Mangrove Forest Restoration in Andhra Pradesh, India - Global ...

Mangrove Foresest t Resestorationin Andhra Pradesh, IndiaR. RamasubramanianandT. RavishankarM. S. Swaminathan Research FoundationChennai, India

MSSRF/MA/04/13M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation3 rd Cross Street, Institutional AreaTaramani, Chennai – 600 113INDIA.Tele: 91 44 22541229; 22541698Fax: 91 44 22541319www.mssrf.orgEmail:msswami@mssrf.res.inexecutivedirector@mssrf.res.inraviethnobotanist@rediffmail.comAugust 2004This publication was prepared with the generous support ofIndia Canada Environment Facility (ICEF), New Delhiii

ForewordI am glad that a manual on Mangrove ForestRestoration in Andhra Pradesh has beenprepared by R. Ramasubramanian andT. Ravishankar. The manual contains practicalsuggestions which can help to fostercommunity conservation and restoration effortsin mangrove wetlands. The multiple benefitsconferred by mangrove forests are now beingrecognized widely. What is now important isfor local communities to undertake propagationof planting material and restoration of degradedmangrove areas. I hope the manual willstimulate a programme on the lines of the socialforestry movement. Unless restoration ofdegraded mangrove forests becomes acommunity movement, we will lose preciousmangrove areas, leading to enhancedvulnerability to coastal storms and cyclones andloss of opportunities for sustainable livelihoods.I therefore hope that the manual will be widelyread and used.M.S. Swaminathaniii

AcknoknowledgmentWe are grateful to Prof. M.S. Swaminathan, Chairman,M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation for his encouragement andguidance. We thank Dr. M. Velayuthum, Executive Director, MSSRF,for his guidance and Dr. V. Selvam, Programme Director, MSSRFfor his critical comments and suggestions.We are thankful to Shri. S. K. Das, IFS, Principal ChiefConservator of Forests, Shri. K. Subba Rao, IFS andShri. S. D. Mukherjee IFS, former Principal Chief Conservators ofForests, Shri. T. Ramakrishna, IFS, Shri. Hitesh Malhotra, IFS,Additional Principal Chief Conservator of Forests, Shri. A.V. Joseph,IFS, Chief Conservator of Forests, Shri. Ramesh Kalghatgi, IFS,Shri. J.V.K.T. Prabakar Rao, IFS, Shri. Manoranjan Bhanja, IFS,Conservators of Forests, Andhra Pradesh for their support inimplementing the project. We thank Shri. N. Varaprasada Rao,Shri. Thatha Rao, Shri. K. Ravi Kumar, Shri. K. Prakasha Rao, DeputyConservators of Forests, Shri. N. Bhujanga Rao, Shri. C.V.V.Satyanarayana, Shri. M. V. Satyanarayana Murthy, Shri. MallikarjunaRao, Forest Range officers and the staff of Coringa and KrishnaWildlife Sanctuaries, Andhra Pradesh for their help during themangrove restoration work from 1996 to 2003.We acknowledge the contributions of Dr. D. Sridhar andShri. D. Ramakrishna in the restoration and hydrological studiesrespectively.We thank Dr. Ujwal Chaudary and Dr. Jaya Chatterji of IndiaCanada Environment Facility (ICEF), New Delhi, for their supportin making this work possible.We extend our thanks to the members of the EDC and VSScommittees of Godavari and Krishna mangroves for theirparticipation and involvement in the restoration. We thankShri. R. Satyanarayana, AFBO and Mr. D. Srinu, for their help andassistance in the fieldwork and the boat drivers Shri. Satyam andM. Srinu.iv

Contents1. Mangrove forests - an overview - 12. Mangrove forests in Andhra Pradesh - 32.1 Riverine systems in Andhra Pradesh - 53. Causes of degradation - 73.1. Past management practices - 73.2. Hydrological and geomorphological causes - 83.3. Anthropogenic causes - 94. Restoration methods - 104.1. Restoration of degraded mangroves in the past - 104.2. Methodology for restoration of degradedmangroves at present - 114.2.1. Geomorphology and hydrology inmangrove restoration - 134.2.2. Hydrological studies in Godavari - 154.2.3. Hydrological studies in Krishna - 164.2.4. Dimensions of canals - 174.2.5. Selection of species and planting - 184.2.6. Desilting of canals and casualty replacement - 194.3. Mangrove area restored - 195. Impact of mangrove restoration - 205.1. Cost of the restoration activity and long-termbenefits - 225.2. How the restoration work has improved thesocio-economic condition of Bhairavalanka village inGodavari mangroves - 24References - 25v

M. S. Swaminathan Research FoundationList t of AcrcrononymsAPFD - Andhra Pradesh Forest DepartmentEDC - Eco-Development CommitteeGIS - Geographic Information SystemGPS - Global Positioning Systemha - HectareMMU - Mangrove Management UnitMSSRF - M.S. Swaminathan Research FoundationNGO - Non-Government Organizationppt - Parts per thousandPRA - Participatory Rural AppraisalRF - Reserved ForestSq km - Square kilometresVLI - Village level institutionVSS - Vana Samrakshana Samithivi

Mangrove Forest Restoration in Andhra Pradesh, IndiaMangrove Forest Restoration inAndhra Pradesh, India1. Mangrove forests - an overviewMangroves are the plant communities occurring in inter-tidalzones along the coasts of tropical and sub-tropical countries. Theyare one of the most productive ecosystems. Mangroves represent arich and diverse living resource and are valuable to both the economyand protection of coastal environments. Mangrove plants belongto several families but possess marked similarity in their physiologicalcharacteristics and structural adaptations to similar habitatpreferences. Mangroves have been variously described as “coastalwoodland” and “inter-tidal forest”. The term mangrove is looselyused to describe a wide variety of often-unrelated tropical andsubtropical trees and shrubs, which share common characteristics.The total mangrove area of the world has been assessed to beapproximately 18.15 million hectares. India's mangrove wetlandsrange from 6,81,000 ha (Sidhu, 1963) to 5,00,000 ha (FSI, 1998).

M. S. Swaminathan Research FoundationMangrove forests perform multiple ecological functions such asproduction of woody trees; provision of habitat, food, and spawninggrounds for fin-fish and shellfish; provision of habitat for birdsand other valuable fauna; protection of coastlines and accretion ofsediment to form new land. Mangrove areas have high biologicalproductivity, associated with heavy leaf production, leaf fall and rapiddecomposition to form detritus. The mangrove ecosystem is dynamic,changing in both location and composition, and has great resiliencewith the ability to restore itself after heavy damage, as long as seedsources and water flow are maintained. There are also many economicbenefits from mangrove resources; like as a source of firewood, selfreplenishingareas of fishery resources, for collecting honey and fortourism.Despite the benefits that they offer, mangrove forests areincreasingly under threat and are getting degraded, due to pressuresfrom growing populations, which lead to changes in land use andover-utilization of the resources. The depletion of mangroves is acause of serious environmental and economic concern to manydeveloping countries.Until recently, tropical forests have been used as a renewableresource. With the burgeoning human population, urban areasexpanded and more land area for agriculture was needed. As a result,forest areas started declining at an alarming rate. Efforts were takenup by the Forest Departments and other agencies to restore, developand conserve forest resources for sustainable use and management.Nevertheless, these conservation programs were concentrated in theupland forests and not undertaken in mangroves. The AndhraPradesh Forest Department started restoration activities from 1994onwards.M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF) started itsactivities of mangrove restoration and management in AndhraPradesh from 1997 and restored 520 ha of degraded mangroves andfacilitated community participated mangrove management in9,442 ha.2

Mangrove Forest Restoration in Andhra Pradesh, IndiaThis publication reflects the process and results of restorationactivities carried out over seven years by the project Coastal Wetlands:Mangrove Conservation and Management, implemented inGodavari and Krishna wetlands by MSSRF with its field centre atKakinada. Hence it will be necessary to make modifications as perthe site conditions, mangrove ecosystem, tidal amplitude andtopography of the area chosen for restoration. This publication ismeant for foresters, field technicians, researchers and othersinterested in restoration of degraded mangroves.2. Mangrove forests in Andhra PradeshThe mangrove forests in Andhra Pradesh are located in theestuaries of the Godavari and the Krishna rivers. The Godavarimangroves are located in Godavari estuary of East Godavari districtand the Krishna mangroves in Krishna estuary of Krishna and Gunturdistricts. Apart from these estuaries, mangroves are also found insmall patches along the coast of Visakhapatnam, West Godavari,Guntur and Prakasam districts. The total area under Godavari andKrishna mangrove wetlands are 58,263 ha of which 33,263.32 haare under Godavari and 24,999.47 ha are in Krishna. However, thedense mangroves in Godavari and Krishna are only 17,000 ha and7,347 ha respectively. The rest are distributed between mudflats, waterbodies, sand bodies and casuarina plantations. The Coringa WildlifeSanctuary has three Reserve Forests, namely Corangi RF, CorangiExtn. RF and Bhairavapalem RF. Most of the mangroves in theSanctuary are not directly connected with the Bay of Bengal. Themangroves of Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary receives tidal flushingthrough Matlapalem canal, Corangi river and Gaderu river. TheGaderu and Corangi rivers are the distributaries of the River Godavari.The other six Reserve Forests namely Rathikalava RF, MasanitippaRF, Matlatippa RF, Balusutippa RF, Kothapalem RF and KandikuppaRF are situated on the southern side of Nilarevu River and fall undernon-sanctuary area -Map 1.Krishna Wildlife Sanctuary is 19,481 ha, which includesSorlagondi RF, Nachugunta RF, Yelichetladibba RF, Lankivanidibba3

M. S. Swaminathan Research FoundationMap 1. Location of Godavari Mangroves4Map 2. Location of Krishna Mangroves

Mangrove Forest Restoration in Andhra Pradesh, IndiaRF, Molagunta RF, Kottapalem RF Bit-1, Kottapalem RF Bit-2 andAdavuladivi RF (Map 2).2.1. Riverine systems in Andhra PradeshAndhra Pradesh has a geographical area of 2,76,000 sq km, ofwhich 63,770 sq km are under forests. Mangrove forests accountfor only 582 sq km, representing only about 0.9% of the State’stotal forest area. An advantage Andhra Pradesh enjoys is that mostof the east-flowing rivers pass through the heart of the State andbring in copious sediments from the Western and Eastern Ghatsand the Deccan Plateau. 40 major, medium and minor rivers flowthrough the State. Of these, the most important rivers are theGodavari, the Krishna, the Pennar and the Vamsadhara. Mangrovesare found in the estuaries of these rivers but extensive mangrovewetlands are present only in the Godavari and Krishna deltaicregions.The Godavari river originates in Maharashtra near Nasik andflows towards east into the sea. The Godavari river branches intothe Vasishta and the Gautami near Dowleswaram (Map 3) which isconsidered the head of the delta. The Gautami Godavari river joinsthe Bay of Bengal at two places one near Bhairavapalem and theother near Kothapalem. The Gautami-Godavari river is connectedto the Kakinada Bay by two distributaries, namely the Corangi riverwhich rises at Yanam and Gaderu river which has its origin atBhairavapalem. There are numerous tidal channels and creeks whichfeed the mangrove areas and eventually flow into the Kakinada Bay.An important feature determining the health of the Godavarimangroves is the Kakinada Bay, which is very shallow.The Godavari deltaic region falls under the category of tropicalhumid climate. The monsoon season commences from June andextends up to December. This area receives fresh water duringmonsoon season, during which period the salinity is low. FromJanuary onwards, the weather is mainly dry and progresses graduallyto the hot summer months of April and May.5

Mangrove Forest Restoration in Andhra Pradesh, Indiaflow northward to join the sea. The main Krishna canal flowssouthward to join the sea near False Divi point. Mangroves are mainlyprevalent around tidal creeks, channels, lagoons, tidal flats andmudflats of the three distributaries namely Gollamattapaya, Nadimeruand main Krishna canal. The area has a warm, humid and tropicalclimate with an annual rainfall of around 110 cm.3. Causes of degradationThe mangroves of Andhra Pradesh are being degraded due to avariety of causes, some of which are similar to those in othermangrove areas in India. As in other places, vast areas of landadjoining the mangroves have been converted to aquaculture ponds.Apart from these general causes, some site-specific reasons alsocontribute to mangrove loss. The causes of mangrove degradationare described below:3.1. Past management practicesThe mangrove forests were coup felled by the Governmentagencies for revenue generation till 1972. Some of the clear felledareas could not be regenerated due to topographic changes. Moreoverall mangrove species are not of the coppicing type. Chart 1 showshow a chain reaction triggered by coupe felling - caused degradation.Clear felling throughcoupe systemExposure of themangrovesEvaporation ofsoil waterStagnation of thetidal waterDevelopment of troughshaped topographySubsidence of sedimentDevelopment ofhyper salineNo naturalregenerationChart 1. Changes in the biophysical condition of the coupefelled area leading to degradation of mangroves7

M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation3.2. Hydrological and geomorphological causesReduction in fresh water flowThe Krishna river is one of the highly utilized rivers in peninsularIndia, for a variety of purposes. As a result, there has been a reductionin fresh water flow over a period of time, which has had a tellingimpact on the growth and regeneration of mangroves.Decrease in sediment load into the mangrovesThe decrease of sediment load has also had an impact on the ecosystemby way of reduction in sediment supply, due to which the nutrients whichare needed for the health of the mangroves have also been reduced.Cyclones and storm surgesThe Krishna mangroves have borne the brunt of two severecyclonic storms in 1977 and 1990. Though the destruction ofmangroves due to these cyclonic storms have not been properlydocumented, the surges associated with these storms have causedextensive sand casting resulting in the area becoming unsuitable forgrowth and survival of many mangrove species. It has also resultedin the siltation of many drainage channels that were feeding bothfresh and tidal water, as a result of which the mangroves havebecome degraded.Geomorphological changesThe sand spit in the Kakinada Bay has undergone changes in itsmorphology with a rapid rate of growth. The spit which had justshown up in the year 1851 has now extended to about 18 km inlength. In addition to this, the Kakinada Bay has been undergoingrapid siltation, as evidenced by the hydrographic study. Withincreased developmental activities and the setting up of fertiliser units,some effluents are being discharged into the Kakinada Bay. The baywaters are now characterized by high amounts of ammonium andnitrate which may contribute to degradation. As the present depthof the Bay is very low, there is hardly any lateral mixing of waters, as8

Mangrove Forest Restoration in Andhra Pradesh, Indiaa result of this, there is lot of stagnation of bay waters which mayalso contribute to degradation. The movement of pollutants in thebay is still not properly studied.Geomorphologically, the Gautami River has undergone somechanges, after the construction of the Cotton Barrage at Dowleswaramin 1852. In 1893, Kothapalem mouth had deepened and widenedconsiderably and hence the major flow of fresh water was takingplace through the Kothapalem mouth. By 1985, the Kothapalemmouth had gradually silted up and after 1986, the major outflow offresh water started taking place through the Bhairavapalem mouthand only very little flow now takes place through the Kothapalemmouth. Due to the change in flow pattern, mangroves occurring inthe Kothapalem RF, Masanithippa RF and Balusithippa RF havebeen affected.Formation of topographically elevated areasThe land has become relatively elevated at a few places along theriver banks and creeks due to silt deposition during floods in themonsoon period. Once the land becomes elevated, the area is unableto have any tidal flushing, as a consequence of which only the fringeareas support mangroves, while the interior areas are devoid ofmangrove vegetation.3.3. Anthropogenic causesIncrease in population, coupled with activities related to economic9

M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundationgrowth, lead to the use of mangrove lands for various purposes suchas construction of roads, ports, harbours and industries.Alternative uses ofmangrove lands, especiallyconversion of mangroveforests to aquaculture pondshas been increasing. Since1980, large tracts ofmangroves in India are beingconverted to aquacultureponds which bring in higher monetary returns within a short period.At the same time, conversion of mangrove forests for salt pans andpaddy fields have increased.Effluents discharged fromfactories, direct dumping ofmunicipal wastes into the riversand pesticide run-off fromagricultural fields eventuallyresult in the accumulation ofheavy metals in the mangrovewetlands, affecting the health ofthe mangrove ecosystem. Oil pollution is increasing in mangroveareas from shipyards, ship breakers, offshore oil wells, spillage formoil tankers due to accidents and from cleaning of cargo vessels.Coastal villagers utilize mangroves for their genuine basic needssuch as firewood, fodder, fencing, house construction, thatchingand fishing poles.4. Restoration methods4.1. Restoration of degraded mangroves in the pastRestoration of degraded mangroves was being carried out in thetropical and subtropical estuaries throughout the world (Field, 1996;Qureshi, 1996; Snedaker and Biber, 1996; Soemodihardjo et al., 1996;10

Mangrove Forest Restoration in Andhra Pradesh, IndiaUntawale, 1996). Restoration of mangroves started in Indonesia inthe early 1960’s (Soemodihardjo et al., 1996) and an area of about38,923 ha of mangroves were restored till 1992. Macnae, (1968)planted Rhizophora apiculata in the newly accreted soils in Sri Lankafor better stabilization of the area and to facilitate the trapping ofsediments. Goforth and Thomas (1979) have reported the plantingof mangroves in Florida for reducing the erosive action of the sea.In Andhra Pradesh, the Forest Department initiated restorationof mangroves in Godavari by canal digging during 1991. The canalswere dug perpendicular to the river and the side canals were at rightangles to the main canal. The staff of the Forest Department weretaken on an exposure visit to the Pichavaram mangroves whererestoration was done by MSSRF. After observing the restoration atPichavaram, the FD started digging canals at 30 0 from the maincanal from 1999 onwards. This reduces the rate of siltation of canalsand also facilitates easy flow of tidal water. Till now an area of 2,000ha have been restored by the Forest Department in Godavari andKrishna Mangroves.4.2. Methodology for restoration of degraded mangrovesat presentA survey of the entire Godavari and Krishna mangroves wascarried out to identify the degraded areas. Floristic studies andvegetation survey were undertaken in nine Reserve Forests in Godavarimangroves and eight Reserve Forests in Krishna mangroves usingremote sensing FCC images. The floristic study helped in determiningthe nature of degraded areas and the species composition to includespecies for genetic composition while planting seedlings in thedegraded areas. In this process, degraded patches of mangroves havebeen identified to an extent of 4,195 ha in Godavari and 12,629 inKrishna. These degraded patches have been plotted with GPS and aGIS database has been developed.Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) was also conducted foridentifying the degraded areas through various methods, namely11

M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundationtransact walk, resource mapping and historical analysis. Microplanswere prepared in the respective villages for the restoration of thesedegraded mangroves. Hydrological and geomorphological reasonsfor degradation were discussed with the community to enhance thescientific awareness of the community on mangrove restoration. TheMangrove Management Units (MMU), which include both degradedarea for restoration and the pristine mangroves for managementwere identified for each Village Level Institution (VLI). The restorationactivity was carried out with the VLI, namely Eco-DevelopmentCommittee (EDC) and Vana Samrakshana Samiti (VSS). The VLIswere trained in nursery raising and digging canals. The topographysurvey was carried out using theodolite instrument. Contour levelswere collected at an interval of 25 m (25x25 m) and the contourmap was prepared for 5 cm level, using a computer aided package.The main canals were dug at an angle of 45 0 to the natural creek.The side canals were dug at an angle of 30 0 to the main canal. Pegsand chalk powder were used for marking the canals.12

Mangrove Forest Restoration in Andhra Pradesh, IndiaCanals were designed like fishbone in order to facilitate easyinflow and outflow of tidal water. The design for the canal formangrove restoration is given in Fig.1. The canal dimensions wereFig. 1. Aerial view of fishbone type of canaldetermined as per the contour levels and the tidal amplitude of thedegraded area chosen for restoration - Fig.2. The canals were dug ina trapezoidal shape in order to plant the saplings at the mid level ofthe canal. This is to ensure that the plants receive tidal water, but atthe same time they are not submerged.4.2.1. Geomorphology and hydrology in mangroverestorationBased on the contour survey and hydrology study, the canaldepths and dimensions are fixed, corresponding to the topographyand tidal amplitude of the selected restoration site. The topographystudy revealed that the areas lying close to the bunds of creeks /rivers are elevated (levee) compared to the areas inside. The levees13

M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation0.60-0.75m.3.0 m.1.25 m.0.2-2.5m.0.2-2.5m.2.0 m. 2.0 m.0.4 m.12.5 m0.4 m.Distance between two side canalsPlanted mangrove sapling0.45-0.6m.0Fig. 2. Cross section of canals with dimensionsare formed due to the deposition of silt during floods. Secondly, asshown in chart-1, the soil subsided in the clear felled area due tochanges in bulk density, making the topography saucer-shaped. As aresult, tidal water entering in during the highest of the high tidesstagnates in the saucer shaped area due to the elevation of the edges.The temperature and the salinity of the stagnant water increases andshoots up to 114 ppt during summer. This phenomenon preventsnatural regeneration of the mangroves and thus enhances the processof degradation. The area gets flooded only during the monsoon periodand cyclones and storms-Figs. 3 and 4.Restoration of the mangroves can be done only when the salinityof the degraded area is brought down. In order to reduce the salinity,fishbone type canals were dug and tidal flushing and draining ofstagnant water was facilitated. This has resulted in brining the salinitylevels to 60 ppt in summer to fresh water level during monsoonseasons. After a buffer period of three months, the nursery-raisedmangrove saplings were planted along the trapezoid shaped canalsin the degraded areas.14

Mangrove Forest Restoration in Andhra Pradesh, IndiaFig. 3. TidesFig. 4. Spring and neap tide4.2.2. Hydrological studies in GodavariHydrodynamic processes in the mangrove creeks were studied bydeploying self recording tide guage in the creeks. Tidal data werecollected during the south-west monsoon and fair weather seasonsin the Saveru creek in Rathikalava RF and in the sanctuary area. Thevariations in salinity and temperature were also studied with thehelp of an in situ salinity- temperature probe over a day in the Saverucreek in Rathikalava RF, during the south-west monsoon and fairweather seasons. In the Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary area, salinitytemperaturevariation was studied in the Matlapalem canal, duringfair weather and pre-monsoon seasons.In the Saveru creek of Rathikalava RF, in Godavari mangrovesthe maximum tidal range was 0.6 m during the south-west monsoon.During the pre-monsoon season the minimum tidal range recordedwas 0.1 to 0.2 m with the maximum range being 0.6 to 0.65 m. Inthe Sanctuary area, the maximum tidal range was 0.5 m during thesouth-west monsoon and 1.3 m during the pre-monsoon season.15

M. S. Swaminathan Research FoundationSalinity variation in the Saveru creek, Rathikalava RF, varies from6 ppt during the south-west monsoon to 31 ppt during fair weatherseason. In the Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary area, at Matlapalem canal,salinity showed a variation from 4.6 ppt during the south-westmonsoon to 30 ppt during fair weather season.Based on the hydrological studies, the depth of canals forrestoration was decided to be 0.65 m with reference to mean sealevel so as to have adequate tidal flushing (Fig. 5).Over burden0.3 to 0.5 m.DepthofMaincanalLANDMSL0.3 m.MSL = Mean Sea Level0.3 m.Fig. 5. Topography of a canal bund in non-sanctuaryarea of Godavari mangroves4.2.3. Hydrological studies in KrishnaIn the Krishna estuary, water level and current data were recordedin the estuary and in the creek at Sorlagundi RF and Nakshatra Nagarduring the monsoon and pre-monsoon seasons respectively. Oneday tidal and current measurements were carried out during the fairweather season at six locations along the three channels of theKrishna river. Measurement of cross sections was carried out usingecho sounder. Position fixing was done using GARMIN GPS.Measurement of in situ salinity and temperature was carried out alongthe axis of the three channels of Gollamattapaya, Nadimeru andmain Krishna river during monsoon and fair weather seasons atselected stations.16

Mangrove Forest Restoration in Andhra Pradesh, IndiaThe tidal range along the three main channels of the Krishnavaries from 0.7 to 1 metre. Current velocity shows a variation from0.13 to 0.72m/s which was the maximum velocity that was recordedat Avulaganta. In the creeks adjoining the mangroves, the tidal rangewas 0.15 to 0.6m at Deenadayalpuram during monsoon. In the creekat Nakshtranagar in Kottapalem RF, the tidal range had a maximumvalue of 0.25m during pre-monsoon.During the monsoon season, salinity varied from 8.5 ppt to amaximum of 35ppt near the mouth. During fair weather, the salinityvaried from 17 ppt to 36 ppt. Temperature showed a variation from27 to 30 o C along the three channels of the river during the monsoonseason, while during fair weather season it varied from 28 to 31 o C.Based on the hydrological studies in Sorlagondi RF, the depth of canalsfor mangrove restoration was decided to be 0.6m for the main canal. Inother RFs adjoining the three channels of Krishna river, namely, NachuguntaRF, Yelichetladibba RF and Lankavanidibba RF, the depth of the maincanals was decided to be at least 0.7m .4.2.4. Dimensions of canalsThe dimensions of the canals were determined based on thecontour levels and tidal amplitude. The canals were constructed witha depth of 0.7 m to 1.0 m near the bunds of the creeks or the riversand 0.45 m inside. The depth of the main canal varied from 0.45 to1.0 m and the side canals from 0.6 to 0.45 m as per the contour. Thetop width of the main canal was between 3.5 m and 2 m and therespective bottom width was between 1 m and 0.4 m The dimensionsof the side canals were 2 m top width, 0.4 m bottom width and 0.45m depth. The distance between the two side canals was 12.5 m duringthe first year of plantation. The planting of mangrove saplings wasdone 2 m apart along the canals at about 20 cm down the slope.In the subsequent years, distance between side canals was reducedto 8 m in order to ensure dense canopy. As the canals were dugclosely the dimension of the side canals was reduced accordingly to1.25 m top width, 0.2 m bottom width and 0.4 m deep.17

M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation4.2.5. Selection of species and plantingBased on the salinity levels of soil, mangrove species namelyAvicennia marina, Avicennia officinalis and Excoecaria agallocha wereselected for planting in the degraded areas. Reason being that thesespecies could tolerate wide range of salinity. Normally the soil salinityof the degraded area is about 140 ppt during summer. To reduce thehigh soil salinity, tidal flushing was facilitated by constructing canalsas described in the previous pages. Due to this, the soil salts areslowly leached out and the soil salinity is reduced gradually. Thereduction in salinity improved the survival percentage and alsoreduced the saline stress to the young seedlings. The planting wasdone during October and November, after the southwest monsoon.During that period the rainwater reduces the salinity further. Thesalinity of the creek water is also low (about 10-15 ppt).Mangroves namelyAegiceras corniculatum,Bruguiera gymnorrhiza,Rhizophora apiculata,Rhizophora mucronataand Xylocarpusmoluccensis were alsoplanted to ensure genetic diversity. Eight-month-old mangrovesaplings raised in the nursery were used for planting. The mangrovesaplings were planted along the slopes (20-25 cm from the top) ofthe canals with a gap of 2 m.18

Mangrove Forest Restoration in Andhra Pradesh, India4.2.6. De-silting of canals and casualty replacementThe bunds formed by the deposition of the excavated soil duringcanal digging will silt the canals during the monsoon seasons. Thesilted canals have to be de-silted before the onset of summer, becauseduring summer the tidal amplitude is generally low. Tidal flushingis very important during summer because the soil salinity will shootup due to high temperature and cause damage to the roots of theseedlings. Such seedlings will be replanted in the following monsoonseason. The survival percentage is measured in the initial period forbetter monitoring. Initially the growth rate was slow and after 2 to 3years the seedling growth rate was faster. The natural regenerationof the seedlings also occurs simultaneously. After four years, theplanted saplings start bearing fruits, which will regenerate, and thedensity of the area will increase.4.3. Mangrove area restoredA total area of 520 ha of degraded mangroves was restored in theGodavari and Krishna mangroves. Restoration was carried out inthe MangroveManagementUnits (MMU) ofMatlapalem,D i n d u ,Bhairavalanka,Gadimoga andKobbarichettupetain Godavari andDheenadayalapuram,Zinkapalem andNali in Krishna Mangroves. An area of 9,442 ha is under themanagement of eight village level institutions. The area restored byeach VLI and the management area allotted to respectivedemonstration village for mangrove protection and management isgiven in Table 1.19

M. S. Swaminathan Research FoundationTable 1. Details of area restored and the area under MMUS.No Demonstration village Area Restored (ha.) Area under MMU (ha.)1. Matlapalem 5 5022. Dindu 25 9003. Kobbarichettupeta 35 3,9254. Gadimoga 25 9005. Bhairavalanka 75 6156. Dheenadayalapuram 236 2,0007. Zinkapalem 114 6008. Nali 5 ----Total 520 9,44219992004 20045. Impact of mangrove restorationDegraded mangroves are being restored to increase the mangrovecover all over the world. In Andhra Pradesh, MSSRF, jointly witheight village level institutions (namely Sri Vigneswara EDC,Matlapalem, Sri Nookalamma EDC, Dindu, Sri Devi EDC,Kobbarichettupeta, Sri Kanakadurga EDC, Gadimoga and Dr. B.R.Ambedkar VSS, Bhairavalanka, Dheenadayaljee EDC,20

Mangrove Forest Restoration in Andhra Pradesh, IndiaGodavari Mangroves1986 2001Krishna MangrovesDheenadayalapuram, Zinkapalem EDC, Zinkapalem and Sri SitaRama Lakshmana EDC, Nali) and Andhra Pradesh ForestDepartment, has restored 520 ha Restoration of mangroves hasarrested further degradation of mangroves adjoining the degradedpatches and also increased the fishery resources. The bio-diversity ofthe area has improved. The crab population in the restored areas has21

M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundationincreased due to the increased water regime. Since the work involves intensivelabor, the members of the village level institutions were benefitted by gettingemployment opportunities. NGOs, namely Sravanthi and Action inGodavari area and Sangamithra Service Society and Coastal CommunityDevelopment Program in Krishna, were trained in restoration techniquesand in participatory approaches in community mobilization and mangrovemanagement. These NGO’s have restored 215 ha of degraded mangroves.5.1. Cost of the restoration activity and long-term benefitsRestoration cost for canal construction and planting of seedlingsper unit depends on• extent of area• nature of the soil and• distance between the village and the restoration siteThe number of main canals needed for a larger degraded area isless when compared to smaller areas. For example, if the extent ofthe area is 30 ha it needs only 2 or 3 main canals. The number ofmain canals needed will be the same even if the area is smaller, thatis between 5 and 6 ha.In the Krishna mangroves, the restoration site near Zinkapalemis very close to the village and the soil is sandy clay. Hence the costfor canal digging was only Rs. 12,000/- per ha. However, in Godavari,the restoration sites are far away from the village and the soil of thedegraded area is clayey (hard). Therefore, the cost for canal diggingfor one ha was Rs. 18,000/- including transport of labour throughboats to the restoration sites.The participatory methods of community mobilization andorganization, planning and implementation have to be undertakenbefore the restoration work is started. The Group formation, PRA,Socio-economic benchmark survey and Microplan apart fromawareness generation and entry point activities, have to beundertaken. These exercises involve a cost of Rs. 50,000/-.22

Mangrove Forest Restoration in Andhra Pradesh, IndiaA further budget requirement for the socio-economicdevelopment of the communities would cost an amount of Rs.1,00,000 to 2,00,000/-, which has to be leveraged from developmentalschemes of the government and the constitution development fundof the peoples representatives and also from the Panchayat Rajschemes. Therefore, the cost of restoration of degraded mangrovesin an area of 10 ha which includes survey, nursery raising, advancework in canal construction and planting would requireRs. 2,00,000/- and for desilting in the first three years, it will costRs. 1,00,000/-. Hence, Rs. 3,50,000/- will be the total cost forrestoration of 10 ha of degraded mangroves through communityparticipation.Even though as an initial investment the cost appears high, theecological and socio-economic benefits to the local community willbe rewarding in the long run. This is evident from the fact that dueto the established water regime, the population of edible crabs hasincreased in the restored areas,which is a livelihood benefit to thelocal communities. There is a good growth of fodder grass whichhas helped the local community in feeding their livestock.As the biodiversity has come back and the denuded patches havebeen covered with mangrove restoration, populations of largeranimals like otters have increased substantially. In addition to this,the bird population has also increased.As the water regime has been established, the further degradationof mangroves has stopped. This has resulted in the naturalregeneration of mangroves. In addition to this, the canopy coverhas become denser which is evident from the remote sensing images.Hence, as far as restoration of mangroves is concerned eventhough the initial investment appears high, the delivery cost has tobe calculated from the angle of long-term economic benefits thataccrue to the local communities and the ecological goods and servicesthat are enhanced due to restoration.23

M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation5.2. How the restoration work has improved the socioeconomiccondition of Bhairavalanka village in GodavarimangrovesThe villagers of Bhairavalanka started canal digging during 1999, butdue to lack of practice of digging canals, they could not undertake the task.The work was done with the help of Chollangipeta villagers who have beendoing canal construction for a long time for the Forest Department. Thewages were given to them at a small function, in the form of demand draftafter the completion of the work. One of the village elders, who is also atraditional leader, gave the Demand Draft to them and said that if hispeople had done the work, this money would have come to their village. Itwas a huge sum, which they were very much in need of, because of thefailure in agriculture and aquaculture sectors. This made them think andcome forward for the field training in the following year. They were trainedby the experienced labour from Chollangipeta. They procured similar typesof spades and crowbars and started digging the canals. The timing of workalso changed. Earlier they used to work between 9.00 a.m. and 3.30 p.m.But after seeing the nearby villagers go to work at 4.30 a.m. they alsochanged their timings, which helped them to avoid work under the scorchingsun. After this, they have completed nearly 65 ha of mangrove restorationand the money got from the wages was used for house construction, whichwas started with the help of ARTIC - NGO with the support of OXFAMand State Housing Corporation. Most of the houses were unfinished dueto financial problems, which they have to contribute as beneficiarycontribution. After this they also got similar type of work from the ForestDepartment and from Sravanthi an NGO. In the Food for Work Programthey could execute tasks like pond renovation, laying roads in the villageand earned a large quantity of rice. The district administration has appreciatedthis work and the change the project has brought.They also undertook restoration work for the forest departmentand other NGOs which has fetched them more money. The ForestDepartment also provided 15 ha of Casuarina plantation for theVSS. The revenue form this plantation is being shared by thecommunity through the Village Development Fund.24

Mangrove Forest Restoration in Andhra Pradesh, IndiaReferencesField, C.D. (Ed.), 1996. Restoration of Mangrove Ecosystems,International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japan.Forest survey of India 1999. Status of Forest Report, Ministry ofEnvironment and Forests, Government of India, New DelhiGoforth, H.W and J.R. Thomas 1979. Planting of Red mangroveRhizophora mangle L. for stabilization of marsh shoreline in FloridaKeys. In: D.P.Cole (ed.) Proceedings of the 6 th Annual Conferenceon Restoration and Creation of Wetlands. HillsboroughCommunity College, Tampa, Florida, pp 207 – 242.Mittal, R. 1993. Management Plan for Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary,Forest Department, Government of Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad.Qureshi, M. T. 1996. Restoration of Mangroves in Pakistan. In:Restoration of Mangrove Ecosystems C.D. Field, (ed.)International society for mangrove ecosystem, Okinawa, Japan,pp 126 – 142.Ramasubramanian, R., Ravishankar, T. and Sridhar, D. 2003.Mangroves of Andhra Pradesh – Identification and Conservationmanual, M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation, Chennai pp67 (MSSRF/MA/03/06).Ramakrishna, D., Ravishankar, T. Sridhar, D. andRamasubramanian, R. 2003. Guidelines for restoration of degradedmangrove areas in Godavari and Krishna mangrove wetlands In:Discussion papers for “National workshop on Restoration andconservation of mangroves through Participatory MangroveManagement” 12 - 14, February 2002 organized by M.S.Swaminathan Research Foundation, Rajahmundry.Rangarao, V., Reddy, B.S.R., Raman, A.V. and Ramana Murthy, M.V.2003. Oceanographic features of the Bay – Mangrove waterwaysof Coringa, East coast of India, Proceedings of AP Akademy Science.,135-142.25

M. S. Swaminathan Research FoundationRavishankar, T., Gnanappazham, L., Ramasubramanian, R., Sridhar,D., Navamuniyammal, M. and Selvam, V. 2004. Atlas of MangroveWetlands of India Part 2- Andhra Pradesh, M.S. SwaminathanResearch Foundation, Chennai pp 136 (MSSRF/MG/03/15).Ravishankar, T., Ramasubramanian, R. and Sreenivasa Rao, N, 2004.Intersectoral linkages for conservation and Management of forestresources – a case study on Mangroves of India In: The proceedingsof the Asia Regional workshop on Mainstreaming Biodiversityand Climate change 6-11 April 2003, Dehradun, India.Selvam, V. 2003. Environmental classification of Mangrove Wetlandsof India Current Science, 84 (6): 757-765.Sidhu.S.S. 1963. Studies on the mangroves of India: East GodavariRegion, Indian Forester, 89: 337-351.Snedaker, S.C. and P.D. Biber 1996. Restoration of Mangroves in theUnited States of America: A case study in Florida. In: Restoration ofMangrove Ecosystems C.D. Field, (Ed.) International Society forMangrove Ecosystem, Okinawa, Japan, pp 170 – 188.Soemodihardjo, S., P. Waroatmodgo, F. Mulia and M.K. Harahap1996 Restoration of Mangroves in Indonesia: A case study ofTembilaham, Sumatra. In: Restoration of Mangrove Eco systemsC.D. Field, (Ed.) International society for mangrove ecosystem,Okinawa, Japan, pp 97-110.Untawale, A.G. 1996. Restoration of Mangroves along the Central WestCoasts of India. In: Restoration of Mangrove Ecosystems C.D.Field, (Ed.) International society for mangrove ecosystem,Okinawa, Japan, pp 111 –125.26