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Citation: ICRISAT (International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics), 1989. Collaborationon Genetic Resources: summary proceedings of a Joint ICRISAT/NBPGR(ICAR) Workshop onGermplasm Exploration and Evaluation in India, 14-15 Nov 1988, ICRISAT Center, India. Patancheru,A.P. 502 324, India: ICRISAT.The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics is a nonprofit, scientific, research andtraining institute receiving support from donors through the Consultative Group on International AgriculturalResearch. Donors to I C R I S A T include governments and agencies of Australia, Belgium, Canada,Federal Republic of Germany, Finland, France, India. Italy, Japan, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden,Switzerland, United Kingdom, United States of America, and the following international and privateorganizations: Asian Development Bank, Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ),International Development Research Centre, International Fund for Agricultural Development, TheEuropean Economic Community, The Opec Fund for International Development, The World Bank, andUnited Nations Development Programme. Information and conclusions in this publication do not necessarilyreflect the position of the aforementioned governments, agencies, and international and privateorganizations.The opinions in this publication are those of the authors and not necessarily those of ICRISAT. Thedesignations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expressionof any opinion whatsoever on the part of ICRISAT concerning the legal status of any country, territory,city, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Where tradenames are used this does not constitute endorsement of or discrimination against any product by theInstitute.

Collaboration on Genetic ResourcesSummary Proceedings of a Workshop onGermplasm Exploration and Evaluationin India, 14-15 November 1988.ICRISAT Center, IndiaCosponsored byNational Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR)of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)International Crops Research Institutefor the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT)ICRISATInternational Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid TropicsPatancheru, Andhra Pradesh 502 324. India1989

Purpose and Objectives of the WorkshopI n d i a is r i c h in p l a n t genetic resources. It is the p r i m a r y center of o r i g i n f o r pigeonpeaa n d a secondary or tertiary center of diversity f o r all other I C R I S A T mandate crops.T h e Genetic Resources U n i t ( G R U ) o f I C R I S A T a n d the N a t i o n a l B u r e a u o f P l a n tGenetic Resources ( N B P G R ) o f I C A R are c o l l a b o r a t i n g successfully i n collection i np r i o r i t y areas a n d in m u l t i l o c a t i o n a l e v a l u a t i o n of g e r m p l a s m . These concerted effortsensure the conservation of the invaluable diversity of o u r g e r m p l a s m f o r present a n df u t u r e u t i l i z a t i o n in c r o p i m p r o v e m e n t . So far, 11 expeditions have been launchedw h i c h helped us acquire 2202 samples of I C R I S A T crops. Several thousand accessionswere also evaluated j o i n t l y . T h e collection p r o g r a m has helped increase then u m b e r a n d diversity o f g e r m p l a s m i n the w o r l d collections m a i n t a i n e d a t I C R I S A T .By b r i n g i n g together scientists w h o have actively participated in g e r m p l a s m collecti o n , e v a l u a t i o n , a n d u t i l i z a t i o n , this w o r k s h o p aims to:- review the progress made so far,- p r o m o t e f u r t h e r c o l l a b o r a t i o n ,- determine the use and i m p a c t of g e r m p l a s m in n a t i o n a lc r o p i m p r o v e m e n t p r o g r a m s , a n d- study a n d r e c o m m e n d f u t u r e activities.Organizing CommitteeM . H . MengeshaR . K . A r o r aK . E . Prasada R a oR.P.S. P u n d i rV . R a m a n a t h a R a oS . A p p a R a oT . R . K . SatyanarayanaScientific EditorS . A p p a R a oProceedings EditorUsha R a m a nWorkshop SecretariatS.G. JaiswalG . S h o b h aB . A s h o k K u m a rISBN 92-9066.170-4i i

ContentsSession I: InaugurationWelcome Address M . G o o n 3Inaugural Address J . M . J . de W e t 5Keynote Address: Collaborative Effortson Plant Genetic Resources by I C R I S A Tand I C A R R.S. Paroda 7Session I I : World Germplasm Collections, Status Reports and PotentialsStatus of the w o r l d collectionK . E . Prasada Rao andof s o r g h u m germplasm at I C R I S A T V. G o p a l Reddy 13Status of the w o r l d collectionK . E . Prasada Rao andof m i n o r millets germplasm at I C R I S A T V. G o p a l Reddy 17Status of the w o r l d collectionS. A p p a Rao,of pearl millet germplasm atC. Rajagopal Reddy, andI C R I S A T Y . Saideswara R a o 2 1Status of the w o r l d collectionR.P.S. P u n d i r ando f chickpea germplasm a t I C R I S A T K . N . Reddy 2 7Status of the w o r l d collectionof pigeonpea germplasm at I C R I S A TR.P.S. Pundir,P. Remanandan, andD . V . S . S . R . Sastry 31Status of the w o r l d collectionV. Ramanatha Rao ando f g r o u n d n u t germplasm a t I C R I S A T A . K . Sadasivan 3 5W o r l d germplasm collections andB.R. M u r t y andtheir potential i n crop p r o d u c t i v i t y M . H . Mengesha 4 1I B P G R ' s objectives and plano f w o r k i n south and southeast Asia J . M . M . Engels 4 7Session I I I : Germplasm Exploration and Collection, Evaluation,Documentation, Exchange, Quarantine, and ConservationI C R I S A T / N B P G R collaborative R . K . A r o r a ,e x p l o r a t i o n p r o g r a mS. A p p a Rao, andM . N . K o p p a r 5 3I C R I S A T / N B P G R j o i n t evaluation T . A . T h o m a s ,o f germplasm i n I n d i aK . E . Prasada Rao, andR.P.S. P u n d i r 59Conservation o f w o r l d germplasmM . H . Mengesha,collection o f I C R I S A T mandate P.P. K h a n n a ,cropsK . P . S . Chandel, andN . Kameswara R a o 6 5i i i

C o m p u t e r i z e d d o c u m e n t a t i o n a n dretrieval systems f o r geneticresources w o r k at I C R I S A T —present a n d f u t u r eG e r m p l a s m exchange a n dq u a r a n t i n e i n I n d i aB i o t e c h n o l o g y i n conservationof plant genetic resources(a b a c k g r o u n d paper)J . W . Estes a n dV . R a m a n a t h a R a oN . C . J o s h i ,B.P. S i n g h ,R a m N a t h , a n dK.S. VaraprasadV . L . C h o p r a andS.B. N a r a s i m h u l u717579Session I V : Use and Impact of Germplasm in Crop Improvement in IndiaUse of sorghum germplasm andits impact on crop i m p r o v e m e n ti n I n d i aUse of pearl millet germplasm and itsimpact o n crop i m p r o v e m e n t i n I n d i aUse of g r o u n d n u t germplasmand its impact on cropi m p r o v e m e n t i n I n d i aUse of m i n o r (small) milletsgermplasm and its impact oncrop i m p r o v e m e n t i n I n d i aUse of chickpea and pigeonpeagermplasm and their impact oncrop i m p r o v e m e n t i n I n d i aR . V . V i d y a b h u s h a n a m ,B.S. Rana, andB e l u m V.S. ReddyG. Harinarayana andK . N . RaiP.S. Reddy,N . R . Bhagat, andL . J . ReddyA . Seetharam andK . E . Prasada R a oS. L a l ,A . N . Asthana, andC . L . L . G o w d a85899397101Highlights of DiscussionsRecommendationsAcronyms and AbbreviationsParticipants105109112115iv

Session I:Inauguration

Welcome AddressM . GoonActing Director General, I C R I S A T , Patancheru, Andhra PradeshIt is my rare pleasure to welcome a l l of y o u to I C R I S A T Center as w e l l as to theI C R I S A T / N B P G R ( I C A R ) w o r k s h o p o n Collaborative G e r m p l a s m E x p l o r a t i o nand E v a l u a t i o n in I n d i a . I am particularly pleased to see Dr R.S. Paroda, D e p u t yD i r e c t o r General, C r o p Sciences, I C A R w h o w i l l be offering the keynote address atthe W o r k s h o p . As f o r m e r director of the N a t i o n a l Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources( N B P G R ) and as the present D e p u t y D i r e c t o r General of C r o p Sciences, he iscertainly the right choice to offer the keynote address. I am equally happy to seeseveral distinguished scientists and collaborators.As I glance t h r o u g h the p r o g r a m , I see that it covers a l l the major activities of geneticresources and I sincerely hope that y o u w i l l be able to achieve the stated objectives.W i t h such a genuine collaborative effort, it should not be t o o d i f f i c u l t to achieve y o u rgoals.A s y o u a l l k n o w , I C R I S A T places m u c h importance o n the collection, conservati o n , evaluation, and u t i l i z a t i o n of the germplasm of its mandate crops. T h a t is w h ythe G o v e r n i n g B o a r d of I C R I S A T has recognized the role of I C R I S A T as a " w o r l drepository f o r the genetic resources of these crops". These activities are carried o u t inclose c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h the I B P G R a n d national programs like N B P G R . I t i stherefore appropriate to express o u r heartfelt appreciation to these and several otherinternational, regional, and n a t i o n a l organizations that cooperate and assist us toachieve o u r present a n d future goals.The 10-year P l a n of I C R I S A T states that the international centers are in a uniquep o s i t i o n not o n l y to enrich their o w n programs b u t also to make invaluable geneticmaterial available to scientists a l l over the w o r l d . To meet this objective, I C R I S A Testablished the Genetic Resources P r o g r a m in January 1979. The U n i t has maderemarkable progress in the collection, evaluation, d o c u m e n t a t i o n , a n d conservationo f the vanishing germplasm o f I C R I S A T mandate crops. The ultimate purpose o fsuch activities is to i m p r o v e the q u a n t i t y and q u a l i t y of crops that farmers g r o w inS A T . T h a t is where y o u r united and dedicated efforts should continue. In this regard,the support and cooperation of N B P G R and other organizations a n d universities inI n d i a is h i g h l y appreciated. Therefore, not o n l y do I w i s h to welcome y o u to thisw o r k s h o p , I also wish y o u a comfortable, successful, and f r u i t f u l stay here at I C R I -S A T Center.I C R I S A T (International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics), 1989. Collaboration onGenetic Resources: summary proceedings of a Joint I C R I S A T / N B P G R ( I C A R ) Workshop on GermplasmExploration and Evaluation in India, 14-15 Nov 1988, I C R I S A T Center, India. Patancheru, A.P. 502 324,India: I C R I S A T .3

f o r the development of local landraces genetically distinct f r o m those in their nativeA f r i c a .I n t r o d u c e d crops such as maize and g r o u n d n u t , w h i c h entered I n d i a d u r i n g the 16thcentury, preserve genetic v a r i a t i o n in local landraces that have become largely lost intheir native N e w W o r l d .The major cereals and legumes g r o w n under rainfed agriculture in I n d i a - s o r g h u m ,pearl m i l l e t , pigeonpea, chickpea, and g r o u n d n u t - a r e the crops that I C R I S A T has amandate to i m p r o v e f o r c u l t i v a t i o n across the semi-arid tropics of the w o r l d . Ina d d i t i o n , o u r Genetic Resources U n i t is responsible f o r the collection and conservati o n o f six m i n o r millets, a l l o f w h i c h are i m p o r t a n t crops i n I n d i a .The value of genetic resources, and the need f o r their conservation is well recognizedby scientists as well as politicians. Factors not a l w a y s f u l l y understood are:• w h a t needs to be collected,• w h a t is available in existing collections,• where to collect material needed to complete gaps in existing collections, and• h o w available genetic resources can best be utilized in c r o p i m p r o v e m e n t programs.Use of available genetic resources in c r o p i m p r o v e m e n t is the most neglected part ofgermplasm conservation. G e r m p l a s m resources are not going to be used if the i n f o r -m a t i o n needed by breeders cannot be supplied by germplasm banks. G e r m p l a s mcollections need to be classified and useful traits identified, to facilitate their use inc r o p i m p r o v e m e n t programs. Collections need to be studied, and this demandscooperation of germplasm botanists w i t h pathologists, entomologists, physiologists,breeders, a n d molecular biologists. Genetic resources banks cannot f u n c t i o n as isolatedresearch units. If divorced f r o m crop i m p r o v e m e n t programs, genetic resourcesbecome a dead asset.I am pleased to note that there is c o n t i n u i n g interaction and cooperation betweengermplasm scientists and crop i m p r o v e m e n t scientists in I C R I S A T in the areas ofgermplasm evaluation and screening. However, more collaborative effort is needed inthe classification, identification, and p r o m o t i o n of useful traits f o r use in c r o pi m p r o v e m e n t .I suggest that y o u r discussions address strategic issues of conservation, use, andcooperation.It is a pleasure f o r me to inaugurate this w o r k s h o p . I wish y o u successful a n d f r u i t f u ldeliberations.6

Keynote Address:Collaborative Efforts on Plant Genetic Resourcesby I C R I S A T and I C A RR.S. ParodaDeputy Director General (Crop Sciences), I C A R , Krishi Bhavan, New DelhiSuccess in plant breeding depends largely on the extent of genetic v a r i a b i l i t y availableto a breeder. Therefore collection, evaluation, u t i l i z a t i o n , and conservation of geneticresources assume considerable significance, especially in view of the r a p i d e n v i r o n -mental degradation and e x p l o i t a t i o n of the available genetic wealth a l l over the w o r l d .Considerable efforts are being made w o r l d w i d e to conserve the genetic resources ofi m p o r t a n t crop plants. The role played by the C G I A R system in this regard is indeedcommendable. E n o r m o u s genetic wealth has been collected and preserved in the genebanks of I n t e r n a t i o n a l A g r i c u l t u r a l Research Centers ( I A R C ) and is available todayfor use in the national programs. The success of these efforts is largely dependent onthe effectiveness of linkages between l A R C s and the national programs.I n d i a is one of the eight i m p o r t a n t gene centres of the w o r l d . Considerable v a r i a b i l -i t y exists f o r a large n u m b e r of crops i n c l u d i n g the five mandate crops of I C R I S A Ti.e., sorghum, pearl millet, chickpea, pigeonpea, and g r o u n d n u t . M o r e t h a n 96000accessions of these crops have been collected and conserved by I C R I S A T , most ofw h i c h are evaluated but yet to be utilized f o r crop i m p r o v e m e n t programs a l l overI n d i a . A l s o , gaps f o r collecting a d d i t i o n a l v a r i a b i l i t y must be identified a n d explored.A systematic effort f o r j o i n t collection, evaluation, and u t i l i z a t i o n of the germplasmwas therefore considered necessary b y b o t h I C R I S A T a n d N B P G R / I C A R . W i t h thisi n view, the first j o i n t N B P G R ( I C A R ) / I C R I S A T committee meeting o n geneticresources was held d u r i n g 19/20 Dec 1985 under the chairmanship of Dr J.S. K a n w a r ,D i r e c t o r of Research, I C R I S A T . It was considered desirable to accelerate j o i n t effortsin germplasm collection, evaluation, and cataloguing of genetic resources and toexchange i n f o r m a t i o n and material f o r m u t u a l benefit. A c c o r d i n g l y , a 5-year collaborativep r o g r a m on j o i n t e x p l o r a t i o n , collection, a n d evaluation activities wasfinalized. P r i o r i t y areas f o r e x p l o r a t i o n were identified and modalities f o r operating/p l a n n i n g survey programs w o r k e d out.A strategy was evolved f o r systematic m u l t i l o c a t i o n a l evaluation at some selectedlocations representing different agroclimatic conditions i n v o l v i n g the regional stationso f b o t h N B P G R and I C R I S A T . T r a i n i n g needs o f scientists and technicianswere identified and areas of cooperation relating to quarantine activities were defined.The p h i l o s o p h y behind this effort was to evolve a system of effective linkages and toI C R I S A T (International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics), 1989. Collaboration onGenetic Resources: summary proceedings of a Joint I C R I S A T / N B P G R ( I C A R ) Workshop on GermplasmExploration and Evaluation in India, 14-15 Nov 1988, I C R I S A T Center, India. Patancheru, A.P. 502 324,India: I C R I S A T .7

u i l d a partnership to share expertise as well as genetic wealth to achieve national andinternational benefits.A b r i e f account of some of the achievements made in this d i r e c t i o n since 1986 isgiven here. Suggestions have also been made to strengthen this c o l l a b o r a t i o n .E x p l o r a t i o n , I n t r o d u c t i o n , a n d E v a l u a t i o n ActivitiesThirteen explorations d u r i n g 1986-88 resulted in 2000 accessions of sorghum, pearlmillet, chickpea, pigeonpea, g r o u n d n u t , and m i n o r millets w i t h emphasis on nativev a r i a b i l i t y and w i l d species f r o m t r i b a l pockets and agroclimatic zones in the northeastpeninsular region, northwestern and n o r t h e r n plains, and the northwestern H i m a -layas. In a d d i t i o n , t h r o u g h exchange activities, over 3000 accessions have beenintroduced: 1130 accessions o f pearl m i l l e t f r o m C a m e r o o n , M a l i , Sudan, U K , U S S R ,Venezuela; 1246 accessions of s o r g h u m i n c l u d i n g w i l d species f r o m A u s t r a l i a , I t a l y ,Kenya, Nigeria, Philippines, Somalia, S r i L a n k a , Sudan, Tanzania, T u r k e y , Uganda,U S A , U S S R , Z i m b a b w e ; 382 accessions o f g r o u n d n u t f r o m C a m e r o o n , Kenya,M a l a w i , M a l i , Republic o f K o r e a , Tanzania, U S A ; 210 accessions o f chickpea f r o mAustralia, I r a n , M o r o c c o , Pakistan, Syria, Tanzania, U S S R ; and 112 accessions ofpigeonpea, m a i n l y f r o m Kenya, M a l a w i , Tanzania, U S A , and Z a m b i a . A p a r t f r o mthese, a considerable a m o u n t of material was introduced in the case of m i n o r millets:f o x t a i l millet f r o m Korea and U S S R , finger millet and related species (E. indica, E.kigazensis) f r o m Tanzania, U K , and U S S R .J o i n t evaluations were carried out at different N B P G R Regional Stations andA g r i c u l t u r a l Universities. The photoperiod-sensitive s o r g h u m germplasm (2000accessions) f r o m I C R I S A T were tested a t t w o locations- Hisar ( H A U ) and N B P G RRegional Station, T r i c h u r . In forage sorghum, 1500 collections were evaluated at f o u rlocations-Issapur ( N B P G R ) , Hisar ( H A U ) , Jhansi ( I G F R I ) , and A k o l a ( N B P G R ) i n1986 and selected accessions again g r o w n in 1987. A n u m b e r of disease-resistant lineshave been identified. D u r i n g 1987, 4460 germplasm accessions c o m p r i s i n g 4105 ofI n d i a n o r i g i n , 178 f r o m Y e m e n A r a b Republic, and 187 dual-purpose types wereg r o w n at Issapur. P r o m i s i n g forage types have been identified.S i m i l a r l y , 2000 pearl m i l l e t accessions were evaluated at Pune ( A I C P M I P ) andJ o d h p u r ( N B P G R ) . P r o m i s i n g genotypes have been identified for fodder a n d g r a i ntypes. Of the 1996 accessions g r o w n at Issapur d u r i n g 1987, a n u m b e r of fodder, grain,and early m a t u r i t y types have been identified. In pigeonpea, extra-early and earlytypes (479) were evaluated at Issapur, and m e d i u m - and late-maturity compact andspreading types (353) at A k o l a in 1986. Some selected material was g r o w n d u r i n g 1987and early types have been identified. Besides, 200 perennial pigeonpea types wereg r o w n at Jorhat. In chickpea, 1200 accessions were evaluated at A k o l a a n d Issapur.P r o m i s i n g early m a t u r i n g a n d bold-seeded types have been identified. In g r o u n d n u t ,2000 accessions were g r o w n at J o d h p u r in 1986. A n o t h e r 1500 were g r o w n in 1987 atA k o l a and J o d h p u r , c o m p r i s i n g 723 erect bunch types, 391 spreading b u n c h types,and 386 runner b u n c h types. P r o m i s i n g high-yielding early types have been identified.Selected materials have been g r o w n in m u l t i l o c a t i o n a l trials at 3 or 4 locations a n d thedata is being c o m p i l e d .8

Conservation i n the N a t i o n a l Gene B a n kT h o u g h more t h a n 25 000 accessions of several millets and legumes are stored in theN B P G R gene bank, about 8000 accessions are I C R I S A T mandate crops. Theseinclude sorghum (412), pearl millet (125), pigeonpea (2054), chickpea (3101), andg r o u n d n u t (3000).I need n o t emphasize the necessity to continue efforts to achieve o u r c o m m o nobjectives. T h e Bureau has been given the g l o b a l / regional responsibility by I B P G R toh o l d the base collections of a large number of crops i n c l u d i n g pigeonpea and otherAsiatic pulse crops. The gene bank facilities are being expanded, w i t h more c o l d -storage modules being made operative soon. S h o r t l y N B P G R w i l l have the capacity t ostore more than 200000 seed samples. Further, under the U S A I D Project on geneticresources, the infrastructural facilities for research and conservation are likely to bestrengthened tremendously. O b v i o u s l y therefore, the scope of our collaborative a c t i v i -ties w i l l increase.Q u a r a n t i n e ActivitiesA s per the m e m o r a n d u m o f understanding between I C A R and I C R I S A T , theN B P G R (then the D i v i s i o n o f Plant I n t r o d u c t i o n o f I A R I ) has the responsibility f o rplant quarantine. As N B P G R d i d not have a station at Hyderabad, this responsibilitywas i n i t i a l l y discharged by the Central Plant Protection T r a i n i n g Institute ( C P P T I ) .The Plant Quarantine Regional Station at Hyderabad became operational in 1986 a n dstarted processing germplasm material being exchanged by I C R I S A T f o r quarantineclearance. D u r i n g 1986 and 1987, this station processed a t o t a l of 98 181 germplasmsamples w h i c h include 72327 meant f o r e x p o r t and 25 854 accessions i m p o r t e d byI C R I S A T f r o m various countries.The i m p o r t e d material of a l l the mandate crops after l a b o r a t o r y e x a m i n a t i o n a n dtreatment is g r o w n in the post-entry quarantine isolation area ( P E Q I A) and j o i n t l yinspected b y the staff o f N B P G R and I C R I S A T . G r o u n d n u t material i s g r o w n i ninsect-proof nethouses for detection of seed-borne viruses a n d o n l y healthy seedlingsare planted i n P E Q I A . E L I S A facilities o f the V i r o l o g y L a b o r a t o r y o f I C R I S A T a r ebeing used f o r the detection of seed-borne g r o u n d n u t viruses. A j o i n t survey byI C R I S A T and N B P G R scientists has resulted in the detection of the peanut stripevirus disease in g r o u n d n u t in I n d i a and efforts are being made to eradicate/check thisserious disease.T r a i n i n g NeedsW i t h the cooperation o f the Genetic Resources U n i t ( G R U ) , I C R I S A T , the Bureauhas considerably benefitted by h a v i n g its technical staff trained in the operationalh a n d l i n g of gene bank equipment/ instruments. M o r e o v e r , senior scientists havevisited the G R U and further enriched their experience. This aspect, however, needs tobe accelerated f o r i n f o r m a t i o n a n d data management, d o c u m e n t a t i o n , reprographic,computerisation, cataloguing facilities, etc.9

F u t u r e C o l l a b o r a t i o nIt is evident f r o m the d e s c r i p t i o n given above t h a t collaborative efforts betweenI C R I S A T a n d I C A R / N B P G R w i l l help t o strengthen the genetic resources o f the f i v em a n d a t e crops. J o i n t e v a l u a t i o n w i l l enable the n a t i o n a l p r o g r a m s to utilize desirablegenetic v a r i a b i l i t y f o r c r o p i m p r o v e m e n t p r o g r a m s . C o n s e r v a t i o n a n d possible storageof useful genetic v a r i a b i l i t y in the n a t i o n a l gene b a n k w o u l d also be useful f o ri m m e d i a t e gains as w e l l as f o r posterity. W h a t is required n o w is to b r i n g o u t catalogsbased on j o i n t e v a l u a t i o n a t different locations a n d to disseminate this i n f o r m a t i o n t oconcerned scientists in the n a t i o n a l system. J o i n t e x p l o r a t i o n s s h o u l d be planned toexplore untapped areas n o t o n l y w i t h i n I n d i a b u t also i n other countries h a v i n g r i c hv a r i a b i l i t y f o r the f i v e I C R I S A T m a n d a t e crops. B o t h I C R I S A T a n d N B P G R c o u l d ,i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h I B P G R , play a leading role i n i m p a r t i n g t r a i n i n g i n geneticresources to scientists in the d e v e l o p i n g w o r l d . T h i s c o u l d be designed as a regularfeature. J o i n t research p u b l i c a t i o n s based on collaborative efforts between the t w oorganizations w o u l d be desirable. It w i l l also be necessary to establish c r o p advisorycommittees f o r genetic resources to give p r o p e r direction to such efforts f r o m t i m e totime. I n v o l v e m e n t o f the A l l I n d i a C o o r d i n a t e d n e t w o r k f o r c r o p i m p r o v e m e n t f o rm u l t i l o c a t i o n a l e v a l u a t i o n a n d u t i l i z a t i o n w i l l b e another i m p o r t a n t area w o r t he x p l o r i n g .E f f o r t s made s o f a r i n j o i n t c o l l e c t i o n , e v a l u a t i o n , a n d conservation o f geneticresources by I C R I S A T a n d N B P G R are indeed quite encouraging and c o u l d serve as am o d e l f o r strengthening these activities i n v o l v i n g a larger n e t w o r k of different c o u n -tries, m a k i n g use of the genetic w e a l t h as well as expertise available at I C R I S A T .O b v i o u s l y , to achieve this objective, we expect I C R I S A T to play the role of catalyst.10

Session I I : World Germplasm Collections:Status Reports and Potentials

Status of the World Collection of Sorghum Germplasmat ICRISATK.E. Prasada Rao and V. Gopal ReddySenior Botanist, and Research Associate, Genetic Resources Unit, I C R I S A T , Patancheru, Andhra PradeshOf the 16 138 s o r g h u m accessions assembled by the Rockefeller F o u n d a t i o n in theI n d i a n A g r i c u l t u r a l Research Institute in the 1960s, o n l y 8961 c o u l d be transferred toI C R I S A T i n 1974 b y the A l l I n d i a C o o r d i n a t e d S o r g h u m I m p r o v e m e n t Project( A I C S I P ) , Rajendranagar, I n d i a . By that time the remaining 7177 had lost theirv i a b i l i t y due t o lack o f proper storage. Special efforts were made by I C R I S A T t o f i l lthe gaps by o b t a i n i n g duplicate sets f r o m Purdue University, U S A , the N a t i o n a l SeedStorage L a b o r a t o r y ( N S S L ) , F o r t Collins, U S A , and f r o m Mayaguez, Puerto R i c o .This yielded about 3000 of the missing accessions but left a permanent gap of about4000 accessions in the w o r l d collection presently conserved in the I C R I S A T genebank.At present, I C R I S A T is the major repository f o r the w o r l d sorghum germplasmw i t h a t o t a l collection of 31 030 accessions. The major donors are A l C S I P a n d I n d i a nA g r i c u l t u r a l Universities (4645), E t h i o p i a (4464), Sudan (2385), C a m e r o o n (2241),Nigeria (1436), and the N S S L , F o r t Collins, C o l o r a d o , U S A (1882). IS numbers wereassigned to 15 835 new accessions and the i n f o r m a t i o n has been computerized.Printouts are available on request f o r supply to sorghum scientists.Geographic a n d T a x o n o m i c DiversityThe major diversity centers of s o r g h u m are n o w relatively w e l l represented in thew o r l d collection assembled at I C R I S A T . Despite the relatively g o o d progress made sofar in f i l l i n g geographic and t a x o n o m i c gaps, there are some countries w h i c h were notadequately represented in the w o r l d collection, such as A l g e r i a , A n g o l a , B u r m a ,Central A f r i c a n Republic, C o n g o , Guinea, h i l l y areas o f I n d i a , I v o r y Coast, L i b y a ,M o r o c c o , M o z a m b i q u e , N e p a l , Pakistan, People's Republic o f C h i n a , n o r t h e r nSyria, Tunisia, T u r k e y , a n d Y e m e n ( P D R ) .T a x o n o m i c a l i y , the collection is weak in some specific cultivated subraces, i.e.,conspicuum, r i g i d u m , k a o l i a n g , membranaceum, decrue, and in transplanted types.A l t h o u g h we have assembled 345 accessions of 23 taxa of w i l d relatives so far, theyf o r m o n l y 1.2% of o u r t o t a l collection. Special collection missions f o r w i l d sorghumsneed to be organized before they become extinct.I C R I S A T (International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics), 1989. Collaboration onGenetic Resources: summary proceedings of a Joint I C R I S A T / NBPGR(ICAR) Workshop on GermplasmExploration and Evaluation in India, 14-15 Nov 1988, I C R I S A T Center, India. Patancheru, A.P. 502 324,India: I C R I S A T .13

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f G e r m p l a s mG e r m p l a s m i s distributed m a i n l y f o r u t i l i z a t i o n i n c r o p i m provement. I f the w o r l dcollection is to serve a useful purpose, it should be readily available to a l l s o r g h u mscientists. T h e supply of seed material to scientists w o r l d w i d e is one of I C R I S A T ' smajor responsibilities. Seed material f o r e x p o r t f r o m I C R I S A T must pass t h r o u g h theN a t i o n a l Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources ( N B P G R ) and this passage is facilitatedb y the E x p o r t Certification Quarantine L a b o r a t o r y established a t I C R I S A T Center.However, seed supplies to I n d i a n scientists are carried out directly and readily. T h i s isa clear advantage f o r I n d i a n s o r g h u m scientists.Over the years a large n u m b e r of seed samples were distributed to various programsw i t h i n I C R I S A T , and institutions in I n d i a and abroad (Table 1). A m a j o r p o r t i o n ofour efforts and resources are spent on this i m p o r t a n t activity.G e r m p l a s m Diversity A v a i l a b l e for U t i l i z a t i o nThe range of genetic diversity available a m o n g the cultivated sorghums and their w i l drelatives assembled at I C R I S A T Center is t r u l y amazing. The p r i n c i p a l j u s t i f i c a t i o nfor m a i n t a i n i n g this enormous natural v a r i a b i l i t y lies in its u t i l i z a t i o n in broadeningthe genetic base f o r present and future s o r g h u m i m p rovement. As a prerequisite toefficient germplasm use, it has been evaluated using standard descriptors. Listed inTable 2 are some of the useful materials in the w o r l d collection of s o r g h u m germplasmidentified at I C R I S A T Center f o r use by s o r g h u m scientists.G e r m p l a s mE n h a n c e m e n tConversion program. A major p o r t i o n of the w o r l d collection consists of t a l l ,photoperiod-sensitive landraces that are of l i m i t e d value in present c r o p i m p r o v e m e n tprograms. In order to augment the use of t r o p i c a l sorghum germplasm in breedingprograms, and to broaden the genetic base, we began a t r o p i c a l conversion p r o g r a musing the long-day rainy season and the short-day postrainy season at I C R I S A TCenter. Over the past few years, eight Zerazera landraces f r o m E t h i o p i a and S u d a nwere converted i n t o photoperiod-insensitive lines. It t o o k 6 years to convert theZerazeras to photoperiod-insensitivity and the final converted lines are in 3 m a t u r i t yand 3 plant-height backgrounds. A l l these lines are being assigned I C R I S A T S o r g h u mConversion ( I C S c ) numbers. M a n y of t h e m have already been supplied to s o r g h u mbreeders in I n d i a and abroad.Table 1. Recipients of sorghum germplasm seed samples from I C R I S A T Center.RecipientsI C R I S A T Center programsInstitutions w i t h i n I n d i aInstitutions abroadT o t a lN o . of seed samples211 82774 032105 900391 75914

Table 2. Sources of useful traits identified f r o m the sorghum germplasm maintaineda t I C R I S A T Center,T r a i tN a m e d cultivar collectionUS temperate conversion linesI C R I S A T t r o p i c a l conversion linesR a i n y season basic collectionPostrainy season basic collectionP r o m i s i n g lines f o r pest resistanceS h o o t f l y ( A t h e r i g o n a soccata)S t e m borer (Chilo partellus)M i d g e {Contarinia sorghicola)Head bug (Calocoris angustatus)P r o m i s i n g lines f o r disease resistanceG r a i n m o l dA n t h racnose ( C o l l e t o t r i c h u m graminicola)Rust (Puccinia purpurea)D o w n y m i l d e w {Peronosclerospora sorghi)Striga l o w - s t i m u l a n t lines ( l a b o r a t o r y screening)Striga resistant lines (field screening)Special purpose sorghumsGlossyP o p s o r g h u mSweet-stalk s o r g h u mScented s o r g h u mTwin-seededL a r g e - g l u m eBloomless s o r g h u mB r o o m c o r n s o r g h u mC y t o p l a s m i c male-steriles and maintainersN o . o faccessions2371762491405100260701461561531155645245013676171317120752240I n t r o g r e s s i o n . A t I C R I S A T Center, the available w i l d relatives o f s o r g h u m havebeen screened f o r resistance to s o r g h u m shoot f l y a n d s o r g h u m d o w n y m i l d e w .Sources of resistance have been identified and are a w a i t i n g imaginative use bybreeders.Since appreciable levels of resistance to shoot f l y are n o t available in a n y cultivatedsorghums, it has already become necessary to search f o r resistance in w i l d species.Crosses were m a d e between resistant w i l d p a r a s o r g h u m species a n d adapted cultivarsby h a n d emasculation as well as by using genetic male sterility. T h e F 3 progenies of thecrosses are being studied f o r their resistance to shoot fly under a r t i f i c i a l l y inoculatedc o n d i t i o n s .15

Status of the World Collection of Minor Millets Germplasmat ICRISATK.E. Prasada Rao and V. Gopal ReddySenior Botanist, and Research Associate, Genetic Resources Unit, I C R I S A T , Patancheru, Andhra PradeshM i n o r millets (small millets) are i m p o r t a n t crops in the S e m i - A r i d T r o p i c s . Presentlythe total n u m b e r of m i n o r millets accessions assembled and conserved at the Internati o n a l Crops Research Institute for the S e m i - A r i d Tropics ( I C R I S A T ) is 6610 (Table1).Assembly a n d ConservationA mission to E t h i o p i a , to collect Eleusine germplasm, was organized in c o l l a b o r a t i o nw i t h the I n d i a n C o u n c i l of A g r i c u l t u r a l Research ( I C A R ) . A scientist f r o m I C A R wasdeputed for the purpose. T w o hundred and seventeen samples of Eleusine werecollected w h i c h are yet to be received f r o m E t h i o p i a .M o s t of the m i n o r millets germplasm was obtained by correspondence. Someaccessions were collected d u r i n g missions launched p r i m a r i l y for other mandatecrops.In 1986, a collaborative project between I C R I S A T and N B P G R / I C A R wasinitiated. We received 466 new accessions of six crop species f r o m N B P G R RegionalS t a t i o n , A k o l a , Maharashtra, India, w h i c h was a good a d d i t i o n to o u r presentcollection. We have transferred one complete set of m i n o r millets germplasm f r o mI C R I S A T t o N B P G R f o r evaluation a t A k o l a .A l l the m i n o r millets germplasm are conserved under m e d i u m - t e r m storage c o n d i -tions at 4° C and 20% R H .I n accordance w i t h the recommendation o f the I B P G R A d v i s o r y C o m m i t t e e o nS o r g h u m and M i l l e t s , I C R I S A T has started assigning accession numbers to m i n o rmillets (Table 1).M a i n t e n a n c eA l l m i n o r millets germplasm accessions are planted for seed increase n o r m a l l y in therainy season to meet seed requests f r o m institutions in I n d i a and abroad. Since a l l thesix m i n o r millet crop species are reported to be mostly self pollinated, they aremaintained w i t h o u t any p o l l i n a t i o n c o n t r o l .I C R I S A T (International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics), 1989. Collaboration onGenetic Resources: summary proceedings of a Joint I C R I S A T / NBPGR(ICAR) Workshop on GermplasmExploration and Evaluation in India, 14-15 Nov I988,ICRISAT Center, India. Patancheru, A.P. 502 324,India: I C R I S A T .17

Table 1. M i n o r (small) millets germplasm assembled and conserved at I C R I S A TCenter.N o . o fN o . o fSuggestedN o . o faccess-access-N o . o fC r o paccessionn u m b e rc o u n -triesionsassembledionsevaluateddescriptorsF i n g e r millet(Eleusinecoracana)I E182848194832F o x t a i l m i l l e t(Setariaitalica)ISe221404126034Proso millet( P a n i c u m miliaceum)I P m2683175337L i t t l e millet( P a n i c u m sumatrense)I P m r140129133B a r n y a r d millet(Echinochloaspp)IEc858251739K o d o m i l l e t(Paspalumscrobiculatum)IPs254430838E v a l u a t i o nI B P G R has assigned a special responsibility to I C R I S A T by p r o v i d i n g funds tocharacterize the available g e r m p l a s m at I C R I S A T . A c c o r d i n g l y , several accessionshave been characterized f o r i m p o r t a n t m o r p h o a g r o n o m i c descriptors ( T a b l e 1). Aspart of the evaluation exercise, the six m i n o r millets species have been classified ( T a b l e2 ) i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h the C r o p E v o l u t i o n L a b o r a t o r y , University o f I l l i n o i s ,U r b a n a , U S A .Table 2. Classification of minor millets.N u m b e r o fC r o pSpeciesSubspeciesRacesSubracesFinger millet12610F o x t a i l m i l l e t22310P roso millet115-L i t t l e m i l l e tB a r n y a r d milletK o d o m i l l e t12124-2834--18

D o c u m e n t a t i o n a n d C o m p u t e r i z a t i o n o f E v a l u a t i o n D a t aA l l the evaluation data have been documented and the data of the f o l l o w i n g m i n o rmillets have been computerized using the I D M R S ( I C R I S A T D a t a Management andRetrieval System) p r o g r a m :Finger millet: IE 1 to IE 3567F o x t a i l millet: ISe 1 to ISe 1409L i t t l e millet: I P m r 1 to I P m r 852Proso millet: I P m 1 to I P m r 2805Barnyard millet: IEc 1 to IEc 566E v a l u a t i o n data of K o d o millet are yet to be computerized.D i s t r i b u t i o n o f G e r m p l a s mSince I C R I S A T accepted the responsibility to be a major w o r l d repository f o r m i n o rmillets germplasm, seed indents have increased f r o m institutions b o t h w i t h i n andoutside I n d i a . So far, 28 831 seed samples have been distributed f r o m the I C R I S A Tgene bank. The yearwise d i s t r i b u t i o n to institutions in I n d i a and abroad is presented inTable 3.Table 3. Distribution of minor millets germplasm seed samples from I C R I S A TCenter, 1978-88 1 .I n d i a nInstitutionsYearInstitutesa b r o a dT o t a l19782 7 2 19733 69419794 0 0 46084 6 1 2198013451840318519813 14417914 9 3 519822 0 8 09112 9 9 119832125407521984-2002001985-16516519862 1384272 5 6 5198712329552 1 8 719885672 9 7 83 545T o t a l174431138828 8311. Up to September 1988.19

F u t u r e W o r k P l a nThe importance of m i n o r millets is increasing in S A T countries. Since no otherinternational center is actively i n v o l v e d in the conservation of the w o r l d collection ofm i n o r millets, I C R I S A T w i l l continue its genetic resources activities w i t h these crops.At present, the regions and countries tentatively identified as p r i o r i t y areas f o r m i n o rmillets germplasm collection are: C h i n a , central A f r i c a , eastern A f r i c a , I n d i a , Japan,southern A f r i c a , and West A f r i c a . Suggestions for new areas o f collection w i l l beappreciated.Recently N B P G R / I C A R accepted a proposal for collaborative research w i t h G R U ,I C R I S A T , i n collection a n d evaluation o f m i n o r millets germplasm. M o r e collectionmissions should b e organized i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h N B P G R / I C A R i n I n d i a andnational institutions in other countries.I C R I S A T w i l l continue t o distribute m i n o r millets germplasm t o interested scientistsi n I n d i a and other countries t h r o u g h N B P G R . The S m a l l M i l l e t s ( m i n o r millets)Steering C o m m i t t e e , w h i c h met in E t h i o p i a in October 1987 under the sponsorship ofI D R C , greatly appreciated the role o f I C R I S A T i n the collection, conservation, andexchange of small millets and proposed that I C R I S A T should continue its activity asan international collaborative n e t w o r k i n v o l v i n g small millets germplasm.20

Status of the World Collection of Pearl Millet Germplasmat ICRISATS. Appa Rao, C. Rajagopal Reddy, and Y. Saideswara RaoBotanist, Research Associate, and Postdoctoral Fellow, Genetic Resources Unit, I C R I S A T , Patancheru,Andhra PradeshPearl m i l l e t (Pennisetum glaucum ( L . ) R. Br.) originated in a diffuse belt f r o m Sudanto Senegal. It is an i m p o r t a n t grain c r o p in A f r i c a and Asia and a fodder c r o pelsewhere. M i l l e t s are g r o w n over an estimated 39.941 m i l l i o n hectares in the w o r l d ,p r o d u c i n g 30.8 m i l l i o n metric tons of grain annually.AssemblyOf the 3017 accessions of pearl millet germplasm assembled by the RockefellerF o u n d a t i o n and A L A D , o n l y 2141 are presently available a t I C R I S A T . The remainin g accessions had lost their genetic identity due to c o n t a m i n a t i o n d u r i n g maintenanceand rejuvenation. Besides this, the Genetic Resources U n i t ( G R U ) of I C R I S A T , inc o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h various n a t i o n a l and international organizations, assembled 17 655accessions (Table 1). T h e I n s t i t u t francais de recherche scientifique p o u r le developpementen cooperation ( O R S T O M ) had collected 2337 accessions of pearl m i l l e t g e r m -plasm f r o m Benin, B u r k i n a Faso, C a m e r o o n , Central A f r i c a n Republic, Guinea,M a l i , Niger, Senegal, and T o g o , a l l of w h i c h , except Guinea, were transferred toI C R I S A T .The collection missions i n A f r i c a are launched i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h I B P G R ,national programs of the concerned countries, and other international organizations.So far, I C R I S A T has launched 10 germplasm collection missions to Botswana,C a m e r o o n , Ghana, M a l a w i , Nigeria, Tanzania, Z a m b i a , and Z i m b a b w e , and collected3266 samples. W h i l e collecting other I C R I S A T mandate crops, 435 samples ofpearl m i l l e t germplasm were also collected f r o m 13 countries. In India, germplasm iscollected in c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h scientists f r o m the N a t i o n a l Bureau of Plant GeneticResources ( N B P G R ) , A l l I n d i a C o o r d i n a t e d Pearl M i l l e t I m p r o v e m e n t Project( A I C P M I P ) , A g r i c u l t u r a l Universities, and other I C A R Institutes. T h e materials s ocollected are shared b y I C R I S A T , A I C P M I P / N B P G R , and A g r i c u l t u r a l Universities.So far, 18 missions have been launched in 11 I n d i a n states and 3777 samples havebeen collected. Of the 19 796 accessions assembled at I C R I S A T so far, 2141 are f r o mthe Rockefeller F o u n d a t i o n and A L A D , 4888 accessions are breeding material f r o mI n d i a , and 12 767 are collections and acquisitions f r o m various other sources.I C R I S A T (International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics), 1989. Collaboration onGenetic Resources: summary proceedings of a Joint I C R I S A T / N B P G R ( I C A R ) Workshop on GermplasmExploration and Evaluation in India, 14-15 Nov 1988, I C R I S A T Center, India. Patancheru, A.P. 502 324,India: I C R I S A T .21

P r i o r i t y areas f o r pearl m i l l e t g e r m p l a s m collection are A n g o l a , C e n t r a l A f r i c a nR e p u b l i c , C h a d , M a u r i t a n i a , N i g e r i a , N a m i b i a , P a k i s t a n , U g a n d a , a n d Z a i r e f o rc u l t i v a t e d , a n d M a l i , N i g e r , N i g e r i a a n d Senegal f o r w i l d Pennisetum species.T a b l e 1 . Status o f pearl m i l l e t germplasm assembled a t I C R I S A T Center.Sources 1C o u n t r y123456T o t a lA F R I C AB e n i nB o t s w a n a.----46-----654665B u r k i n a FasoC a m e r o o n23---313170-2285-39750660922Cape Verde---2--2C e n t r a l A f r i c a nR e p u b l i cC h a d-69--631------6370C o n g o8-----8E t h i o p i aG a m b i aG h a n a-14-------------15280115284K e n y aM a l a w i249-----2549--28998298M a l i51-729--2451025M a u r i t a n i a2-1---3M o r o c c o-----44M o z a m b i q u e-----3131Niger43-48818-390939N igeria13993-2742534771236R e p u b l i c o fS o u t h A f r i c a2114--8935159Senegal56-28310-53402Sierra Leone-----5959S o m a l i a-----44S u d a nT a n z a n i a617------140-443467589484T o g o--116-29-145U g a n d a36--5818-112Z a m b i a3---58z 3 495Z i m b a b w e229-59-397487Continued.22

Table 1.Continued.S o u r c e s 1C o u n t r yA S I AI n d i aL e b a n o nP a k i s t a nR e p u b l i c o f K o r e aT u r k e yY e m e n ( A R )E U R O P EF e d e r a l R e p u b l i co f G e r m a n yU KU S S RT H E A M E R I C A SB r a z i lM e x i c oU S AA U S T R A L I AU n k n o w n O r i g i nT o t a l11 0 1 410951-------10153 9 22 14122 5-4-2----2-6 8--2 3 73_-------------2 2 1 0455 8 0 9 2 ----------173 --3113 ---10 ---2 ---6 2 8 5 2 9 6 963 8 3 3----4 4--------7 9 5 4T o t a l1 0 6 8 1 21099126 133 11321016973 9 219 7 9 6 21 . 1 . Rockefeller and A L A D , 2. USA, 3. O R S T O M , 4. National Programs, 5. IBPGR, 6. I C R I S A T .2. 4888 are inbreds and breeding material.Seed Increase a n d R e j u v e n a t i o nTo m i n i m i z e genetic d r i f t d u r i n g seed increase a n d rejuvenation, each accession isconsidered as a p o p u l a t i o n a n d a large sample size is used at every stage. F o r seedincrease, a b o u t 200 plants are raised f o r each accession a n d the cluster bagging m e t h o dis used where 3-6 emerging spikes before stigma emergence are enclosed in a large bagto facilitate p o l l i n a t i o n a m o n g themselves. A nearly equal q u a n t i t y of seed f r o m eachspike is b u l k e d to reconstitute the p o p u l a t i o n . Inbreds are m a i n t a i n e d by selfing a n dmale-sterile lines by h a n d p o l l i n a t i n g A lines w i t h B lines. Seed increase is done d u r i n gthe p o s t r a i n y season as even the p h o t o p e r i o d sensitive types f l o w e r u n d e r short-day23

conditions a n d rain-free days facilitate p r o d u c t i o n of seed free f r o m g r a i n m o l d , andsuitable f o r exchange and storage.ConservationF o r germplasm conservation, healthy d r y seeds are stored in a l u m i n i u m cans fittedw i t h a i r t i g h t screw lids. F o r each accession, about 400 grams of seed is kept inm e d i u m - t e r m storage where the temperature is maintained at 4 ° C and 2 0 % R H .D u r i n g storage, seed v i a b i l i t y is monitored" regularly and those accessions w i t h lessthan 85% v i a b i l i t y are rejuvenated.E v a l u a t i o nTo facilitate meaningful exchange of i n f o r m a t i o n , internationally accepted descriptorsand descriptor states were developed and published by I B P G R and I C R I S A T .F o r evaluation, each accession is planted in 2 rows of 4 - m length, 75 cm apart, and 10cm w i t h i n a r o w . To realize the f u l l potential of the accession, evaluation is done underg o o d management conditions.A l l the available germplasm lines are evaluated at I C R I S A T Center, Patancheru(17°27'N) d u r i n g the rainy season. To compare the expression of germplasm linesunder different agroclimatic conditions, t w o sets of 343 and 125 diverse landraceaccessions were evaluated at Bobo-dioulasso and Kamboinse in B u r k i n a Faso,M a r a d i in Niger, and Bhavanisagar, Jaipur, and Hisar in I n d i a . W i t h a view toevaluate germplasm at or near the place of o r i g i n , 2000 accessions f r o m S A D C Ccountries were evaluated at Sebele in Botswana, N g a b u in M a l a w i , H o m b o l o inTanzania, K a o m a i n Z a m b i a , and G w e b i , Panmure, Aisleby, a n d M a t o p o s nearB u l a w a y o in Z i m b a b w e . A l l the 878 accessions f r o m C a m e r o o n were evaluated at theI n s t i t u t d e l a recherche a g r o n o m i q u e ( I R A ) , M a r o u a i n C a m e r o o n . I n c o l l a b o r a t i o nw i t h N B P G R , we are evaluating germplasm in batches of 2000 accessions each year atJ o d h p u r and Issapur, and at Pune w i t h A I C P M I P . Considerable v a r i a t i o n wasobserved f o r a l l the characters studied.Identification o f N e w T r a i t sD u r i n g the course of evaluation a n d maintenance of germplasm, we l o o k f o r new andnovel traits n o t reported so far. M o r p h o l o g i c a l variants are selfed a n d p u r i f i e d . F o rthe first t i m e , we identified sweet-stalked pearl m i l l e t ( w i t h 2 0 % sugar content in thestalks), glossy genes, midribless, a n d a variety of chlorophyll-deficient mutants. T h enew d w a r f i n g genes, cytoplasmic male-sterile lines f r o m Ghana a n d Botswana g e r m -plasm, a n d early flowering germplasm are some of the traits useful in m i l l e t i m p r o v e -ment. Sources of resistance to b i o t i c and abiotic stress factors are identified byconcerned specialists.24

D o c u m e n t a t i o nE v a l u a t i o n data on m o r p h o l o g i c a l characters up to IP 3017 were published in acatalog b y M u r t y e t a l . in 1967 and subsequently b y A L A D . I n f o r m a t i o n o n passportand evaluation data f r o m IP 3018 to IP 12431 is already analyzed a n d is beingprocessed f o r p u b l i c a t i o n as a catalog. D a t a on IP 12432 to IP 15945 is beingcomputerized. This i n f o r m a t i o n is retrieved and sent along w i t h the seed to those w h oneed i t .Seed D i s t r i b u t i o nSo far, we have sent 24 030 seed samples to scientists in I C R I S A T , 36 026 samplesw i t h i n I n d i a , and 25 402 samples to scientists in 68 countries outside I n d i a .W i l d Relatives a n d their E x p l o i t a t i o nOf the 140 k n o w n species of the genus Pennisetum, we have assembled 371 accessionsof 20 species. The species P. schweinfurthii is valued for its large grains and w a x ycoating, P. purpureum f o r forage and P. clandestinum as pasture, P. setaceum a n d P.villosum as ornamentals, and P. hohenackeri for thatching and rope m a k i n g . Penniseturnis a polybasic genus w i t h x=5,7,8, and 9. In the x=5 type, 2n=10 was observed in P.ramosum only. In the x=7 type, 2n=14 was observed in P. glaucum, P. violaceum, P.mollissimum, and P. schweinfurthii while 4x=28 was observed in P. purpureum. In thex=8 type, 2x=16, and 4x=32 were observed in P. mezianum. In the x=9 type, 2x=18 and3x=27 were observed in P. hohenackeri and 3x=27 in P. setaceum. T e t r a p l o i d n u m b e r4x=36 was observed in P. mecrorum, P. divisum, P. cenchroides, P. clandestinum, P.pedicellatum, and P. orientate, while 5x=45 was observed in P. villosum. The speciesP. squamulatum, and P. polystachyon showed 6x=54 chromosomes while the highestchromosome number (68) was observed in the species P. macrostachyum only.H i g h e r meiotic chromosome associations in the d i p l o i d complement of P. schweinfurthiiand P. mezianum, a n d the occurrence of species w i t h x=5 in P. ramosum,suggests that the chromosome complement of the genus Pennisetum must haveevolved f r o m the basic c h r o m o s o m e number x=5. In P. hohenackeri (3x=27), 9bivalents and 9 univalents were observed at metaphase I, so it was considered aspontaneous a l l o t r i p l o i d .25

Status of the World Collection of Chickpea Germplasmat ICRISATR.P.S. Pundir and K . N . ReddyChickpea Botanist, and Research Associate, Genetic Resources Unit, I C R I S A T , Patancheru,Andhra PradeshChickpea (Cicer arietinum L . ) is an ancient crop, its earliest record d a t i n g back to 6250B C , f r o m the M i d d l e East. The crop p r o b a b l y evolved in southeastern T u r k e y . Thisview is based on the fact that the three w i l d species of the genus Cicer that are mostsimilar to cultivated chickpea occur naturally in this region. Chickpea domesticationspread gradually, and it is n o w cultivated in over 40 countries. T h e recent i n t r o d u c t i o nof chickpea to A u s t r a l i a and U S A has expanded the use and potential of this crop.The genetic resources of chickpea include p r i m i t i v e landraces, i m p r o v e d cultivars,genetic stocks, mutants of C. arietinum, and a l l other species of the genus Cicer, Atotal of 43 species are k n o w n to exist in this genus, of w h i c h o n l y one ( C . arietinum) iscultivated, 8 are w i l d annuals, and the remaining 34 are w i l d perennial species. Thew i l d species are rather l i m i t e d in d i s t r i b u t i o n , and were noticed g r o w i n g in countriesa r o u n d the Mediterranean Sea, Soviet U n i o n , E t h i o p i a , Sudan, and in the H i m a l a y a nM o u n t a i n s .Recently the Regional Pulse I m p r o v e m e n t Project ( R P I P ) , I n d i a / I r a n , by anextensive collection effort assembled and augmented chickpea collections that existedw i t h various institutes. This resulted in the assembly of about 7000 chickpea accessions.W h e n the R P I P was phased out in 1970, part of this collection was depositedw i t h U S D A , and the rest remained w i t h several national research programs in I n d i aand I r a n . In 1972, after I C R I S A T came i n t o existence and assumed responsibility asthe w o r l d repository for genetic resources of chickpea, various institutes, universities,and research organizations donated most of their collections.I C R I S A T started collecting germplasm in p r i o r i t y areas in the early eighties.Collection in other countries, such as in E t h i o p i a , Afghanistan, T u r k e y , N e p a l ,Bangladesh, M o r o c c o , and Syria has helped to n a r r o w the apparent gaps in the w o r l dcollection. In I n d i a , 17 missions have been organized j o i n t l y by I C R I S A T , A g r i c u l t u -ral Universities, and the N a t i o n a l Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources ( N B P G R ) . Thisresulted in the collection of 1400 samples (Table 1). Presently the I C R I S A T gene bankholds 15 564 chickpea accessions representing 42 countries. Besides f i l l i n g the geographicalgaps, the above missions p r o v i d e d some very useful materials, e.g.,tuberculated-seed types, t w i n - p o d d e d , a n d extra-large seeded desi materials f r o mM a d h y a Pradesh, very-large seeded desi f r o m T a m i l N a d u , black seed coated, h i g h -anthocyanin types f r o m E t h i o p i a , extra-large seeded k a b u l i , desi types of M i d d l e Easto r i g i n , a n d t w i n - p o d d e d k a b u l i f r o m M o r o c c o and Syria.I C R I S A T (International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics), 1989. Collaboration onGenetic Resources: summary proceedings of a Joint I C R I S A T / N B P G R ( I C A R ) Workshop on GermplasmExploration and Evaluation in India, 14-15 Nov 1988, I C R I S A T Center, India. Patancheru, A.P. 502 324,India: I C R I S A T .27

Table 1. I C R I S A T collection expeditions for chickpea and wild Cicer species, 1975-88.Year1975197619771978197919801982198319841985198619871988C o u n t r yA f g h a n i s t a n , I n d i a , P a k i s t a n , T u r k e yA f g h a n i s t a n , I n d i aA f g h a n i s t a n , I n d i a (3) 1 , T u r k e yI n d i a (2), P a k i s t a nBangladesh, I n d i a (2), N e p a lB u r m a , I n d i a (2), N e p a lE t h i o p i a , I n d i aI n d i aE t h i o p i aBangladesh, I n d i aI n d i aI n d i a , M o r o c c oI n d i a , SyriaN o . o faccessions19214422771234250251471042061972791401.The figures in parentheses refer to the number of expeditions, in countries where there has been morethan one collection mission.G e r m p l a s m evaluation helps us to n o t o n l y characterize a n d document diversity ofthe germplasm, b u t also to identify and describe new a n d useful genetic traits. F o rexample, we have identified, over several years of evaluation, 86 erect types, 100t w i n - p o d d e d types, 43 multi-seeded types. U l t i m a t e l y , the value of the diverse g e r m -plasm depends on the extent of its u t i l i z a t i o n in c r o p i m p r o v e m e n t programs. C u r -rently the chickpea germplasm is evaluated for 25 m o r p h o a g r o n o m i c characters. T h escreening f o r resistance to various diseases a n d insect pests is done by concerneddisciplines a n d several resistant sources have been identified (Table 2). In order tosuitably document the i n f o r m a t i o n and distribute it to users, the passport and evaluati o n data of most of the accessions have been computerized and subjected to statisticalanalysis. T h e i n f o r m a t i o n has been summarized in the ' I C R I S A T Chickpea G e r m -plasm Catalog* w h i c h w i l l soon be distributed t o chickpea research workers. T h i sanalysis has revealed very useful i n f o r m a t i o n , e.g.:• Accessions f r o m Chile seem to be better sources f o r longer g r o w t h d u r a t i o n , higherp l a n t height, heavy seed mass, and semi-erect g r o w t h habit.• Accessions f r o m Bangladesh appear to be better sources f o r h i g h p o d n u m b e r a n dresistance to fusarium w i l t .• Accessions f r o m N e p a l produce a h i g h number of basal secondary branches a n dseeds p o d - 1 b u t they produce small pods, few apical secondary branches, ande x h i b i t shorter flowering d u r a t i o n .G e r m p l a s m evaluation has n o w begun at several locations. In I n d i a , this w o r kcontinues a t I C R I S A T Center, A k o l a , G w a l i o r , a n d N e w D e l h i , i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t hN B P G R .28

Table 2. Chickpea germplasm accessions with resistance to diseases and insects,evaluated at I C R I S A T Center.Disease/Insect pestF u s a r i u m w i l tD r y root rotStunt diseaseFusarium w i l t and d r y root rotFusarium w i l t and black r o o t rotF u s a r i u m w i l t and botrytis gray m o l dF u s a r i u m w i l t and ascochyta blightFusarium w i l t and sclerotinia stem blightBotrytis gray m o l d and ascochyta blightBotrytis gray m o l d and c o l l e t o t r i c h u m blightAscochyta blight and stuntFusarium w i l t , d r y root rot, and black root rotPod borerN o . o faccessions16647111818118223222The potential users of the chickpea germplasm are chickpea scientists t h r o u g h o u tthe w o r l d . Every year, they test/utilize a large n u m b e r of accessions in their researchprograms. A t o t a l of 157 824 chickpea seed samples have been distributed f r o m theGenetic Resources U n i t ( G R U ) f r o m 1974 to 1987. Besides their use in crop i m p r o v e -ment programs, some elite materials have directly been used for c u l t i v a t i o n . In the last10 years, some 26 chickpea germplasm lines were released f o r commercial c u l t i v a t i o n .Examples are chickpea cultivars Dhanush, T r i s h u l , and Radha in Nepal; B D N 9-3 andJ y o t i i n India; Shendi i n Sudan; and I L C 4 8 2 i n A l g e r i a , M o r o c c o , Syria, and T u r k e y .The status of chickpea germplasm is reviewed periodically. Some of the m a i n pointsof future interest are the f o l l o w i n g :• Some chickpea g r o w i n g regions, viz., B u r m a , parts of E t h i o p i a and I n d i a , M a l a w i ,Tanzania, and T u r k e y are not yet well represented in the w o r l d collection. G e r m -plasm f r o m these countries should be collected as early as possible.• G e r m p l a s m accessions w i l l have t o be a d d i t i o n a l l y screened for response to fertilizers,resistance to l o d g i n g , early seedling vigor, l o w - l i g h t interception, etc.• Evaluating germplasm at m o r e locations w i l l have t o be continued, i f possible nearor in their o r i g i n a l habitat.29

Status of the World Collection of Pigeonpea Germplasmat ICRISATR.P.S. Pundir, P. Remanandan, and D.V.S.S.R. SastryChickpea Botanist, Pigeonpea Botanist, and Research Associate, Genetic Resources Unit, I C R I S A T ,Patancheru, Andhra PradeshIt is believed that pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan(L.) M i l l s p . ) originated in I n d i a . This viewis based on archaeological finds of pigeonpea seeds at B h o k a r d a n , Maharashtra w h i c hpresumably date back to the period 200 BC - 300 A D . It appears that Atylosiacajanifolia is the closest related species of pigeonpea followed by A. lineata, A.scarabaeoides, A. sericea, A. albicans, etc. The name 'pigeonpea' originated in theAmericas where it reached d u r i n g the 15th Century A D . As the seeds were favored bypigeons, the name 'pigeonpea' came to be used. Several botanical names have beenused for pigeonpea, but the latest and most accepted is Cajanus cajan ( L . ) M i l l s p .Pigeonpea belongs to the subtribe Cajaninae w h i c h encompasses a vast gene p o o l ofabout 300 species belonging to 13 genera. There is some s i m i l a r i t y a m o n g thesespecies. Of this vast gene p o o l , pigeonpea is the only cultivated f o r m . This was oftenconsidered to be a m o n o t y p i c genus, since a l l the other A s i a n and A u s t r a l i a n speciesthat were described and were similar to pigeonpea, were transferred to the genusAtylosia because of the presence of seed strophiole. van der Maesen suggested mergingall species of Atylosia, Rhynchosia acutifolia F . V . M u e l . ex Benth, and Dunbariaheynei W. & A. i n t o Cajanus, thus recognizing 32 species in the genus.Pigeonpea is cultivated on about 3 m ha all over the w o r l d . However, this appears tobe an underestimation, as it p r o b a b l y does not include pigeonpea that is c o m m o n l yg r o w n in small stands in backyards and on field bunds. Pigeonpea is k n o w n to becultivated in over 50 countries, the most i m p o r t a n t being B u r m a , I n d i a , D o m i n i c a nRepublic, Kenya, M a l a w i , Tanzania, and Uganda. Pigeonpea has been gaining p o p u -larity in A u s t r a l i a since its recent i n t r o d u c t i o n .In keeping w i t h its role as the w o r l d repository of its mandate crops I C R I S A Tstarted to assemble the pigeonpea germplasm that already existed w i t h variousinstitutes. The i n i t i a l collection consisted of the lines assembled by the f o r m e rRegional Pulse I m p r o v e m e n t Project ( R P I P ) , a j o i n t project of U S D A , I n d i a , andI r a n . W h e n the R P I P was phased out in 1970, sets of this collection remained w i t hvarious a g r i c u l t u r a l universities and institutes in I n d i a . In 1973/74, the material f r o mthese centers was donated to I C R I S A T . R P I P had also stored one set of this materialw i t h U S D A . At I C R I S A T ' s request, this material was sent to Puerto R i c o and then toI C R I S A T . Some institutes made new efforts to collect germplasm, and these materialswere also shared w i t h I C R I S A T . Simultaneously, I C R I S A T , i n consultation andcooperation w i t h other institutes, started collecting germplasm f r o m p r i o r i t y areas. SoI C R I S A T (International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics), 1989. Collaboration onGenetic Resources: summary proceedings of a Joint I C R I S A T / NBPGR(ICAR) Workshop on GermplasmExploration and Evaluation in India, 14-15 Nov 1988, I C R I S A T Center, India. Patancheru, A.P. 502 324,India: I C R I S A T .31

far 34 missions have been carried o u t in I n d i a and 19 a b r o a d a n d more t h a n 3500germplasm samples collected (Table 1). W i t h the a d d i t i o n of the new samples, thepigeonpea germplasm collection n o w comprises 11 034 accessions representing 52countries. T h e o u t s t a n d i n g achievements were the collections f r o m K e n y a , M a l a w i ,and the Caribbean Islands w h i c h yielded samples w i t h extra-tall plant height, p u r p l estem color, large seeds, and multiseeded pods. T h e last t w o characteristics are i m p o r -tant f o r vegetable-type pigeonpea.D u r i n g the germplasm collection efforts, particular a t t e n t i o n was paid to surveya n d collect the Cajaninae species that are apparently close to pigeonpea. T h i s hasresulted in a collection of 271 accessions of 47 species belonging to 6 genera.Systematic evaluation of the accessions is necessary to describe the material a n d toidentify desirable lines f o r u t i l i z a t i o n . Pigeonpea accessions were g r o w n in batches atI C R I S A T Center a n d evaluated f o r 40 m o r p h o a g r o n o m i c traits. Several accessionsw i t h desirable characteristics have been identified (Table 2). T h e concerned disciplinesscreen germplasm f o r resistance to diseases and insect pests. T h e n u m b e r of resistancesources identified are listed in T a b l e 3.Recently, germplasm evaluation has begun at more locations. T h i s w o r k is done inKenya j o i n t l y w i t h the N a t i o n a l D r y l a n d F a r m i n g Research Center. S i m i l a r l y , i nI n d i a , I C R I S A T a n d N B P G R are j o i n t l y c o n d u c t i n g g e r m p l a s m evaluations a tA k o l a , N e w D e l h i , and J o r h a t .Table 1 . C o l l e c t i o n expeditions launched b y I C R I S A T f o r pigeonpea a n d its w i l drelatives.Year1974197519761977197819791980198119821983198519861987A r e aI n d i a (2) 1I n d i a (3)I n d i a (5), K e n y aI n d i a (5)I n d i a (3)A u s t r a l i a , Bangladesh, India (4), M a l a w i , N e p a lB u r m a , I n d i a (6), N e p a l , Sri L a n k a , T h a i l a n d , Z a m b i aI n d i a (2), M o z a m b i q u e , Philippines, TanzaniaK e n y a , S o u t h A f r i c a , Z i m b a b w eI n d i a , M a l a w iC a r i b b e a n Islands, I n d i aC a r i b b e a n a n d C e n t r a l A m e r i c a n region, I n d i aI n d i aT o t a l ( i n 53 expeditions)N o . o faccessions1343314262411953452723992904592711425235571. Figures in parentheses refer to the number of expeditions, in places where there was more than onemission.32

Table 2. Pigeonpea germplasm accessions identified with specific agronomic characteristics,evaluated at I C R I S A T Center.CharacterD e t e r m i n a t e g r o w t h habitS h o r t plant height ( < 1 m )S h o r t m a t u r i t y d u r a t i o n ( < 1 2 0 days)Heavy seed mass (100-seed mass > 1 8 g)H i g h seed p r o t e i n ( > 2 7 . 6 % )Multiseeded ( > 6 . 0 seeds p o d - 1 )N o . o faccessions29832147481415Table 3. Pigeonpea germplasm accessions with absolute resistance to diseases,insects, and nematodes, evaluated at I C R I S A T Center.Disease/ Insect/ NematodesF u s a r i u m wiltSterility mosaicP h y t o p h t h o r a blightT w o diseasesThree diseasesThree diseases and nematodesP o d borer (Heliothis armigera)P o d f l y {Melanagromyza obtusa)P o d borer and p o d f l yNematodes ( c o m p l e x of 8 species)N o . o faccessions6532614028122181549In order to suitably document the i n f o r m a t i o n , the passport and evaluation data ofmost of the accessions have been computerized and subjected to statistical analyses.The results are given in the I C R I S A T Pigeonpea Catalog w h i c h has been prepared int w o parts, and has already been distributed to users.The m a i n users of the germplasm are scientists at I C R I S A T and at various nationalinstitutes in the semi-arid tropics. Scientists f r o m 90 countries have d r a w n pigeonpeagermplasm samples f r o m the I C R I S A T gene bank to utilize them in their respectiveresearch programs.The c o n t r i b u t i o n of landraces as source material for improvement has been substantial.There are also examples of germplasm lines that have directly been used forcommercial p r o d u c t i o n , e.g., U P A S 120, a short-duration selection f r o m a germplasmline that was released in n o r t h e r n I n d i a in 1976 for c u l t i v a t i o n . In F i j i , the germplasmaccession I C P 7035, a field collection f r o m M a d h y a Pradesh, I n d i a , has been released33

for c u l t i v a t i o n . Because of the high sugar content in its seeds, the line has been named' K a m i c a ' w h i c h means sweet in F i j i a n . This line combines resistance to fusarium w i l tand sterility mosaic w i t h g o o d vegetable-type characteristics. A n o t h e r accession, I C P8863, a field collection f r o m U t t a r Pradesh, has been released in K a r n a t a k a under thep o p u l a r name ' M a r u t i ' . Recently the Government of M a l a w i identified I C P 9145 assuitable for c u l t i v a t i o n . This line is in fact a landrace collected in 1976 f r o m Kenya.The status of the pigeonpea germplasm is reviewed periodically. Some of the m a i npoints of future interest are the f o l l o w i n g :• Germplasm f r o m the p r i o r i t y areas, i.e., B u r m a , India (Bihar, Orissa, and K a r n a t -aka), Indonesia, Uganda, and T h a i l a n d should be collected.• In a d d i t i o n to the 40 descriptors presently used, germplasm should be evaluated forresponse to fertilizer, reduced flower d r o p , tolerance to rains d u r i n g m a t u r i t y , etc.• The efforts should continue to evaluate germplasm at more locations.34

Status of the World Collection of Groundnut Germplasmat ICRISATV. Ramanatha Rao and A.K. SadasivanBotanist, and Research Associate, Genetic Resources Unit, ICRISAT, Patancheru, Andhra PradeshO r i g i n a n d D i s t r i b u t i o nThe genus Arachis p r o b a b l y originated in the area referred to as the Brazilian shield.Cultivated g r o u n d n u t {Arachis hypogaea L . ) originated in Bolivia and northwestArgentina on the eastern slopes of the Andes.The natural occurrence of the genus Arachis is confined to South A m e r i c a - inArgentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay. In this region, its d i s t r i b u t i o n isrestricted to the area that is bounded by the A m a z o n river to the n o r t h , the la Platariver to the south, the A t l a n t i c to the east, and by the Andes to the west. However,more explorations for Arachis have to be made in many areas, and the d i s t r i b u t i o n ofthe genus may eventually be found to be m u c h wider. The geocarpic habit has largelydetermined the evolution and d i s t r i b u t i o n of the genus. Species belonging to allsections of Arachis occur in Brazil, and four sections, Ambinervosae, Caulorhizae,Extranervosae, and Triseminalae, are k n o w n to occur only in Brazil. Species insections Arachis and Rhizomatosae occur in a l l five countries, but species in sectionErect aides are not k n o w n to occur in Uruguay. The cultivated g r o u n d n u t graduallyspread all over the w o r l d , especially d u r i n g the immediate p o s t - C o l u m b i a n period. Itis n o w cultivated in more than 80 countries.Collection a n d AssemblyW h e n I C R I S A T started g r o u n d n u t germplasm w o r k in 1976, top p r i o r i t y was given toacquiring collections f r o m other gene banks or research centers. Over 5066 accessionswere assembled f r o m various research centers in India, and 5297 accessions f r o m thePeople's Republic of China, Indonesia, Japan, M a l a w i , Nigeria, Senegal, S o u t hAfrica, Tanzania, U K , U S A , U S S R , Z a m b i a , and Z i m b a b w e .I C R I S A T also carried out several collection expeditions in I n d i a and abroad incooperation w i t h national and international agencies, and collected 857 samples inIndia and 996 f r o m outside India. D u r i n g these trips, besides collection of germplasm,i n f o r m a t i o n on c u l t i v a t i o n practices, and occurrence of pests and diseases was alsorecorded.I C R I S A T has a special interest in w i l d species of Arachis for cytogenetic andresistance breeding w o r k . The present collection of 201 accessions represents about 35I C R I S A T (International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics), 1989. Collaboration onGenetic Resources: summary proceedings of a Joint I C R I S A T / NBPGR(ICAR) Workshop on GermplasmExploration and Evaluation in India, 14-15 Nov 1988, C R I S A T Center, India. Patancheru, A.P. 502 324,India: I C R I S A T .35

species, descriptions of some of w h i c h are yet to be published. M a n y more need to beassembled.The g r o u n d n u t germplasm collection at I C R I S A T presently totals 12 160 accessionsf r o m 89 countries (Table 1). A d d i t i o n a l germplasm is yet to be collected f r o m theTable 1. Groundnut germplasm collection status at I C R I S A T Center, October 1988.O r i g i nN o . o faccessionsO r i g i nN o . o faccessionsA F R I C AA n g o l aBeninBotswanaB u r k i n a FasoC a m e r o o nCentral A f r i c a n RepublicChadC o m o r o sC o n g oCote d ' l v o i r eEgyptE q u a t o r i a l GuineaG a m b i aGhanaGuineaKenyaLiberiaL i b y aMalagasay RepublicM a l a w iM a l iM a u r i t i u sM o r o c c oM o z a m b i q u eNigerNigeriaRepublic o f S o u t h A f r i c aR w a n d aSenegalSierra LeoneSomaliaSudan3 49671516262151681171332532250121491481872721149253431461262249223SwazilandTanzaniaT o g oUgandaZaireZ a m b i aZ i m b a b w eA S I AB u r m aI n d i aIndonesiaI r a nIsraelJapanKampucheaMalaysiaPakistanPeople's Republic of C h i n aRepublic o f K o r e aSri L a n k aSyriaT a i w a nT h a i l a n dThe PhilippinesT u r k e yV i e t n a mYemen ( A R )E U R O P EBelgium8396111711162265583 820213 050139118847I53121574231486297411123Continued.36

Table 1. Continued.N o . o fN o . o fO r i g i naccessionsO r i g i naccessionsBulgaria4M e x i c o21C y p r u s7Paraguay184Greece7Peru317H u n g a r y2Puerto R i c o21P o r t u g a l (Azores)6T r i n i d a d a n d T o b a g o5S p a i n4U r u g u a y40U K16U S A1 828U S S R63Venezuela9T H EA M E R I C A S3 656A r g e n t i n a404Barbados4A U S T R A L I A A N D O C E A N I A59Brazil465Chile12A u s t r a l i a57C o l u m b i a1F i j i2Costa Rica1C u b a40E cuador3U n k n o w n1 017H o n d u r a s4Jamaica4M a r t i n i q u e6T O T A L12 160p r i o r i t y countries/areas identified in consultation w i t h the International B o a r d forPlant Genetic Resources ( I B P G R ) , I C R I S A T scientists, and national scientists in thegermplasm resource areas.Conservation a n d M a i n t e n a n c eAt I C R I S A T , all the cultivated g r o u n d n u t accessions and seed-producing w i l d speciesare maintained by g r o w i n g in the field. The rhizomatous and nonseed-producing w i l dspecies are maintained in concrete cylinders. The legumes cytogenetics section atI C R I S A T Center has been helping G R U m a i n t a i n the rhizomatous w i l d species ofg r o u n d n u t .Generally about 1 kg pods are stored in the m e d i u m - t e r m c o l d storage ( 4 ° C anda p p r o x i m a t e l y 4 0 % R H ) . V i a b i l i t y of accessions is m o n i t o r e d regularly a n d rejuvenati o n is carried o u t when the seed q u a n t i t y is l o w or the v i a b i l i t y falls below the37

g e r m i n a t i o n standard (85%). Larger quantities of seed for genetic stocks and accessionsfor w h i c h demand is greater are also retained in the short-term storage at 18°C.The long-term cold storage facility (- 2 0 ° C ) is being developed.A l l possible care is taken to effectively m a i n t a i n and conserve healthy and g o o d -quality seeds in the I C R I S A T gene bank. Reports on peanut stripe virus ( P S t V ) havebecome a major source of concern to I C R I S A T because of its role in germplasmexchange. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent-assay technique ( E L I S A ) is used to detectthe presence of the virus in the seed. Virus-free seeds are then planted for seed increaseand pods f r o m such plants are conserved in our gene bank. This process w i l l continueu n t i l a l l the g r o u n d n u t accessions in our gene bank are checked, so that we canm a i n t a i n and supply healthy seeds. A d d i t i o n a l l y , whenever germplasm is g r o w n in thefield, our pathologists examine the plants, especially for v i r a l disease symptoms.E v a l u a t i o nThe ' G r o u n d n u t Descriptors' developed by I B P G R and I C R I S A T in 1981 f o r m thebasis for evaluation and characterization at I C R I S A T . Preliminary evaluation form o r p h o a g r o n o m i c characteristics is carried out in b o t h rainy and postrainy seasons.Further evaluation for pest and disease resistance, and physiological and biochemicalcharacteristics is carried out in c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h other disciplines at I C R I S A TCenter.Such evaluation exercises have resulted in the identification of a number of usefulg r o u n d n u t accessions w h i c h are being utilized extensively in g r o u n d n u t improvementat I C R I S A T and elsewhere. We presently have about 60 accessions resistant to lateleaf spot, about 12 p r o m i s i n g ones for early leaf spot, about 100 resistant sources forrust, a few w i t h field tolerance to bud necrosis and peanut m o t t l e virus, resistance toseed invasion by Aspergillus flavus, and pod rots. We have about 100 accessionsresistant to thrips, jassids, aphids, and Spodoptera spp. We have also in our gene bank17 drought-tolerant accessions and some w i t h higher biological nitrogen-fixing a b i l -ity. We have a few accessions w i t h higher o i l and protein content.M u l t i l o c a t i o n a l evaluation o f g r o u n d n u t germplasm i n India i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t hN B P G R i s i n progress. W i t h the expansion o f I C R I S A T ' s o w n p r o g r a m i n southernand West A f r i c a , more such m u l t i l o c a t i o n a l evaluations are needed to e x p l o i t theavailable diversity for u t i l i z a t i o n in g r o u n d n u t improvement. In future, germplasmw i l l be evaluated f o r more attributes such as o i l quality and sources o f resistance toother pests and diseases.D o c u m e n t a t i o n' G r o u n d n u t Descriptors' consist of 40 passport descriptors and 39 preliminary evaluati o n descriptors. Descriptor states have also been provided for a number of descriptorsfor further evaluation, the data on w h i c h are being supplied to G R U by otherg r o u n d n u t scientists. The revision of g r o u n d n u t descriptors is in progress. A separatelist of descriptors f o r w i l d Arachis is also under preparation.38

Passport data have been computerized for 12 160 I C R I S A T accessions. M o r p h o -agronomic data are being computerized. A computer p r o g r a m , I C R I S A T D a t aManagement and Retrieval System ( I D M R S ) is being used for this purpose. Thecomputer file forms the base live catalog. Publication of g r o u n d n u t germplasmcatalogs on passport data and evaluation data is planned.D i s t r i b u t i o nSince 1976, 96 656 samples have been distributed, i n c l u d i n g 45 704 samples to I C R I -S A T scientists, 26 536 to scientists in India and 24416 to scientists in 83 othercountries. Generally, g r o u n d n u t germplasm is supplied as pods to scientists in Indiaand it is always supplied as seed to scientists outside I n d ia after completing all theplant quarantine requirements.39

World Germplasm Collections and Their Potential in CropProductivityB.R. Murty and Melak H. MengeshaINS A Senior Scientist/ Professor, Biotechnology Centre, I A R I , New Delhi; andLeader, Genetic Resources Unit, I C R I S A T , Patancheru, Andhra PradeshConcerted efforts d u r i n g the past 25 years by international and national organizationshave resulted in the collection, evaluation, and some m o b i l i z a t i o n of w o r l d geneticresources m a i n l y in cereals, legumes, and oilseeds, and to some extent in other f o o dcrops, w i t h timely prevention of their e l i m i n a t i o n by fast-spreading new cultivars.I B P G R and I C R I S A T , w i t h their cooperators, have prepared standard descriptor listsand d o c u m e n t a t i o n procedures. There is an on-going effort to make collections inp r i o r i t y crops and regions in spite of difficulties in the movement of material acrosscontinents because of quarantine and other controls. The m o b i l i z a t i o n of w o r l dcollections has greatly benefitted crops of the semi-arid tropics w h i c h f o r m the staplefood in several developing countries. These crops are n o r m a l l y g r o w n under m a r g i n a lconditions and have high local adaptation. The S o r g h u m Conversion P r o g r a m inPuerto R i c o , for example, helped sorghum p r o d u c t i o n in the U S A as m u c h as in thetropics of Asia and A f r i c a , and extended the range of adaptation of the cultivarsglobally.D w a r f i n g Genes a n d Biomass P r o d u c t i o nThe u t i l i z a t i o n of genes for d w a r f i n g and photoperiod insensitivity f r o m local varieties,to restructure plant type in the major cereals, has enormously i m p r o v e d theirp r o d u c t i v i t y and range of adaptation, and has added stability to p r o d u c t i o n , as isevident in the national coordinated crop improvement programs. The next q u a n t u mj u m p in cereal yield for the 21st century requires a greater diversification of the geneticbase, i n c l u d i n g cytoplasmic diversity, since o n l y a small fraction of the w o r l d collectionshave actually entered the parentage of present-day advanced lines.The Dee-gee-Woogen and N o r i n d w a r f i n g genes in rice and wheat and similar genesin sorghum and millet have complex functions, influencing a constellation of characters.These genes i m p r o v e the p a r t i t i o n i n g of d r y matter w i t h o u t a significant increasein the total biomass p r o d u c t i o n . Hence there is an urgent need to evaluate the w o r l dcollections f o r higher biomass to complement the superior harvest index. Transfer ofalternate sources of d w a r f i n g w i t h rapid biomass accumulation, traits f o u n d in somewinter wheats, the Assam rice collection, new d w a r f i n g genes in millet at I C R I S A T ,and in the sorghums of L a t i n A m e r i c a , i n t o i m p r o v e d types, is essential.I C R I S A T (International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics), 1989. Collaboration onGenetic Resources: summary proceedings of a Joint I C R I S A T / NBPGR(ICAR) Workshop on GermplasmExploration and Evaluation in India, 14-15 Nov 1988, I C R I S A T Center, India. Patancheru, A.P. 502 324,India: I C R I S A T .41

F o r a planned transfer of these genes i n t o advanced cultivars, basic studies areneeded on adaptation mechanisms of genotypes to moisture, disease, soil, and climaticstresses, and on the biochemical basis of their resistance to such biotic and abioticfactors. The adaptive mechanisms of genotypes w i t h potentially high biomass underthese stress conditions need special attention.N e w T o o l s f r o m F r o n t i e r SciencesFrontier sciences like biotechnology n o w provide the tools for the transfer of specificD N A s i n t o new cultivars. S i m i l a r l y , protoplast fusion can be utilized to reconstitute anew cytoplasmic base f r o m the existing diverse cytoplasms, to produce more productivecytosteriles. The sequencing of the D N A of the diverse sources of d w a r f i n g , forexample, to distinguish c o m m o n and contrasting features, w i l l aid the i n c o r p o r a t i o nof m u l t i p l e sources of efficient physiological mechanisms. Genetic analysis at themolecular level, as is being done in soybean about the basic processes of n o d u l a t i o nusing n o n n o d u l a t i n g , supernodulating, and n o r m a l genotypes, can be applied to otherleguminous crops. The i n h i b i t o r s produced by the shoot in localizing n o d u l a t i o n insoybean helps us to better understand transcription and translation mechanisms in thegenetics of n o d u l a t i o n . A similar evaluation in chickpea, pigeonpea, and g r o u n d n u t isrecommended.A m o n g the drought-tolerant landraces, stage-specific resistance (rather than resistanceover the entire g r o w t h period) is c o m m o n at the seedling, mid-season, or t e r m i n a lstage, as in some of the upland rices in I n d i a . Since such stage-specific adaptations aredue to diverse physiological mechanisms, integrating those genes i n t o one genotype toface the r a n d o m d r o u g h t in S A T countries requires biotechnological expertise forspecific D N A transfer.Landraces as Genetic C o m p o n e n t s of StabilityAn analysis of the parentage of the widely adapted high-yielding cultivars indicatesthat the p o o l i n g of the diverse gene blocks for adaptation f r o m different landraceshave c o n t r i b u t e d to their wider adaptation to various stresses. Such examples are IR60, IR 36 and IR 42 in rice; C 306, HD 2189, Chenab 70, Sholey and Bijiga yellow inwheat; JG 62, BG 203, G 130 and K 850 in chickpea; C S H 5, C S H 9 and CS 3541 insorghum; BK 560, W C - C 75, Pusa 23 and I C M H 423 in millet, to m e n t i o n a few. Thereis need f o r an indepth study of these mechanisms of adaptation.Cytoplasmic constituent stability is evident in protoplast fusion products and forreciprocal crosses i n v o l v i n g o n l y female parent. The conversion p r o g r a m needs to takethis i n t o consideration. The analysis o f the m t D N A isozyme pattern i n landraces w i l lbe necessary to characterize these genetic stocks more precisely.The genetics of characters associated w i t h adaptation in landraces needs to bestudied in crosses between landraces and high-yielding cultivars and the i n f o r m a t i o nincluded i n the d o c u m e n t a t i o n o n the landraces. The sequencing o f D N A o f landracesw i t h specific adaptation, e.g., salt and d r o u g h t tolerance, w i l l be useful.42

The genetic diversity in natural populations w i t h specific or wide adaptation can beassessed by the M a r k o v process of estimating nucleotide substitution rates. Generally,natural m u t a t i o n rates are very high under some specific ecological conditions. Suchan analysis w o u l d be w o r t h w h i l e in the Rajasthan and Ghana collections of pearlmillet, the sorghums of Sudan and Ethiopia, and the chickpeas of E t h i o p i a and S o u t hI r a n , w h i c h are a l l adapted to severe environmental stress. S i m u l a t i o n studies usingavailable data o n specific isozyme loci w i l l be useful supplements i n analyzing adaptati o n in specific w o r l d collections.Genetic Analysis of W o r l d CollectionsTo understand the mechanisms of adaptation and evolution particularly in landraces,more genetic i n f o r m a t i o n needs to be obtained d u r i n g the evaluation process. Thef o l l o w i n g approaches must be considered.• Use of R F L P as genetic markers and their p o l y m o r p h i s m analyzed for assessmento f diversity between location-specific widely adapted accessions w i l l be o f use.• Cytoplasmic differentiation can be examined by a n a l y z i n g organelle D N A w i t hemphasis o n m t D N A rather than c t D N A , and l o o k i n g for unique types o f m tD N A in indigenous races, as is being done in maize.• Simple and complex probes in R F L P studies to trace the c o n t r i b u t i o n of differentlandraces to the germplasm used in the breeding p r o g r a m w i l l be useful supplementsto o r g a n e l l e - D N A analysis.• W o r k on protoplast fusion to produce cybrids f r o m diverse cytoplasms needs to bestrengthened. These cybrids can be examined for mt D N A and ct D N A recombinants.If these cytoplasmic constituents are stable, it is possible to m a i n t a i n thefunctional diversity of the protoplast fusion products w i t h o u t d i s r u p t i n g the adaptativegene blocks i n m t D N A .Diversification of Genetic Base in P l a n t Breeding P r o g r a m sThe diversity in present-day advanced lines in regional trials indicates that the gainsalready realized by the l i m i t e d use of genetic resources in the released cultivars can beaccelerated by a sustained effort for a wider genetic base. A l t h o u g h several varietieswere released d u r i n g the past 15 years (322 in rice, 167 in wheat, 46 in maize, 40 insorghum, 32 in pearl millet, 68 in chickpea, and 65 in g r o u n d n u t ) , o n l y a few areextensively g r o w n by farmers and all these are releases of a decade or longer. F o rexample, Sonalika, released in 1965 is still the most popular wheat cultivar f o l l o w e db y H D 2285, H D 2329, H D 2189, and H D 2009 released d u r i n g 1974-79. A similarsituation exists in rice w i t h IR 36, I E T 1444, Mashoore, and IR 20 released d u r i n g1966-81. Ratna, the upland rice released in 1970 is yet to be replaced by a bettervariety. In sorghum, C S H 5 and C S H 9 released in 1974 and 1981 are the r u l i n ghybrids. In pearl millet, BK 560 released in 1975 is still popular, f o l l o w e d by W C - C 7 5of 1982. In maize, Ganga 5, and some others, released 10-15 years ago, are still43

extensively g r o w n . W h i l e the stability of such varieties over l o n g periods is interesting,their adaptation mechanisms are not adequately understood. The genetic architectureof the subsequently released cultivars must be studied if they are to contribute to adiversified genetic base. Some of the recent pearl millet hybrids, e.g., Pusa 23, I C M H4 5 1 , and I C M H 423, are the results of such a planned diversification based on studiesof adaptation under stress. U t i l i z a t i o n patterns of the large collections already available,and the l i m i t e d and uneven field performance of varieties released in the lastdecade must be carefully studied. An analysis of their pedigree and selection methodo l o g y is necessary for the i n t r o d u c t i o n of new genes f r o m other sources in the w o r l dcollection, to remedy the above situation.An e x a m i n a t i o n of the parentage of the advanced lines in the regional trials d u r i n g1987-88 has indicated the genetic constraints l i m i t i n g their p r o d u c t i v i t y . Of 620 wheatentries, a m a j o r i t y are based o n four varieties, H D 2009, H D 2160, H D 2281, andS-308, w h i c h are themselves of a complex parentage. It is necessary to further widenthe base if the present yield barrier is to be broken. The use of more winter wheats orintermediate forms in crossing is proposed. In rice t o o , a similar situation appears toexist. I n the case o f sorghum and millet, further success w i l l depend o n the diversificati o n of the cytoplasmic base as the present conversion of male steriles are restricted toone cytoplasmic source. The postrainy-season sorghum improvement is still to takeoff. The widely used material f r o m Sudan, Ethiopia, C a m e r o o n , Yemen, and Nigeriashould be considered along w i t h M a l d a n d i lines and Central I n d i a n materials. It isnecessary to characterize the i m p o r t a n t genetic resource, i.e., cytoplasm, b i o c h e m i -cally and at the molecular level by fractionating m i t o c h o n d r i a l D N A for furtherm a n i p u l a t i o n of productive cytosteriles.Even a m o n g the legumes, e.g., chickpea, where considerable h y b r i d i z a t i o n hastaken place over the past 15 years, the advanced lines under testing are mostly based onfive varieties: G 130, C 214, BG 203, K 850, and C 235. The best lines w i t h consistentperformance over the past 3 years are only t w o , W B L 12 and GZ 769. The yielddifference in the Central Z o n e between the checks (1300-1500 kg ha - 1 ) and theadvanced lines (950-1665 kg ha - 1 ) is very small, m u c h below the expectations based ona wide crossing p r o g r a m . An analysis of their parental lines and infusion of othergenotypes f r o m the w o r l d collection is called for.It is interesting to compare the yield advances made in sorghum and millet whereconsiderable effort was made to mobilize w o r l d collections w i t h those of u p l a n d riceand rainfed wheat where large collections are also available. In the I E T t r i a l undertimely sowing, of 25 entries of d u r u m wheat, the c o n t r o l M e g h d o o t yielded 1620 kgha - 1 as against the mean of 1530 kg of a l l the other entries. In the rainfed bread wheatt r i a l in the Eastern Z o n e , C 306, the check released over 30 years ago yielded 1900 kgha - 1 compared to 1960 kg ha - 1 , the mean of the six entries, the difference not beingsignificant. The rainfed regional t r i a l revealed that NI 5439, a check, yielded 1600 kgha - 1 compared to 1200-1370 kg of the other best five entries. The yield performance inthe upland rice p r o g r a m was similar to that of rainfed wheat. It w o u l d appear that agreater effort in rainfed wheat and rice can be effective o n l y if the available geneticresources including the new collections are mobilized as is being done in s o r g h u m andmillets.44

O v e r c o m i n g S o m e Constraints in M o b i l i z i n g Genetic ResourcesGreater attention by b o t h N a t i o n a l and International Genetic Resources organizationsmay be considered on the f o l l o w i n g aspects of generation of material for regionalproblems, testing in contrasting environments, w i t h emphasis on feedback on theevaluation of w o r k i n g collections in m u l t i l o c a t i o n testing.• Evidence is accumulating that stress tolerance to biotic and a biotic factors and highyield potential are likely to be due to independent mechanisms. Simultaneousscreening of w o r l d collections for biomass, yield potential and stress tolerance inspecific stress environments is needed.• Intermediate forms i n c l u d i n g natural and man-made introgression products can betreated as genetic stocks for evaluation as revealed by the u t i l i t y of such forms asPennisetum typhoides x P. violaceum in the sub-Saharan regions. These productsretain their adaptation to stress and are far more useful to breeders than theproducts of synthetic species hybrids.• Creation of complex h y b r i d i z a t i o n products i n v o l v i n g several landraces and intermediateforms of introgression, and their supply to regional centres for selection inlocal conditions w i l l accelerate the m o b i l i z a t i o n o f germplasm. Feedback o n thistesting can be incorporated in the documentation.• Creation of gene pools for groups of i m p o r t a n t characters in cross-pollinated cropsw i l l permit easy management o f the genetic material and availability for ready use,w h i c h is difficult for i n d i v i d u a l accessions. Diverse sources of cytoplasms (cytosteriles)can be used to create such gene pools in b o t h self-and cross-pollinated crops.This w i l l also p r o m o t e recombination on a wider scale.• Regular exchange of i n f o r m a t i o n between users and genetic resources units onregional problems needing identification of suitable genotypes, decentralization ofgeneration of material, and testing of core collections in contrasting environmentsw i l l accelerate the m o b i l i z a t i o n o f the several useful stocks already identified.W h i l e logistic difficulties exist in the evaluation of large collections over severallocations, it is desirable to evaluate representative core collections in m u l t i -environmental testing to understand the mechanisms of adaptation for a set ofi m p o r t a n t variables like root activity, m a t u r i t y , g r o w t h pattern, d u r a t i o n of flowerin g / g r a i n f i l l i n g , disease and pest resistance, and related physiological parameters.This is necessary if one is to comprehend the t o t a l i t y of G * E interactions of a l l thesevariables taken together. This is possible using multivariate procedures like m u l t i d i -mensional scaling and p r i n c i p a l coordinates analysis combined w i t h regression analysesas was attempted recently in maize. S i m u l a t i o n studies using the existing data oncharacter combinations in the w o r l d collections can be used to predict a plant typew i t h higher p r o d u c t i o n potential and adaptation, or to formulate a set of usefulideotypes in tropical legumes and oilseeds where the present efforts of restructuringthe plant type are meeting w i t h only l i m i t e d success.The importance of genetic resources for the future of m a n k i n d cannot be m i n i -mized, as illustrated above, p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h the fluctuating p r o d u c t i o n of f o o d cropsin several semi-arid t r o p i c a l regions, and even in U S A , where the recent d r o u g h tattributed to the greenhouse effect has been devastating. W i t h the identification ofspecific genes and genotypes after critical evaluation of the w o r l d collections, and the45

u t i l i z a t i o n of m o d e r n tools, it is not difficult to transfer several useful genes i n t opresent-day cultivars to achieve the next breakthrough in the yield barrier. It musttherefore be concluded that the available w o r l d collections offer genetic diversity ofgreat potential for increased and sustainable crop p r o d u c t i v i t y .46

IBPGR's Objectives and Plan of Work in South and Southeast AsiaJ . M . M . EngelsIBPGR Coordinator for South and Southeast Asia, c/o NBPGR, Pusa Campus, New DelhiPast AchievementsThe I n t e r n a t i o n a l Board for Plant Genetic Resources ( I B P G R ) was formed by theConsultative G r o u p on International A g r i c u l t u r a l Research ( C G I A R ) in 1974 to focuson collecting threatened germplasm and establishing facilities and methods for l o n g -term conservation t h r o u g h a coordinated international network. Some of its majorpast achievements are:• The development of a global network of gene banks to conserve this germplasm. Atpresent, the network comprises over 50 effectively operating gene banks in developingand developed countries.• The s t i m u l a t i o n of other institutions on national, regional, and international levelsto assume the responsibility to collect, characterize, and store plant genetic resources.These gene banks n o w operate in over 100 countries and range f r o m emergentnational entities to highly sophisticated centers in the C G I A R .• The establishment of priorities by species and regions for the collection of threatenedgermplasm. Over 400 collection missions w o r l d w i d e were organized a n d / o rsupported.• The support to train some 1300 individuals in all aspects of genetic resourcesconservation and utilization.• The standardization of characterization and evaluation w o r k t h r o u g h the producti o n of descriptor lists for all major crop species.• The publication and dissemination of scientific reports, directories, andnewsletters.I B P G R ' s E x t e n d e d M a n d a t eIn 1986 the C G I A R approved an extended mandate to enable I B P G R to catalyzewhatever actions were needed to support and widen the already existing global geneticresources network. This mandate is:" T o further the study, collection, preservation, documenta t i o n , evaluation, and u t i l i z a t i o n of the genetic diversityof useful plants f o r the benefit of people t h r o u g h o u t thew o r l d . I B P G R shall act as a catalyst b o t h w i t h i n andI C R I S A T (International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics), 1989. Collaboration onGenetic Resources: summary proceedings of a Joint I C R I S A T / NBPGR(ICAR) Workshop on GermplasmExploration and Evaluation in India, 14-15 Nov 1988, I C R I S A T Center, India. Patancheru, A.P, 502 324,India: I C R I S A T .47

outside the C G I A R system in s t i m u l a t i n g the a c t i o nneeded to sustain a viable n e t w o r k of institutions f o r theconservation of genetic resources f o r these plants".A f t e r focussing f o r a decade or so on collecting p r i o r i t y crops and establishing an e t w o r k of base collections t h r o u g h direct technical and scientific support as well ast r a i n i n g , I B P G R started reorganizing its p r o g r a m and staffing to meet the newrequirements. The need f o r strategic and a p p r o p r i a t e research in plant genetic resourcesconservation a n d u t i l i z a t i o n is being f u l l y recognized and this is reflected in theestablishment of a Research P r o g r a m .Basic P r o g r a m StructureThe basic p r o g r a m components of I B P G R are, f o r administrative and managementreasons, organized in three m a j o r thrusts: a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , field p r o g r a m , andresearch. The nine components and their m a j o r elements are listed below.1. A d m i n i s t r a t i o n — s u p p o r t f o r all I B P G R activities, operations, committees, etc.2. Technical services—provision of technical support and i n f o r m a t i o n to all staff andthe scientific c o m m u n i t y ; public affairs, publications, and library.3. G l o b a l genetic resources n e t w o r k — d e v e l o p m e n t a l activities w i t h the centres,i n c l u d i n g fostering base and active collections, and data management and transfer.4. G e r m p l a s m acquisition — m o n i t o r i n g degree of genetic erosion, collecting threatenedgermplasm, supplementing existing gaps in germplasm, and f a c i l i t a t i n g germplasmf l o w on a global scale.5. G e r m p l a s m characterization a n d evaluation — standardization of procedures toprocess, store, and distribute characterization and evaluation data. D a t a acquisiti o n , data analysis, a p p l i c a t i o n , and evaluation strategy are the p r o g r a m elements.6. T r a i n i n g — t h e development of conceptual, technical, and managerial skillst h r o u g h support of m a n p o w e r t r a i n i n g . This involves postgraduate t r a i n i n g , specializedshort technical courses, i n d i v i d u a l t r a i n i n g , a n d intern fellowships.7. In v i t r o culture research — development of in v i t r o techniques f o r the collection,conservation, and exchange of genotypes f o r " r e c a l c i t r a n t " species, i n c l u d i n gcollection a n d tissue culture technology, disease i n d e x i n g and therapy, cryopreserva t i o n , genetic stability, a n d a pilot study f o r in v i t r o gene banks.8. Genetic diversity r e s e a r c h — t o enhance o u r understanding of the o r i g i n , e v o l u t i o n ,and v a r i a t i o n patterns of c r o p gene pools. This includes species m a p p i n g , ecogeographicstudies, development of biochemical methods of description, a n d researchon w i l d relatives in p r i o r i t y c r o p gene pools.9. Seed conservation r e s e a r c h — t o establish a n d implement standards f o r seed storage.This effort includes study of physiology of stored seeds, their genetic stability,d o r m a n c y , regeneration, a n d genetic integrity, as well as nondestructive diseasei n d e x i n g .48

W o r k P l a n o f the I B P G R Office for S o u t h a n d Southeast AsiaTo enable I B P G R to function more effectively, a series of offices a r o u n d the w o r l dhave been established. T w o new offices were opened in Asia in 1988, one in N e w D e l h ifor South and Southeast Asia (replacing the previous office for Southeast Asia inB a n g k o k ) , and the other one in Beijing for China and East Asia. Besides facilitatinga n d / o r c o o r d i n a t i n g field activities i n areas o f great genetic diversity, these offices w i l l :• Advise, assist, and stimulate national programs on plant genetic resources in theirendeavor to conserve and utilize genetic resources.• Initiate, coordinate a n d / o r catalyze regional activities, especially in the field ofcollecting and characterizing germplasm.• Participate in scientific w o r k to strengthen national efforts, including hands-ondemonstrations, maintenance of I B P G R standards for germplasm conservation,m o n i t o r i n g of genetic erosion, gathering i n f o r m a t i o n , and periodic assessment ofactivities.• Establish and update computerized databases for plant genetic resources activitiesin each c o u n t r y of the region.• Liaise w i t h the International A g r i c u l t u r a l Research Centers ( I A R C s ) , F A O C o m -mission, bilateral funded genetic resources projects, and relevant nongovernmentalorganizations.• Participate in a n d / o r coordinate regional meetings, workshops, t r a i n i n g courses,etc., and assist in their organization.• Provide a scientific evaluation of all field project proposals submitted f r o m theregion for I B P G R support.The f o l l o w i n g specific activities are planned by the I B P G R Office for S o u t h andSoutheast Asia for the near future:• Assist in the establishment of national plant genetic resources programs in c o u n -tries like B hutan, Kampuchea, Laos, and V i e t n a m .• Assist and advise recently established national gene banks to become fully operati o n a l (i.e., S r i L a n k a , B u r m a , T h a i l a n d , and Philippines).• Analyze past collection activities, define existing "gaps" and collect germplasm,especially w i l d species a n d / o r landraces of p r i o r i t y crops accordingly (i.e. Vignaspp, aroids, a l l i u m , okra, eggplant, Brassica spp, Mangifera spp, Musa spp, Citrusspp, sugarcane, rice, and maize), but give also due emphasis to national/ regionalpriorities and needs (i.e. m i n o r crops).• Assist and activate the development of a global crop network in the region bycoordinating global collection, conservation, and u t i l i z a t i o n activities w h i c hI B P G R w i l l help to establish. P r i o r i t y w i l l be given for the time being t o banana,groundnut, okra, sweet potato, and safflower.• Encourage and support the use of locally adapted germplasm in the nationalbreeding programs.• Organize regional t r a i n i n g courses on genetic resources management aspects w h i c hlack trained personnel.• Coordinate genetic resources activities w i t h the I A R C s in complementing ratherthan duplicating their efforts.49

• Foster the free f l o w of germplasm between the member states of the region as wellas w i t h the rest of the w o r l d .• Publish regularly (perhaps quarterly) a continental A s i a n Germplasm B u l l e t i n ;assist in the publication of relevant national or regional scientific findings in thefield of germplasm conservation, evaluation and u t i l i z a t i o n .• Initiate relevant applied research activities and help b u i l d up local researchcapabilities.• Pursue the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of the activities laid d o w n in the M e m o r a n d u m ofUnderstanding between the Government of I n d i a and I B P G R .50

Session I I I : Germplasm Exploration, Collection,Evaluation, Documentation, Exchange,Quarantine, and Conservation

ICRISAT/NBPGR Collaborative Exploration ProgramR.K. Arora, S. Appa Rao, and M . N . KopparOfficiating Director, NBPGR, Pusa Campus, New Delhi;Botanist, Genetic Resources Unit, ICRISAT, Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh; andActing Head, Plant Exploration Division, NBPGR, New DelhiI n d i a is extremely rich in plant genetic resources. This subcontinent is a center ofdiversity for the I C R I S A T mandate crops, a m o n g w h i c h a great deal of variabilityoccurs. The area is also k n o w n for its richness in w i l d species, particularly of pigeonpea.Considering the region's potential as a gene center, N B P G R and I C R I S A T havebeen operating for well over a decade in different areas of the country, to collect nativevariability, p r i m i t i v e cultivars, w i l d species, etc., so as to enhance the existing geneticwealth. W i t h the c o m m o n objective of tapping germplasm resources, specifically ofthe I C R I S A T mandate crops w h i c h are also of national p r i o r i t y , G R U - I C R I S A T andN B P G R - 1 C A R w o r k e d out a j o i n t strategy in 1985 for e x p l o r a t i o n and evaluationw i t h i n I n d i a , and a 5-year p r o g r a m was framed. The effort made to collect germplasmd u r i n g 1986-88 is discussed.P r i o r i t y Areas for E x p l o r a t i o nI C R I S A T and N B P G R have j o i n t l y worked out the areas for germplasm collectionkeeping in view the threat of genetic erosion, d i s t r i b u t i o n of native types, w i l d species,etc. Some of these areas are contiguous agroecological zones, others are more sporadic,ecologically diverse/exacting habitats. M a j o r p r i o r i t y areas for e x p l o r a t i o n forI C R I S A T mandate crops, their w i l d relatives, and related species are as follows.Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor ( L . ) Moench). Eastern U t t a r Pradesh, northern Biharand adjacent West Bengal, A d i l a b a d and adjoining areas in A n d h r a Pradesh andMaharashtra, the Jhabua district in M a d h y a Pradesh and adjoining h i l l y areas,northwestern sub-Himalayan region, northeastern h i l l y regions, and the plains ofAssam.Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum ( L . ) R . B r . ) . Western Rajasthan, Gujarat, M a d h y aPradesh, northern U t t a r Pradesh for cultivated, and peninsular region, northwesternsub-Himalayan region, Orissa, Bihar, West Bengal and Maharashtra for w i l d species.Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L . ) . Rajasthan (around Ganganagar), northwesternHimalayas ( w i l d types), Gujarat (Junagadh), Bihar (Sabor), and Maharashtra.I C R I S A T (International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics), 1989. Collaboration onGenetic Resources: summary proceedings of a Joint I C R I S A T / NBPGR(ICAR) Workshop on GermplasmExploration and Evaluation in India, 14-15 Nov 1988, I C R I S A T Center, India. Patancheru, A.P. 502 324,India: ICRISAT.53

Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan ( L . ) Millsp.). Western Ghats, eastern/ northeastern hills( w i l d species), n o r t h Bihar and eastern U t t a r Pradesh, n o r t h K a r n a t a k a (for gardentypes) and eastern Maharashtra, M a d h y a Pradesh, and Orissa.Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L . ) . Haryana, Rajasthan, M a d h y a Pradesh, U t t a rPradesh, and Bihar (sporadic in central and southern peninsular tract).E x p l o r a t i o n s U n d e r t a k e n a n d Diversity CollectedSo far I C R I S A T and N B P G R have launched 11 expeditions in 10 different states ofI n d i a and have collected 2202 samples of I C R I S A T mandate crops and their w i l drelatives comprising sorghum (364), pearl millet (913), pigeonpea (100), chickpea(412), g r o u n d n u t (200), and m i n o r millets (213). These are detailed in Table 1 and arediscussed below.Table 1 . Germplasm collection missions launched j o i n t l y b y I C R I S A T and N B P G Rand n u m b e r of samples collected, 1986-88.N u m b e r o f samples 1State(s)YearS GP MC P P P G NM MT o t a lRajasthan andH a r y a n a198611125-136A n d h r a Pradesh,Bihar, Orissa andM a d h y a Pradesh1986 177325 16 3088348M a d h y a Pradesh1986-198 28(2) --228M a d h y a Pradesh1987-157 51(1) --209K a r n a t a k a1987 40(1)181(5)2 1 1618264T a m i l N a d u a n d Kerala19874- 1262132T a m i l N a d u1987 18270(8)146343T a m i l N a d u1987 115(13)8-16152G u j a r a t1988-50-50Coastal A n d h r a Pradesh198893343139H a r y a n a1988201- - --201T o t a l350(14)900(13)412 97(3) 20021322021. SG: sorghum, PM: pearl millet, CP: chickpea, PP: pigeonpea, GN: groundnut, and M M : minor millets.2. Figures in parentheses refer to number of wild relatives.54

SorghumThe expedition to the predominantly tribal-inhabited areas of A n d h r a Pradesh, Bihar,Orissa, and M a d h y a Pradesh in November 1986 resulted in the collection of 177samples of sorghum, a m a j o r i t y belonging to the races "guinea" and " r o x b u r g h i i " .They g r o w over 3 m tall w i t h o u t tillers and the inflorescences are large and loose w i t hd r o o p i n g branches. The clasping glumes expose the small white grain. The Bastar areaappears to be a transitional zone for the races r o x b u r g h i i , guinea, and durra. Panicumsumatrense and Paspalum scrobiculatum are extensively g r o w n in the t r i b a l areas ofOrissa and Bihar. Pennisetum pedicellatum is found in most of the areas along theroadside and on the bunds. P. hohenackeri locally called " u p i r i " a r o u n d Bastar is usedto make ropes. Other collections made d u r i n g this exploration included pearl millet(32), pigeonpea (16), chickpea (5), g r o u n d n u t (30), and 88 samples of m i n o r millets.The h i l l y / subhilly parts of A n n a m a l a i in T a m i l N a d u were surveyed in December1987 to collect w i l d relatives and p r i m i t i v e cultivars of sorghum. Collections include115 samples of p r i m i t i v e cultivars of sorghum belonging to races guinea, bicolor, anddurra, and 13 samples of w i l d sorghum w h i c h included a rare w i l d type, S. nitidum.Eight samples of pearl millet and 16 of m i n o r millets were also collected.Pearl MilletThe collection mission to the d r y areas of the northern and eastern districts ofKarnataka d u r i n g O c t / N o v 1987 yielded 264 samples of w h i c h 181 are cultivated pearlmillet. It is g r o w n m i x e d w i t h pigeonpea, g r o u n d n u t , or m o t h bean. M o s t of the pearlmillet samples appear to be dual-purpose types g r o w n b o t h for grain and fodder. Theincidence of d o w n y mildew and ergot on pearl millet was sporadic. Other germplasmcollected include 40 sorghum, 2 chickpea, 1 pigeonpea, 16 groundnut, and 18 m i n o rmillets samples besides w i l d relatives of Pennisetum (5) and S o r g h u m (1).A pearl millet collection mission to T a m i l N a d u d u r i n g December 1987 yielded 270cultivated and 8 w i l d samples of Pennisetum, 18 sorghum, 1 pigeonpea, and 46 m i n o rmillets samples.A j o i n t e x p l o r a t i o n to the northeast coastal areas of A n d h r a Pradesh d u r i n gSeptember 1988 resulted in the collection of 93 early m a t u r i n g pearl millet and 43finger millet samples. B o t h pearl millet and finger millet are transplanted in furrowsopened by a wooden plough. Farmers believe that raising a nursery of seedlings offersbetter weed c o n t r o l , g o o d crop stand, and reduces crop d u r a t i o n in the m a i n field. Theearly m a t u r i n g pearl millet is called "pittaganti".Haryana, an i m p o r t a n t pearl millet g r o w i n g state was j o i n t l y explored d u r i n gSep/Oct 1988. P r i m i t i v e cultivars are still g r o w n in isolated/ remote areas, especiallyon sand dunes a r o u n d L o h a r u , N a r n a u l , C h i r i y a , and other areas. A p r i m i t i v e typecalled " b a j r i " grows to a height of about 125 c m , produces m a n y very t h i n stems w i t hsequential m a t u r i t y of spikes. The spikes are very small, t h i n , seeds are looselyarranged, and the glumes almost cover the small oval grain. A dual-purpose f o r mcalled " d h o l s a r i " is g r o w n a r o u n d C h o u d h a r i - k i - N a n g a l for grain and fodder. It grows55

over 3 m t a l l , produces very thick stems and dark green leaves. The spikes are t h i c k andm e d i u m sized. Further, some special forms w h i c h produce spikes more than 40 cmlong were f o u n d a r o u n d N a r n a u l , Pilani in Rajasthan, and in some isolated areas.Smut was very c o m m o n , p r o b a b l y due to heavy rains d u r i n g flowering. Sincei m p r o v e d cultivars and local landraces are g r o w n in adjacent fields, there is scope forexchange of genes between the t w o forms. Recombinants w i t h desirable characterscould be useful in millet improvement.ChickpeaIn 1986, an expedition was organized to western M a d h y a Pradesh d u r i n g w h i c h 198chickpea samples were collected, representing large-seeded, gulabi (suitable for parching),k a b u l i , tuberculated seed-surface types, and twin-podded types. Some 28 pigeonpeaand 2 Atylosia scarabaeoides samples were also collected.A survey of the eastern part of M a d h y a Pradesh in 1987 in c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t hJawaharlal N e h r u K r i s h i Viswa Vidyalaya ( J N K V V ) , Sehore, resulted in collectionsof 157 chickpea samples comprising tuberculated-seed (katila), typical desi, "peelachana", gulabi, twin-podded ("do ghanti"), large-seeded desi (dabbo), and k a b u l itypes. C o l l a r rot was observed to be an i m p o r t a n t disease of chickpea in M a d h y aPradesh. C r o p losses due to Alternaria blight and excessive vegetative g r o w t h werealso seen a r o u n d Jabalpur. Diverse types of pigeonpea (51 samples) and a sample ofAtylosia scarabaeoides were also collected.In 1987, the Zanskar valley in the L a d a k h region was surveyed to collect geneticdiversity in Cicer microphyllum. Samples f r o m 14 different populations were collected.Collections made represented variability in seed size ( m e d i u m b o l d / s m a l ltypes), seed color (deep black to b r o w n ) , and pod-bearing potential.The coastal areas in Gujarat - Junagadh, A m r e l i , Bhavnagar and A h m e d a b a ddistricts - were explored and 50 seed samples collected d u r i n g M a r c h 1988, incollaboration w i t h the N B P G R regional station, J o d h p u r and Gujarat A g r i c u l t u r a lUniversity, Junagadh.PigeonpeaPigeonpea germplasm was collected m a i n l y f r o m M a d h y a Pradesh, d u r i n g explorationsundertaken to collect chickpea in 1986-87. An effort was also made in Meghalayato locate Atylosia elongata d u r i n g 1987-88. Recently, this was located in its naturalhabitat and collection o f ripe pods, etc. w i l l be made i n the future.GroundnutA collection mission to the g r o u n d n u t - g r o w i n g areas of T a m i l N a d u and Keralad u r i n g N o v - D e c 1987 resulted in the collection of 132 samples w h i c h included 126g r o u n d n u t , 4 sorghum and 2 finger millet.56

Geographic Diversity a n d A d a p t a t i o nConsiderable diversity was observed in the germplasm collected w h i c h m i g h t haveevolved to adapt to the diverse agroclimatic conditions in I n d i a . F o r example, veryearly m a t u r i n g types w i t h profuse nodal tillering were g r o w n on the sand dunes ofH a r y a n a and Rajasthan where soil moisture is a l i m i t i n g factor. In contrast, thelong-duration types of sorghum and pearl millet g r o w n in the t r i b a l areas of the EsternGhats escape grain molds by m a t u r i n g after the rains cease.F u t u r e EmphasisThe untapped/ underexplored and other p r o m i s i n g areas w i l l be surveyed f o r germplasmcollection. An exercise to this effect has already been initiated by N B P G R andI C R I S A T . The collection o f w i l d species should be emphasized. Some areas o fvariability, particularly the sub-Himalayan h i l l y tracts in western/northeasternregions, w o u l d need t h o r o u g h surveying. A n o t h e r p r o m i s i n g area for sorghum andpigeonpea germplasm w o u l d be the I n d o - B u r m a border, in A r u n a c h a l Pradesh,Nagaland, M a n i p u r , and T r i p u r a . N B P G R recently opened t w o more centres atRanchi and Srinagar and these stations w i l l also undertake e x p l o r a t i o n . Thus, apartf r o m the Headquarters E x p l o r a t i o n D i v i s i o n , 11 Stations w i l l undertake germplasmcollection based on the p r o g r a m for the 5-year period. J o i n t efforts by I C R I S A T andN B P G R should prove rewarding in this time-bound venture.57

ICRISAT/NBPGR Joint Evaluation of Germplasm in IndiaT.A. Thomas, K.E. Prasada Rao and R.P.S. PundirHead, Division of Germplasm Evaluation, NBPGR, New Delhi;Senior Botanist, and Botanist, Genetic Resources Unit, ICRISAT, Patancheru, Andhra PradeshA j o i n t I C R I S A T / N B P G R p r o g r a m to evaluate the germplasm of I C R I S A T m a n -date crops was started f r o m the 1986 rainy season. The trials were conducted atN B P G R ' s Headquarters at New D e l h i and its regional stations at A k o l a , Jodhpur,T r i c h u r , and at other centers according to the plan. The details of i n d i v i d u a l crops foreach year are discussed below.S o r g h u mSorghum germplasm was evaluated for photoperiod sensitivity, forage, and for use asa dual-purpose crop.Evaluation for Photoperiod SensitivityT w o thousand accessions of photoperiod-sensitive sorghum were g r o w n at H i s a r ( 2 9 °10'N, 75° 44'E) and T r i c h u r (10° 15'N, 76° 18'E) d u r i n g the 1986 rainy season. AtT r i c h u r , only 964 entries survived up to the flowering stage, while 110 entries floweredw i t h i n 120 days. In others, flowering ranged f r o m 126-180 days. Nineteen characterswere studied: early seedling vigor, days to 50% flowering, mean number of floweringstems (basal tillers), nodal tillering, stem thickness, number of nodes, internodalexposure, p h y l l o t a x y , presence of stilt roots, plant height, head exsertion, headcompactness and shape, head length, head w i d t h , number of leaves, plant aspect score,leaf w i d t h , grain yield per plot, and natural incidence of diseases and insect pests. Thesame accessions were again g r o w n d u r i n g the 1987 rainy season for evaluation of theirphotoperiod sensitivity. A t o t a l of 1957 collections survived, of w h i c h 156 d i d notflower under local conditions. They remained stunted and died before flowering.F l o w e r i n g in others ranged f r o m 49-201 days. Plant height ranged f r o m 100-400 c m ,total number of leaves varied f r o m 7-35, inflorescence length ranged f r o m 5.1 -75.0 c m ,inflorescence w i d t h f r o m 10-35 c m , and leaf w i d t h f r o m 1.1-13.0 c m . In general,flowering was delayed by at least 15 days as compared to I C R I S A T Center, and it wasdecided that Hisar was not a suitable location for evaluation of photoperiod-sensitivegermplasm.I C R I S A T (International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics), 1989. Collaboration onGenetic Resources: summary proceedings of a Joint I C R I S A T / NBPGR(ICAR) Workshop on GermplasmExploration and Evaluation in India, 14-15 Nov 1988, I C R I S A T Center, India. Patancheru, A.P. 502 324,India: I C R I S A T .59

Evaluation of Forage, Grain, and Dual-Purpose TypesOne thousand a n d five hundred accessions of forage sorghum were evaluated forfodder yield and its components at f o u r locations i.e., Issapur (near D e l h i ) , Hisar,Jhansi, and A k o l a d u r i n g the 1986 rainy season (Table 1). Thirteen characters wereproposed f o r study: early seedling vigor, days to 50% flowering, basal t i l l e r i n g, c u l mbranching, c u l m thickness, number of leaves, leaf length, leaf w i d t h , m i d r i b color,plant height, stalk juiciness, juice quality, and forage yield ( i n kg m r o w - 1 ) . D a t a wererecorded f o r almost a l l the characters at all the locations. Based on the data, 147dual-purpose types were selected and were again tested at Issapur d u r i n g the 1987rainy season. Screening was also done against foliar diseases ( i n c l u d i n g gray leaf spot,anthracnose and zonate leaf spot), grain m o l d , stem borer and shoot fly. U n d e rnatural conditions, nearly 89 lines were found to be resistant to foliar diseases, 50 linesto grain m o l d , 181 to stem borer, and 212 to shoot fly. It was also observed that at theselocations, most of the germplasm f r o m I n d i a and the Yemen A r a b Republic werebetter for forage yield compared to germplasm f r o m A f r i c a . Hence it was decided thatd u r i n g the 1987 rainy season a l l the material of I n d i a n o r i g i n and some more promisin g material f r o m the Yemen A r a b Republic should be tested for forage yield and itscomponents at Issapur.A c c o r d i n g l y , d u r i n g the 1987 rainy season, 4430 germplasm accessions comprising4105 f r o m India, 178 f r o m the Yemen A r a b Republic, and 147 d u a l - purpose accessionsidentified f r o m the 1986 m u l t i l o c a t i o n a l evaluation trials were g r o w n at Issapur.Some 320 accessions d i d not flower, being photoperiod sensitive. A n o t h e r 300 accessionsd i d not set seeds properly. A good a m o u n t of variability was observed for days to50% f l o w e r i n g (49-175 days). IS 22092 was the earliest (49 days) to flower while IS1556 was very late (175 days). Plant height ranged f r o m 45 cm (IS 21960) to 333 cm (IS4107). Stem diameter ranged f r o m 0.30 cm (IS 3226) to 3.56 cm (IS 4593). N u m b e r ofleaves per plant ranged f r o m 7 ( I S 4505, 5267) to 36 (IS4280). L e a f length ranged f r o m31.33 cm ( I S 5236, 1416) to 97.66 cm ( I S 5236, 1416). The leaf w i d t h ranged f r o m 2.55cm ( I S 1572) to 11.56 cm ( I S 4164).Table 1. Range of variability exhibited by 1500 forage s o r g h u m accessions in multilocationaltrials, rainy season, 1986.RangeCharactersJhansiHisarA k o l aIssapurD a y s t o 5 0 % f l o w e r i n g37-19135-9059-16354 8 - 1 2 2Plant height (cm)11-43869-33047-29960-392N o . of leaves8.0-855.0-20.05.0-21.06.5-50L e a f length (cm)16.0-152.215.0-98.020.0-98.041.2-105L e a f w i d t h (cm)1.7-10.82.0-10.92.0-11.02.9-9.4S t e m thickness (cm)0.5-9.8--1.6-4.8F o d d e r yield ( k g m r o w - 1 )0.15-9.8-0.16-4.0-60

On the basis of overall scoring, 72 forage types were identified. The most p r o m i s i n gearly flowering lines were IS 4234, 4240, 5376, 5377, and 5481. In the m e d i u m -m a t u r i t y range types, 13 p r o m i s i n g accessions were identified of w h i c h 6 accessionswere f r o m I n d i a (IS 6001 to 6006). In the late-maturing types, 3 nonsenescing lines,i.e., IS 3912, 3913, and 3914 were identified as promising. T h i r t y five accessions werealso identified as dual-purpose types. Some of the most p r o m i s i n g accessions were IS24329, 24330, 24331, 6327, 6328, 6329, 5528, and 1560. Five p r o m i s i n g tillering typeswere also identified (IS 4231, 4232, 4276, 6275, and 6270). A l l the accessions except IS1087 had nodal tillering. Based on field screening, about 50 lines for overall leafdiseases, 40 lines for grain m o l d , and 60 lines for stem borer and shoot fly infestationwere found resistant.A set of p r o m i s i n g selections for forage was sent to the N a t i o n a l Research Center forS o r g h u m ( N R C S ) , Rajendranagar for testing and utilization in the breeding p r o g r a m .I n collaboration w i t h the A l l I n d i a Coordinated S o r g h u m I m p r o v e m e n t Project( A I C S I P ) the " K h a r i f Basic C o l l e c t i o n " of germplasm has been evaluated for grain atfive locations: Coimbatore ( T a m i l Nadu), A k o l a (Maharashtra), Indore ( M a d h y aPradesh), N R C S , Rajendranagar, and I C R I S A T Center, Patancheru. The mostpromising lines have been selected by sorghum breeders for further testing and use inbreeding programs.P e a r l M i l l e tD u r i n g the 1986 rainy season, 2000 pearl millet germplasm accessions were g r o w n andevaluated at J o d h p u r and Pune. Fourteen characters were proposed for study: earlyvigor, days to 50% flowering, green fodder-yield potential, number of productivetillers, plant height, ear exsertion, spike length, spike thickness, seed set, yield potential,overall plant aspect, grain shape, grain weight, and scoring for prevalent diseases.The data f r o m Pune were not received by N B P G R . The germination at J o d h p u r wasfairly good. M a r k e d differences in vegetative g r o w t h were observed after 1 m o n t h ofsowing. The plant height ranged f r o m 78-176 c m . Based on overall tillering, leafiness,and vegetative b u l k , 12 accessions were judged as the best fodder types. M o s t of theaccessions flowered between 41 to 65 days. On an average, 4-6 productive tillers plant" 1were observed. The spike length varied f r o m 16-32.2 cm w i t h thickness ranging f r o m14 to 22 m m . V a r i a t i o n was also observed in seed shape and size. T w e n t y accessionsw i t h b o l d seeds were identified. The average seed yield plant - 1 ranged f r o m 2-16 g, and80 accessions were identified as the best grain yielders. N i n e t y five accessions werefound highly susceptible to leaf spot caused by Curvularia penniseti.D u r i n g the 1987 rainy season, 1960 accessions, consisting of collections f r o mA f r i c a , Australia, I n d i a , L a t i n America, M i d d l e East, and U S S R were g r o w n atIssapur, and data gathered according to the decided descriptors. The germplasm atJ o d h p u r could not be sown due to lack of rain. Some 250 good fodder types, 156 goodgrain types, 54 very early types were identified at Issapur. A n o t h e r 41 were identifiedas p r o m i s i n g in terms of overall plant aspects. The material showed good range ofvariation for days to 50% f l o w e r i n g (35-114 days), plant height (50-377 cm), number of61

tillers plant - 1 (1-12), number of productive tillers plant - 1 (1-10), spike length (8-92 cm),and spike thickness (0.5-4.5 cm).PigeonpeaThree sets of germplasm were evaluated. The extra-early and early accessions wereevaluated at Issapur whereas the m e d i u m and medium-late type accessions wereevaluated at A k o l a . The accessions were scored for 17 descriptors: seedling vigor,n o d u l a t i o n , days to 50% flowering, days to 75% m a t u r i t y , base flower color, floweringpattern, g r o w t h habit, plant height, number of p r i m a r y branches, number of secondarybranches and racemes, number of seed p o d - 1 , seed weight, plant weight, shellingratio, yield plant - 1 , and plant stand.In 1986, a set of 479 accessions (128 extra early, and 351 early were evaluated atIssapur and 18 promising lines were identified. The protein content of 25 accessionswas analyzed, and found to vary f r o m 18.4-24.8%. At A k o l a , the f o l l o w i n g ranges ofv a r i a b i l i t y were observed for 353 germplasm accessions. Days to flowering: 102-157,days to maturity: 146- 209; plant height: 76.5-197 c m ; number of p r i m a r y branches:3.02-20.0; number of secondary branches: 2.6-28.6; raceme number: 2.3-24.0; numberof seeds p o d - 1 : 2.1-5.0; 100-seed weight: 6.0-18.18 g; biological yield p l a n t - 1 : 13.3-258.3 g; shelling ratio: 35.29-92.02%; and yield plant" 1 : 2.3-94.08 g. The high-yieldinglines identified were I C P 6656, 7059, 7257, 8654, 8706, 9048,9285,10258, 12283, andN P ( W R 15).D u r i n g 1987, a set of 350 accessions comprising 126 extra-early and 244 early typeswere evaluated at Issapur. The germination was very good, but the crop sufferedseverely due to drought. However, 33 germplasm accessions performed better ofw h i c h 15 were good grain types, and 4 vegetable types. At A k o l a , 300 m e d i u m - andm e d i u m late-maturing types were evaluated and 15 promising types were identified.T w o hundred accessions of long-duration pigeonpea were also g r o w n at Jorhat forevaluation d u r i n g 1987.ChickpeaA set of short-duration chickpea was sown at I C R I S A T Center and A k o l a whileanother set of long-duration types was sown at G w a l i o r , Issapur, and Jodhpur. Theselines were evaluated f o r 14 characteristics: seedling vigor, days to flowering, nodulati o n , plant canopy height, g r o w t h habit, biomass, score for diseases, days to maturity,branching, number of pods plant - 1 , seeds pod - 1 , seed size, plot yield, and plant type.Each germplasm set consisted of 1320 lines. D u r i n g 1986/87, at J o d h p u r and Issapur,the agronomic performance of the crop was p o o r due to soil factors and it was decidedto evaluate the same set of germplasm d u r i n g the 1987-88 postrainy season. However,when the same set of accessions was sown at G w a l i o r , crop performance was very g o o dand most of the accessions could be evaluated satisfactorily. Five accessions ( I C C 148,62

327, 1034,1083, and 1341) yielded over 3250 kg ha -1 and this score was better than anyof the check cultivars included.At A k o l a the f o l l o w i n g lines were found promising and high-yielding: I C C 5685,5702, 5792, 7497, 8611, 8613, 8628, 10962, 10969, 10979, 11038, 11054, 11192, 12269,12518, 12597, 12636, 12651, 12777, 12791, and 12797.D u r i n g the 1987/88 postrainy season at A k o l a , of the 1320 lines tested, the best 5accessions were I C C 5784, 6072, 10388, 11047, and 12241. The boldest seed wasobserved in I C C 5769 (38.7 g 100 seeds-'), days to flowering ranged f r o m 42 ( I C C 4934)to 106 days, plant height 20.5 ( I C C 6042) to 62.7 cm ( I C C 12237), and days to m a t u r i t y96 ( I C C 7498) to 146 days ( I C C 5760). D u r i n g b o t h crop seasons, the evaluationexperiments at I C R I S A T Center performed satisfactorily and meaningful data wereobtained on most accessions.G r o u n d n u tT w o thousand accessions of g r o u n d n u t were g r o w n at Jodhpur d u r i n g the 1986 rainyseason. Observations on 14 characters were recorded: days to emergence, days to 50%flowering, days to maturity, g r o w t h habit, stem branching pattern, plant w i d t h , leafcolor, number of seeds pod - 1 , seed color, split testa, 100-seed weight, pod yield, seedyield and plant stand. Days to 50% flowering varied f r o m 34-47 days. Some of thehigh-yielding lines identified were: I C G 551, 606, 608, 609, 659, 724, 725, 817, 882, .883,884,891,980, 1084,4005,4021,4027,4047,4070,4087,4127, 4131,4137,4588,4589,4682, 4683, 4712, 7389, 7843, 8351, 9594, 9597, and 10751.D u r i n g the 1987 rainy season, 1500 collections including 723 erect bunch types, 391spreading bunch types, and 386 runner bunch types were evaluated at A k o l a andJodhpur. At Jodhpur, the experiment was damaged due to drought.The groundnut evaluation at A k o l a was satisfactory. The f o l l o w i n g spectrum ofvariations were recorded: days to flowering: 23-35 days; maturity: 103-129 days, andpod yield r o w 1 : 1.5-43.5 g.In a l l , 69 lines were found promising against leaf anthracnose {Colletotrichumdematium) and ' T i k k a ' disease (Cercospora sp), while 51 lines were found resistant togroundnut leaf miner (Stomopteryx sp).G e r m p l a s m under E v a l u a t i o n for 1988-89The f o l l o w i n g germplasm has been g r o w n for evaluation d u r i n g the 1988 rainy season.Data collection is in progress.Sorghum:• 3000 accessions of forage and dual-purpose types at Issapur.• 1500 grain and dual-purpose types at A k o l a .63

• M u l t i l o c a t i o n a l t r i a l of 200 promising and dual-purpose types at Issapur, A k o l a ,Jhansi, and Hisar.Pearl millet:• 2000 accessions at Issapur and Jodhpur.• M u l t i l o c a t i o n a l t r i a l of 200 p r o m i s i n g varieties at Jodhpur, Issapur, A k o l a , Jhansi,and Hisar.Groundnut:• 1500 accessions at A k o l a .• M u l t i l o c a t i o n a l t r i a l of 200 accessions at A k o l a , Jodhpur, and G w a l i o r .Pigeonpea:• 150 extra-early and early-maturing accessions at Issapur.• 500 m e d i u m and medium-late varieties at A k o l a .• 200 p r o m i s i n g late-maturing, vegetable-type accessions at Jorhat.Chickpea:• 1200 long-duration accessions at Issapur.• 1200 short-duration accessions at I C R I S A T Center, and A k o l a .64

Conservation of World Germplasm Collections of ICRISATMandate CropsMelak H. Mengesha, P.P. Khanna, K.P.S. Chandel, and N. Kameswara RaoLeader, Genetic Resources Unit, ICRISAT, Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh;Head, Conservation Division, NBPGR, New Delhi;Scientist-in-charge, Plant Tissue Culture Repository, NBPGR, New Delhi; andResearch Associate, Genetic Resources Unit, ICRISAT, Patancheru, Andhra PradeshIn tropical and subtropical environments, under ambient conditions, seeds lose v i a b i l -ity very q u i c k l y , necessitating their frequent rejuvenation. This is expensive andinvolves the danger of genetic c o n t a m i n a t i o n due to outcrossing, selection pressure,mechanical m i x t u r e , h u m a n error, etc. Loss of v i a b i l i t y also leads to accumulation ofgenetic damage in surviving seeds, and more i m p o r t a n t , it causes genetic drifts inheterogeneous germplasm accessions due to differential survival of the constituentgenotypes and selection pressure. The most i m p o r t a n t part of conservation,obviously, is that seeds maintained in a gene bank should always produce plants w h i c hshow representative characteristics of each accession.The gene bank at I C R I S A T , established in 1979, serves as the major repository forthe w o r l d collection of germplasm. It currently holds 96 194 samples comprisingsorghum (31 030), pearl millet (19 796), pigeonpea (11 034), chickpea (15 564),g r o u n d n u t (12 160), and six species of m i n o r (small) millets (6610). A m o n g the othergene banks that conserve these crops worldwide, the N a t i o n a l Bureau of Plant GeneticResources ( N B P G R ) of the I n d i a n C o u n c i l of A g r i c u l t u r a l Research ( I C A R ) hasdeveloped excellent facilities that are already operational. The total number of accessionspresently conserved by I C R I S A T and N B P G R and the number of countriesrepresented are shown in Table 1. A l l these crop species produce seeds w h i c h showo r t h o d o x behavior, hence they are conserved by storing the seeds.It is established that temperature and moisture content of the seeds influence seeddeterioration d u r i n g storage, and longevity of o r t h o d o x seeds can be dramaticallyi m p r o v e d by c o n t r o l l i n g these factors. In order to maximize longevity and preservegenetic integrity, predried seeds are packed in moisture-proof containers and stored inchambers w i t h controlled environment, under l o w temperature and l o w relativeh u m i d i t y .I C R I S A T (International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics), 1989. Collaboration onGenetic Resources: summary proceedings of a Joint I C R I S A T / NBPGR(ICAR) Workshop on GermplasmExploration and Evaluation in India, 14-15 Nov 1988, I C R I S A T Center, India. Patancheru, A.P. 502 324,India: I C R I S A T .65

Table 1 . G e r m p l a s m accessions conserved a t I C R I S A T Center, P a t a n c h e r u a n dN B P G R , N e w D e l h i .A t I C R I S A TA t N B P G RC r o pAccessionsCountriesAccessionsS o r g h u m (Sorghum bicolor)Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum)Chickpea (Cicer arietinum)Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan)G r o u n d n u t (Arachis hypogaea)Finger millet (Eleusine coracana)F o x t a i l millet (Setaria italica)Proso millet (Panicum miliaceum)L i t t l e millet (Panicum sumatrense)B a r n y a r d millet (Echinochloa crusgalli)K o d o millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum)31 03019 796. 15 56411 03412 1602 8481 4048314015825448742425289182226182-4121253 1012 0543 000-----T o t a l96 1948 692Conservation Facilities a t I C R I S A TA l l the germplasm is conserved under m e d i u m - and long-term conditions that meetthe international standards (Table 2) suggested by the International Board for PlantGenetic Resources ( I B P G R ) and others.Short-term storage. This facility is maintained at a temperature of 18°C and 30%relative h u m i d i t y ( R H ) and is used to hold seeds temporarily while they are driedslowly and prepared for subsequent transfer to m e d i u m - and long-term storagefacilities. The r o o m has a capacity of 680 m 3 , has independent air c o n d i t i o n i n g andrelative h u m i d i t y c o n t r o l equipment, and its o w n air exhaust system f o r f u m i g a t i o n .Medium-term storage. F o u r rooms w i t h a capacity of 125 m 3 each and t w o roomsw i t h a capacity of 210 m 3 enable us to store the active collections. The rooms aremaintained a t 4 ° C and 20% R H (30% R H i n 210 m 3 rooms).Long-term storage. Three rooms are under test, each w i t h a capacity of 130 m 3 ,maintained at - 2 0 ° C to store the base and duplicate collections of germplasm forfuture use.The m e d i u m - a n d long-term storage chambers each have t w o independent refrigerati o n a n d d e h u m i d i f i c a t i o n systems, one of w h i c h acts as a standby. The gene bank alsohas a standby power generator set to cope w i t h longer periods of power failure. Them e d i u m - and long-term storage rooms are constructed on a m o d u l a r principle w i t hprefabricated panels. A l l storage rooms have mobile shelving systems, each capable of66

Table 2. Gene b a n k standards of m a j o r importance.Storage C o n d i t i o n s1. L o n g - t e r ma. Temperatureb. M o i s t u r e content2. M e d i u m - t e r ma. Temperatureb. Relative h u m i d i t yContainersSeed D r y i n gAccession SizeRejuvenationV i a b i l i t y M o n i t o r i n gM o i s t u r e Content andG e r m i n a t i o n TestingSafety PrecautionD u p l i c a t e BaseConservationI n t e r n a t i o n a l standards( I B P G R and others)-10 to - 2 0 °C5%0 to 10°C15%M e t a l cansL a m i n a t e d f o i l packetsGlass jars10 t o 15°C10 to 15% R H4000 seeds f o r selfp o l l i n a t e d ; 12 000seeds f o r crosspollinatedcrops1. 8 5 % v i a b i l i t y2. If n u m b e r of seedsfalls below that r e q u i -red f o r 3 regenerations5 years in medium-term10 years in l o n g - t e r mI S T A recommendationsI n i t i a l g e r m i n a t i o ntests on 400 seedsT w o air-conditioners,standby generators,a l a r m systemH i g h l y recommendedStandards f o l l o w e da t I C R I S A T- 2 0 °C5%+ 4 °C2 0 %M e t a l cans w i t h screwcaps and rubber gaskets( m e d i u m - t e r m ) L a m i n a t e df o i l packets (long-term)Plastic bottles f o rg r o u n d n u t pods15°C15% R HS o r g h u m 15 000 seedsPearl millet 30 000 seedsChickpea 2000 seedsPigeonpea 4000 seedsG r o u n d n u t 1 kg podsM i n o r millets 20 000 seeds1. 8 5 % v i a b i l i t y2 . I f q u a n t i t y o fseeds is reduced to 1/4of i n i t i a l l y stored5 years f o r cereals and pulses3 years f o r g r o u n d n u tI S T A recommendations100-200 seeds testedf o r g e r m i n a t i o nT w o air-conditioners,standby generatora l a r m systemF o r t Collins, O t t a w a ,I C A R D A , N e w D e l h i ,B r a z i l , E t h i o p i a , Niger,S A D C C , A r g e n t i n a67

accommodating 30 000 or more germplasm accessions. The temperature and relativeh u m i d i t y inside the storage rooms are m o n i t o r e d regularly w i t h thermohygrographs.A u d i b l e and visual electronic a l a r m systems have been installed to safeguard the seedsf r o m any rise in temperature and relative h u m i d i t y and to help m a i n t a i n the desiredconditions.Conservation Facilities a t N B P G RThe active collections of germplasm of the mandate crops are n o w being stored underm e d i u m - t e r m conditions, a t 10°C and 35% R H . F o u r modules procured f r o m W a t -f o r d Refrigeration Co. ( U K ) , w h i c h r u n at -20°C have been commissioned recently forlong-term conservation of the base collections. A l l r o o m s have mobile shelving and aneffective air-lock system (anteroom), w i t h controlled conditions (22-24°C and 35%R H ) .N B P G R recently established a national facility for a plant tissue culture repository.This facility was sanctioned by the Department of Biotechnology, M i n i s t r y of Scienceand Technology, Government of India. This development in N B P G R offers considerablescope for national and international cooperation in emerging biotechnologicaltechniques applicable to I C R I S A T mandate crops and their w i l d relatives.Plans for a N a t i o n a l Repository have n o w been finalized. This extensive scientificand physical expansion w i l l strengthen the role o f N B P G R as an alternate, baseconservation center f o r the w o r l d collection of pigeonpea and if possible, for othermandate crops o f I C R I S A T .Gene B a n k OperationsThe seeds produced d u r i n g the postrainy season are generally of high quality, henceare used for conservation. Threshing sorghum and millets is done by hand, but inchickpea and pigeonpea it is usually done by machines. G r o u n d n u t s are harvestedmanually and stored as pods, and studies at N B P G R have shown that removal of shell,while facilitating early germination, reduces the storage life of the seeds. At I C R I S A T ,the cleaned disease- and insect-free seeds/pods are brought to short-term storage( 1 8 ° C and 30% R H ) where they are prepared for m e d i u m and long-term conservation.Since the ambient relative h u m i d i t y at the time of harvest ( F e b - A p r ) is generally l o w ,the moisture content o f the harvested seed w i l l also be l o w , e.g., 7-8% i n g r o u n d n u t and10-12% in other crops, which is sufficient for m e d i u m - t e r m preservation. However, forlong-term preservation, the moisture content should be 5 ± 1 % , and conventionaltechniques (sun-drying or heated air drying) do not always achieve this level w i t h o u taffecting v i a b i l i t y . A satisfactory d r y i n g system at 15° C and 15% RH is employed b o t hat I C R I S A T and N B P G R to d r y seeds of most crops to the desired moisture levels forlong-term conservation.The active germplasm collections under m e d i u m - t e r m conditions at I C R I S A TCenter are stored in a l u m i n i u m cans w i t h screw caps that have rubber gaskets inside to68

keep them moisture proof. Groundnuts are stored in plastic bottles to accommodate asufficient quantity of pods. To minimize the frequency of rejuvenation, a relativelylarge quantity of seed (300-400 g in sorghum, pearl millet, chickpea, and pigeonpea,70-80 g in m i n o r millets, and 1 kg of pods in groundnut) is stored.The base collections under long-term conditions at I C R I S A T w i l l be stored i nsealed laminated a l u m i n i u m f o i l packets. The recommendations on the m i n i m u mquantity o f seeds by the I B P G R A d v i s o r y Committee o n Seed Storage w i l l be followed(4000 seeds in homogeneous and 12 000 seeds in heterogeneous germplasmaccessions).At N B P G R , the entire germplasm b o t h under long- and medium-term is conservedhermitically sealed in three-layered specially-designed laminated a l u m i n i u m f o i lpouches w h i c h match the standards specified by I B P G R .M o n i t o r i n g o f V i a b i l i t yThe v i a b i l i t y of the seeds is determined at the start of storage and at regular intervalsd u r i n g storage (3-5 years in various crops) to predict the storage life and the time ofrejuvenation. V i a b i l i t y is m o n i t o r e d by conducting germination tests f o l l o w i n g recommendationsof the International Seed Testing Association ( I S T A ) for the variouscrops. The seed biology laboratory at I C R I S A T Center is equipped w i t h germinatorsw h i c h provide o p t i m u m conditions for germination. S o r g h u m and pearl millet aregerminated usually at 2 5 ° C or at 20-30°C on top of paper ( T P ) , while g r o u n d n u t ,chickpea, and pigeonpea are germinated at 2 0 ° C or 20-30° C by the rolled t o w elmethod between papers (BP) or in sand (S). D o r m a n c y is a p r o b l e m often encounteredi n freshly harvested seeds o f sorghum, millets, and groundnut, and their w i l d relatives,while hard seeds are c o m m o n i n chickpea, pigeonpea, and their w i l d species. A p p r o p -riate procedures are followed to overcome these problems d u r i n g the germinationtests, e.g. prechilling and storage of the seeds at 4 0 ° C before germination as insorghum, use of alternating temperature regimes (20-30°C for 16h/8h) for germinati o n as in sorghum and pearl millet, and after-ripening in groundnut. The results of theperiodic tests on v i a b i l i t y are stored in a microcomputer for easy retrieval andidentification of the accessions that require rejuvenation. A regeneration standard of85% is adopted for all crops and accessions w h i c h show germination below this levelare rejuvenated f o l l o w i n g the appropriate methods to minimize genetic d r i f t . G e r m i -nation studies have revealed that almost all accessions are maintained at a reasonablyhigh level of viability.69

Computerized Documentation and Retrieval Systemsfor Genetic Resources Work at ICRISAT — Present and FutureJ.W. Estes and V. Ramanatha RaoComputer Services Officer, Computer Services; and Botanist, Genetic Resources Unit, ICRISAT,Patancheru, Andhra PradeshThe I C R I S A T D a t a Management and Retrieval System ( I D M R S ) has been developedp r i m a r i l y to meet the i n f o r m a t i o n - h a n d l i n g needs of I C R I S A T germplasmscientists. The data being managed using I D M R S comprise sets of observations f r o mdifferent g r o w i n g seasons and locations on several thousand germplasm lines ofsorghum, pearl millet, chickpea, pigeonpea, and groundnut. Each set of observationsconsists of a set of data descriptors, or attributes, w h i c h represent qualitative, quantitative,and classification i n f o r m a t i o n c o m m o n to each germplasm line w i t h i n a crop.These f o r m a static data base w h i c h requires the a d d i t i o n of new i n f o r m a t i o n once ortwice a year and occasional updating to correct clerical errors. Deletion of records is avery u n c o m m o n requirement. Retrieval n o r m a l l y demands the selection of datarecords based on a c o m b i n a t i o n of characteristics, not on a single key or attribute. Theentire system has been programmed in the V A X - 1 1 B A S I C p r o g r a m m i n g languageunder the V M S operating system on a V A X - 1 1 / 7 8 0 computer system.D i c t i o n a r y and D a t a File StructuresThe storage of data under I D M R S requires a data dictionary file containing thedefinitions of the data descriptors to be used, and a data file to h o l d the data itself. Aunique data file is required for each set of data, but a dictionary file can be shareda m o n g any number of data files.The data dictionary contains general i n f o r m a t i o n about the data descriptors itdefines in a d d i t i o n to specific i n f o r m a t i o n about names, data type, etc., for eachi n d i v i d u a l descriptor. The general i n f o r m a t i o n includes a one-line title, the date ofdictionary creation, the name of the person responsible for managing the dictionary,and six lines of text of the data manager's choosing. The i n f o r m a t i o n required for eachdata descriptor definition consists of a name, abbreviation, description, data type,p r i n t format, and range data depending on data type.I D M R S supports functions for creating, editing, and updating b o t h dictionary anddata files. The editing functions are initiated t h r o u g h the use of a t w o - or three-letterc o m m a n d and the editing functions are further directed t h r o u g h a dialogue w i t h theuser.I C R I S A T (International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics), 1989. Collaboration onGenetic Resources: summary proceedings of a Joint I C R I S A T / N B P G R ( I C A R ) Workshop on GermplasmExploration and Evaluation in India, 14-15 Nov 1988, I C R I S A T Center, India. Patancheru, A.P. 502 324,India: I C R I S A T .71

D a t a V a l i d a t i o nThere is one c o m m a n d and a small set of ancillary programs w h i c h operate on theI D M R S f i l e structure t o help validate the data i n a data file. T h e C H E C K c o m m a n dw i l l test whether a selected subset o f numerical descriptors fall w i t h i n their definedm i n i m a and m a x i m a . T h e alphanumeric descriptors are currently checked using a setof programs w h i c h create an indexed list of the stored states in a special file.D a t a U t i l i t y C o m m a n d sThere are f i v e data u t i l i t y c o m m a n d s i n I D M R S . T h e A P P E N D c o m m a n d i s used t oadd a file to an existing file. T h e T E X T - F I L E o p t i o n permits the creation of a file intext f o r m a t f r o m a n I D M R S f i l e o r a n I D M R S collection. T h e S O R T c o m m a n dpermits the reordering of data and subsequent storing of the reordered data as a newdata file. T h e S T O R E c o m m a n d allows the user to store a collection of records as aseparate data file. The P R I N T c o m m a n d permits the o p t i o n o f sorting the data p r i o rt o p r i n t i n g .D a t a R e t r i e v a lRecords m a y be selected f r o m I D M R S data files based on a logical c o m b i n a t i o n ofconditions on descriptors stored in the file. T h e set of records selected can be saved in acollection file. T h e general f o r m of the selection operator isS E L E C T [descriptor] [ I N collections] W I T H logical-expressionwhere the bracketed words are o p t i o n a l . T h e different sections of the expression areexplained below:[ d e s c r i p t o r ]If a descriptor a b b r e v i a t i o n is included after the w o r d S E L E C T , then its type must beA , I , o r C.[ I N collections]T h e search space can be restricted to a previously defined collection or logicalc o m b i n a t i o n o f collections.logical-expressionA "logical-expression" comprises a set of simultaneous conditions to be imposed onvalues of descriptors f o r the purpose of data selection.D a t a S u m m a r y C o m m a n d sThere are currently t w o I D M R S c o m m a n d s available f o r s u m m a r i z i n g the data storedf o r descriptors w i t h i n a file. T h e c o m m a n d C L A S S - C O U N T is used to c o u n t thefrequency o f n u m e r i c a l values w i t h i n user-defined intervals. T h e c o m m a n d S T A T E -C O U N T is used to generate a frequency d i s t r i b u t i o n of the states of an a l p h a n u m e r i cdescriptor w i t h a finite n u m b e r of states.72

H o w I D M R S i s Used b y G R UThe great v o l u m e o f the existing germplasm collection a t I C R I S A T a n d the associatedi n f o r m a t i o n on various descriptors, are major factors affecting the exchange ofi n f o r m a t i o n . A p p r o x i m a t e l y 95 000 accessions of 5 mandate crops and 6 m i n o r milletsare maintained and conserved at I C R I S A T . However, plant breeders or other users ofthis germplasm w o u l d be interested, at any given t i m e , in o n l y a small part of this largecollection. So it is necessary to use certain c o m p u t e r techniques to store, sort, a n dselect f r o m these data to meet the i n f o r m a t i o n and germplasm seed needs of the users.A l l the crops conserved at I C R I S A T have descriptor lists developed in collaborati o n w i t h c r o p scientists a n d I B P G R . M a j o r classes of descriptors are the passportdata, characterization and p r e l i m i n a r y evaluation data, and further evaluation data.In each class there are subclasses and descriptors. This hierarchical classification ofdescriptors makes t h e m d y n a m i c and amenable to easy m a n i p u l a t i o n .As described, I D M R S is an integrated set of procedures w h i c h can record, store,process, a n d retrieve i n f o r m a t i o n on the mainframe computer. There are t w o parts toits design; one is the internal process of i n f o r m a t i o n storage and retrieval; the other isthe user interface. G R U staff are m a i n l y concerned w i t h the latter. V a r i o u s processesthat are used by G R U staff are listed below.• D a t a entry and editing.• P r i n t i n g a l l or a few of the descriptors a n d / o r records.• Retrieving i n f o r m a t i o n on a few selected descriptors - T h i s is one of the mosti m p o r t a n t data retrieval activities. Accessions can be identified w i t h v a r y i n g c o m b i -nations of descriptors. F o r example, we can select accessions that originate in agiven c o u n t r y , collected at certain altitude, h a v i n g red seeds together w i t h resistanceto a particular pest or disease, p r o v i d e d such accessions are available in thecollection.• Retrieving i n f o r m a t i o n on a specific set of accessions either w i t h a l l the data onthese accessions or w i t h i n f o r m a t i o n o n l y on a few descriptors.• R e t r i e v i n g i n f o r m a t i o n on the n u m b e r of accessions belonging to a particular class(quantitative) or state (qualitative), e.g., the n u m b e r of sorghums in the gene b a n kw h i c h are landraces, etc.• M a n i p u l a t i o n of the stored data for statistical analyses to examine patterns ofv a r i a t i o n .U s i n g the m i c r o c o m p u t e r , G R U has been storing a n d retrieving data on seeddespatches using the dBase I I I p r o g r a m . T h i s helps us keep track of the d i s t r i b u t i o n ofseed samples to I C R I S A T scientists, scientists w i t h i n and outside I n d i a , and to f o l l o wup on the u t i l i z a t i o n of germplasm thus distributed. Presently, we are in the process ofi m p r o v i n g this so as to extend the system for use by a l l the other disciplines inI C R I S A T . W e are also using dBase I I I to store and retrieve seed v i a b i l i t y data in orderto facilitate r a p i d i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of material needing rejuvenation, a n d to determine thetime f o r the next g e r m i n a t i o n test.F u t u r e PlansSince the development of I D M R S , sophisticated database management systems have73

ecome available w h i c h facilitate data storage and retrieval, and the customization ofuser interfaces. There are plans to m o d i f y I D M R S to take advantage of one suchdatabase system n o w available at I C R I S A T .T h e p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f m i c r o c o m p u t e r s , and the increased load o n o u r central c o m p u -ter systems dictate that we l o o k at ways of d i s t r i b u t i n g the w o r k l o a d required f o r datastorage a n d retrieval between microcomputers a n d large central c o m p u t e r systems.We p l a n to explore the possibility of using microcomputers f o r data entry andv a l i d a t i o n , and as a " f r o n t - e n d " f o r queries posed against a central database on a largecomputer.The increased sophistication of microcomputer-based database management systemsn o w makes it possible to consider the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of germplasm datamanagement and retrieval systems on microcomputers. T h i s , coupled w i t h the availabi l i t y o f c o m p a c t disc ( C D ) technology w h i c h can store large amounts o f data, w i l lmake it possible to distribute large amounts of germplasm data economically. Such asystem has already been developed b y C I M M Y T i n M e x i c o .74

Germplasm Exchange and Quarantine in IndiaN.C. Joshi, B.P. Singh, Ram Nath, and K.S. VaraprasadChief Plant Quarantine Officer, I C R I S A T , Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh; Head, Division of GermplasmExchange, NBPGR, New Delhi; Head, Division of Plant Quarantine, NBPGR, New Delhi; and Officer-incharge,NBPGR Plant Quarantine Regional Station, Hyderabad, Andhra PradeshIt is essential that each c o u n t r y has an efficient quarantine system to safeguard thepossible entry of new pests and diseases while exchanging germplasm, seed, andp l a n t i n g material f o r c r o p i m p r o v e m e n t programs.In I n d i a , N B P G R is the p r i m a r y organization w h i c h is responsible, inter alia f o r theexchange of germplasm of a g r i - h o r t i c u l t u r a l crops between I n d i a a n d other countries,ensuring that such exchanges are made under strict phytosanitary conditions inaccordance w i t h quarantine regulations. The Bureau maintains exchange links w i t habout 70 countries i n c l u d i n g international institutes.Of the 3000 cultivated taxa representing g l o b a l genetic wealth, o n l y 160 species arereported to occur in the I n d i a n gene center. D u r i n g the last 20 years, the i n t r o d u c t i o nof germplasm a n d other plant material has enriched the v a r i a b i l i t y and helpeddiversify the genetic base in the country. D u r i n g 1976-85,58 434 accessions of differenta g r i h o r t i c u l t u r a l crops were introduced. D u r i n g 1976-87, 838 399 samples of plantgenetic resources were i m p o r t e d and 53 312 exported t h r o u g h N B P G R .A p a r t f r o m N B P G R , other institutes o f the I n d i a n C o u n c i l o f A g r i c u l t u r a lResearch ( I C A R ) , coordinated projects of different crops, a g r i c u l t u r a l universities,and some state departments of agriculture also handle i m p o r t a n t collections ofvarious crops. It is estimated that about 0.15 to 0.2 m i l l i o n collections are maintainedby different national agencies. Besides these, I C R I S AT maintains 95 886 accessions ofits mandate crops, i n c l u d i n g m i n o r millets.P l a n t Q u a r a n t i n e i n I n d i aIn I n d i a , i m p o r t and e x p o r t of plants and plant materials are governed by rules andregulations framed under the Destructive Insects and Pests ( D I P ) A c t 1914. The A c thas since been revised eight times by the G o v e r n m e n t of I n d i a ( G O I ) . The m a i nobjective of this A c t is to prevent the i n t r o d u c t i o n i n t o the c o u n t r y , and the transportf r o m one state to another, of any insect, fungus, or other pest w h i c h is or m a y bedestructive to crops. O r i g i n a l l y seeds were n o t included in the D I P A c t , b u t in 1984,the G O I passed the Plants, Fruits and Seeds ( R e g u l a t i o n of I m p o r t s i n t o I n d i a ) Order,1CR1SAT (International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics), 1989. Collaboration onGenetic Resources: summary proceedings of a Joint 1CR1SAT/NBPGR(1CAR) Workshop on GermplasmExploration and Evaluation in India, 14-15 Nov 1988, I C R I S A T Center, India. Patancheru, A.P. 502 324,India: I C R I S A T .75

w h i c h came i n t o effect in 1985. This new order stipulates the conditions of i m p o r t f o r17 i m p o r t a n t crops.A u t h o r i z e d Q u a r a n t i n e AgenciesT h e Directorate of P l a n t P r o t e c t i o n , Quarantine and Storage, an attached office ofthe M i n i s t r y o f A g r i c u l t u r e , G O I , implements the plant quarantine rules framed underthe D I P A c t . This o r g a n i z a t i o n handles b u l k e x p o r t and i m p o r t o f plants and plantmaterials f o r c o m m e r c i a l purposes t h r o u g h its 27 plant quarantine a n d f u m i g a t i o nstations at different seaports, airports, and land frontiers. T h e G O I has also approvedother agencies to act as plant quarantine authorities f o r research. These include theN B P G R , N e w D e l h i , f o r a g r i h o r t i c u l t u r a l a n d s i l v i c u l t u r a l crops; the Forest ResearchInstitute ( F R I ) , D e h r a D u n f o r forestry plants; and the Botanical Survey o f I n d i a( B S I ) , Calcutta, f o r other plants. In view of the mandate to introduce and exchangegenetic material of a g r i h o r t i c u l t u r a l crops that should be pest and disease free, thequarantine procedures at N B P G R are f o l l o w e d r i g i d l y . A b o u t 60 000 samples areexamined each year; and d u r i n g 1976-1985, about 0.6 m i l l i o n samples were i m p o r t e dt h r o u g h N B P G R .Q u a r a n t i n e System a t I C R I S A TA s per the m e m o r a n d u m o f understanding, the G O I authorized I C R I S A T unrestrictedm o v e m e n t of seeds a n d genetic materials of its mandate crops i n t o and o u t ofI n d i a as required f o r collaborative w o r k in any part of the w o r l d consistent w i t h theappropriate quarantine regulations prevailing in the c o u n t r y . T h e G O I t o o k a n u m b e rof steps to support this p r o v i s i o n . The Central Plant P r o t e c t i o n T r a i n i n g Institute( C P P T I ) , H y d e r a b a d , was named the quarantine a u t h o r i t y f o r clearance o f I C R I S A Tmandate crops; I C R I S A T was p e r m i t t e d to set up an E x p o r t C e r t i f i c a t i o n QuarantineL a b o r a t o r y i n 1978 a t the I C R I S A T Campus under the overall a u t h o r i t y o f C P P T I ;and f i n a l l y , N B P G R was authorized to act as the sole plant quarantine a u t h o r i t y toclear I C R I S A T mandate crops.Q u a r a n t i n e Procedures for I m p o r tT h e germplasm/seed material received at N B P G R , d u l y accompanied by a p h y t o s a n i -t a r y certificate f r o m the N a t i o n a l Plant Quarantine Services of the e x p o r t i n g c o u n t r y ,is fumigated, e x a m i n e d , a n d treated before it is released to I C R I S A T to be g r o w n inthe P o s t - E n t r y Q u a r a n t i n e I s o l a t i o n A r e a ( P E Q I A ) f o r one generation. G r o u n d n u t sare g r o w n in a screenhouse, kept under observation, and healthy seedlings free f r o mviruses released f o r p l a n t i n g in the Q I A . Cuttings of w i l d Arachis species are subjectedto intermediate quarantine in a n o n - g r o u n d n u t g r o w i n g c o u n t r y . Between 1973 and1987, 157 678 samples of I C R I S A T mandate crops were i m p o r t e d f r o m 94 countries.76

Q u a r a n t i n e Procedure for E x p o r tT h e quarantine regulations f o r the e x p o r t of seed material are based on the Internati o n a l Plant P r o t e c t i o n C o n v e n t i o n (1951), and are m o d i f i e d f r o m t i m e t o timeaccording to specific requirements of the i m p o r t i n g countries. T h e procedure f o r seedinspection, f u m i g a t i o n , and treatment are similar as f o r i m p o r t e d material prescribedby the national plant quarantine agency. At I C R I S A T , the plant quarantine rules andregulations of different countries are available and are updated f r o m t i m e to time.F r o m 1974-1987, 704 547 samples of I C R I S A T mandate crops were exported to 143countries. There has been no report of any pest or disease h a v i n g been i n t r o d u c e dt h r o u g h exchange o f I C R I S A T germplasm.F u t u r e Perspectives a n dSuggestionsGermplasm Exchange1. Various gene centers in the c o u n t r y h o l d a r i c h diversity of crop materials, b u t m o r especific germplasm of pulses, oilseeds, fibre crops, and m i n o r millets are required toscreen for disease and pest resistance, and q u a l i t y in the c r o p i m p r o v e m e n t p r o -g r a m for u t i l i z a t i o n under different agroclimatic conditions.2. It is necessary to c o m p i l e c r o p inventories of introduced genetic resources ina d d i t i o n to the ones existing at N B P G R .Quarantine SystemIn order to update the quarantine system in the c o u n t r y , the f o l l o w i n g factors m a y beconsidered:1. use of enzyme-linked i m m u n o s o r b e n t assay ( E L I S A ) technique, and different a n t isera for detecting virus a n d bacterial pathogens;2. e x p l o r a t i o n of tissue culture techniques wherever possible f o r exchange ofgermplasm;3. u p d a t i n g the treatment schedules and procedures under different e n v i r o n m e n t a lconditions;4. c o m p i l a t i o n of i n f o r m a t i o n on pests, diseases, a n d weeds of plant quarantinesignificance, arid outbreaks at the regional or g l o b a l level;5 . avoidance o f b u l k e x p o r t and i m p o r t o f germplasm t o facilitate t h o r o u g hinspection;6 . preparation o f a plant quarantine m a n u a l j o i n t l y b y I C R I S A T a n d N B P G R t oguide countries involved in germplasm exchange;7. upgradation of greenhouse facilities to a l l o w close observation of g e r m p l a s m ofh i g h quarantine risk; and8. creation of offshore quarantine facilities f o r postentry studies on p l a n t a t i o n cropslike coconut, banana, pineapple, and other vegetatively propagated materials.77

Biotechnology in Conservation of Plant Genetic Resources(Background Paper)V . L . Chopra and S.B. NarasimhuluProfessor of Eminence, and Scientist, Biotechnology Centre, I A R I , New DelhiThe t r a d i t i o n a l landraces and w i l d relatives of c r o p plants w h i c h constitute a significantp o o l of genetic diversity are n o w g i v i n g w a y to genetically homogenous strains.This is because of the continued efforts of plant breeders to develop new, h i g h -yielding, and adaptable strains to meet the f o o d requirements of the increasingp o p u l a t i o n . W h i l e this has c o n t r i b u t e d to an increase in p r o d u c t i v i t y , it has at the sametime n a r r o w e d the genetic base, m a k i n g crops more vulnerable to fast-evolvingpathotypes. The realization of the importance of genetic v a r i a b i l i t y in c r o p i m p r o v e -ment and an awareness of the consequences of genetic erosion has led to an increasedinitiative w o r l d w i d e f o r conservation of germplasm and establishment of gene banksfor the collection, evaluation, conservation, rejuvenation, and retrieval of germplasm.L i m i t a t i o n s o f C o n v e n t i o n a l G e r m p l a s m Conservation M e t h o d sGene banks a i m to collect a wide range of germplasm in the f o r m of seeds a n dvegetative propagules of c r o p plants and their related species. G e r m p l a s m collectedand stored in the conventional manner loses v i a b i l i t y over a period of time a n d isvulnerable to destruction by pests a n d pathogens. M o r e o v e r , the periodic assessmentfor v i a b i l i t y a n d rejuvenation of new stocks entails enormous expenditure.R o l e o f Tissue a n d C e l l C u l t u r e TechniquesThe capacity of plant somatic tissues and cells to regenerate i n t o w h o l e plants has beendemonstrated in several a g r i c u l t u r a l l y i m p o r t a n t plants. This d e m o n s t r a t i o n has ledto the assessment of feasibility of biotechnological tools, e.g., in v i t r o storage, f o rgermplasm conservation. T h e advantages of biotechnological approaches are:1. large numbers can be handled f o r storage in a l i m i t e d space,2. storage is possible in a pathogen-free state, a n d3. i n t e r n a t i o n a l exchange of germplasm is greatly facilitated.A major l i m i t a t i o n w i t h this a p p r o a c h is the l i k e l i h o o d of genetic i n s t a b i l i t y in theprocess of culture. H o w e v e r , this p r o b l e m can be overcome by a careful choice ofI C R I S A T (International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics), 1989. Collaboration onGenetic Resources: summary proceedings of a Joint I C R I S A T / N B P G R ( I C A R ) Workshop on GermplasmExploration and Evaluation in India, 14-15 Nov I988. I C R I S A T Center, India. Patancheru, A.P. 502 324,India: I C R I S A T .79

explant. Shoot tips and c a m b i a l tissues, f o r example, yield genetically stable cultures.E l i m i n a t i o n f r o m the culture m e d i u m of g r o w t h regulators like 2 , 4 - D also reduces therisk of genetic instability.T w o different approaches have been adopted to conserve germplasm t h r o u g h inv i t r o storage.Storage b y G r o w t h L i m i t a t i o nConservation o f germplasm b y this approach involves storage o f morphogenic i n v i t r ocultures at l o w temperatures v a r y i n g between 1 and 9 ° C . L o w - temperature storageaffects c u r t a i l m e n t in the rate of culture g r o w t h and extends the subculture intervalf r o m 6 m o n t h s to 1 year against a n o r m a l interval of 3 weeks. Virus-free strawberrieshave been stored f o r 6 years at 4 ° C . Grape plants have been stored for over 15 years at9 ° C by yearly transfer to a fresh m e d i u m .Significant i n h i b i t i o n of the g r o w t h rate of meristem is achieved by alternating day( 1 2 ° C ) a n d n i g h t ( 6 ° C ) temperatures. A high sucrose content and an increase in theculture v o l u m e significantly increased the survival frequency of Solarium cultures.O s m o t i c retardants ( m a n i t o l a n d sorbitol), stress agents (abscisic acid), p a r t i a l dehydr a t i o n , maintenance of culture at l o w atmospheric pressure and l o w oxygen tension,overlayering of cultures w i t h m i n e r a l o i l , and use of chemicals like cycocel are some ofthe methods by w h i c h l o n g - t e r m storage of germplasm has been attempted. Storage bythese methods requires o n l y refrigeration equipment. T h e imposed stress, however,can result in degenerative processes. This risk must be assessed before the a p p r o a c hcan be applied extensively.C r y o p r e s e r v a t i o nT h e development of cryopreservation methods f o r storage of plant germplasm is anextension of the significant advances made in freeze preservation of a n i m a l g e r m p l a s mt h r o u g h storage of sperm. Cryopreservation involves freezing, and maintenance infrozen state, o f p l a n t material a t temperatures o f l i q u i d nitrogen ( a r o u n d -196°C). A tthis temperature, cells are in a state of metabolic i n a c t i v a t i o n . There are t w o m a j o radvantages w i t h this approach. F i r s t l y , i n h i b i t i o n o f cell d i v i s i o n allows storage o fm a t e r i a l w i t h m i n i m a l risk of genetic instability. Secondly, tissues can be storedv i r t u a l l y indefinitely w i t h l o w labor costs. However, the p r o b l e m o f c r y o i n j u r y l i m i t sw i d e r a p p l i c a t i o n of this technique. C r y o i n j u r y often occurs w h e n the intracellularwater freezes a n d forms ice crystals, w h i c h r u p t u r e the internal membranes. Cryopreser v a t i o n can also lead to adverse effects if the intracellular solutes accumulate to at o x i c level, o r i f v i t a l solutes leak d u r i n g freezing.T h e use of cryoprotectants such as l o w molecular weight c o m p o u n d s (glycerol andd i m e t h y l sulphoxide) w h i c h penetrate the cell w i t h ease, a n d h i g h m o l e c u l a r weightc o m p o u n d s ( l i k e p o l y v i n y l p y r r o l i d o n e a n d d e x t r a n ) w h i c h penetrate s l o w l y , canreduce cryodamage significantly. C r y o p r o t e c t i o n by these c o m p o u n d s is a t t r i b u t e d to80

their a b i l i t y to protect surface membranes by reducing g r o w t h rate and size of icecrystals and by l o w e r i n g the effective concentration of solutes in e q u i l i b r i u m w i t h iceinside a n d outside the cell. Cryoprotectants also help to increase membrane permea-Table 1 . B r e a k d o w n o f conservation activities a n d available approaches.A p p r o a c hA c t i v i t yC o n v e n t i o n a lA d v a n c e dM o l e c u l a rC o l l e c t i o nseed; vegetativeb u d w o o d ; tubersmeristems; e m b r y o s ;vegetative partsi n v i t r of i x e d m a t e r i a l ;r a w D N AC o n s e r v a t i o nseed; f i e l d ;gene banksin v i t r o cultures;slow g r o w t h ;cryopreservationr a w D N A : genelibrariesM u l t i p l i c a t i o nn o r m a l sexualcycle; vegetativep r o p a g a t i o nm i c r o p r o p a g a t i o n ;s u b c u l t u r i n gplasmids;bacteria;v i r a l clonesCharacterizati o nm o r p h o l o g yisozymes;proteinsR E L P s ; genesequencingE v a l u a t i o nfield trials;range ofgenetolerancei n v i t r oi d e n t i f i c a t i o npossibilitiesD i s t r i b u t i o n ,c u l t u r i n gE L I S AD N A probesq u a r a n t i n epathogens;i n d e x i n g byg r a f t i n gM e d i u mseed; plants;plantlets;bacterialp l a n t partsculturesclones;r a w D N AU t i l i z a t i o nn o r m a l sexualcrossingwide h y b r i d i z a -t i o n ( w i t he m b r y o rescue)gene transfer;a g r o b a c t e r i u m ;m i c r o i n j e c t i o n 'cell f u s i o nScopep r i m a r ygene p o o lsecondary a n dtertiary gene p o o la l l sourceo f D N AN a t u r e o f newv a r i a t i o nallelereassortmentallele reassortment;gene a d d i t i o n /replacement;gene a d d i t i o nsomaclonal v a r i a t i o n .81

i l i t y w h i c h aids r e m o v a l of water f r o m the cell and facilitates protective d e h y d r a t i o nin the early stages of freezing.Cultures are frozen by either the slow-cooling or the r a p i d - c o o l i n g m e t h o d . In thes l o w - c o o l i n g m e t h o d , the rate of freezing is between 0.5 to 4 ° C m i n - 1 w h i l e in ther a p i d - c o o l i n g process the rate of freezing, before transfer to l i q u i d nitrogen, is moret h a n 1000°C m i n - 1 . Tolerance to freezing, as j u d g e d by survival of freeze-thawedcultures, indicates that r a p i d c o o l i n g is m o r e effective. T h a w i n g of frozen m a t e r i a l isachieved by transfer to w a r m water at 40° C. T h e o p t i m a l t h a w i n g rate is one thatprevents ice f o r m a t i o n by recrystallization in the process of w a r m i n g . T h e recovery offreeze-thawed cultures can be i m p r o v e d by nursing t h e m t h r o u g h an i n i t i a l recoveryp e r i o d i n v o l v i n g gradual d i l u t i o n of cryoprotectants t h r o u g h several steps o f washinga n d by keeping osmotic d i s r u p t i o n to the m i n i m u m . M o r p h o g e n i c material, like shootapices a n d embryos, w h i c h regenerate w i t h o u t any d i f f i c u l t y , are ideal f o r l o n g - t e r mpreservation of germplasm. Callus, cell suspension, and protoplasts are more d i f f i c u l tto cryopreserve.The I B P G R has categorized the different conservation approaches as c o n v e n t i o n a l ,advanced, a n d molecular (Table 1). Conservation by conventional approaches i n v o l v -i n g collection, evaluation, storage, and retrieval of seed material has l i m i t a t i o n s interms of space a n d h u m a n labor. T h o u g h advanced techniques of conservation,i n v o l v i n g the use of tissue and cell cultures can overcome the l i m i t a t i o n s of conventi o n a l g e r m p l a s m conservation methods, there are several problems that need resoluti o n . D i f f i c u l t y o f reconstituting the o r i g i n a l genotype t h r o u g h high-frequencymorphogenesis of freeze-thawed cultures and culture-induced v a r i a b i l i t y are the t w om a j o r problems. A n i n t e g r a t i o n o f time-tested conventional conservation methodsand tissue a n d cell culture techniques seems to be the best o p t i o n . T h e moleculara p p r o a c h is an emerging o p t i o n , but a clearcut slot is n o t evident in any immediateconservation strategy.82

Session I V : Use and Impact of Germplasm onCrop Improvement in India

Use of Sorghum Germplasm and its Impact on Crop Improvementin IndiaR.V. Vidyabhushanam, B.S. Rana, and Belum V.S. ReddyDirector, NRCS, Rajendranagar; Project Coordinator, A I C S I P , Rajendranagar, Hyderabad; andPlant Breeder, ICR1SAT, Patancheru, Andhra PradeshThe t r a d i t i o n a l s o r g h u m cultivars a n d landraces g r o w n in I n d i a over centuries havebeen selected p r i m a r i l y for their a b i l i t y to survive under stress conditions rather t h a nfor high p r o d u c t i v i t y . T h e y are characterized by tall stature, late m a t u r i t y , localizedadaptation, and l o w harvest index.G r a i n Y i e l d a n d A g r o n o m i c DesirabilityIn order to achieve a b r e a k t h r o u g h in p r o d u c t i v i t y and enhance s o r g h u m p r o d u c t i o ni n the c o u n t r y , the I n d i a n C o u n c i l of A g r i c u l t u r a l Research ( I C A R ) in c o l l a b o r a t i o nw i t h the Rockefeller F o u n d a t i o n initiated the h y b r i d sorghum development p r o g r a min the early 1960s. To meet the program's requirements temperate s o r g h u m materialf r o m the U S A , and t r o p i c a l germplasm f r o m India and A f r i c a were assembled.Since the establishment of the A l l I n d i a Coordinated S o r g h u m I m p r o v e m e n tProject ( A I C S I P ) in 1969, nearly 500 hybrids and 1000 varieties f r o m various breedingprograms were tested and 45 cultivars were released in I n d i a . The first s o r g h u m h y b r i dreleased in the c o u n t r y in 1964, C S H 1, has clearly demonstrated the possibility ofrealizing average g r a i n yields of the order of 2.5-3.0 t ha - 1 even under rainfed c o n d i -tions. M o r e i m p o r t a n t , it introduced the concept of genotypic alteration to m a t c h theenvironment. Systematic breeding w i t h selected temperate and tropical germplasmhas provided material of the appropriate height and m a t u r i t y for the development ofhybrids and high-yielding varieties.Since its establishment in 1972, I C R I S A T has made efforts to ( I ) diversify thegermplasm base to enhance yield levels, and (2) to identify resistance sources and usethem to develop varieties and seed parents. This c o n t r i b u t e d to the release of 2cultivars in B u r m a , 2 in B u r k i n a Faso, 1 in E t h i o p i a , 3 in I n d i a , 12 in L a t i n A m e r i c a ncountries, 1 in the Sudan, 1 in Yemen, 1 in Z a m b i a , and 2 in Z i m b a b w e .The major germplasm sources utilized so far in varietal i m p r o v e m e n t includetemperate lines f r o m U S A , Zerazera lines f r o m E t h i o p i a and Sudan, and some lines ofI n d i a n o r i g i n . The male-sterile gene sources used were m a i n l y CK 60, 172,2219,3675,3667, and 2947. These were further diversified by using parents such as CS 3541, BT x623, p o p u l a t i o n derivatives ( B u l k - Y , I n d i a n Synthetic, F L R , R s / B , U S / B , Serere,I C R I S A T (International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics), 1989. Collaboration onGenetic Resources: summary proceedings of a Joint I C R I S A T / NBPGR(ICAR) Workshop on GermplasmExploration and Evaluation in India, 14-15 Nov 1988, I C R I S A T Center, India. Patancheru, A.P. 502 324,India: I C R I S A T .85

D i a l l e l , a n d W A E ) , IS 6248, IS 2225, IS 3443, IS 12611, IS 10927, IS 12645, IS 517, IS1037, IS 19614, E 12-5, ET 2039, E 3 5 - 1 , L u l u 5, M 3 5 - 1 , and Safra. In the developmentof restorer parents a n d varieties, the basic germplasm sources used were IS 84, IS 3691,IS 3687, IS 3922, IS 3924, IS 3541, IS 6928, ET 2039, Safra, E 12-5, E 3 5 - 1 , E 3 6 - 1 , a n dIS 1054, IS 1055, IS 1122, IS 1082, IS 517, IS 19652, K a r p e r 1593, IS 10927, IS 12645,IS 12622, IS 19652, IS 18961, G P R 168, a n d IS 1151.A l t h o u g h germplasm material f r o m different regions of the w o r l d was used todevelop i m p r o v e d cultivars, the n u m b e r of lines involved was rather small. T h i s hasled to a plateauing of yields in the rainy-season genotypes and o n l y m a r g i n a l increasesin the postrainy-season genotypes. To break the plateau, efforts are being made toinvolve recently collected accessions f r o m E t h i o p i a , Y e m e n ( A R ) , C a m e r o o n , a n dNigeria.Resistance to Biotic a n d A b i o t i c StressesThe m a i n strategy' adopted f o r the c o n t r o l of insect pests and pathogens i n c l u d i n gStriga has been i n c o r p o r a t i o n of resistance. In pursuit of this objective, systematicstudies were initiated in 1964 to screen the germplasm material f o r sources of resistanceagainst key pests a n d diseases. T h i s area of study was intensified d u r i n g the pastdecade i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h I C R I S A T . S o far, the b u l k o f the germplasm andbreeding material has been screened f o r most of the i m p o r t a n t pests and diseases. Thishas facilitated the identification of several sources of resistance to various pests anddiseases.A m o n g the insect pests, the most exhaustive screening was carried out f o r shoot flyand stem borer. M a n y of the resistant sources were f o u n d to e x h i b i t l o w infestationunder h i g h pest pressure. T h e resistant sources identified are p r e d o m i n a n t l y of I n d i a no r i g i n , w h i l e a few are f r o m E t h i o p i a , Nigeria, the Sudan, and U S A . T h e stableresistant sources f o r shoot f l y and stem borer are IS 1082, IS 2205, IS 5604, IS 5470, IS5480 ( I n d i a ) , IS 18577, IS 18554 (Nigeria), IS 2312 (the Sudan), IS 18551 ( E t h i o p i a ) ,IS 2122, IS 2134, a n d IS 2146 ( U S A ) . Some of these have been used b o t h in the I n d i a na n d I C R I S A T programs. Besides, other I n d i a n germplasm lines like M 35-1 ( I S 1054),BP 53 ( I S 18432), K a r a d L o c a l ( I S 18417), A i s p u r i ( I S 18425), etc. were used to i m p a r tresistances.Extensive screening of the germplasm was also carried out f o r midge, a n d m a n yresistant sources identified. N o t a b l e a m o n g these are DJ 6514 ( I S 18700), IS 18961,S - G I R L - M R 1 ( I S 18699), T A M 2566 ( I S 18697), I S 3443, I S 12573C, and A F 2 8 ( I S18698). T h e lines DJ 6514 a n d IS 3443 were used at I C R I S A T to develop an i m p r o v e dmidge-resistant variety, I C S V 197 ( S P V 694).Spectacular success was achieved in the identification a n d u t i l i z a t i o n of diseaseresistantsources. H i g h l y stable resistant sources were identified f o r a l l f o l i a r diseases.T h e tan-pigmented p l a n t type was f o u n d to be associated w i t h foliage diseases.G r a i n - m o l d resistance was f o u n d to be moderate in the white-grain b a c k g r o u n d . F o rcharcoal r o t , E 3 6 - 1 , QL 101, QL 102, a n d QL 104 have been identified as the moststable resistant types.86

A notable feature of disease resistance has been the a v a i l a b i l i t y of m u l t i p l e resistancein some lines. Based on m u l t i l o c a t i o n evaluation over the years, the f o l l o w i n glines were f o u n d to have m u l t i p l e disease resistance: I C S V 1, I C S V 120, I C S V 138, IS2058, IS 18758, and S P V 387 (anthracnose and rust); IS 3547 ( g r a i n m o l d s , d o w n ym i l d e w , anthracnose a n d rust); IS 14332 ( g r a i n molds, d o w n y m i l d e w , a n d rust); IS17141 (grain m o l d s a n d anthracnose); IS 2333 a n d IS 14387 ( g r a i n molds a n d d o w n ym i l d e w ) ; and IS 3413, IS 14390, and IS 21454 (grain molds and rust). These lines arecurrently being used in the breeding programs.Resistance to Striga has been reported in several indigenous sources. Based onextensive l a b o r a t o r y a n d field screening, I C R I S A T identified m a n y Striga-resistantlines f r o m the germplasm. However, m a n y of these sources c o u l d n o t be used in thebreeding programs due to their undesirable a g r o n o m i c base. Some germplasm linesused in Striga resistance breeding are IS 18331 (N 13), IS 87441 ( F r a m i d a ) , IS 2 2 2 1 , IS4202, IS 5106, IS 7471, IS 9830, and IS 9951. Some of the breeding lines l i k e 555, 168,S P V 2 2 1 , S P V 103, etc. proved to be useful resistant sources. The Striga-resistantvariety S A R 1 developed at I C R I S A T f r o m the cross 555 x 168 was released f o rc u l t i v a t i o n in Striga-endemic areas. Several other p r o m i s i n g selections derived f r o mthe mentioned resistant sources, b o t h f r o m I C R I S A T a n d I n d i a n programs, have beenidentified.Nearly 1300 germplasm lines and 332 breeding lines were screened f o r early- andmid-season d r o u g h t stresses. T h e most p r o m i s i n g f o r various droughts are:• Early-season a n d t e r m i n a l drought: E 3 6 - 1 , D J 1195, D K V 17, D K V 3 , D K V 4 I S12611, I S 6928, a n d D K V 18.• Mid-season stress: D K V 1 , D K V 3 , D K V 7 , D J 1195, I C S V 378, I C S V 572, I C S V272, I C S V 273, and I C S V 8295.ConversionT a l l , late a n d photoperiod-sensitive landraces are converted i n t o d w a r f and early typesf o r use in breeding programs. T h e landraces involved are Zerazera(8 lines), Guinnense(3), K a u r a (5), a n d D u r r a / C a u d a t u m (5).P o p u l a t i o n s for M u l t i p l e ResistancesThree populations are under development a t I C R I S A T . These are I C S P 1 B R / M F R(resistance t o g r a i n m o l d , stem b o r e r / s h o o t f l y , and midge), I C S P 2 B R / M F R (resistanceto g r a i n m o l d a n d Striga, a n d i m p r o v e d stand establishment) b o t h w i t h r a i n y -season a d a p t a t i o n , a n d I C S P 3 B R / M F R (resistance t o stem borer/ shoot f l y a n d rust,a n d i m p r o v e d g r a i n q u a l i t y ) w i t h postrainy-season adaptation. Several resistance87

sources f r o m the germplasm are transferred to these populations. T h e i r distributions,by region and trait are as follows:I C S P 1 B R / M F R and I C S P 2 B R / M F R ( r a i n y season) populations:• F r o m I n d i a (8 lines), E t h i o p i a (3), Sudan (2), Nigeria (1), Z i m b a b w e (2), E g y p t (1),U S A (9), and A u s t r a l i a (2).• Resistant to shoot f l y (3), stem borer (6), midge (5), grain m o l d (1), leaf diseases (3),a n d Striga (1); g o o d g r a i n (3), stand establishment (3), and early and d w a r f (13).I C S P 3 B R / M F R (postrainy season) populations:• F r o m I n d i a (13), E t h i o p i a (27), Nigeria (12), Sudan (8), Botswana (8), C a m e r o o n(8), Y e m e n ( 1 2 ) , M a l a w i ( l ) , S o u t h A f r i c a ( 1 ) , E g y p t ( 1 ) , U S A (6), M e x i c o ( I ) , a n dA u s t r a l i a (3).• B o l d g r a i n (20); w i t h postrainy-season adaptation and resistance to t e r m i n a ld r o u g h t (29); photoperiod-sensitive (2), temperature-insensitive (28); resistant toshoot f l y / stem borer (4) and d o w n y m i l d e w (1); stay-green (6); stand establishment(3), a n d early and d w a r f (3).H i g h - L y s i n eS o r g h u m sT h e high-lysine s o r g h u m lines, IS 11167 and IS 11758 f r o m E t h i o p i a were used in thebreeding p r o g r a m f o r transferring the gene to a desirable a g r o n o m i c b a c k g r o u n d .Some p r o m i s i n g high-lysine derivatives w i t h shrivelled and p l u m p g r a i n have beenobtained.Sweet S o r g h u m sBased on evaluation of the germplasm, several sweet-stalked sorghum lines wereselected. Notable among these are: IS 20963, IS 15428, IS 3572, IS 2266, IS 9890, IS9639, IS 14790, IS 21100, IS 8157, and IS 15448. These materials, which were furtherscreened at some of the centers of the Sorghum Project, were found to be verypromising.F o r a g e S o r g h u m I m p r o v e m e n tThe forage s o r g h u m germplasm was systematically evaluated over several years atHisar Center f o r various yield and q u a l i t y traits, f o r w h i c h a wide range of v a r i a b i l i t yhas been noted. T h e lines identified w i t h desirable forage attributes were IS 1044, IS12308, IS 13200, IS 18577, IS 18578, and IS 18580. In respect of q u a l i t y parameters IS1059, IS 2944, IS 3247, IS 4776 and IS 6090 were selected f o r l o w H C N , and IS 3247a n d P J 7 R f o r l o w t a n n i n content.T h e need f o r further c r i t i c a l evaluation of germplasm materials and their u t i l i z a t i o nin forage s o r g h u m i m p r o v e m e n t is keenly felt. T h i s w o r k is being strengthened in theS o r g h u m Project and the N a t i o n a l Centre has initiated a p r o g r a m on forage s o r g h u mi m p r o v e m e n t .88

Use of Pearl Millet Germplasm and its Impacton Crop Improvement in IndiaG. Harinarayana and K . N . RaiProject Coordinator, A I C P M I P , College of Agriculture, Pune, Maharashtra; andMillet Breeder, Cereals Program, I C R I S A T , Patancheru, Andhra PradeshPearl m i l l e t (Pennisetum glaucum ( L . ) R. Br.) is endowed w i t h enormous geneticv a r i a b i l i t y f o r yield components, adaptation, a n d q u a l i t y traits. T h i s v a r i a b i l i t y hasevolved as a result of n a t u r a l selection f o r a d a p t a t i o n to diverse agroecologicalenvironments coupled w i t h h u m a n selection for local preference. Pearl m i l l e t g e r m -plasm was collected and maintained d u r i n g the 1920s a n d 1930s at C o i m b a t o r e a n dN i p h a d , d u r i n g the 1960s at N e w D e l h i , a n d since 1970s has been assembled atI C R I S A T Center, Patancheru. A large b u l k of the v a r i a b i l i t y f o r numerous charactersis well represented in the 19 800 accessions ( f r o m 42 countries) maintained in the w o r l dcollection at I C R I S A T . M o s t of these accessions have already been evaluated atI C R I S A T . They have also been extensively sampled and screened for stable sources ofdisease resistance a n d some qualitative traits.Before the establishment of the A l l I n d i a C o o r d i n a t e d M i l l e t s I m p r o v e m e n t Project( A I C M I P ) in 1965, mass selection led to the development of several varieties ( C O 2,C O 3 , A K P 1 , A K P 2 , R S J , R S K , N-28-15-1) f r o m I n d i a n landraces and C O I a n d S530 f r o m A f r i c a n landraces. However, l o w g r a i n yields a n d lateness prevented theirc o m m e r c i a l success. Pearl m i l l e t germplasm assembled at the I n d i a n A g r i c u l t u r a lResearch Institute ( I A R I ) , N e w D e l h i , d u r i n g the 1960s led to the development ofI m p r o v e d Ghana a n d Pusa M o t i by mass selection. R a n d o m m a t i n g of the S 2progenies f r o m A f r i c a n x A f r i c a n crosses produced V i j a y and Visakha. L a c k of seedp r o d u c t i o n a n d extension support l i m i t e d the impact of these varieties.T h e c o m m e r c i a l i m p a c t of an open-pollinated variety came w i t h the developmentand release of W C - C 7 5 in 1982. This variety was developed at I C R I S A T by intercrossingseven full-sib progenies of the W o r l d Composite introduced f r o m Nigeria. In 5years o f A I C M I P trials, W C - C 7 5 produced 9 8 % g r a i n yield a n d 119% fodder yield o fthe most p o p u l a r and w i d e l y g r o w n h y b r i d BJ 104. Its high d o w n y m i l d e w resistancecontinues to h o l d even after 6 years of widespread c u l t i v a t i o n in the c ountry. A n o t h e ropen-pollinated variety, I C M S 7703, was developed a t I C R I S A T b y intercrossingseven p a r t i a l inbreds derived f r o m single-cross populations i n v o l v i n g mostly breedinglines o f I n d i a n a n d A f r i c a n o r i g i n . I n 6 years o f A I C P M I P trials, I C M S 7703produced 102% g r a i n yield a n d 116% fodder yield of BJ 104. This variety, released in1985 a n d w i d e l y cultivated in T a m i l N a d u , has also retained its h i g h resistance tod o w n y m i l d e w .I C R I S A T (International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics), 1989. Collaboration onGenetic Resources: summary proceedings of a Joint I C R I S A T / N B P G R < I C A R ) Workshop on GermplasmExploration and Evaluation in India, 14-15 Nov 1988. I C R I S A T Center, India, Patancheru, A.P. 502 324,India: I C R I S A T .89

The success of W C - C 7 5 a n d I C M S 7703 sparked o f f a chain reaction leading to therelease of R C B 2 (half-sib selection f r o m I n d i a n landraces), P S B 8 (developed f r o m 60inbreds of I n d i a n x I n d i a n crosses), HC 4 (derived f r o m 7 inbreds of I n d i a n x A f r i c a ncrosses), M a l l i k a r j u n a (derived f r o m 12 inbreds of I n d i a n x A f r i c a n o r i g i n ) , CO 7 andNagarjuna (developed f r o m I n d i a n x A f r i c a n F 1 's), and Balaji (developed f r o m S 2progenies of A f r i c a n x A f r i c a n p o p u l a t i o n ) . N o n e of these, however, were c o m m e r -c i a l l y significant. A l l these varieties were produced f r o m enhanced germplasm. Ac o m m e r c i a l l y successful open-pollinated variety directly produced f r o m a landrace isI C T P 8203, developed at I C R I S A T by intercrossing five S 2 progenies f r o m a landraceo r i g i n a t i n g f r o m T o g o . This variety, released by the Central V a r i e t y Release C o m m i t -tee on 11 October 1988 f o r c u l t i v a t i o n in M a h a r a s h t r a and A n d h r a Pradesh, yields asm u c h as M B H 110, M o r e o v e r , it is early m a t u r i n g (75 days ), has large seeds (12 gl000 - 1 ), tolerates d r o u g h t , a n d has a h i g h level of resistance to d o w n y m i l d e w . A hostof open-pollinated varieties of diverse genetic base w h i c h have performed w e l l inA I C P M I P trials but have n o t been able to compete w i t h the leading varieties to makeit to the farmers' fields have greatly broadened the genetic base of a l l millet programs.T h e greatest impact o f g e r m p l a s m u t i l i z a t i o n o n pearl millet improvement in I n d i ahas been on the h y b r i d f r o n t . T h e pearl m i l l e t h y b r i d era in I n d i a started in 1962 w i t hthe i n t r o d u c t i o n o f the male-sterile line T i f t 2 3 A f r o m T i f t o n , Georgia, U S A . Fiveh y b r i d s based on this line were released d u r i n g 1965-69. Of these, HB 3 ( i n v o l v i n g J104 as a p o l l e n parent), released in 1968, was the most p o p u l a r a n d was extensivelycultivated u n t i l it succumbed to d o w n y m i l d e w in 1974. J 104 was derived f r o m theI n d i a n g e r m p l a s m . Three hybrids were released in 1977: t w o of these ( B J 104 a n d BK560) were based on male-sterile line 5141 A and one ( C J 104) was based on 5054 A.B o t h BJ 104 a n d CJ 104 i n v o l v e J 104 as pollen parent. T h e p o l l e n parent of BK 560 (K560-230) was developed f r o m I n d i a n germplasm. The nuclear genome of 5141 A isderived f r o m I n d i a n g e r m p l a s m whereas that of 5054 A involves A f r i c a n germplasm.B J 104 d o m i n a t e d i n n o r t h e r n I n d i a , B K 560 d o m i n a t e d i n central and southern I n d i a ,and CJ 104 became p o p u l a r in drier parts of Gujarat. D u r i n g 1981-84, another 10hybrids were released of w h i c h o n l y 3 were of any significance. M B H 110 becamep o p u l a r i n M a h a r a s h t r a , a n d G H B 2 7 and G H B 3 2 i n Gujarat. G H B 2 7 i s based o n5141 A a n d p o l l e n parent J 2002 a n d G H B 32 is based on 5141 A a n d pollen parent J1188. B o t h p o l l e n parents are derived f r o m I n d i a n germplasm. M B H 110 is based onparental lines developed f r o m materials bred at the Serere Research station, Uganda.F o l l o w i n g the b r e a k d o w n of 5141 A and J 104 to d o w n y m i l d e w , f o u r hybrids( I C M H 4 5 1 , I C M H 5 0 1 , M H 182, H H B 30) were released i n 1986 and three others( I C M H 423, M H 169, H H B 50) were released i n 1987. O f these, o n l y I C M H 451 hasbeen cultivated w i d e l y . T h e hybrids released in 1987 are still in the seed-productionstages, a n d G H B 3 0 i s restricted t o Gujarat. T h e female parent o f I C M H 451 (81 A ) i srelated to T i f t 23 D 2 A 1 , a n d its p o l l e n parent ( I C M P 451) is a derivative of LateComposite developed at I C R I S A T . G H B 30 is based on 5054 A a n d J 2002 (derivedf r o m I n d i a n germplasm). I C M H 423 i s based o n 841 A (related t o 5141 A ) a n d I C M P423 (derived f r o m E a r l y C o m p o s i t e ) developed a t I C R I S A T . M H 169 i s based o n841 A; its pollen parent is a d o w n y m i l d e w resistant selection f r o m K 560- 230. H y b r i dH H B 50 is based on 81 A a n d H 90/4-5 ( a n i n b r e d derived f r o m I n d i a n germplasm).90

Early efforts between 1961 and 1962 at Punjab A g r i c u l t u r a l University, L u d h i a n aled to the development of t w o male-sterile lines (L 6 6 A , L 67 A) w h i c h later studiesshowed to be of t w o different cytoplasmic systems as w e l l as different f r o m T i f t 2 3 A 1 .The cytoplasm of L 66 A (later named L 66 A 2 ) was derived f r o m a genetic stock IP 189o r i g i n a t i n g f r o m M a l a w i . T h e cytoplasm of L 67 (later named L 6 7 A 3 ) was derivedf r o m a p o p u l a t i o n of a natural cross i n v o l v i n g an A f r i c a n germplasm. A n o t h e rmale-sterile line ( P T 7 3 2 A ) developed a t T a m i l N a d u A g r i c u l t u r a l University, C o i m -batore, derives its cytoplasm f r o m a landrace material f r o m A n d h r a Pradesh a n d isclaimed to be different f r o m T i f t 2 3 A 1 . N o n e of these cytoplasms have yet beenc o m m e r c i a l l y exploited because of their unstable sterility.Recently, several sources of cytoplasmic male-sterility (cms) have been identified indiverse germplasms. W o r k at A h m a d u Bello University in Nigeria has identified a cmssource in E x - B o r n u . T h e I C R I S A T Cereals P r o g r a m has identified cms sources inEarly Gene P o o l and in a p o p u l a t i o n derived f r o m A f r i c a n * A f r i c a n cross. T h eI C R I S A T Genetic Resources U n i t has identified new cms sources in accessions f r o mGhana and Botswana, and O R S T O M scientists in France have identified a cms sourcef r o m an accession of P. americanum ssp violaceum ( L a m . ) L. R i c h , o r i g i n a t i n g f r o mSenegal. O R S T O M w o r k showed this cytoplasmic system to be different f r o m T i f t 23A , . Studies a t I C R I S A T , based o n the pollen f e r t i l i t y restoration o f hybrids made o nisonuclear lines (i.e., 81 B nuclear genome w i t h T i f t 23A 1 , and violaceum cytoplasms)showed b o t h cytoplasmic systems to be similar. Such studies, we believe, are essentialfor reliable classification of the cytoplasmic systems. Nevertheless, several sources aren o w available w h i c h are being studied f o r their diversity.I n d i a n landraces provide excellent sources of early m a t u r i t y , better t i l l e r i n g , a n dshorter height. In contrast, A f r i c a n sources, particularly those f r o m the West A f r i c a nregion, p rovide excellent sources of larger head v o l u m e and seed size, higher degrees ofresistance to diseases, and better seed q u a l i t y . West A f r i c a n germplasm accessionsprovide far more genetic v a r i a b i l i t y t h a n the I n d i a n germplasm. Increasing use of theA f r i c a n germplasm a t I C R I S A T , and i n almost a l l I n d i a n N a t i o n a l programs ( m o s t l yt h r o u g h the breeding materials generated at I C R I S A T ) , has substantially c o n t r i b u t e dto the diversification of the genetic base of breeding programs. A b o u t 6 5 % of the 694inbred lines presently m a i n t a i n e d in the active p o l l i n a t o r collection at I C R I S A T werederived f r o m crosses i n v o l v i n g at least one parent ( m o s t l y a breeding line) o r i g i n a t i n gf r o m A f r i c a . A b o u t the same p r o p o r t i o n of the 344 B-lines n o w at the advanced stagesof their evaluation or in backcrossing f o r A-lines development, involve A f r i c a ngermplasm. T w o large-seeded male-sterile lines (863 A , I C M A 88004) w i t h h i g h h y b r i dyield potential a n d d o w n y m i l d e w resistance were developed directly f r o m a landraceo r i g i n a t i n g f r o m T o g o . B o t h these male-sterile lines are n o w being used f o r thedevelopment o f experimental hybrids.The w o r l d collection o f germplasm a t I A R I , N e w D e l h i was screened f o r resistanceto d o w n y m i l d e w , smut, ergot, and rust under n a t u r a l conditions. D e v e l o p m e n t ofeffective field screening techniques at I C R I S A T led to the development/ i d e n t i f i c a t i o nof excellent sources of resistance in the germplasm a n d breeding lines o r i g i n a t i n gmostly f r o m West A f r i c a . These are being w i d e l y utilized in several breedingprograms.91

Extensive efforts i n search o f novel traits i n the germplasm collection at I C R I S A Thave led to the identification of genes that c o n t r o l d w a r f i s m , earliness, glossiness,trichomelessness, and w h i t e seed color. Lines w i t h up to 2 0 % stalk-sugar content and> 1 5 % g r a i n - p r o t e i n content have also been identified i n the I C R I S A T germplasmcollection. I t is h i g h l y l i k e l y that sources w i l l be identified f o r d r o u g h t tolerance,l o d g i n g resistance, better seedling emergence, increased seedling vigor, h i g h g r o w t hrates, a n d stay-green character, the u t i l i z a t i o n o f w h i c h i n breeding w i l l help stabilizethe g r a i n yield of pearl m i l l e t at higher levels.92

Use of Groundnut Germplasm and its Impacton Crop Improvement in IndiaP.S. Reddy, N.R. Bhagat, and L.J. ReddyDirector, NRCG, Junagadh, Gujarat; and Head, Genetic Resources, NRCG, Junagadh, Gujarat; andGroundnut Breeder, I C R I S A T , Patancheru, Andhra PradeshIn I n d i a , vast collections of g r o u n d n u t (Arachis hypogaea) are assembled, m a i n -tained, a n d utilized by Research Centers under the A l l I n d i a C o o r d i n a t e d ResearchProject on Oilseeds ( A I C O R P O ) , various Universities, the N a t i o n a l Research Centrefor G r o u n d n u t ( N R C G ) , and a t I C R I S A T Center.A I C O R P O CentersFifteen A I C O R P O Centers and various A g r i c u l t u r a l Universities located in the m a j o rg r o u n d n u t - g r o w i n g regions m a i n t a i n need-based w o r k i n g collections of a b o u t 7900accessions. The i n d i v i d u a l collections range f r o m 250 to 2900 accessions w i t h a b o u t30% duplicate samples. These collections, w h i c h are being utilized in several breedingprograms, have been evaluated f o r various a gronomic traits such as earliness, freshseed d o r m a n c y , h i g h shelling percentage, high o i l content, large seed size, synchronousf l o w e r i n g , compact f r u i t i n g habit, resistance/tolerance to d r o u g h t , and to m a j o rinsect pests and diseases. Since reports on resistance/tolerance to various stressfactors are based on field observations at various locations, c o n f i r m a t i o n underepiphytotic conditions is required.N a t i o n a l Research C e n t r e for G r o u n d n u t ( N R C G )It acts as a repository of active germplasm and aims to describe each accession f o rvarious m o r p h o a g r o n o m i c characteristics. T h e w o r k i n g collections belonging to Virginiab u n c h / r u n n e r (2510), Spanish (2144), a n d Valencia (820) groups have beenscreened for useful a g r o n o m i c characters. B o t h material a n d evaluation catalogs wereshared w i t h workers in I n d i a . Several p r o m i s i n g accessions possessing h i g h p o d y i e l d ,o i l content a n d peg strength, tolerance to c o l d a n d heat, and resistance to late leaf spot,rust and Alternaria leaf spot were identified.Some accessions w h i c h p e r f o r m better in summer under l i m i t e d i r r i g a t i o n have alsobeen identified. The p r o m i s i n g material was evaluated f o r p r o d u c t i v i t y a n d simultaneouslyutilized in the breeding p r o g r a m . B o t h segregating material and germplasmaccessions were distributed to A I C O R P O Centers and other research institutes f o rin-situ selection. A m o n g the p r o m i s i n g selections, N R G S ( E ) - 2 a n d N R G S - 4 werep r o m o t e d t o C V T under the A I C O R P O system.I C R I S A T (International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics), 1989. Collaboration onGenetic Resources: summary proceedings of a Joint I C R 1 S A T / N B P G R ( I C A R ) Workshop on GermplasmExploration and Evaluation in India, 14-15 Nov 1988, I C R I S A T Center, India. Patancheru, A.P. 502 324,India: I C R I S A T .93

I C R I S A T C e n t e rT h e Genetic Resources U n i t has so far assembled a b o u t 11 800 accessions of A.hypogaea f r o m 89 countries a n d over 200 accessions of w i l d species.T h e breeding p r o g r a m has so far utilized 729 germplasm accessions c o m p r i s i n gVirginia b u n c h (266), Virginia runner (148), Spanish b u n c h (240), a n d Valencia (75)types as d o n o r s f o r various stress factors and other desirable characters.A f t e r extensive field screening of over 10 000 accessions, 78 genotypes resistant torust, 34 resistant to late leaf spot, and 31 genotypes w i t h c o m b i n e d resistances to b o t hdiseases have been identified. Recently another 50 lines were tentatively identified asrust a n d / o r late leaf spot resistant. Breeders have successfully incorporated rust a n dlate leaf spot resistances i n t o high-yielding backgrounds and developed 464 elite linesusing I C G 7013, I C G 1697, I C G 4747, I C G 2716, I C G 7882, and I C G 7884 a s resistantdonors. Some of these lines are in various stages of testing in the n a t i o n a l p r o g r a m .I C G ( F D R S ) 4 and I C G ( F D R S ) 10 are in adaptive trials and I C G ( F D R S ) 43 is in theA I C O R P O 1988 rainy-season N a t i o n a l Elite T r i a l ( N E T ) i n the peninsular zone.Field screening of 3500 germplasm accessions f o r p o d rots led to the i d e n t i f i c a t i o nof 11 genotypes w h i c h have s h o w n significantly l o w e r incidence of rotted pods t h a nthe p o p u l a r check cultivars. D r y seed coat resistance to A. flavus in several genotypes( I C G 1326, I C G 7633, I C G 4750, I C G 4749, I C G 3700, a n d I C G 2224) has been eitheridentified or c o n f i r m e d . These sources have been extensively used in the breedingp r o g r a m a n d 365 elite breeding lines have been developed and are being tested. Ina d d i t i o n , 500 germplasm lines have been tested f o r levels of a f l a t o x i n p r o d u c t i o n by A.flavus a n d t w o lines, I C G 4681 a n d I C G 7101 have been identified as l o w t o x i nproducers. F i e l d tolerance to b u d necrosis disease was f o u n d in 20 accessions. T w olines, I C G 2716 a n d I C G 7013, d i d n o t transmit Peanut M o t t l e V i r u s ( P M V ) t h r o u g hseeds and I C G 5043 was f o u n d to be tolerant to P M V .Screening against insect pests has resulted in identification of resistant lines: 20 forthrips (Frankliniella schultzei), 25 f o r leaf hopper (Empoasca kerri), 18 f o r leaf m i n e r(Aproaerema modicella), 4 f o r aphids (Aphis craccivora), and 20 f o r termites (Odontotermesspp). A large n u m b e r of single a n d m u l t i p l e crosses have been made usingI C G 5040, I C G 5042, I C G 5043, I C G 5045, I C G 6764, I C G 2271, etc., a s insectresistantdonors. T h e advanced breeding lines are in various stages of testing.T h i r t y one resistant sources were identified b y I C R I S A T pathologists and A P A Uscientists after screening m o r e t h a n 1500 germplasm lines f o r a nematode diseasek n o w n as " K a l a h a s t i M a l a d y " caused by Tylenchorhynchus bravilineatus.D r o u g h t screening of a b o u t 1000 accessions resulted in i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of 18 tolerantaccessions. Five accessions, I C G 1697, I C G 3657, I C G 4728, I C G 4729, and I C G 4730have been utilized in the breeding p r o g r a m a n d the h y b r i d derivatives are beingevaluated.Screening f o r higher b i o l o g i c a l n i t r o g e n - f i x i n g a b i l i t y resulted in the i d e n t i f i c a t i o no f one Spanish type, I C G 1561 a n d t w o Virginia types, I C G 2405 a n d I C G 4969 w i t hhigher nitrogenase a c t i v i t y . Progenies of crosses i n v o l v i n g these accessions were f o u n dt o y i e l d better. S i x lines, I C G 1175, I C G 3660, I C G 2405, I C G 3080, I C G 799, a n d I C G476 were f o u n d to be p r o m i s i n g f o r p h o t o p e r i o d insensitivity. A b o u t 100 Spanish/ va-94

lencia germplasm accessions have been screened f o r i r o n deficiency and p r e l i m i n a r yobservations suggest that 7 accessions h o l d promise. We have identified seven earlyma t u r i n g (less t h a n 9 0 days) germplasm accessions, I C G 476, I C G 4117, T G 2 E , A h3 1 6 / S , I C G 147, a n d I C G 3754. These lines have been extensively utilized as earlym a t u r i t y donors in the breeding p r o g r a m and we have developed a n d are testing a b o u t529 elite early m a t u r i n g (90-100 days) advanced lines.Seven germplasm accessions w i t h large seed mass, U S A 47, U S A 54, I C G 720, I C G5662, I C G 7360, I C G 3043, and I C G 6150 have been extensively utilized in theconfectionery breeding p r o g r a m . We have developed more than 75 large-seeded,high-yielding confectionery lines w h i c h are currently being tested.We have also utilized m o r e t h a n 500 germplasm accessions to develop broad-basedbreeding lines w i t h wider a d a p t a b i l i t y and h i g h yield potential. F r o m this activity, t w olines, I C G S 11 and I C G S 44 have been released for general c u l t i v a t i o n d u r i n g thepostrainy season in I n d i a . A n o t h e r line, I C G S 37 has been recommended f o r adaptivetrials a n d 5 lines, I C G 87, I C G 103, I C G 105, I C G 84, a n d I C G 109 are in 1988/89postrainy-season N E T . S i m i l a r l y t w o Virginia varieties, I C G S 65 a n d I C G S 76, a n dthe Spanish bunch c u l t i v a r I C G S 44-1 are in the rainy-season trials. Several othervarieties are in i n i t i a l stages of testing in various g r o u n d n u t zones.Research is in progress at I C R I S A T Center to incorporate useful genes i n t o thecultivated g r o u n d n u t f r o m the secondary gene p o o l c o m p r i s i n g w i l d Arachis species.Special breeding techniques i n c l u d i n g p l o i d y manipulations, h o r m o n e treatment,m e n t o r p o l l e n , and tissue-culture techniques are being utilized to introgress genesf r o m b o t h compatible and i n c o m p a t i b l e Arachis species. Several stable t e t r a p l o i dderivatives i n v o l v i n g compatible species, A. cardenasii, A. chacoense, a n d A. batizocoihave been developed. These lines possess very h i g h levels of resistance to rust a n dleaf spots and some of t h e m are even resistant to leaf m i n e r and b u d necrosis disease.These lines are being utilized in the conventional breeding p r o g r a m f o r furtheri m p r o v e m e n t .I m p a c t o n C r o p I m p r o v e m e n tT h e c o m m e r c i a l varieties in I n d i a were developed t h r o u g h selection w i t h i n a n dbetween exotic or local adapted accessions (37), h y b r i d i z a t i o n (21), a n d m u t a t i o n (5)and o n l y 3 were direct i n t r o d u c t i o n s ( K a d i r i 2, UF 70-103, K u b e r ) . Performance ofi m p r o v e d c o m m e r c i a l varieties introduced f r o m developed countries was n o t encouraging.T w o secondary selections made f r o m the i n t r o d u c t i o n s ( R o b u t 33-1 a n d J L 24)were h i g h l y successful in replacing the l o w - y i e l d i n g o l d cultivars. T h e area under theset w o cultivars has increased t h r o u g h o u t the c o u n t r y a n d they are being extensivelyutilized in the n a t i o n a l breeding programs.G r o u n d n u t i m p r o v e m e n t programs are undertaken a t A I C O R P O Centers, A g r i c u l -t u r a l Universities, I C A R Institutes, and a t I C R I S A T . I m p r o v e d genotypes are enteredi n t o a l l - I n d i a trials under the A I C O R P O p r o g r a m . D u r i n g 1981-88 as m a n y as 356varieties developed t h r o u g h i n t r o d u c t i o n (2), selection (38), h y b r i d i z a t i o n (297),m u t a t i o n (12), and interspecific h y b r i d i z a t i o n (7) were evaluated. In the development95

of these new varieties as m a n y as 36 parents were involved in h y b r i d i z a t i o n b u t o n l yR o b u t 33-1 (89 crosses), M 13 (53 crosses), JL 24 (43 crosses), and J 11 (26 crosses)were frequently utilized. W h i l e 195 germplasm accessions were utilized in h y b r i d i z a -t i o n , o n l y a few were frequently utilized w i t h specific objectives such as i n c o r p o r a t i o nof earliness, disease and pest resistance. These were: I C F 476 (42 crosses), NC Ac17090 ( I C G 1697) (26 crosses), M a n f r e d i (12 crosses), NC Ac 2821 ( I C G 2405) (11crosses), G D M (11 crosses), A s i r i y a m w i t u n d e , N C A c 2214 ( I C G 5040), N C A c76446(292) ( I C G 2716), P I 259747 ( I C G 4747), N C A c 2232 ( I C G 5042), D h 3-20, T G18, a n d T G ( E ) 1. T h e other lines appear to have been used as parents w i t h a view toi m p r o v e yield.I n v o l v e m e n t of special-feature accessions w i t h specific breeding objectives led to thedevelopment of varieties w i t h rust and late leaf spot resistance (40), b u d necrosistolerance (11), extra-early varieties (32) suitable for postrainy-season c u l t i v a t i o n , andconfectionery (28) selections. Since 1985, these varieties are being tested f o r their yieldp o t e n t i a l a n d some of t h e m m a y be released w i t h i n the next 2-3 years. However, noneof the new confectionery lines were superior to the c o n t r o l cultivar, M 13. At least 13selections resistant to f o l i a r diseases were derived f r o m interspecific h y b r i d i z a t i o ni n v o l v i n g A. cardenasii as one of the parents.F o r c u l t i v a t i o n in postrainy season a b o u t 112 i m p r o v e d varieties developed t h r o u g hselection (15) a n d h y b r i d i z a t i o n (97) were tested d u r i n g 1981-88 by A I C O R P OCenters. O n l y I C G S 1 1 , K a d i r i 3 , I C G S 44, U F 70-103, G 2 0 1 , C G C 3 , a n d R S H Y 1were f o u n d p r o m i s i n g .D u r i n g 1983-88, 9 Spanish varieties, G G - 2 , Jawan, CO 2, Dh 8, I C G S 11, SG 84,V R I 1 , A L R 1 , a n d B G 3 ; G i r n a r - 1 ; 3 Virginia bunch varieties, Kaushal, I C G S 44, andUF 70-103; a n d 3 Virginia runner varieties, C h i t r a , G G - 1 1 , and M 335 were released forc o m m e r c i a l c u l t i v a t i o n . The area under the cultivars I C G S 11 and I C G S 44 m i g h tincrease phenomenally in future as large-scale I C A R - L E G O F T E N demonstrationshave clearly s h o w n their superiority over the existing p o p u l a r cultivars in six states.G i r n a r - 1 possesses m u l t i p l e resistance to foliar diseases and insects and tolerance tod r o u g h t a n d c o u l d be successfully cultivated in b o t h seasons. These varieties areexpected to revolutionize g r o u n d n u t c u l t i v a t i o n if the seed p r o d u c t i o n p r o g r a m issimultaneously strengthened.96

Use of Minor (Small) Millets Germplasm and its Impacton Crop Improvement in IndiaA. Seetharam and K.E. Prasada RaoProject Coordinator (Small Millets), A I C S M I P , Gandhi Krishi Vidya Kendra, Bangalore, Karnataka;andSenior Botanist, Genetic Resources Unit, ICRISAT, Patancheru, Andhra PradeshIn m a n y parts of I n d i a , six species of m i n o r (small) millets are cultivated f o r g r a i n andfodder. These are: finger m i l l e t (Eleusine coracana(L.) Gaertn.), f o x t a i l millet (Setariaitalica(L.) P. Beauv.), proso millet (Panicum miliaceum L . ) , k o d o millet (Paspalumscrohiculatum L . ) , little millet {Panicum sumatrense R o t h , ex R o e m . and S c h u l t ) ,and barnyard millet (Echinochloa colona ( L . ) L i n k ) . In I n d i a , these are g r o w n asrainfed crops in marginal and submarginal conditions of soil fertility and moisture. Onan average, a p p r o x i m a t e l y 6 m ha are planted under these crop species of w h i c h fingermillet alone occupies a r o u n d 2.5 m ha followed by k o d o , little, f o x t a i l , proso, andbarnyard millet, in that order.Systematic i m p r o v e m e n t in small millets was not attempted u n t i l recently in I n d i a .Obviously most of the cultivars are local landraces w h i c h are products of indirecth u m a n and natural selection over a period of time. S m a l l millets are indispensable toI n d i a n agriculture, being the m a i n life-support species in the worst d r o u g h t years. Oflate there has been an appreciation of the need to improve the p r o d u c t i v i t y of thesecrops t h r o u g h m o d e r n methods of breeding. Genetic improvement t h r o u g h conventi o n a l breeding approaches depends solely on the availability of diverse germplasm.G e r m p l a s m is the basic raw material and one has to bank u p o n a broad genetic basefor c r o p i m p rovement. Therefore, easy access to germplasm is necessary. T h i s isespecially true of small millets where only a small part of the available vast geneticresources has been explored, studied, and utilized.S m a l l millets have always been of local and regional importance, and as a resulthave attracted little a t t e n t i o n f r o m national and international organizations. T h e yhave always received the lowest p r i o r i t y in terms of f u n d i n g and manpower a l l o c a t i o n .In I n d i a , t h o u g h crop i m p r o v e m e n t w o r k on small millets has been going on f o rseveral years, these crops have received less attention compared to other major f o o dcrops. It was o n l y after 1969 that the millets started receiving some attention, w i t h thelaunching of the Coordinated M i l l e t s I m p r o v e m e n t Project. S m a l l Millets I m p r o v e -ment received a boost d u r i n g 1978-79 w i t h the establishment of five crop-specific leadresearch centers under I D R C assistance. The research on these crops was broadenedd u r i n g the Seventh Plan, w i t h the launching o f A l l I n d i a Coordinated S m a l l M i l l e t sI m p r o v e m e n t Project ( A I C S M I P ) at Bangalore. One of the major objectives of theproject is the diversification of the varietal base by evolving high-yielding, diseaseresistant,a n d widely adaptable varieties of various small millets.I C R I S A T (International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics), 1989. Collaboration onGenetic Resources: summary proceedings of a Joint I C R I S A T / NBPGR(ICAR) Workshop on GermplasmExploration and Evaluation in India, 14-15 Nov 1988, ICRISAT Center, India. Patancheru, A.P. 502 324,India: I C R I S A T .97

G e r m p l a s m A v a i l a b i l i t yIn the past, small millets scientists w o r k e d w i t h l i m i t e d plant materials and a n a r r o wgenetic base collected locally. Coupled w i t h difficulties in artificial h y b r i d i z a t i o n , thisblunted the opportunities of yield i m p r o v e m e n t t h r o u g h genetic m a n i p u l a t i o n . Thesituation was to some extent rectified in the 1960s when the Rockefeller F o u n d a t i o n ofU S A and the I n d i a n C o u n c i l o f A g r i c u l t u r a l Research ( I C A R ) made the first concertedeffort in I n d i a to p o o l the collections of various small millets to make themavailable to scientists w o r k i n g in different parts of the country. One set of this w o r l dcollection has been rejuvenated by I C R I S A T in 1976 and was made available to theA l l I n d i a Coordinated M i l l e t s I m p r o v e m e n t Project ( A I C M I P ) . The conservationand supply activities further gained m o m e n t u m w i t h N B P G R , N e w D e l h i , p l a y i n g akey role in augmenting the small millets collections. Recognizing the importance ofconservation and easy access to germplasm, the A I C M I P established a germplasmu n i t at Bangalore in 1979. The unit has been m a k i n g efforts since 1980 to p o o l theavailable germplasm of small millets f r o m various sources and to make it available tobreeders.At Bangalore, a t o t a l of 8522 accessions of various small millets have beenassembled. These include 4490 finger millet, 1300 f o x t a i l millet, 544 little millet, 577proso m i l l e t , 646 barnyard millet, and 965 accessions of k o d o millet.A p a r t f r o m the collections maintained at Bangalore, I C R I S A T is assembling andm a i n t a i n i n g one of the most comprehensive w o r l d collections of small millets. Thegene bank at I C R I S A T has made efforts at the global level in the last 6-8 years toassemble and conserve germplasm, and to make it available to workers a l l over thew o r l d . This has made possible easy access to diverse germplasm, thereby strengthenin g the national breeding programs.U t i l i z a t i o n o f G e r m p l a s mThe f u l l u t i l i z a t i o n o f germplasm depends u p o n t w o factors: (1) evaluation andcharacterization, and (2) identification of useful gene sources.Characterization, classification, and cataloguing of germplasm are slowly gainingm o m e n t u m . W h i l e fairly large diversity has been achieved, we still have a l o n g way togo in studying and assessing their breeding value. Germplasm evaluation has t w ofacets: characterization of germplasm by botanists and evaluation/screening by concernedc r o p i m p r o v e m e n t scientists/breeders. Germplasm characterized and d o c u -mented solely by a botanist m a y fail to depict the true w o r t h of the material forselection and u t i l i z a t i o n in current breeding programs. G e r m p l a s m screening f r o m thebreeder's angle f o r agronomic, physiological, pathological, a n d quality charactersdemands a great deal of time a n d resources. The breeding value of the material is bestj u d g e d by studying the accessions in field trials, rather than depending solely ondocumented data. A n attempt was made i n this direction b y N B P G R b y g r o w i n g smallmillets germplasm f r o m the I n d i a n N a t i o n a l P r o g r a m and I C R I S A T a t A k o l a andi n v i t i n g breeders f o r selection. This type of evaluation may be encouraged in future.98

D u r i n g the last 5 years, a large number of selected germplasm accessions wereevaluated in the a l l - I n d i a testing network and a number of superior genotypes havebeen released f o r general c u l t i v a t i o n in different parts of the c o u n t r y . Of the 28varieties of different small millets released d u r i n g the last 5 years, 22 are selectionseither directly or indirectly f r o m the germplasm (Table 1). This indicates the i m p o r -tance of direct u t i l i z a t i o n of germplasm in small millets improvement.In finger millet, h y b r i d i z a t i o n w o r k was started as early as 1959 in K a r n a t a k a a n d sofar, 13 varieties have been released in Karnataka t h r o u g h recombination breeding.S i m i l a r l y , r e c o m b i n a t i o n breeding in T a m i l N a d u has resulted in the release of a b o u tsix varieties. The most significant aspect of finger millet improvement has been theextensive use of exotic germplasm particularly f r o m A f r i c a , in the h y b r i d i z a t i o np r o g r a m . The A f r i c a n finger millets are characterized by thick stems, robust g r o w t h ,early vigor, large ears, b r o a d , d a r k green leaves, and higher grain density. Thesecharacters are rarely seen in the I n d i a n germplasm. I n d o - A f r i c a n crosses were firstattempted in early 1970s w i t h the identification of a few d o n o r parents such as IE 927,IE 929, IE 980-R, IE 810, and IE 902. The crossing of these lines w i t h the localagronomic base ( H o l l u b e l e , K 1, A n n a p u r n a , Purna, Cauvery, S h a k t i , CO 7, CO 1,and Hamsa) resulted in the generation of vast breeding material f o r subsequentselection and release of the I n d a f and HR series of improved varieties. Some of themost popular varieties developed f r o m I n d o - A f r i c a n crosses are I n d a f 1, I n d a f 3, I n d a f5, I n d a f 8, I n d a f 9, and more recently HR 9 1 1 . Some of these varieties - I n d a f 5, I n d a f8, I n d a f 9 , a n d HR 911 - h a v e become extremely popular in Karnataka w i t h m o r e t h a n50% coverage in area. They have an yield potential of around 6 t ha - 1 under irrigatedconditions.In finger millet, breeding for blast resistance is one of the p r i o r i t y objectives. T h eentire finger millet germplasm has been screened for blast disease and 40 accessionsw i t h stable sources of resistance have been identified. There appear to be more sourcesTable 1 . N u m b e r o f varieties o f small millets identified t h r o u g h direct selection a n dh y b r i d i z a t i o n , 1982-87.N o . of varieties identified t h r o u g hD i r e c t selectionC r o pf r o m germplasmH y b r i d i z a t i o nT o t a lFinger millet4610F o x t a i l m i l l e t33L i t t l e m i l l e t22P r o s o millet55B a r n y a r d millet55K o d o m i l l e t33T o t a l2262899

of blast resistance in A f r i c a n germplasm t h a n in I n d i a n germplasm. Large-scaleh y b r i d i z a t i o n i n v o l v i n g blast-resistant lines and elite a g r o n o m i c base has been undertakend u r i n g the last 5 years and a number of stabilized selections are undergoinglarge-scale yield tests in different states.Further, m a n y useful genetic stocks have been identified b o t h in finger millet andf o x t a i l millet. Accessions possessing higher protein, desirable physiological attributesw i t h h i g h carbon d i o x i d e f i x a t i o n and l o w leaf area suitable f o r rainfed conditions,and genotypes w h i c h can germinate w i t h l i m i t e d moisture and in hard soil crust havebeen identified. L o n g glume types w i t h high test weight w i l l be o f special interest i n thei m p r o v e m e n t of seed size in finger millet.In f o x t a i l millet new sources of d w a r f i n g controlled by oligo genes have beenidentified. The plant type of these accessions is very similar to d w a r f wheat or rice andso they f o r m very interesting breeding material. The v a r i a b i l i t y available for p r o t e i ncontent (7.16-15.73%); and seed fat content (4.0-7.1%) in f o x t a i l millet is enormous.Thus identified sources w i t h high protein and seed fat are available b o t h f o r directe x p l o i t a t i o n and use in breeding.As mentioned already, the u t i l i z a t i o n of germplasm in small millets is most i m p o r -tant. So far, only a fraction of the vast available diversity has been utilized and that t o oo n l y in finger millet. There is wide scope to utilize the diversity present in these cropst h r o u g h a well planned h y b r i d i z a t i o n p r o g r a m .100

Use of Chickpea and Pigeonpea Germplasm and their Impacton Crop Improvement in IndiaS. Lal, A . N . Asthana, and C.L.L. GowdaProject Director; and Principal Investigator (Plant Breeding), Directorate of Pulses Research,Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh; and Legumes Breeder, 1CR1SAT, Patancheru, Andhra PradeshThe i m p o r t a n t pulse crops g r o w n in India are chickpea (Cicer arietinum L . ) , pigeonpea(Cajanus cajan ( L . ) M i l l s p . ) , m u n g bean (Vigna radiata ( L . ) Wilczek), u r d bean(Vigna mungo ( L . ) Hepper), lentil {Lens culinaris M e d i k . ) , fieldpea (Pisum sativumL . ) , cowpea (Vigna unguiculata ( L . ) Walp.), m o t h bean (Vigna aconitifolia (Jacq.)Marechal), horse g r a m (Macrotyloma uniflorum ( L a m . ) Verdc.), grass pea or khesari(Lathyrus sativus L . ) and d r y bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L . ) . Other pulses of m i n o rimportance g r o w n in restricted areas in India are faba bean (Vicia faba L . ) , rice bean(Vigna umbellata ( T h u n b . ) O h w i and Ohashi), lablab bean (Lablab purpureus ( L . )Sweet), and winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus L . ) . A m o n g these, chickpeaand pigeonpea are the most i m p o r t a n t .M a n y of these pulses have been cultivated since time i m m e m o r i a l under diverseagroclimatic and management conditions which favored genetic diversity in thesecrops. Efforts have been made f r o m time to time to collect, evaluate and utilize thegermplasm of these pulses, particularly pigeonpea and chickpea. However, theseefforts have been localized and scattered over different pulse-growing states. G e r m -plasm collections were also made under the Rockefeller Foundation's Regional PulseI m p r o v e m e n t Project. A l l these collections were later transferred to I C R I S A T . Sincethe establishment of the N a t i o n a l Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources ( N B P G R ) J o i n tmissions i n v o l v i n g scientists f r o m N B P G R , A g r i c u l t u r a l Universities, and I C R I S A Thave been collecting germplasm in the country.A v a i l a b l e G e r m p l a s m ResourcesThe gene bank at I C R I S A T has 15 564 chickpea accessions of w h i c h 5863 lines aref r o m India. In pigeonpea, there are 11 034 accessions of w h i c h 9084 are of I n d i a no r i g i n . Part of these collections are maintained under the A l l I n d i a C o o r d i n a t e dPulses I m p r o v e m e n t Project ( A I C P I P ) . W o r k i n g collections are maintained at variouscentres. A m o n g the various pulse crops, chickpea and pigeonpea are at the t o p ofthe list w i t h respect to the number of germplasm lines.I C R I S A T (International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics), 1989. Collaboration onGenetic Resources: summary proceedings of a Joint I C R I S A T / NBPGR(ICAR) Workshop on GermplasmExploration and Evaluation in India, 14-15 Nov 1988, I C R I S A T Center, India. Patancheru, A.P. 502 324,India: ICRISAT.101

G e r m p l a s m D i s t r i b u t i o nAs a w o r l d repository of chickpea and pigeonpea germplasm, the I C R I S A T gene banksupplies germplasm to scientists w o r k i n g on these crops. F r o m 1974 to 1988, a total of33 020 samples of chickpea and 20 502 samples of pigeonpea have been sent todifferent programs and scientists in I n d i a . U n d e r A I C P I P , 11 centers have beenassigned the responsibility to assemble and evaluate the existing germplasm, and makeit available to workers in the country.The germplasm accessions available at I C R I S A T have been evaluated for 25characters in chickpea and f o r 40 characters in pigeonpea. Some of these accessionshave been evaluated at different locations in I n d i a — A k o l a , G w a l i o r , Issapur, andH i s a r — i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h N B P G R , t o characterize them i n different agroecologicalzones.Uses of G e r m p l a s m LinesChickpea and pigeonpea germplasm has been used in the c o u n t r y in the f o l l o w i n gmanner:• direct use as released varieties for c u l t i v a t i o n ,• sources of resistance to biotic stresses like diseases and insect pests,• sources of tolerance to abiotic stresses like moisture deficit/excess, h i g h / l o wtemperature, soil salinity, etc.,• parental material for h y b r i d i z a t i o n f o r i m p r o v e m e n t of a g r o n o m i c traits,• base material for p o l y p l o i d y and m u t a t i o n breeding,• sources of new plant types to study physiological and a g r o n o m i c adaptation,• material f o r basic studies on phylogenic and cytogenetic relationships, and• material for genetic studies on the mode of inheritance, to study the expression of agene or g r o u p of genes under different genetic backgrounds.I m p a c t o n C r o p I m p r o v e m e n tM a n y germplasm lines have been directly released as varieties. In I n d i a , germplasmlines account f o r about 63% of the varieties of pulses released so far. Of the 291varieties released in 13 pulse crops, 175 are direct selections f r o m the germplasm. Ofthe remaining, 6 are pure line selections, 96 t h r o u g h h y b r i d i z a t i o n , and 14 t h r o u g hm u t a t i o n breeding. Recent examples include I C P 8863 of pigeonpea, released asM a r u t i in K a r n a t a k a ; and I C C 8933 of chickpea, released as JG 315 in M a d h y aPradesh.A large n u m b e r of germplasm lines have been used as sources for transferringresistance to diseases. These include pigeonpea lines resistant to fusarium w i l t , sterilitymosaic, p h y t o p h t h o r a b l i g h t , and chickpea lines resistant to fusarium w i l t , ascochytablight, and stunt. M o s t of the lines in the A I C P I P Disease Nurseries that are tested atdifferent locations are germplasm lines. Some of these are resistant to more t h a n oneisolate/strain, and also to more t h a n one disease.102

C o m p a r e d to disease resistance, there are very few resistant sources f o r insect pests,and the level of resistance is also not high. Some lines have been identified w i t hresistance to Heliothis p o d borer in chickpea, and resistance to p o d borer a n d p o d f l yin pigeonpea. These are n o w being used in breeding programs.M a n y lines w i t h desirable agronomic characters such as earliness ( i n breedingextra-early pigeonpeas), seed size, and color ( i n breeding bold-seeded and k a b u l ichickpeas) have been used in h y b r i d i z a t i o n programs to develop varieties w i t h h i g hyield and desirable plant type. Germplasm has contributed significantly in theseprograms.The use of pigeonpea germplasm lines w i t h the genetic male sterile gene has openedup possibilities for h y b r i d pigeonpeas in India. M a n y institutions are n o w using theoriginal or converted germplasm lines in their h y b r i d pigeonpea programs.Germplasm lines have been used to generate i n f o r m a t i o n on the inheritance ofcharacters, and also to elucidate cytogenetic and phylogenic i n f o r m a t i o n .F u t u r e Emphasis1. The areas w h i c h have not been explored so far should be surveyed f o r collection ofgermplasm.2. The existing germplasm available at different centers should be pooled a n d evaluatedso as to discard duplicates and to identify desirable types.3. Germplasm accessions should be evaluated under different agroclimatic situationsand g r o w i n g conditions in order to characterize them, and to test the stability ofcharacters; the entire germplasm collection should be characterized andcatalogued.4. A l l the i n f o r m a t i o n related to germplasm should be computerized.5. One set of germplasm should be kept at N B P G R in long-term storage, f o r futureuse.6. Facilities to screen the germplasm against v i r a l diseases should be strengthened a n dtechniques for quick screening should be devised.103

Highlights of DiscussionsDiscussions were held at the end of each session of the w o r k s h o p . Presented here arethe salient points arising f r o m these discussions.W o r l dG e r m p l a s m Collections; Status Reports a n d Potentials1 . T h e assembly and availability o f w o r l d collections o f germplasm o f I C R I S A Tmandate crops a n d six small millets was appreciated. F r o m the p o i n t of v i e w ofgenetic resources, the overall number of germplasm accessions assembled at I C R I -S A T Center was considered to be relatively small compared to the w o r l d collectionsof other major crops such as wheat, rice, maize, and barley. Some concern wasexpressed on the relatively l o w number of germplasm accessions that have so farbeen utilized in breeding programs. M o r e interaction between plant breeders a n dgermplasm scientists d u r i n g evaluation and identification of new a n d useful traitsshould enhance germplasm utilization.2. Breeders should diversify the genetic base of their material by using more landracesi n c l u d i n g w i l d a n d intermediate forms. Particular reference was made to the l i m i t e dgermplasm that has been used for improvement of rabi (postrainy-season)sorghum. Fortunately, I C R I S A T has recently obtained material f r o m C a m e r o o nand E t h i o p i a , w h i c h are f r o m similar environments. M o r e efforts should be madeto collect similar material f r o m M a l i , Nigeria, Chad, and parts of I n d i a . It was alsoproposed to collect sorghum landraces f r o m low-temperature and high-elevationareas of C h i n a , I n d i a , and A f r i c a n countries.3. The c o n t i n u i n g effort to combine resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses w i t h h i g hyield components was discussed. A l t h o u g h there were some cases where resistanceto stresses like d r o u g h t were associated w i t h l o w yield, members generally agreedthat there was potential for using stress-tolerant landraces in the development ofnew, high-yielding cultivars.4. The need for o b t a i n i n g more agroclimatic data d u r i n g germplasm collection missionswas stressed. It was pointed out that a l l germplasm collections undertaken byI C R I S A T scientists include basic agroclimatic data. However, m a n y d o n a t e dgermplasm accessions do not have passport and climatic data. At any rate, it wasproposed that germplasm scientists should extract and document whatever i n f o r -m a t i o n they can on the environment of existing collections, and relate that i n f o r m a -t i o n w i t h the landraces prevalent in different a n d discrete agroclimatic zones. Asthe m a i n responsibility of germplasm scientists is to collect a n d salvage germplasmf r o m e x t i n c t i o n , the help of agroclimatologists should be sought to achieve thisi m p o r t a n t task.5. A question was raised on the disparity between the large n u m b e r of germplasm linesw i t h resistance to major pests a n d diseases and the lack of stable resistance to someof the same diseases and pests in breeding materials. An example of this is Hetiothisin chickpea and pigeonpea w h i c h remains a major constraint to higher p r o d u c t i o n105

even t h o u g h several resistance sources are identified in germplasm lines. It wassuggested that these sources, w h i c h have been identified after several years ofintensive germplasm screening, should be more effectively utilized.G e r m p l a s m E x p l o r a t i o n / C o l l e c t i o n , E v a l u a t i o n , D o c u m e n t a t i o n ,Exchange a n d Q u a r a n t i n e , a n d Conservation1. Participants recognized the success of j o i n t e x p l o r a t i o n missions by I C R I S A T andN B P G R . It was suggested that future collection programs cover unexplored andunderexplored areas w i t h m o r e emphasis o n w i l d species.2. Clarifications were sought on the rationale of collecting g r o u n d n u t germplasm inthe northeastern hills of I n d i a and in the state of Kerala. Specific areas like theI n d o - B u r m a border area for new types, and parts of Kerala for o l d landraces weresuggested for further e x p l o r a t i o n .3. The extensive N B P G R / I C R I S A T j o i n t and p r e l i m i n a r y evaluation programs werepresented and discussed in detail. To facilitate evaluation of thousands of accessions,an i m p r o v e d and a local check are repeated at frequent and regular intervalsin an augmented block design. T h e p r o g r a m was launched to enable crop i m p r o v e -ment scientists to evaluate the germplasm lines in their o w n regions and to selectdesirable types f o r further testing, and subsequent use in crop improvement p r o -grams. Questions were raised on the r e l i a b i l i t y of the data generated for pest a n ddisease resistances. N B P G R scientists clarified that pest and disease resistanceevaluation was a p r e l i m i n a r y p r o g r a m done by N B P G R plant protection scientists,w h i c h could be further assessed by A I C C I P scientists. It was also suggested thatincreased p a r t i c i p a t i o n of A I C C I P scientists w o u l d be essential in a l l m u l t i l o c a -t i o n a l evaluation o f germplasm i n I n d i a .4. A clarification was given on the type and nature of germplasm evaluation programsthat are undertaken by genetic resources scientists. It was stated that germplasmscientists deal w i t h the characterization and p r e l i m i n a r y evaluation of the collectedmaterial w i t h an attempt to classify and d o c u m e n t germplasm diversity. Subsequentevaluations of germplasm for detailed studies, screening, selection, a n du t i l i z a t i o n are usually done under the responsibility of the concerned crop i m p r o v e -ment scientists.5. It was suggested that N B P G R serve as the alternate base conservation center f o r atleast the w o r l d collections of pigeonpea and m i n o r (small) millets germplasm.6. Computer-based germplasm data d o c u m e n t a t i o n and exchange was discussed andconsidered h i g h l y desirable. T h e use of compact discs for data storage, processing,a n d exchange was demonstrated.7. T h e collaborative plant quarantine procedures applied to b o t h i m p o r t a n d e x p o r tof germplasm, and the timely, safe, and o r d e r l y methods of insuring n a t i o n a l andinternational germplasm exchanges were appreciated. It was also suggested that aj o i n t I C R I S A T / N B P G R m a n u a l b e prepared o n plant quarantine systems a n dpractices applicable t o I C R I S A T mandate crops a n d small millets.106

8 . Participants f r o m I C A R , N B P G R , and A I C C I P greatly appreciated the role o fG R U , I C R I S A T , i n m o b i l i z i n g genetic resources i n the country. O n their part, theI C R I S A T scientists noted that they had received tremendous cooperation f r o mN B P G R , I C A R , and other I n d i a n national programs. Participants f r o m I C R I S A Tand others particularly noted Dr Paroda's efforts to enhance this c o l l a b o r a t i o n .Use a n d I m p a c t o f G e r m p l a s m o n C r o p I m p r o v e m e n t i n I n d i a1. Differences were observed on the extent of use and impact of germplasm a m o n gI C R I S A T mandate crops.2. Landraces are generally k n o w n to possess local adaptation and stability, whilei m p r o v e d cultivars w i t h broad genetic base are more likely to have w i d e r adaptati o n for p r o d u c t i v i t y . Judicious selection and utilization of germplasm have had avisible impact on crop p r o d u c t i o n , as shown by A I C C I P for sorghum, pearl m i l l e t ,pigeonpea, and small millets.3. The criteria used to identify the usefulness of germplasm and its u t i l i z a t i o n need tobe re-examined. Those lines w h i c h d i d not produce the required end p r o d u c t orcultivar should not be rejected.4. Some landraces of chickpea ( I C C 8933), pigeonpea ( I C P 8863), and several smallmillets were reported to have been released as high-yielding cultivars. Other landraceslike the T o g o material in pearl millet, Zerazera in sorghum, I C C 12237 f r o mI n d i a in chickpea, multiple disease-resistant material in pigeonpea, a n d Peruvianaccessions in g r o u n d n u t have been extensively used in breeding programs a n d havemade substantial contributions towards the development of high-yielding varietiesor hybrids.5. It was considered desirable to assess the relative yield performance of small milletsand pearl millet under high temperatures and d r y conditions.6. The constitution of gene pools for specific characters was regarded as a p r i o r i t y taskfor a l l crops. This task is to be undertaken by G R U , I C R I S A T , in close collaborati o n w i t h plant breeders.7. T r a i n i n g for specific requirements and the development of h u m a n resources wererecognized as v i t a l for sustainable c r o p p r o d u c t i o n .8. To increase the impact of germplasm on crop p r o d u c t i o n , suggestions were madeto:• Evaluate the entire germplasm in batches in collaboration w i t h crop i m p r o v e -ment scientists, wherever possible in " h o t spots", to identify new sources ofresistance to biotic and abiotic stresses;• Produce classified and simple germplasm catalogs on characters of m a j o r econo m i c importance; and• Utilize new biotechnology methods for hybridization i n v o l v i n g cultivated or w i l drelatives, and their intermediate forms, and also to create new sources of v a r i a b i l -i t y t h r o u g h various i n v i t r o techniques.107

R e c o m m e n d a t i o n sSeveral recommendations were made by the technical w o r k i n g g r o u p of the w o r k s h o pw h i c h was composed of 20 members representing different organizations, crops, a n ddisciplines. T h e f o l l o w i n g are the major recommendations.1. A single, m o r e comprehensive, and effective collaborative p r o g r a m s hould beenvisaged for germplasm e x p l o r a t i o n , evaluation, and subsequent u t i l i z a t i o n inc r o p i m p r o v e m e n t . The collaborative p r o g r a m should:• I n v o l v e N B P G R ( I C A R ) , N a t i o n a l A g r i c u l t u r a l Research Organizations like theA l l I n d i a C o o r d i n a t e d C r o p I m p r o v e m e n t Projects and A g r i c u l t u r a l Universities,G R U and other c r o p improvement scientists i n I C R I S A T , a n d I B P G R .• Be time b o u n d w i t h regular and annual meetings.• Recognize and give due credit to all collaborating individuals a n d centers.2. Wherever possible, depending on availability of funds, crop i m p r o v e m e n t scientistsshould participate in some specific areas of germplasm collection in order toobserve and o b t a i n more comprehensive data on biotic and abiotic stresses underw h i c h the landraces have evolved and are being cultivated.3. It was stressed that the n u t r i t i o n a l value of m i n o r (small) millets should be kept inm i n d while breeding for higher yield. It was suggested that g r a i n q u a l i t y ofi m p r o v e d cultivars of small millets be assessed at I C R I S A T Center.4. Participants felt that further efforts must be made by I C R I S A T , N B P G R , a n dI B P G R to t r a i n scientists in various genetic resources activities.5. T h e collective name of the six m i n o r millets should be changed to small millets, at e r m that has been adopted by the I n t e r n a t i o n a l S m a l l M i l l e t s Steering C o m m i t t e e .6. The f o l l o w i n g were identified as p r i o r i t y areas of collection for the various crops.Sorghum. B i h a r (early g r a i n and fodder types); M a d h y a Pradesh ( M a l w a p l a t e a uand Hoshangabad area); Assam, M a d h y a Pradesh, and Orissa ( K o r a p u t area) f o rfodder types; S o u t h Gujarat; U t t a r Pradesh ( B u n d e l k h a n d area); Northeasternh i l l y regions; and M a h a r a s h t r a and K a r n a t a k a (for rabi sorghums).Pearl m i l l e t Maharashtra (Western Ghats); Orissa (Eastern Ghats); WesternM a d h y a Pradesh; Gujarat ( K u t c h ) ; N o r t h U t t a r Pradesh; Rajasthan ( d u r i n gd r o u g h t ) ; and Bihar, Bengal, and northeastern region f o r w i l d species.Chickpea. Rajasthan ( N o r t h w e s t , Ganganagar, Pali and J o d h p u r ) ; M a d h y a Pradesh;Southern Bihar; Eastern U t t a r Pradesh; Eastern Maharashtra and A n d h r aPradesh; a n d H a r y a n a (Mahendergarh).Pigeonpea. U n e x p l o r e d areas in the Northeast, Bihar, Orissa, and K a r n a t a k a ;and Rajasthan ( A l w a r district).Groundnut. Northeastern area of A n d h r a Pradesh; H a r y a n a ; N o r t h w e s t e r nparts of Rajasthan; U t t a r Pradesh; and Bihar.109

M i n o r millets. Western Ghats o f Maharashtra; S o u t h and N o r t h Bihar; H i l l yareas i n U t t a r Pradesh; Northeast h i l l areas; M a d h y a Pradesh; and T a m i l N a d u .7. A collaborative m u l t i l o c a t i o n a l germplasm evaluation in I n d i a was recommendedf o r i m p l e m e n t a t i o n starting the next g r o w i n g season. The c o l l a b o r a t i n g agenciesw i l l b e N B P G R ( I C A R ) , a l l - I n d i a c r o p i m p r o v e m e n t scientists o f I C A R , A g r i c u l -t u r a l Universities, G R U , and c r o p i m p r o v e m e n t scientists o f I C R I S A T . T h e crops,n u m b e r o f samples, a n d areas o f evaluation that are listed below w i l l be reviewedannually. The seed samples required for the evaluation p r o g r a m w i l l be supplied byG R U , I C R I S A T . T h e field data w i l l be compiled by N B P G R and f o r w a r d e d toG R U , I C R I S A T , f o r d o c u m e n t a t i o n and analysis w i t h the help o f the computer.The data w i l l be used to expand the germplasm database o f the w o r l d collections,f o r u t i l i z a t i o n i n c r o p i m p r o v e m e n t programs, and t o prepare and p u b l i s h j o i n tN B P G R / G R U germplasm catalogs.Sorghum. Forage: Every year about 1000 accessions at Jhansi, Issapur, andRajendranagar ( N R C S ) .G r a i n : Every year a b o u t 1000 accessions at A k o l a , C o i m b a t o r e , and Rajendranagar( N R C S ) .R a b i (postrainy-season) sorghums: Every year about 500 accessions at R a h u r i ,Bijapur, and I C R I S A T Center, Patancheru.Pearl millet.Pune.Every year about 2000 accessions at J o d h p u r , C o i m b a t o r e , andChickpea. L o n g d u r a t i o n : Every year about 1000 accessions at K a n p u r , Hisar,and G w a l i o r .Short d u r a t i o n : Every year about 1000 accessions at A k o l a and I C R I S A T Center,Patancheru.Pigeonpea. L o n g d u r a t i o n : Every year about 1000 accessions at K a n p u r a n dVaranasi.M e d i u m a n d m e d i u m - l o n g d u r a t i o n : Every year about 1000 accessions at A k o l a ,K a n p u r , and I C R I S A T Center, Patancheru.S h o r t - d u r a t i o n ( N e w germplasm): G w a l i o r .Groundnut. K h a r i f ( r a i n y season): Every year 1000 accessions at I C R I S A TCenter, Patancheru, Junagadh, and A k o l a .R a b i (postrainy-season): Every year 500 accessions at Junagadh and I C R I S A TCenter, Patancheru.M i n o r millets (small millets). Every year a r o u n d 1000 or available n u m b e r ofaccessions w i l l be evaluated for the f o l l o w i n g crops at the locations mentionedbelow:Finger millet: B h o w a l i , A k o l a , Bangalore, a n d C o i m b a t o r e .110

F o x t a i l millet: N a n d y a l , Bangalore, and B h o w a l i .Proso millet: A k o l a , R a n i c h o r i , Bangalore, and D h o l i (postrainy season).L i t t l e millet: R e w a / D i n d o r i ; Ranchi, Bangalore, and Similiguda.Barnyard millet: A l m o r a , C o i m b a t o r e , and Bangalore.K o d o millet: D i n d o r i / Rewa, C o i m b a t o r e , and Bangalore.It was recommended that agroclimatic data be collected d u r i n g the period of c r o pg r o w t h for all locations.111

A c r o n y m s a n d AbbreviationsA I C C I P A l l I n d i a C o o r d i n a t e d C r o p I m p r o v e m e n t ProjectA I C P M I P A l l I n d i a C o o r d i n a t e d Pearl M i l l e t I m p r o v e m e n t ProjectA I C P I P A l l I n d i a C o o r d i n a t e d Pulses I m p r o v e m e n t ProjectA I C O R P O A l l I n d i a C o o r d i n a t e d Research Project o n OilseedsA I C S I P A l l I n d i a C o o r d i n a t e d S o r g h u m I m p r o v e m e n t ProjectA I C S M I P A l l I n d i a C o o r d i n a t e d S m a l l M i l l e t s I m p r o v e m e n t ProjectA G L N A s i a n G r a i n Legumes N e t w o r kA L A D A r i d Lands A g r i c u l t u r a l Development ( P r o g r a m )C C R N Cooperative Cereals Research N e t w o r kC G I A R Consultative G r o u p o n I n t e r n a t i o n a l A g r i c u l t u r a l Researchcms cytoplasmic male sterileC P P T I Central Plant P r o t e c t i o n T r a i n i n g Institute, ( I n d i a )c t D N A cytoplasmic D N AD P R Directorate o f Pulses ResearchE L I S A Enzyme-linked I m m u n o s o r b e n t AssayG O I G o v e r n m e n t o f I n d i aG R U Genetic Resources U n i tH A U H a r y a n a A g r i c u l t u r a l U n i v e r s i t y ( I n d i a )I A R I I n d i a n A g r i c u l t u r a l Research InstituteI A R C I n t e r n a t i o n a l A g r i c u l t u r a l Research CenterI B P G R I n t e r n a t i o n a l B o a r d f o r Plant Genetic ResourcesI C A R I n d i a n C o u n c i l o f A g r i c u l t u r a l ResearchI C A R D A I n t e r n a t i o n a l Center f o r A g r i c u l t u r a l Research i n D r y AreasI D M R S I C R I S A T D a t a M a n a g e m e n t and Retrieval SystemI G F R I I n d i a n Grassland a n d Fodder Research InstituteI S T A I n t e r n a t i o n a l Seed Testing AssociationJ N K V V J a w a h a r l a l N e h r u K r i s h i V i s h w a V i d y a l a y a , ( I n d i a )m t D N A m i t o c h o n d r i a l D N AN B P G R N a t i o n a l B o a r d f o r Plant Genetic Resources ( I n d i a )N R C G N a t i o n a l Research Centre for G r o u n d n u tN R C S N a t i o n a l Research Centre f o r S o r g h u mN S S L N a t i o n a l Seed Storage L a b o r a t o r yO R S T O M I n s t i t u t francais de recherche scientifique p o u r ledeveloppement en c o o p e r a t i o n (France)P E Q I A P o s t - E n t r y Q u a r a n t i n e I s o l a t i o n A r e aP M V Peanut M o t t l e V i r u sP S t V Peanut Stripe virusR H Relative H u m i d i t yR P I P R e g i o n a l Pulse I m p r o v e m e n t ProjectS A D C C S o u t h e r n A f r i c a n D e v e l o p m e n t C o o r d i n a t i o n Conference (Botswana)112

Participants

Participants at the workshop. Seated (left to right): J.P. Moss, J . M . M . Engels, R.K. Arora, M . H . Mengesha, R.S. Paroda, M. Goon,J.L. Montieth, J.M.J. de Wet, B.R. Murty, G. Harinarayana, R.V. Vidyabhushanam, N.C. Joshi, U. Raman, S. Appa Rao.Standing (left to right): B.S. Rana, J.W. Estes, V. Ramanatha Rao, D.V.S.S.R. Sastry, N.R. Bhagat, K.N. Reddy, T. A. Thomas. Ram Nath,P.P. Khanna, C. Rajagopal Reddy, M . N . Koppar, R.P.S. Pundir, A.K. Sadasivan, K . N . Rai, V. Gopal Reddy, K.P.S. Chandel,J . M . Peacock, B.P. Singh, S.B. King, K.E. Prasada Rao, B.L. Agrawal, L.J. Reddy. K.S. Varaprasad, A. Seetharam, Y.S. Rao,C M . Pattanayak, N.C. Subrahmanyam, D.G. Faris, H A . van Rheenen, M.J. Vasudeva Rao, D . L . Oswalt, T.R.K. Satyanarayana.

ParticipantsR . K . A r o r aOfficiating D i r e c t o rN B P G RN e w D e l h i 110 012N . R . BhagatGermplasm BotanistN R C GT i m b a w a d iJunagadh 362 105K.P.S. ChandelScientist-in-chargePlant Tissue C u l t u r e RepositoryN B P G RNew D e l h i 110 012J . M . M . EngelsI B P G R C o o r d i n a t o r( S o u t h and Southeast Asia)c / o N B P G RNew D e l h i 110 012G. HarinarayanaProject C o o r d i n a t o r (Pearl M i l l e t )A I C P M I PPune 411 005P.P. K h a n n aHeadConservationN B P G RN e w D e l h i 110 012M . N . K o p p a rA c t i n g HeadPlant E x p l o r a t i o n D i v i s i o nN B P G RN e w D e l h i 110 012S. LalProject DirectorDirectorate of Pulses ResearchK a n p u r 208 024B.R. M u r t yI N S A Senior Scientist/ProfessorBiotechnology Centre1AR1New D e l h i 110 012R.S. ParodaDeputy Director General ( C r o p Sciences)I C A RK r i s h i BhavanNew D e l h i 110 011R a m N a t hHeadPlant Quarantine D i v i s i o nN B P G RNew D e l h i 110 012B.S. RanaProject C o o r d i n a t o r ( S o r g h u m )A I C S 1 PRajendranagarHyderabad 500 030A . SeetharamProject C o o r d i n a t o r ( S m a l l M i l l e t s )A I C S M I PU A SBangalore 560 065B.P. SinghHeadD i v i s i o n o f G e r m p l a s m ExchangeN B P G RNew D e l h i 110 012115

N . C . S u b r a h m a n y a mK . S . VaraprasadProfessorOfficer-in-chargeSchool o f Life SciencesN B P G R Plant Quarantine Regional S t a t i o nUniversity o f HyderabadRajendranagarHyderabad 500 134 Hyderabad 500 030T . A . T h o m a sR . V . V i d y a b h u s h a n a mHeadD i r e c t o rE v a l u a t i o n D i v i s i o nN R C SN B P G RRajendranagarN e w D e l h i 110 012 Hyderabad 500 030I C R I S A T ParticipantsB . L . A g r a w a l , Plant Breeder ( S o r g h u m )S, A p p a R a o , Botanist, Pearl M i l l e t G e r m p l a s mF . R . Bidinger, P r i n c i p a l Plant Physiologist (Pearl M i l l e t )J . M . J . de W e t , Director, CerealsJ . W . Estes, C o m p u t e r Services OfficerD . G . Faris, P r i n c i p a l C o o r d i n a t o r ( A G L N )M . G o o n , A c t i n g D i r e c t o r General, and Assistant D i r e c t o r General( A d m i n i s t r a t i o n )V. G o p a l Reddy, Research Associate, S o r g h u m G e r m p l a s mB . C . G . Gunasekera, A d v i s o r to the D i r e c t o r Generalf o r D o n o r RelationsR. J a m b u n a t h a n , P r i n c i p a l Biochemist and P r o g r a m LeaderN . C . Joshi, Chief Plant Quarantine OfficerS.B. K i n g , P r i n c i p a l Plant Pathologist (Pearl M i l l e t )L a x m a n S i n g h , P r i n c i p a l Plant Breeder (Pigeonpea)D . M c D o n a l d , P r i n c i p a l G r o u n d n u t PathologistM . H . Mengesha, P r o g r a m Leader, Genetic Resources U n i tJ . L . M o n t e i t h , A c t i n g D e p u t y D i r e c t o r General and D i r e c t o r ,Resource Management P r o g r a mJ.P. Moss, P r i n c i p a l CytogeneticistY . L . Nene, D i r e c t o r , Legumes P r o g r a mK . F . Nwanze, P r i n c i p a l S o r g h u m E n t o m o l o g i s tD . L . Oswalt, P r i n c i p a l T r a i n i n g Officer and P r o g r a m Leader,Fellowships and T r a i n i n gC . M . Pattanayak, P r i n c i p a l C o o r d i n a t o r ( C C R N )J . M . Peacock, P r i n c i p a l Plant Physiologist ( S o r g h u m )K . E . Prasada Rao, Senior Botanist, S o r g h u m and M i n o r M i l l e t s G e r m p l a s m116

R.P.S. P u n d i r , Botanist, Chickpea and Pigeonpea GermplasmK . N . R a i , Plant Breeder (Pearl M i l l e t )C. Rajagopal Reddy, Research Associate, M i l l e t GermplasmV . R a m a n a t h a R a o , Botanist, G r o u n d n u t GermplasmL . J . Reddy, Plant Breeder ( G r o u n d n u t )K . N . Reddy, Research Associate, Chickpea GermplasmA . K . Sadasivan, Research Associate, G r o u n d n u t GermplasmY. Saideswara R a o , Postdoctoral FellowD . V . S . S . R . Sastry, Research Associate, Pigeonpea GermplasmK . B . Saxena, Plant Breeder (Pigeonpea)H . A . v a n Rheenen, P r i n c i p a l Plant Breeder (Chickpea)M . J . Vasudeva Rao, Plant Breeder ( G r o u n d n u t )T.S. W a l k e r , P r i n c i p a l Economist, Resource ManagementJ . H . W i l l i a m s , P r i n c i p a l Plant Physiologist ( G r o u n d n u t )117

RA-00135

ICRISATInternational Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid TropicsPatancheru, Andhra Pradesh 502 324, IndiaISBN 92-9066-170-4 ICR 88-0056