. H. 135/8 in. (33.8 cm).Fletcher Fund, 1938 (38.11.3)

13. Nude youth, third quarter of thesixth century B.C.The Archaic male figure par excellenceis the nude youth standing at rest, oneleg before the other, his arms usually athis sides, without attribute or gestureto introduce any specific or episodicfeature. The sculptural form, bestexemplified in marble, is often calleda "kouros," the Greek word for a"youth." This statuette, despite theposition of his arms and the objectin his right hand, is as direct a representationof a beautiful youth as anykouros. His body is long and slim, withdeveloped musculature in the chestand shoulders. The even modeling isboth complemented and emphasizedby the mass of hair, articulated intoshort tight locks on the top of his headand falling in longer, looser tressesalmost to the small of his back. Whilethe figure seems to direct his attentiontoward something in front of him, thesituation is impossible to determine;so is the object he holds, which looksmost like the stalk of a plant, perhaps apoppy. The rendering of the body suggestsa date almost contemporary withthat of the caryatid supporting the mirror(no. 12). The style has been comparedwith both Peloponnesian piecesand others from eastern Greece, spe-cifically Samos. The combination isnot problematic in view of the communicationbetween Laconia andthe eastern Aegean during the Archaicperiod: ancient literary sources tell ofBathykles of Magnesia who madean elaborately decorated throne atAmyklai near Sparta; of Theodoros ofSamos who constructed a buildingnear Sparta; and of the great bronzebowl intended as a gift from Sparta toCroesus, king of Lydia (p. 7). Suchinterchange can account for the presenceof a softness usually associatedwith East Greek sculptural styles in afigure that retains the structure andfirmness of Peloponnesian works.H. 6 in. (15.2 cm). Bequest ofWalter C.Baker, 1971 (1972.118.101)I _ _25

14. Herakles, last quarter of the sixthcentury B.C.In this forceful representationHerakles is the virtual personificationof controlled strength. The compactbody shows a thorough integration ofbony structure and musculature. Theoutstretched arm with its clenched fist,the formidable right arm with the clubthat is almost half as tall as the figure,the right foot modeled to suggest greatpower behind the forward stride -such details establish his physicalprowess. At the same time, his finebeard and particularly the impeccableprecision of his hair, bound with afillet, mark the man as civilized.Herakles can be placed among theforemost Greek heroes for the laborsand adventures that linked him with allparts of Greece, and for the fact that,ultimately, he was accepted among theimmortals on Mount Olympos. Hewas depicted with great frequency andin all media during the Archaic period.The present statuette is particularlyremarkable for the economy withwhich it expresses both strength andcivility. Its reputed find spot supplementsstylistic criteria for associating itwith bronze figures from the centralPeloponnesos, which are commonlycalled "Arcadian" when they are peasanttypes, often bearing animals, or"Argive" when their physical build ismuscular and compact but the level ofexecution superior. Although the baseupon which Herakles stands is piercedin two corers, he is not likely to havedecorated a vessel; the shape of thebase and the pronounced threedimensionalityof the figure indicatethat it was probably a dedication.Said to be from Mantinea in Arkadia. H.5Y16 in. (12.8 cm). Fletcher Fund, 1928(28.77)

15. Man playing the lyre, late sixth toearly fifth century B.C.The statuette represents a beardedman wearing a long chiton, belted atthe waist and ornamented with tripledots and a guilloche pattern on itslower border. His hair is bound with afillet, which may well retain the originalgilding. The long belted garment isa special form of dress usually seen onflute and lyre players and on charioteers.The instrument, held in themusician's left arm, shows careful articulationof the strings, arms, and tortoiseshellsound box. The musicianholds the plektron in his right hand.Like the armorer (no. 8) and the"Arcadian" peasants mentioned onpage 27, the musician belongs to thetradition of subjects of daily life, whichare represented less frequently inbronzes than in vase painting. Theiconographical interest ofthe pieceis heightened by the inscriptionengraved in Attic letters over the backof the legs and buttocks: "Dolichosdedicated me." The formula is typicalfor such offerings of the Archaicperiod, as is the placement of the textover part of the figure's body. We donot know why this statuette was madeor dedicated. It should be noted, however,that lyre players were not onlymusicians in the restricted sense butalso poets and preservers of orallytransmitted historical knowledge.Dolichos may have made this offeringafter a victory in a contest of musical ormnemonic skills, or simply out of gratitudeto a benevolent muse.H. 3/8 in. (7.9 cm). Rogers Fund, 1908(08.28.5)28

16. Horse, second quarter of the sixthcentury B.C.Because of the greater expressive possibilitiesthat the human form offeredto Archaic artists, there are fewer animalbronzes than in the Geometricperiod; horses and lions, however,continued to be popular. This statuetteevokes its antecedents through thelong narrow base, to which even thetail is attached. The cylindrical bodyand large, generally triangular hindquartersperpetuate the earlier emphasison strong, clear forms as well. Whatis new, however, is the subtly modeledneck and chest, the elegant legs, andthe luxuriant mane, which is given asmuch attention as the hair of the youth(no. 13). It is evident that the horsewas made by an artist who had lookedat living models, even if he has left acertain awkwardness in the proportionsand composed the legs not asthey move in nature but to stressthe strength of the hindquarters. Thepiece was reputedly found in southernItaly, in Locri Epizephyrii ("Toward theWestern Winds"), founded by mainlandGreeks from the region of Locris.It is one of the earliest bronzes associatedwith a center that later was wellknown for the production of caryatidmirrors. Chronological evidence forthe piece exists in Corinthian and Atticvases of the very end of the seventhcentury and of the first half of the sixththat show horses with the same horizontallystriated manes. Comparisonwith other bronzes from southernItaly, notably a group of a horse andrider in the British Museum, suggests adate about 570 to 560 B.C.Said to be from Locri. H. 65/8 in. (16.8 cm).Ex coll. Junius S. Morgan. Lent in 1907 byJunius Spencer Morgan (1867-1932) andgiven by his heirs in 1958-1959 (58.180.1)29

17. Two rams, third quarter of thesixth century B.C.The tradition of utilitarian objectsembellished with sculptural adjuncts,last encountered on these pages in thegriffin cauldrons (see no. 9), continuedto flourish during the sixth century B.C.These rams were attached with bronzedowels, still preserved, to a utensil thatis difficult to identify. The undersideof the animals is both hollowed andcurved, indicating that they fitted ontoa rolled or tubular surface that wasabout 2 cm in diameter. Because oftheir considerable weight, roughlythree pounds apiece, and because theobject may well have had more thanthe two attachments, a sturdy supportwould have been required. It may havebeen the rim of some kind of basin orstand rather than the shoulder of acauldron. The animals introduce anew stylistic mixture. They show1976.11.21976.11.3

ather broad smooth planes, with virtuallyno detail or indication of underlyingstructure. The salient features,like the limbs, horns, eyes, andmuzzles are boldly modeled and articulatedwith highly stylized markings.The rams do not give the impressionthat they could stand up and move, oreven that this is a potential that the artistparticularly wished to convey. Theapproach differs perceptibly from thatin the horse (no. 16) and in the humanfigures just considered, and it points toinfluence from the Near East. Recumbentanimals with heads at right anglesto their bodies and legs folded symmetricallyunder them occur in smallobjects of gold, electrum, ivory, andlimestone found at Ephesos, Sardis,and other sites where Greeks of thesixth century came in contact withLydian, Achaemenian, and perhapseven Scythian craftsmen or theirworks. Pieces as finely executed asthese rams make clear how significantlyEastern admixtures modifiedGreek artistic expression.Front: L. 59/16 in. (14 cm). Back: L. 5/8 in.(14.2 cm). Purchase, Rogers Fund andNorbert Schimmel Gift, 1976 (1976.11.2,3)18. Helmet, first third of the sixth centuryB.C.Body armor occupied a special place thanamong the various categories of metalwork,for the craftsman devoted all ofhis technical and aesthetic talents tothe protection and appearance of aperson. The helmet illustrated here isof the "Corinthian" type, which ischaracterized by a bell-like form, longnosepiece, and cheekpieces that leavelittle but the eyes exposed. While theshape is, of course, determined by thatof the human head, the graceful curveoutward at the nape of the neck andaround the lower part of the face suggeststhat the armorer exploited themalleability of the bronze for morepractical purposes. Every edge isfinished with incised lines and theupper curve of the eye is slightly thick-ened, a device seen previously on thegriffin protome (no. 9). Rising in lowrelief from the bridge of the nose aretwo snakes whose bodies double aseyebrows until they curve back intometiculously articulated heads withlarge eyes, razor-sharp teeth, and flickingtongues. Incised on the foreheadof the helmet is a lotos flower with asmall palmette to either side; similarpalmettes occur above the ogee cutinto each side of the helmet. Over andabove the technical skills needed tosatisfy the protective requirements, ahelmet like this one challenged acraftsman's artistic sensitivity, producingsuch fine effects as the juxtapositionof the lotos with the nosepiece orthe snakes with the line of the eyelid.The date of the work is furnished notonly by comparison with other Corinthianhelmets but also by details likethe palmettes and lotos; the latter suggestsa date about 600 to 570 B.C.Said to be from Olympia. H. 87/8 in.(22.6 cm). Dodge Fund, 1955 (55.11.10)31

.r.~/-?tZ~ ~i~~~~~-~!~ ~,~. ...J~~~~ ~/v~~o ~....?1~"k~~~.cm~~r~Ll~//r~,i~,~ ~. f~!~ !!~ll. ~.~!!,i!!!'~~l~-~',-

'?f.X?^^ w w v ..,'!"??v -sl}ls w??-r*Xtl19. Neck-amphora with bailhandle, last quarter of the sixthcentury B.C.Although this neck-amphora was aestheticmade almost a century later than thehelmet (no. 18), they are relatedthrough their method of manufacture.The bodies of both were hammered,challenging the artist in each case todraw the most functional and beautifulobject possible out of a basic deep,round-bottomed form. Each was thenappropriately embellished, the helmetas we have seen, and the amphora witha foot, lip, and side and bail handlesthat had been cast separately. Bronzevessels survive in far smaller numbersthan their ceramic counterpartsbecause fewer were made and becausethe metal deteriorated or was melteddown for reuse; the present shapeis found in less than halfa dozencomplete examples. Composed ofnumerous parts, this object gives animpression of organic growth, with theform and placement of every elementdetermined by specific functional andrequirements. The tonguepattern around the foot recurs at thelip, much as a fine wall has a dado atthe bottom and a cornice at the top.The two vertical handles, for pouring,and the swinging bail, for carrying andlifting, are integrated with the vessel insuch a way that they echo both thewidth of the shoulder and the heightofthe neck. The vertical handles, moreover,are decorated along the centerand each edge with beading, and theirlower attachment to the shoulderassumes the form of a gorgon's head,complete with two coiling snakesworked fully in the round. A ring at thetop of each handle secures the bail,which is provided with three beadedmoldings, terminals in the form of stylizedlotos buds, and another, crowningring for the rope to lower and raise thevase. The amphora is covered with alid that is attached to the bail handlewith a chain.Said to be from northern Greece.H. 211116 in. (55.1 cm). Rogers Fund, 1960(60.11.2 a,b)33

20. Hunter, first quarter of the fifthcentury B.C.At a glance, this bronze may give theimpression of a familiar subject trans-formed. It in fact offers an excellent foilto the Herakles (no. 14), displayinghow representation of the humanbody had developed in the course of ageneration, from the end of the sixthcentury into the fifth. Like Herakles,the figure strides out upon a narrowplinth, his left foot advanced, his leftarm outstretched, and clasping anobject (perhaps a bow)-of whichonly traces remain-in his left fist;his right arm is bent up, the handclenched, but evidently not pierced tohold a weapon. He wears a pointedcap, probably the felt pilos worn byhunters. The major difference betweenthis piece and the Herakles liesthein the stance. Here, the heel of theright foot projects beyond the base,right leg does not duplicate the leftbut turns outward, the torso inclinesforward as well as outward, while thehead more nearly follows the directionof the left foot. There is greater opennessin the disposition of the limbs,and a concomitant play of weightand torsion. A second significant differenceappears in the articulation ofthe body. While the muscles of hisarms, buttocks, and calves are prominent,the more elongated, softly modeledtorso and back complement theposture in conveying the effect of controlledand coordinated action. Thehunter has acquired grace without losingstrength. He has been attributed toa workshop in the Peloponnesos andmay well be a product of the sametradition as the Herakles.Said to be from Messenia. H. 52 in.(14 cm). Ex colls. Pozzi, Phelps Stokes.Bequest ofWalter C. Baker, 1971(1972.118.71)34

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21. Diskos thrower; about 480 to460 B.C.Athletes were a favorite subject in theearly fifth century because they offeredartists a perfect form through whichto study the human body in everyattitude, from strenuous exertion torepose. Progressive mastery of theworkings of the body brought with itgreater sensitivity to the rendering ofthe face, as this beautiful statuette demonstrates:the young man not only hasthe physique to hurl the diskos but hedoes so consciously. He is about tobegin the throw, to swing the diskosforward in his extended left hand, thenback over his head, transfer it to theright hand, and release it with the forceof the gathered momentum. Thushe stands with the diskos in his lefthand-his missing right arm was perhapsoutstretched slightly-his right,weight-bearing leg advanced, and hisleft leg free but possibly with the heelraised just off the ground. The positionof his limbs is carried into the torso,his left shoulder and hip being higherthan the right. The back view and profileshow his powerfully developedchest, shoulders, and buttocks, and apronounced hollow in the small of hisback. In the rendering of his head, theears are placed unnaturally high; thehair is unarticulated, suggesting that hewears a close-fitting cap, which is oftenrepresented in contemporary vasepaintings of athletes. Perhaps the mostsignificant feature of the bronze, not tosay innovation, lies in the eyes that aregiven focus and depth by the smallholes of the pupils and emphasis bythe prominent cheekbones; the eyesand particularly the mouth suggest thepotential of responsiveness. Amongthe works considered thus far, this isthe first in which the mind seems toplay a part in the action of the body.Said to come from the Peloponnesos.H. 9% in. (24.5 cm). Rogers Fund, 1907(07.286.87)

22. Mirror with a support in theform of a draped woman, midfifthcentury B.C.One of the achievements manifest inworks of the Classic period is the integrationof every component part into awhole. The diskos thrower (no. 21)reveals a recognition of individualcharacter and its incorporation intothe human form. In this mirror a diversityof elements have been composedinto a magnificent utensil and unifiedby the primacy and perfectly balancedcomposition of the figure. Upon abase supported by three lion's pawsstands a woman wearing a long straightgarment pinned at the shoulders anddraped to fall freely over the upperbody. On her extended right handperches a dove. Her hair is carefullyrolled up at the sides and back and isheld in place on the crown by a fillet ofsmall beads. Inserted into the very topof her head, and furnishing the transitionto the mirror disk, is a supportwith a palmette ornament. Dependingfrom it are two Erotes (whose wingsare modem restorations). Around itscircumference the disk has a band ofguilloche and a band of beading. Uponthe edge are two hounds, each pursuinga hare, two rosettes, and, at the verytop, a siren who repeats certain decorativeelements with her lion claws,supporting volutes, wings, and coiffurecorresponding to that of the caryatid.On the siren's back is a pair of verticallypierced loops, presumably for attachmentof a chain connected to a perfumevessel. This mirror and a closecounterpart in the Louvre are thenucleus of a group attributed to theregion of Argos.H. 16V8 in. (40.4 cm). Bequest of Walter C.Baker, 1971 (1972.118.78)

I23. Hydria, mid-fifth century B.C.Like the preceding mirror, this hydria,or water jar, was surely made in Argosand is its equal in the mastery of compositionand technique. The body isleft plain from its base to its widestpoint, at which the cast horizontalhandles are attached and a zone oftongues begins that extends over theshoulder to the base of the neck; theverticality of the tongues is repeated bythe ribbing on the cast foot. The gentle,almost cushionlike curve of theshoulder develops equally gracefullyinto the mouth of the vase and thecrowning bust of a woman. Shebelongs to the hydria's vertical handle,which is fastened to the mouth bythree rivets and to the body by anattachment ornamented with a palmette.The figure, much like her counterparton the mirror, wears a peplosand has her finely detailed hair rolledup over her neck. The rotelles to eitherside of her give a semblance of outstretchedhands; they have smallercounterparts in the rosettes flankingthe siren on the mirror disk.

Viewing the hydria as a whole, onebecomes aware of how the componentelements, all necessary and functional,have been combined. The playof the folds of the peplos against thefluting on the shoulder, the rosettesand palmettes used as compositionalpunctuation marks, and the surfacesleft plain to heighten the effect of thosedecorated-such features establishcohesiveness not only from top to bottombut also all around the vase. Oneof the purposes served by the hydria isgiven by an inscription on the top ofthe mouth: it was a prize awarded atgames for Hera at Argos (see p. 5).Whether it was specially ordered forthe purpose remains unknown. In anycase, the style and inscription indicatethat the piece was made and used inthe same region.Said to come from the Peloponnesos. H.204 in. (51.4 cm). Purchase, JosephPulitzer Bequest, 1926 (26.50)24. Athena flying her owl, about460 B.C.This peplos-clad goddess is Athena,patron of Athens. Compared to theseverity of the figures on the two precedingworks, her appearance is morerelaxed and appealing, qualities unexpectedin the representation of a deity.She is shown in a moment of ease, flyingher owl, much as the Greek heroesAchilles and Ajax are depicted onvases playing a board game at Troy.Athena wears her garment fastenedover both shoulders and belted ratherhigh. The position of her left handindicates that she held a spear, and shehas pushed up her Corinthian helmet,leaving her face and much of her hairexposed. The sense of relative informalityis further accentuated by theabsence of her aegis and shield. In herright hand she holds the owl, heranimal attribute, which seems aboutto fly offThe statuette is unusual in severalrespects. Her present surface may bepartly a modem application afterunduly harsh cleaning in the nineteenthcentury. The angle of the spearholdinghand is probably not the originalone, for in this position, the top ofthe shaft would pass behind her leftarm. The peplos, which is closed atone side rather than open and whichhas a small overfold as well as ratherlong "shirttails," is an uncommon variant.Nonetheless, in mid-fifth centuryrepresentations of the two peploswearingmaiden goddesses-Athenaand Artemis-there is a considerablerange in details of dress, so the presentscheme is not unique; nor is thechoice of a Corinthian rather than themore usual Attic helmet. Through theconnection with Lord Elgin, the statuettehas been associated with Athens,but its idiosyncracies may be easier tounderstand in a different artistic context,specifically that of southern Italyor Sicily. A bronze statuette in Naples(National Archaeological Museum) ofAthena with her owl presents the god-dess in a similarly "unofficial" guise.This comparison, together with stylisticaffinities to contemporary westernGreek art, offers a body of works towhich the Elgin Athena can be relatedquite readily.H. 57/8 in. (15 cm). Ex coll. Earl of Elgin.Harris Brisbane Dick Fund, 1950 (50.11.1)

25. Handle, fourth century B.C.The integration of a figure into a utensilcould involve more complex subjectsthan those on the mirror (no. 22)and the hydria (no. 23). This handle,which probably came from a largebowl that had two handles and a foot,displays attachments in the form ofNereids seated upon hippocampsand holding pieces of armor destinedfor Achilles. (Thetis, the mother ofAchilles, was the most famous of theNereids, or sea nymphs.) The hippocampsface outward; their tall necksand fish bodies applied to the handleprovide a frame within which the figuresare rather languidly disposed. TheNereid on the left steadies a roundshield against her mount's tail with herleft hand, while the one on the rightbalances a corselet upon her rightknee.Achilles' first set of armor was thewedding present of the gods to hisfather, Peleus; it was later given byAchilles to his friend Patroklos tobe used for the combat in whichPatroklos was killed by Hektor. Thesecond set, depicted here, was areplacement obtained by Thetis fromHephaistos in preparation for the finalconfrontation between Achilles andHektor. The motif of armor-bearingNereids mounted on sea creaturesbecame popular in the mid-fifth centuryand continued into the fourth,especially on the covers of bronze boxmirrors and in terracotta appliquesas well as on painted vases. Handleattachments showing a mythologicalepisode rather than a single figureoccurred also in the fourth century onbronze hydriai, although no hydriawith Nereids has yet come to light,probably because their horizontalshape was not appropriate below thevertical handle.L. 73/8 in. (18.7 cm). Classical PurchaseFund, 1978 (1978.11.18)41

26-w26. Centaur hurling a stone, secondhalf of the fifth century B.C.The centaur rears up to cast a stonetoward something before and belowhim. He would originally have stoodon his hind legs, with his tail, nowlost, providing additional stability. Hiscarefully modeled head shows abald crown, a furrowed brow, clearlydefined eyes, and a broad beard; considerableattention has also been paidto his hands and fingers. All of the centaur'senergies are behind his action.What might that be? Literary andarchaeological evidence informs usthat one of the subjects favored in thefifth century for major sculpturaland painted programs was the centauromachy,the battle between thecentaurs and Lapiths, a people ofThessaly, that broke out when the centaursbecame drunk at the wedding ofthe Lapith Perithous.As wild creatures of nature, centaursarmed themselves with weapons ofnature, usually boulders and trees.They overcame one of their adversaries,Kaineus, who was invulnerable toman-made arms, by thus poundinghim into the ground. This particularincident in the centauromachyrequires an outdoor setting, unlikethe outbreak of the conflict, whichoccurred indoors during the weddingfeast. By the inclusion of the boulder,the statuette can be associated with the"outdoor centauromachy." Moreover,because the figure's gesture and glancehave such a definite focus and becausethe Kaineus story was so current, it ispossible to interpret the bronze as avignette from the story, which wouldhave been immediately recognized.The sources of inspiration availableto a bronze worker in the latter partof the fifth century were numerous.Centauromachies, and specifically theKaineus episode, were depicted inGreek art from the seventh century on.It appeared in the famous wall painting,now lost, in the Theseion inAthens, probably datable to about 470B.C. The motif of an attacking centaurrecurs on the south metopes of theParthenon. Such great public worksinfluenced artists in other media, notablyvase painting. Whatever the specificsource may have been, the statuettereflects one of the major artistic concernsof the Classic period.H. 13/4 in. (4.4 cm). Bequest of Walter C.Baker, 1971 (1972.118.80)2742

27. Satyr, fourth century B.C.The satyr stands with the middle ofhis body frontal, his chest and headdirected toward his right, his left legbent at the knee and drawn backslightly. The subtle torsion is reinforcedby the position of the arms; theleft one appears behind him with thehand bent up, in much the same wayas the leg below kicks up. The satyr'spartially preserved right arm is raised.His head is precisely articulated withcarefully combed hair, beard, andmoustache, large eyes, pug nose, pursedmouth, and ears that stand out likeantennae. His pose may be simply thatof dancing or capering. If however,his right arm is interpreted as held sothat his hand shielded his eyes, herepresents the popular motif of anuncivilized creature gesturing toward amaenad or, alternatively, toward theapparition of Dionysos or anotherdeity.Small works like this one allowed forfreer expression and greater experimentationthan those on a larger scale;they can, therefore, be more difficultto date. The satyr may be placed inthe second half of the fourth century.What the figure retains of the fifth centuryand its traditions are the balanceof weight in the body and the renderingof the head. On the other hand,the anatomical detail in the rib cage,the tail that was evidently quite smalland set in the hollow of the back, theupraised head, and the agility of bothexpression and pose are features ofHellenistic art. During the fifth century,the satyr acquired unprecedented freedomof action as well as serious sculpturaltreatment, innovations that thisfigure reflects.H. 27/16 in. (6.2 cm). Rogers Fund, 1943(43.11.1)28. Box mirror with the head of awoman, second quarter of thefourth century B.C. or laterThe interdependence among differentartistic media and iconographicaltypes grows increasingly pronouncedfrom the fifth century on, until, duringthe Hellenistic period, the distinctionbetween motifs found on bronzes,jewelry, coinage, pottery, and terracottasbecomes fluid indeed. This mirroris decorated with a frontal face, animage that had a long and importanthistory in Greek art. The relief isworked in such a way that it rises graduallyfrom her neck to the top of herhead; when the mirror is held, the facegives the impression of always lookingright at the viewer. The indication ofthe pupils, the heavy eyelids, and thesharp line of the eyebrows intensifythe effect. The smooth full face is setwithin a mass of wiry radiating curls.Amidst the curls the lower part of eachear and the rosette earrings are shownfrontally as well.The frontal face occurred most commonlyin the gorgoneion, the head ofMedusa, that evolved from a fearsome,fanged monster into a seductivebeauty. The treatment of the woman'shair in this relief brings to mind hermythological counterpart. Althoughused in Archaic art for special emphasis,frontal faces began to be exploitedfor their decorative value only towardthe end of the fifth century. Thedevelopment is particularly evident oncoins, such as issues of Syracuse andother cities of Sicily, Amphipolis innorthern Greece, or the Island ofRhodes. By the late fourth century thefrontal face was common in all metalworkingarts and in pottery, where itimitated metal. The popularity offrontal heads may have to do with theiradaptability to a circular format. Cir-cular compositions are remarkably frequentin Greek art if one considers thedecoration of certain ceramic shapes,like cups and plates, as well as coinsand mirrors. The skill that was developedat composing subjects for roundsurfaces also facilitated the applicationfrom one medium to another.Found with no. 30, reputedly at Vonitsain Akamania. Diam. 6Y8 in. (15.5 cm).Rogers Fund, 1907 (07.256 a,b)43

29. Box mirror with the head ofPan, end of the fourth century B.C.The box mirror came into use towardthe end of the fifth century and eventuallysupplanted the caryatid type(see nos. 12, 22). The mirror consistsof a protective cover bearing a reliefthat was hammered separately andapplied. The head of Pan, with its "cutout"edges, clearly shows the procedure.The cover is lifted by the ringbelow the relief to reveal the mirror, acast-bronze disk with a highly polishedsurface; the reverse is generallydecorated, as it is here, with groupsof lathe-turned concentric circles inlow reliefThe head of Pan presents something44new in the expression that verges onpathos. A woodland creature like thesatyr, Pan has the legs of a goat, as wellas the goat's horns and ears visiblehere. He appears in three-quarter view,looking outward, his head inclined forward;his flowing curls are in disarray,his forehead slightly furrowed, eyebrowsraised, and full lips parted.Around his neck are tied the legs ofthe fawnskin he wears, which can beidentified by the two small hooves atthe ends of the knot. Where the Classicfigures conveyed a sense of orderand restraint in every aspect of theirappearance, this relief gains the fullestpossible expression of wistful emotionfrom the artist's use of detail. Whetherhe was influenced in his depiction by aspecific image we cannot know. Thecurls that fall to either side in front ofPan's horns, however, are a familiar featurein representations of Alexanderthe Great, suggesting that a passingreflection of the heroized ruler mayhave entered into the characterizationof this Pan.Diam. 63/4 in. (17.1 cm). Fletcher Fund,1925 (25.78.44 a-d)

30. Box mirror with floral ornamentsecond quarter of the fourthcentury or laterDuring the Classic and Hellenistic periodsartistic cross-fertilization occurrednot only in the depiction of figuralsubjects but also in nonfigural ones.The ornament of this mirror is a fineexample of the process, and it alsoserves as a reminder of the extraordinaryimportance of floral and geometricmotifs in Greek art, whether asprimary or subsidiary decoration. Theplant form that has been applied tothe mirror cover as a delicate cut-outrepresents a hybrid created in theimagination. At the bottom appearakanthos leaves, out of which a tendrilending in a fruit develops to eitherside. From the same point grows aflowerlike element; its domed centerdoubles as the heart of a palmette thatrises assertively upward. The configurationof the palmette is noteworthy,for instead of having tonguelike frondsthat curve outward (see nos. 22, 23), itsfronds are like claws and bend back onthemselves. The five disparate componentshave thus been combined into awhole that appears plausibly organic.By the mid-fourth century, motifs of abasically floral character consisting ofone element rising vertically into thenext occur frequently in the arts ofsouthern Italy, notably in vase painting.This particular type of palmette, however,is typical of mainland Greece, andis documented in architectural decorationfrom Corinth and other Peloponnesiansites; the present mirror andno. 28 probably came from a Corinthianworkshop. The ornament, therefore,bears witness to the activeexchange of ideas conveyed by craftsmenand their creations back and forthacross the Mediterranean.Found with no. 28, reputedly at Vonitsain Akarnania. Diam. 68s in. (15.5 cm).Rogers Fund, 1907 (07.257 a,b)

31. Dancing youth, end of the fourthcentury B.C.This beautiful bronze captures amoment when the full achievement ofClassic art begins to be used for therepresentation of a single, transitorystate. The youth is nude except for acrown that combines rather sharply triangularelements alternating with whatcould be either a fruit or a flower. Hispose no longer dictates a primary view,for his torso and legs assume a truecontrapposto and his downwardglance reinforced by the direction ofthe arms makes a rather tight spiral ofthe whole composition. There is perfectcongruence among all parts of thefigure, but the shifts in direction evidentfrom every angle maintain aneffect of instability and impermanence.The most specific clue to the identityof the youth lies in the crown. Itstriangular components prove difficultto interpret because their stiffnessraises the question of whether thecrown is made of plant life or metal.Floral or foliate wreaths were moreusual, and the myrtle, with its pointedleaves and flat petals, offers a commonGreek variety that may be recognized,in somewhat stylized form, on theyouth's head. Although less commonthan grapevine or ivy, myrtle was associatedwith the wine god, Dionysos,and it is as a follower of this god thatthe subject of the statuette may beidentified. Indeed, he might almosthave danced off the great bronze volute-kraterfrom Derveni (ArchaeologicalMuseum, Salonika) decoratedwith Dionysos and his followers; themaenads are comparable in theirposes, while Dionysos illustrates a similarlysoft, slim rendering of the body.The dreamy expressions combinedwith precisely rendered facial featurescontribute further to the conclusionthat in date, as well as in ethos, the figureson the krater have a kinsman inthe bronze youth.H. 77/8 in. (20.1 cm). Bequest of Walter C.Baker, 1971 (1972.118.94)

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32. Veiled and masked dancer, latethird to early second century B.C.The expressive possibilities of drapery,which Greek artists pursued mostextensively in the female figure,reached a high point in this statuette ofa dancing woman. Where in the precedingwork movement was conveyedentirely in terms of the nude body,here it is achieved exclusively throughthe interaction of a complex pose withseveral layers of dress. Over an undergarmentthat falls in deep folds andtrails heavily, the figure wears a lightweightmantle, drawn taut over herhead and body by the pressure appliedto it by her right arm, left hand, andright leg. Its substance is conveyed bythe alternation of sharp pleats and flat48surfaces as well as by their contrast toboth the tubular folds pushing throughfrom below and the freely curling softnessof the fringe. Her face is coveredby the sheerest of veils, discernible atits edge below her hairline and at thecutouts for the eyes. Her extendedright foot shows a laced slipper.Careful consideration of the poseand the handling of drapery clearlyreveals the artistic tradition out ofwhich the figure developed. The subject,however, departs radically fromwhat has been illustrated thus far, forthe body is completely covered exceptfor the fingers of the left hand. She evokesthe Orient and, indeed, has beenconvincingly identified as one of theprofessional entertainers-a combinationof mime and dancer-for whichAlexandria was famous in antiquity.Although the virtuosic conception,composition, and technical executionplace it in a special category, the figurerepresents as much of an innovation inGreek art as the deformed, the infirm,and realistically rendered genre subjectsthat Hellenistic Alexandria establishedin the iconographic repertoire.Said to be from Alexandria. H. 8V16 in.(20.5 cm). Bequest of Walter C. Baker,1971 (1972.118.95)

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33. Boy wearing a high tiara, third tosecond century B.C. or laterThe expansion of the Greek world farto the east brought with it exposure tonew religions and their iconographies;although some had been knownbefore, they began to take hold in thelate fourth century B.C. The traditionalGreek gods-the Olympians and theirrelations-became partly supplantedby and partly assimilated to foreigndeities, notably Egyptian ones, such asSarapis, Isis, and Harpokrates. TheOlympians' omnipotence was furtherchallenged by the unprecedented statusassumed by rulers like the Ptolemiesand Seleucids who succeeded tothe eastern dominions of Alexanderthe Great. The Hellenistic period, fur-thermore, saw a great flowering ofmystery cults, especially those atSamothrace and Eleusis. It is againstsuch a background that the figure ofthe boy with the high tiara must beconsidered.The boy's costume consists of shoes,trousers, and a long-sleeved "shirt:'which may belong to the same garmentas the trousers; on top he wearsa tunic belted above the waist and amantle fastened on the right shoulder.Suspended from a hook or ring at eachhip is a piece of cloth that hangs in adeep fold. On his head he has a tallheaddress, four-sided below and risingto a peak, which is decorated with twotiers of palmette ornament and providedwith a broad band that falls ontohis back. In his right hand he holds theend of what appears to be a handle (ofa sistrum?) or short staff The gesture ofhis left hand indicates that it also heldan object. This boy has a virtual twin(in the Walters Art Gallery, Baltimore)with whom he was reputedly found.Any identification of the Metropolitan'sfigure must take into considerationthat they were probably intendedas a pair. Who they are and what theyare doing is unknown. The dress, theactive gestures, and the dancelike positionof the feet suggest that they areparticipating in a ceremony, perhaps asattendants of a deity.Said to have been found east of the SuezCanal in 1912. H. 25Ys in. (63.8 cm). EdithPerry Chapman Fund, 1949 (49.11.3)

34. Sleeping Eros, third to secondcentury B.C.During the fifth century, when Eros,the god of love, first became popular(especially in vase painting), he wasportrayed as an attendant of Aphrodite,often in scenes showing the life ofwomen; his youth was implied by featuressuch as his small size and theabsence of a beard. The Hellenisticperiod introduced the accurate characterizationof age, and young childrenenjoyed great favor, whether inmythological form, as baby Herakles,Harpokrates, or Eros, or in genrescenes, playing with each other or withpets. This child, with his pudgy bodyand ingenuous pose, is clearly basedon firsthand observation. The situationchosen is novel as well. In Archaic andClassic art a figure like Alkyoneus orAriadne would have been shownsleeping when required by the story,and Sleep occurs occasionally as apersonification. The depiction ofsomeone asleep because of wearinessor drunkenness, for instance,became accepted with other transient,commonplace situations to whichHellenistic artists were turning theirattention. Equally remarkable in theEros is the manner of presentation.Although the stone on which he nowrests is a modern addition, numerousancient versions of the subject renderthe child and his support in the samematerial, bronze or marble as the casemay be. The way in which the presentwork was made shows that it had aseparate base, most likely of stone. Thefigure thus brings his setting with him,making an interesting contrast to thecentaur (no. 26), where an outdoorenvironment is implied by the action.Here, Eros has been brought down toearth and disarmed, a conception thathas changed considerably from that ofthe powerful, often cruel and capriciousbeing so often addressed inArchaic poetry.Said to come from Rhodes, L. of figure339/6 in. (85.2 cm). Rogers Fund, 1943(43.11.4)52

35. Young African, third to secondcentury B.C.Africans were known to the Greeksas early as Homer. In the Aithiopis oneof the prominent allies of the Trojans isMemnon, the son of Eos and Tithonosand king of the Ethiopians, who fallsin single combat with Achilles. Herodotos'sextensive account of Egypt,based partly on direct observation, discussesEthiopia as a separate country.What was probably the popular Greekimage of Africans appears in representationsof the myth of Herakles andBusiris, in which vase painters contrastedthe physical appearance of thehero and the captors preparing to sac-rifice him. At Naukratis, the settlementin the Delta established specifically forGreek traders at the very end of theseventh century B.C., these seafarersregularly encountered Egyptian andNorth African peoples as well as theirgoods. After Alexander the Great conqueredEgypt and founded Alexandriain 331 B.C., familiarity with the variouscultures was further increased.The statuette of a young Africanshows the careful observation and renderingthat reflects firsthand knowledge.He is naked except for thegarment he has wrapped around hiswaist so that it partly covers his buttocksbut leaves most of the front of hisbody bare. The garb is characteristic ofartisans, especially those working inthe heat of a foundry, forge, or brazier.The position of the arms and hands,moreover, suggests that he was liftingor carrying something heavy enoughto cause him to lean forward slightlyand rest his left foot on a low rise. Hisfacial features and hair are preciselydepicted with no inclination towardcaricature. Like the Eros (no. 34), this isa traditional subject brought to life byan artist's hand in the service of awider vision.H. 73?6 in. (18.3 cm). Rogers Fund, 1918(18.145.10), .. .. ~,.~.,::..

36. Drunken Herakles, third tosecond century B.C.This representation of Herakles couldnot be more different from the Archaicexample (no. 14). The hero's strength isduly emphasized by the exaggeratedmusculature of his neck, chest, shoulders,and thighs. The tight, orderedcurls of his hair and beard serve as areminder that here is a civilized man.The reminder is necessary in view ofhis pose: staggering backward onto hisleft leg, his bloated stomach thrust out,and his arms, which were originallyraised at his sides, barely keeping himin balance. In Archaic and Classic art,where he was one of the most favoredsubjects, Herakles performed hislabors and pursued his adventuresoften assisted by Athena, and almostalways, one feels, for good purpose.He was, however, human, whichoffered later artists such subjects asHerakles resting in his weariness, killinghis children in his madness, orrevealing the potential ugliness of hisbody and actions in his drunkenness.While one might be inclined to see anelement of tragedy in the juxtapositionof the hero's sober face and disorderedcondition, the latter is too greatlyexploited for its picturesqueness, notto say incongruity.Said to come from Smyrna. H. 6Vs in. 37. Hound gnawing a bone, third to(15.6 cm). Samuel P. Avery Memorial second century B.C.Fund, 1915 (15.57)This hound could be the companionof almost any of the preceding Hellenisticfigures. The analogy of the Cynicphilosopher Diogenes depicted withhis dog comes to mind. Nonetheless,the work is probably complete as itstands. Every effort has been made tobring out the angularity and elongationof the animal's body. The fine head,with a long nose and pointed ears,indicates a better than mongrel dog,yet the avidity with which it holds andbites into the bone suggests that thehound has fallen on hard times; itsmomentary contentment, however,may be deduced from the tail wrappedaround the right haunch. During theHellenistic period the trenchant realismexemplified here was also appliedto the animals that served as decorativeadjuncts on utilitarian objects. Theheads of dogs or wolves appear as terminalsof the handles of bronze ladlesand strainers; the heads of horses ormules occur at the top of the fulcra, orsupports, of the headrests of couches.The use on domestic objects of ani-mals often characterized as wild orfierce is particularly prevalent in thislate period.L. 3 in. (7.6 cm). Ex coll. PaulJacobsthal.Fletcher Fund, 1936 (36.11.12)

38-40. Three Dionysiac masks, firsthalf of the first century A.D.For all the change and innovation inHellenistic iconography, there was alsocontinuity. These three masks demonstratethe tendency to perpetuate,if not to revive, styles going back tothe Classic and to even the Archaicperiod, a tendency that gained impetusfrom the second century on as Greekartists were being called upon to caterto the tastes of their Roman conquerors.The masks belong to a group ofeight known examples. They wereoriginally used in pairs on oppositesides of bucket-shaped vessels calledsitulae to accommodate the carryinghandle; its ends would have passedthrough the rings that are preserved onnos. 38 and 39. The subject can beinterpreted as either Dionysos or asatyr, depending on whether one considersthe ear predominantly humanor equine; the latter form seems morepronounced on no. 38, and the humanform on no. 40.The existence of numerous versionssuggests that the source of inspirationlay in a model, now lost, that has beenattributed to an artist ofthe third centuryB.C. in Egypt, possibly Alexandria.The process of reduplication allowedvariation, as our examples illustrate.No. 39 is smaller than the other two,and the horizontal element below thering is decorated with running spirals,while no. 38 has a swastika meander.This mask also shows the finest executionof the beard, hair, and wreath,which is made of ivy leaves and berriesattached by long stems to a circlet. Theproduction of a decorative adjunct in"multiples" can be traced back to theArchaic period, with its predilectionfor griffins (see no. 9); so also can theuse of inlays for effects of color andrealism. The mask no. 38, however,conveys something of the brilliantdecoration achieved during the lateperiod; both the meander ornamentand the fillet have silver inlays, whilethe lips preserve some traces ofcopper.No. 38: Said to have been found in the seaoff Majorca. H. 12 in. (30.5 cm). Ex coll.Henrik G.T. Schlubach. Gift of Mrs.Gerald van der Kemp, 1958 (58.140). No.39: H. 10 in. (25.4 cm). Ex colls. Pourtales-Gorgier, Milani, de Nolivos, StroganoflHenry Walters. Bequest of Walter C.Baker, 1971 (1972.118.98). No. 40: H. aspreserved 89A6 in. (21.7 cm). Lent byNorbert Schimmel, L. 1985.238

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41. Artisan, late first century B.C.This statuette is remarkable for its synthesisof Hellenistic immediacy andClassic composure. The figure can beidentified as an artisan by his dress. Hewears an exomis, a short tunic knottedover one shoulder, leaving the otherbare and both arms free for maximummovement. The artisan's belt, tied infront, also serves to hold a pair of waxtablets-the equivalent of a note pad-on which he would have writtenwith a pointed stylus. The man's squatproportions and muscular legs are inaccord with his dress; unexpected inthe work, however, are the dignity andpensiveness of the face. The individualityof the head, with its short curls,balding pate, pronounced cheek-bones, and faintly curling lip, stronglysuggests that this may be a portrait, andproposals for the identification of thesubject have ranged from the mythicalcraftsman Daidalos to philosopherslike Chrysippos. It is instructive tocompare the characterization of theartisan with that of the drunken Herakles(no. 36). Both bronzes show a pronouncedcontrast between the headand body; predominant in the artisan,however, is a sense of introspectionconveyed by the position of the headand left arm as well as by the facialexpression.Said to come from North Africa, possiblyCherchel. H. 1651S6 in. (40.3 cm). Ex coll.Balsan. Rogers Fund, 1972 (1972.11.1)

42. Horse, first century B.C. to first centuryA.D.Because of the many crosscurrents andthe variations of technique existing inthe period when Greek styles werebeing assimilated to Roman needs,there are certain works of art whosedate and artistic affinities prove difficultto understand today. Such a pieceis the bronze horse, which in the lasttwenty-five years has occasioned muchdebate as to its authenticity and identity.The problem is compounded bythe subject, for the representation ofanimals in Greek bronze sculptureevolved far less than that of humanfigures. The absence of significantevidence for modem manufacture,however, and the presence of featuresin no way at variance with ancientworks increase the need to seek aplace for it.One of the horse's most immediatelystriking properties is its size: it is neithera statuette in the literal sense nor astatue. While exceptions have alwaysexisted, the more frequent occurrenceof large-scale statuettes is a Hellenisticdevelopment, as we have seen in theboy wearing a tiara (no. 33), the Eros(no. 34), and the artisan (no. 41). Thatthe position of the horse's legs doesnot reproduce the animal's movementin real life recalls the Archaic example(no. 16) and, indeed, introduces theuseful consideration that the artist ofthis late work was probably not proceedingfrom firsthand observationbut from an idea or another work ofart. The remoteness from a live modelis most apparent in the rigidity of themane and forelock as well as in thehorse's head, with its excessivelystraight lines from forehead to noseand from cheek to lower jaw, the flatnessof the face, and the hardness ofthe eye. There is no sense of an organicwhole nor of any single quality thatmight animate the whole-the horse'sspeed or its fieriness or the beauty inthe contrasts of mane and muscle. Thisadoption of form without suggestionof the forces motivating it recurs in thearchaizing styles of the late Hellenisticperiod and may account for the horse'slifelessness, a quality foreign toGreek art.H. 1513A/6 in. (40.2 cm). Fletcher Fund,1923 (23.69)

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43. Hermes, first century B.C. to firstcentury A.D.Hermes, the messenger of the gods,stands in a relaxed pose, wearing hiswinged sandals and a short cloak fastenedover his right shoulder andwrapped around his left arm; his rightarm was probably originally extendedbefore him in a gesture as suited tosomeone listening as speaking. Thereis nothing assertive about him. Thedisproportionately small head has aboyish face; the lips are parted and theeyes appear vaguely focused. The bodyis all softness, with as much flesh asmuscle on the torso and just enoughbone and sinew in the legs to carry theframe. He could be the Eros (no. 34) inyoung manhood; but he evokes evenmore the young Saint Georges andDavids of the Renaissance. Hermes,the cattle rustler, the inventor of thelyre, the guide of souls across the riverStyx, the manly god of boundaries,now stands gracefully rather than movingpurposefully. The evolution thathas occurred in the Greek mastery ofthe human figure, in the progressiveintegration of structure, flesh, andcharacter has here run its course, leaving,in a work like this, an exquisite butrather empty shell. The forms inventedand endlessly refined by Greek artistsin the course of roughly a thousandyears were not lost, however, thanks tomajor monuments that remained visiblefor centuries as well as to readilyportable objects like bronze statuettes,coins, and gems. Exposure to theseobjects, from late antiquity on, hascontinued to challenge the imaginationand skills of creative artists, so thatevery survival from the past is, in effect,a messenger of the gods.H. 1178 in. (29.1 cm). Rogers Fund, 1971(1971.11.11)