women access to science at the university of dar es salaam - Ozean ...
women access to science at the university of dar es salaam - Ozean ...
women access to science at the university of dar es salaam - Ozean ...
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European Journal <strong>of</strong> Educ<strong>at</strong>ional Studi<strong>es</strong> 2(3), 2010European Journal <strong>of</strong> Educ<strong>at</strong>ional Studi<strong>es</strong> 2(3), 2010ISSN 1946-6331© 2010 <strong>Ozean</strong> Public<strong>at</strong>ionWOMEN ACCESS TO SCIENCE AT THE UNIVERSITY OFDAR ES SALAAM (UDSM), TANZANIAKAPINGA BERNADETHA BENJAMINDepartment <strong>of</strong> Higher Educ<strong>at</strong>ion, Huazhong University <strong>of</strong> Science and TechnologyP.R.China-Wuhan-430074E-Mail addr<strong>es</strong>s for corr<strong>es</strong>pondence: benadetakapinga@yahoo.com______________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: In Tanzania, gender gap in <strong>science</strong> enrollment is still wide, with femal<strong>es</strong> lagging far behindmal<strong>es</strong>. Since <strong>the</strong> independence in 1961, various efforts have been made <strong>to</strong> bridge this gap.The polici<strong>es</strong> th<strong>at</strong>are made <strong>to</strong> facilit<strong>at</strong>e female’s particip<strong>at</strong>ion have positive efforts in increasing female’s enrollment <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>University <strong>of</strong> Dar <strong>es</strong> Salaam, though girl-enrollment <strong>to</strong> such programm<strong>es</strong> has remained compar<strong>at</strong>ively low.Much still needs <strong>to</strong> be done in Tanzania in <strong>the</strong> closure <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> gender dispariti<strong>es</strong> in <strong>science</strong> enrollmentbeginning from <strong>the</strong> lower level <strong>of</strong> educ<strong>at</strong>ion so as <strong>to</strong> increase <strong>the</strong> entrance number <strong>of</strong> femal<strong>es</strong> in highereduc<strong>at</strong>ion.Keywords: Higher Educ<strong>at</strong>ion, Gender Dispariti<strong>es</strong>, Gender Gap, Educ<strong>at</strong>ion Polici<strong>es</strong>, Female’s Enrollment,Science Programm<strong>es</strong>______________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTIONImproving girls‟ <strong>acc<strong>es</strong>s</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>science</strong> in higher educ<strong>at</strong>ion, with <strong>the</strong> goal <strong>of</strong> <strong>at</strong>taining gender equality, is acritical component <strong>of</strong> promoting development and meeting <strong>the</strong> Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) inTanzania.Since <strong>the</strong> independence in 1961, <strong>the</strong> government and institutions <strong>of</strong> higher educ<strong>at</strong>ion in Tanzania haveplaced gre<strong>at</strong> emphasis on female <strong>acc<strong>es</strong>s</strong> <strong>to</strong> higher educ<strong>at</strong>ion with particular focus <strong>to</strong> female‟s <strong>acc<strong>es</strong>s</strong> <strong>to</strong><strong>science</strong> in higher educ<strong>at</strong>ion. D<strong>es</strong>pite <strong>the</strong> recent increase in female‟s enrollment in <strong>science</strong>, owed <strong>to</strong> positiveactions, <strong>the</strong> increase has remained compar<strong>at</strong>ively low.273
European Journal <strong>of</strong> Educ<strong>at</strong>ional Studi<strong>es</strong> 2(3), 2010METHOD OF STUDYThis paper is based on secon<strong>dar</strong>y d<strong>at</strong>a obtained from <strong>university</strong> <strong>of</strong> Dar <strong>es</strong> Salaam records, reports, books,documentary <strong>of</strong> key polici<strong>es</strong>, online articl<strong>es</strong> and o<strong>the</strong>r public<strong>at</strong>ions.The analysis was carried out through critical examin<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> rol<strong>es</strong> played by educ<strong>at</strong>ion polici<strong>es</strong> andprogramm<strong>es</strong> <strong>of</strong> action for <strong>the</strong> purpose <strong>of</strong> increasing female‟s enrollment for <strong>science</strong> programme in highereduc<strong>at</strong>ion in Tanzania. The r<strong>es</strong>ults are pr<strong>es</strong>ented in <strong>the</strong> tabl<strong>es</strong>; 1 and 2.POLICIES GOVERNING WOMEN’S PARTICIPATION TO HIGHER EDUCATION INTANZANIAThe drivers behind polici<strong>es</strong> addr<strong>es</strong>sing widening <strong>of</strong> <strong>women</strong> particip<strong>at</strong>ion in higher educ<strong>at</strong>ion in <strong>the</strong> countrycan be traced <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> ideals <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Constitution <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> United Republic <strong>of</strong> Tanzania drawn in 1977(and amended in 1984), in which educ<strong>at</strong>ion was stipul<strong>at</strong>ed as a Constitutional right (URT, 1998). It wassince <strong>the</strong>se early tim<strong>es</strong> th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> government also propag<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>the</strong> ideology <strong>of</strong> cultiv<strong>at</strong>ing developmentthrough eradic<strong>at</strong>ing <strong>the</strong> three „worst enemi<strong>es</strong>‟ namely, illiteracy, poverty and disease.Educ<strong>at</strong>ion has <strong>the</strong>refore long been addr<strong>es</strong>sed as an impetus for development in <strong>the</strong> country. Theconstitution provid<strong>es</strong> for educ<strong>at</strong>ion as a human right, and individual freedom <strong>of</strong> both sex<strong>es</strong> <strong>to</strong> educ<strong>at</strong>e<strong>the</strong>mselv<strong>es</strong> up <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> d<strong>es</strong>ired level. Since <strong>the</strong> 1970s, specific str<strong>at</strong>egic initi<strong>at</strong>iv<strong>es</strong> <strong>to</strong>wards increasingfemal<strong>es</strong>‟ enrolment in higher educ<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>es</strong>pecially <strong>women</strong> <strong>acc<strong>es</strong>s</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>science</strong> in higher educ<strong>at</strong>ion in Tanzaniahave been introduced.The Musoma R<strong>es</strong>olution (1978) th<strong>at</strong> preceded <strong>the</strong> Women and Gender Development Policy as one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>first affirm<strong>at</strong>ive action polici<strong>es</strong> l<strong>at</strong>er r<strong>es</strong>ulted in <strong>the</strong> increase <strong>of</strong> female enrolments in higher educ<strong>at</strong>ion.Through this r<strong>es</strong>olution femal<strong>es</strong> were exempted from <strong>the</strong> two year compulsory work period th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir malecolleagu<strong>es</strong> had <strong>to</strong> adhere <strong>to</strong> after secon<strong>dar</strong>y educ<strong>at</strong>ion in order <strong>to</strong> be able <strong>to</strong> enter <strong>the</strong> <strong>university</strong> directlyfrom secon<strong>dar</strong>y schools. University <strong>of</strong> Dar <strong>es</strong> Salaam for <strong>the</strong> first time managed <strong>to</strong> enroll a large number <strong>of</strong>female students.Through cost sharing Policy (1988), Tanzania government introduced Higher Educ<strong>at</strong>ion Student LoansBoard under Act No. 9 (2004) <strong>to</strong> provide loans <strong>to</strong> all eligible students (URT 2004) and as an incentive forthose educ<strong>at</strong>ing female children. One <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> criteria for securing a loan from <strong>the</strong> Educ<strong>at</strong>ion Student LoansBoard stipul<strong>at</strong>ed th<strong>at</strong>; from <strong>the</strong> year 2005/06 academically outstanding students, i.e., those who hadachieved a Div. 1 grade in <strong>the</strong> final form V1 (Advanced Level) examin<strong>at</strong>ions directly qualified for <strong>the</strong> loanscheme while <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> same time girls with a <strong>science</strong> specializ<strong>at</strong>ion with a Div. 11 (HESLB, 2006), were alsoincluded <strong>to</strong> benefit from <strong>the</strong> same loan scheme.As a r<strong>es</strong>ponse <strong>to</strong> internal and external pr<strong>es</strong>sur<strong>es</strong> for gender equality polici<strong>es</strong>, <strong>the</strong> Tanzanian governmentformul<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>the</strong> Women Development Policy in 1992, re-named <strong>the</strong> Women and Gender DevelopmentPolicy in 2000. The policy calls for removal <strong>of</strong> barriers th<strong>at</strong> hinder <strong>women</strong>‟s <strong>acc<strong>es</strong>s</strong> <strong>to</strong> educ<strong>at</strong>ion andtraining <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> limits <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir abiliti<strong>es</strong>. The earlier policy was developed after <strong>the</strong> institution <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> BeijingPl<strong>at</strong>form for Action <strong>of</strong> 1985, and most <strong>of</strong> its stipul<strong>at</strong>ions regarding equity and equality have been taken onboard. This policy and its predec<strong>es</strong>sor have been instrumental in influencing proc<strong>es</strong>s<strong>es</strong> such as removingbarriers <strong>to</strong> educ<strong>at</strong>ion and training as well as Introducing scholarships for higher educ<strong>at</strong>ion through <strong>the</strong>Ministry <strong>of</strong> Community Development, Gender and Children, specifically for <strong>women</strong>.274
European Journal <strong>of</strong> Educ<strong>at</strong>ional Studi<strong>es</strong> 2(3), 2010The Tanzanian government is also a signa<strong>to</strong>ry <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> UNESCO Convention against discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion ineduc<strong>at</strong>ion. Government has r<strong>at</strong>ified <strong>the</strong> African charter on Human and People‟s Rights (1981) and <strong>the</strong>Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Africa Development Cooper<strong>at</strong>ion (SADC), Declar<strong>at</strong>ion on Gender and Human Rights (1997).POLICIES AND STRATEGIES REGARDING WIDENING WOMEN PARTICIPATION AT THEUNIVERSITY OF DAR ES SALAAMDue <strong>to</strong> increased policy commitments and o<strong>the</strong>r pr<strong>es</strong>sur<strong>es</strong> <strong>to</strong> addr<strong>es</strong>s gender inequality and inequity <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>UDSM, a number <strong>of</strong> proc<strong>es</strong>s<strong>es</strong> were adopted which became <strong>the</strong> springboard and nurturer <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> educ<strong>at</strong>ionaction programm<strong>es</strong> <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> institution. Earlier in <strong>the</strong> 1970s, female and male academics <strong>at</strong> UDSM, some whoorganized <strong>the</strong>mselv<strong>es</strong> in pr<strong>of</strong><strong>es</strong>sional, r<strong>es</strong>earch and gender-rel<strong>at</strong>ed NGOs, conducted r<strong>es</strong>earch, seminars andseveral o<strong>the</strong>r sensitiz<strong>at</strong>ion tactics including producing public<strong>at</strong>ions and interacting with non-academics <strong>to</strong>qu<strong>es</strong>tion <strong>the</strong> sex disparity in higher educ<strong>at</strong>ion in <strong>the</strong> country.It was however <strong>the</strong> introduction <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> University <strong>of</strong> Dar <strong>es</strong> Salaam Corpor<strong>at</strong>e Str<strong>at</strong>egic Plan (CSP) (1994),<strong>the</strong> core document th<strong>at</strong> defin<strong>es</strong> University <strong>of</strong> Dar <strong>es</strong> Salaam‟s plans and str<strong>at</strong>egi<strong>es</strong> for transform<strong>at</strong>ion, set inmotion developments which saw system<strong>at</strong>ic increase in enrolment numbers through institutionaliz<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>of</strong>affirm<strong>at</strong>ive actions th<strong>at</strong> have been instrumental in expanding female students‟ enrolment, specialscholarships <strong>to</strong> <strong>women</strong> students and those in pr<strong>of</strong><strong>es</strong>sions where <strong>the</strong>y are not well repr<strong>es</strong>ented (e.g.engineering) as well as putting in place mechanisms and polici<strong>es</strong> th<strong>at</strong> deal with sexual and o<strong>the</strong>rharassments. A Gender Centre has currently been introduced <strong>to</strong> moni<strong>to</strong>r gender equity and equality issu<strong>es</strong>.Moreover, in order <strong>to</strong> increase <strong>acc<strong>es</strong>s</strong> <strong>to</strong> higher educ<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>the</strong> University <strong>of</strong> Dar <strong>es</strong> Salaam, femalecandid<strong>at</strong><strong>es</strong> are admitted <strong>at</strong> up <strong>to</strong> 1.5 points lower than male candid<strong>at</strong><strong>es</strong> but not lower than <strong>the</strong> <strong>university</strong>entry points. As a r<strong>es</strong>ult <strong>the</strong> enrolment percentage rose from 17% in 1995/1996 <strong>to</strong> 29% in 1996/1997.Gender Studi<strong>es</strong> have also been introduced in such forms as <strong>the</strong> Women Studi<strong>es</strong> Centre <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> University <strong>of</strong>Dar <strong>es</strong> Salaam. For example gender Studi<strong>es</strong> Cours<strong>es</strong> have been introduced in <strong>the</strong> institute <strong>of</strong> DevelopmentStudi<strong>es</strong> and Sociology while a gender perspective has been adopted from some cours<strong>es</strong> in <strong>the</strong> faculti<strong>es</strong> <strong>of</strong>Arts and Social Scienc<strong>es</strong>, Law and Educ<strong>at</strong>ion, and <strong>the</strong> College <strong>of</strong> Land and Architectural Studi<strong>es</strong>. Theinstitute <strong>of</strong> Finance Management and <strong>the</strong> Sokoine University <strong>of</strong> Agriculture also have a few cours<strong>es</strong> with agender perspective (UDSM: 1996).Pre-entry Programme (PEP) and Preferential Admission Criteria (PAC) will be <strong>the</strong> current discussion‟sfocus in this paper. Th<strong>es</strong>e are two <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> more commonly used educ<strong>at</strong>ion programm<strong>es</strong> th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> University <strong>of</strong>Dar <strong>es</strong> Salaam has used as str<strong>at</strong>egi<strong>es</strong> <strong>to</strong> open up and increase female‟s enrolment in <strong>science</strong> cours<strong>es</strong>.Pre-entry Programme (PEP) studentsPre-entry programme was introduced in 1997 <strong>to</strong> addr<strong>es</strong>s <strong>the</strong> Faculty <strong>of</strong> Science‟s concern in addr<strong>es</strong>sing <strong>the</strong>rel<strong>at</strong>ively small number <strong>of</strong> female students and academic staff in <strong>the</strong> Faculty. In <strong>the</strong>ir str<strong>at</strong>egic plan, <strong>the</strong>programme is considered as “<strong>the</strong> immedi<strong>at</strong>e approach <strong>to</strong> effect an increase <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> femalecandid<strong>at</strong><strong>es</strong> who may not have <strong>at</strong>tained <strong>the</strong> minimum cut-<strong>of</strong>f point for admission in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> faculty although<strong>the</strong>y have <strong>the</strong> required basic qualific<strong>at</strong>ions” in order <strong>to</strong> “increase <strong>the</strong> proportion <strong>of</strong> female students from15% (in 1996/97) <strong>to</strong> about 30% in <strong>the</strong> year 2003” (Faculty <strong>of</strong> Science, 2001:18). It is worth noting th<strong>at</strong>,with effect from 1998, <strong>the</strong> Faculty <strong>of</strong> Science also prepar<strong>es</strong> candid<strong>at</strong><strong>es</strong> for admission in o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>science</strong>rel<strong>at</strong>ed degree programm<strong>es</strong> such as engineering, pharmacy, environmental engineering, dentistry, andnursing within this programme. Currently, six weeks remedial/pre-entry programm<strong>es</strong> benefit onlycandid<strong>at</strong><strong>es</strong> with a <strong>science</strong> background.275
European Journal <strong>of</strong> Educ<strong>at</strong>ional Studi<strong>es</strong> 2(3), 2010The first cohort <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> pre-entry programme female students gradu<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> academic year2000/01. The Dutch government under <strong>the</strong> Teacher Educ<strong>at</strong>ion Assistance in M<strong>at</strong>hem<strong>at</strong>ics and Science(TEAMS) project funded <strong>the</strong> first cohort. The Forum for African Women Educ<strong>at</strong>ionalists (FAWE), FAWEand Gender Dimension Programme Committee (GDPC), and GDPC funded <strong>the</strong> second, <strong>the</strong> third and <strong>the</strong>fourth r<strong>es</strong>pectively.Ass<strong>es</strong>sment <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> pre-entry programme for female students in <strong>science</strong> done by B<strong>es</strong>ha (2001) indic<strong>at</strong><strong>es</strong> th<strong>at</strong>87% and 13% <strong>of</strong> male peers viewed <strong>the</strong> performance <strong>of</strong> PEP candid<strong>at</strong><strong>es</strong> equal <strong>to</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rs and below o<strong>the</strong>rsr<strong>es</strong>pectively. 13%, 73% and 27% female peers viewed it as below o<strong>the</strong>rs, equal <strong>to</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rs and above o<strong>the</strong>rsr<strong>es</strong>pectively. Their overall performance is very good. In fact <strong>the</strong> b<strong>es</strong>t student in <strong>the</strong> Physics Department for<strong>the</strong> academic year 2000/01 was from <strong>the</strong> PEP students and several o<strong>the</strong>rs did very well and were awardedpostgradu<strong>at</strong>e scholarships in some departments in <strong>the</strong> Faculty <strong>of</strong> Science (Faculty <strong>of</strong> Science, 2001:18).Preferential Admission Criteria (PAC)The second major UDSM educ<strong>at</strong>ion programme is <strong>the</strong> Preferential Admission Criteria (PAC) for femal<strong>es</strong>tudents, which has had <strong>the</strong> broader objective <strong>of</strong> facilit<strong>at</strong>ing <strong>the</strong> admission <strong>of</strong> qualified female applicantsbut with A-level grad<strong>es</strong> and m<strong>at</strong>ricul<strong>at</strong>ion points lower than those <strong>of</strong> male applicants in all faculti<strong>es</strong> <strong>at</strong>UDSM. The applic<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>of</strong> PAC depends on <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> applicants in each year as well as <strong>the</strong> level <strong>of</strong>performance in rel<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> UDSM's minimum entry qualific<strong>at</strong>ions. In addition, while PAC is applied by <strong>the</strong>whole University, <strong>the</strong> decision <strong>to</strong> apply it or agree on a cut-<strong>of</strong>f point is made by individual departments.Table 1 below shows <strong>the</strong> vari<strong>at</strong>ions in cut-<strong>of</strong>f points as determined in different selected disciplin<strong>es</strong>.Table 2 bellow illustr<strong>at</strong><strong>es</strong> <strong>the</strong> preferential admission criteria as applied for University <strong>of</strong> Dar <strong>es</strong> Salaam(UDSM) admissions in selected disciplin<strong>es</strong> for <strong>the</strong> 2005/06 academic year276
European Journal <strong>of</strong> Educ<strong>at</strong>ional Studi<strong>es</strong> 2(3), 2010Table 1: Enrolment for first year 2005/2006 UDSMDegreeprogrammeTotalnumberadmittedNumberadmitted(M/F)% <strong>of</strong> femal<strong>es</strong>tudents admittedUDSM entry qualific<strong>at</strong>ionsMinimumpoints for AlevelsM<strong>at</strong>ricul<strong>at</strong>ioncut-<strong>of</strong>f score(%)M F M F M FBSc (MechanicalEngineering)BSc (Chemical andproc<strong>es</strong>sEngineering)BSc (MiningEngineering)BSc (ComputerEngineering andInform<strong>at</strong>ionTechnology)13 11 2 15 6.5 7.5 52+ 52+20 16 4 20 7.5 6.0 50+ 62+18 16 2 11 7.5 9.5 60+ 63+4 4 0 0 4.4 4.1 40+ –BSc (Pharmacy) 30 19 11 37 9.0 8.0 40+ 40+Doc<strong>to</strong>r <strong>of</strong> DentalSurgeryBSc (LandManagement &Valu<strong>at</strong>ion)35 30 5 14 8.0 7.0 40+ 40+68 52 16 24 8.5 6.5 59+ 62+Source: Admissions Office Records, UDSM, November 2005.277
European Journal <strong>of</strong> Educ<strong>at</strong>ional Studi<strong>es</strong> 2(3), 2010Table 2 bellow illustr<strong>at</strong><strong>es</strong> <strong>the</strong> University <strong>of</strong> Dar <strong>es</strong> Salaam (UDSM) first year students‟ enrolment <strong>of</strong>2000/2001 illustr<strong>at</strong>ing <strong>the</strong> difference in enrolment on applic<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>of</strong> preferential admission criteria (PAC)Table 2: Enrolment <strong>of</strong> first year 2000/2001 University <strong>of</strong> Dar <strong>es</strong> SalaamProgrammeTotaladmittedTotalfemaleadmittedFemaleadmissionsame criteriaFemaleadmissionafter PAC% Femaleadmissionwith samecriteria% Female<strong>to</strong>taladmissionB.Com. 273 45 45 Not used 16 16Engineering 405 23 11 12 3 6Medicine 132 33 22 11 17 25Dentistry 14 0 0 Not used 0 0Pharmacy 26 12 12 Not used 46 46PESC 25 13 1 12 4 52Nursing 23 13 3 10 13 57Scienc<strong>es</strong> 382 87 44 43 12 23Total 1280 226 138 88 15 18Source: Admissions Office, University <strong>of</strong> Dar <strong>es</strong> Salaam, 2003.RESULTSTable 1 clearly shows th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>re has been a serious gender disparity in female students‟ enrolment in<strong>science</strong> and engineering disciplin<strong>es</strong> <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> University <strong>of</strong> Dar <strong>es</strong> Salaam. Of all <strong>the</strong> <strong>science</strong> and engineeringcours<strong>es</strong> <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> University <strong>of</strong> Dar <strong>es</strong> Salaam, only Pharmacy had female enrolment r<strong>at</strong>e <strong>of</strong> slightly close <strong>to</strong>40% in <strong>the</strong> year 2005/2006. This enrolment is analogous <strong>to</strong> wh<strong>at</strong> tak<strong>es</strong> place in o<strong>the</strong>r universiti<strong>es</strong> inTanzaniaTable 2 shows <strong>the</strong> University <strong>of</strong> Dar <strong>es</strong> Salaam‟s first year students‟ enrolment <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> year 2000/2001. Itillustr<strong>at</strong><strong>es</strong> <strong>the</strong> vari<strong>at</strong>ions in PAC applic<strong>at</strong>ion. Female enrolments in all <strong>the</strong> <strong>science</strong> discipline were under50% with <strong>the</strong> only exception being in Nursing with 57%.278
European Journal <strong>of</strong> Educ<strong>at</strong>ional Studi<strong>es</strong> 2(3), 2010PROGRESS, PROBLEMS AND FUTURE TRENDSThe findings have revealed <strong>the</strong> consistently lower r<strong>at</strong>e <strong>of</strong> enrolment <strong>of</strong> femal<strong>es</strong> in <strong>science</strong> and engineeringdisciplin<strong>es</strong> in <strong>the</strong> University <strong>of</strong> Dar <strong>es</strong> Salaam. D<strong>es</strong>pite <strong>the</strong> remarkable recent progr<strong>es</strong>s in female enrolmentand performance owing <strong>to</strong> positive actions and sensitiz<strong>at</strong>ion campaigns, gender dispariti<strong>es</strong> still exist and arequite striking in some disciplin<strong>es</strong>.Indeed some possible reasons for <strong>the</strong> low female <strong>science</strong> admission <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> University <strong>of</strong> Dar <strong>es</strong> Salaamrevealed in table 1 and 2 are sugg<strong>es</strong>ted below. First, <strong>the</strong> admission criteria, or stan<strong>dar</strong>ds, by which so manysecon<strong>dar</strong>y school t<strong>es</strong>t takers are weeded out, may simply be <strong>to</strong>o much high, given <strong>the</strong> realiti<strong>es</strong> <strong>of</strong> poorlypaid and unmotiv<strong>at</strong>ed teachers plus inadequ<strong>at</strong>e teaching and learning faciliti<strong>es</strong> in many secon<strong>dar</strong>y schoolsin Tanzania, <strong>es</strong>pecially public secon<strong>dar</strong>y schools.Additionally, <strong>the</strong> findings here have revealed th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> educ<strong>at</strong>ion plans <strong>of</strong> action have led <strong>to</strong> significantimprovement in female‟s <strong>science</strong> enrolment <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> University <strong>of</strong> Dar <strong>es</strong> Salaam, although male students stilloutnumber female enrolment. It also agre<strong>es</strong> with <strong>the</strong> observ<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>of</strong> Morley (1997) th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>re is need <strong>to</strong>str<strong>at</strong>egize and cre<strong>at</strong>e equality in higher educ<strong>at</strong>ion between male and femal<strong>es</strong>.D<strong>es</strong>pite <strong>the</strong> positive efforts <strong>of</strong> gender-sensitive polici<strong>es</strong>, fac<strong>to</strong>rs th<strong>at</strong> limit female‟s enrolment in <strong>science</strong>discipline <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> University <strong>of</strong> Dar <strong>es</strong> Salaam seem <strong>to</strong> bring a gre<strong>at</strong>er impact on gendered <strong>acc<strong>es</strong>s</strong> thanfac<strong>to</strong>rs th<strong>at</strong> facilit<strong>at</strong>e it. Bookie Kethugisile, et al. (2000) indic<strong>at</strong><strong>es</strong> th<strong>at</strong> social-economic and cultural fac<strong>to</strong>rswhich inhibit girls‟ <strong>acc<strong>es</strong>s</strong> <strong>to</strong> educ<strong>at</strong>ion in primary and secon<strong>dar</strong>y levels effectively cut <strong>of</strong>f <strong>the</strong>ir <strong>acc<strong>es</strong>s</strong> <strong>to</strong>tertiary educ<strong>at</strong>ion.Indeed Masanja (2001) reports th<strong>at</strong> in 2000/2001 admissions, very few femal<strong>es</strong> qualified for admission in<strong>to</strong><strong>the</strong> engineering and <strong>science</strong> programm<strong>es</strong> in University <strong>of</strong> Dar <strong>es</strong> Salaam even after <strong>the</strong> lowering <strong>of</strong> cut <strong>of</strong>fpoints. Thus, in Africa, based on misconception, <strong>women</strong> students tend not <strong>to</strong> enroll in fields <strong>of</strong> <strong>science</strong>,Technology, Engineering (R<strong>at</strong>hgeber, 1995).Fur<strong>the</strong>r still, <strong>the</strong> findings show th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> much expected 50-50 enrolment between mal<strong>es</strong> and femal<strong>es</strong> in<strong>science</strong> cours<strong>es</strong> is still a challenge. This may be a r<strong>es</strong>ult <strong>of</strong> several fac<strong>to</strong>rs th<strong>at</strong> affect girls‟ enrolment in<strong>science</strong> subjects during <strong>the</strong> lower levels <strong>of</strong> educ<strong>at</strong>ion. It can also be <strong>at</strong>tributed <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> social and culturalbehaviour and perception in rel<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> field <strong>of</strong> <strong>science</strong> as male domain. Mlama (1998; 2001) cit<strong>es</strong>,among many indica<strong>to</strong>rs <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> unwelcoming sphere <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> higher educ<strong>at</strong>ion characterized by its „malen<strong>es</strong>s‟,sexual harassment, <strong>the</strong> shortcomings <strong>of</strong> lecturers whose poor prepar<strong>at</strong>ion and lack <strong>of</strong> awaren<strong>es</strong>s make itpractically impossible for female students <strong>to</strong> benefit fully from <strong>the</strong>ir learning experience, <strong>es</strong>pecially inhi<strong>the</strong>r<strong>to</strong> male-domin<strong>at</strong>ed subjects,in which <strong>the</strong> few enrolled female students have <strong>to</strong> endure lonelin<strong>es</strong>s and lack <strong>of</strong> support from fellow mal<strong>es</strong>tudents.279
European Journal <strong>of</strong> Educ<strong>at</strong>ional Studi<strong>es</strong> 2(3), 2010CONLUSIONIt has been found th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> polici<strong>es</strong> made have positive r<strong>es</strong>ults in increasing femal<strong>es</strong>‟ enrolment in <strong>science</strong>cours<strong>es</strong> <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> University <strong>of</strong> Dar <strong>es</strong> Salaam, although <strong>the</strong> number has not reached parity by sex. More workis needed so as <strong>to</strong> ensure 50-50 enrolment <strong>of</strong> girls in <strong>science</strong> <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>university</strong> <strong>of</strong> Dar <strong>es</strong> Salaam. Theincreasing enrolment <strong>of</strong> female in <strong>science</strong> depends much on <strong>the</strong> manner in which <strong>the</strong> m<strong>es</strong>sage about <strong>science</strong>is conveyed <strong>to</strong> students <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> lower level <strong>of</strong> educ<strong>at</strong>ion. Indeed teachers need <strong>to</strong> be more r<strong>es</strong>ponsive. Theyneed <strong>to</strong> be more supportive and encouraging <strong>of</strong> female students studying <strong>science</strong>. There need <strong>to</strong> be moreintroductions <strong>to</strong> <strong>science</strong> units or subjects <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> secon<strong>dar</strong>y level <strong>to</strong> raise female students‟ awaren<strong>es</strong>s <strong>of</strong><strong>science</strong>. University <strong>of</strong> Dar <strong>es</strong> Salaam should continue empowering female entrants through gendersensitiz<strong>at</strong>ion programm<strong>es</strong>, encouraging female students studying <strong>science</strong> cours<strong>es</strong>.REFERENCESKethusigile, B., Kwaramba, A., & Lopi, B. (2000). Beyond Inequaliti<strong>es</strong>. Women in Sou<strong>the</strong>rn AfricaHarare: Sou<strong>the</strong>rn African R<strong>es</strong>earch and Document<strong>at</strong>ion CentreMasanja, V. G. (2001, February). Structural chang<strong>es</strong> and equal opportunity for all. A case study <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>University <strong>of</strong> Dar <strong>es</strong> Salaam. Paper commissioned for FAWE and pr<strong>es</strong>ented <strong>at</strong> 10th GeneralConference <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Associ<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>of</strong> African Universiti<strong>es</strong> (AAU) <strong>at</strong> Safari Park Hotel, Nairobi.Morley, L. (1997). “Change and Equity in Higher Educ<strong>at</strong>ion.” British Journal <strong>of</strong> Sociology <strong>of</strong>18 (2): 229 - 240Educ<strong>at</strong>ionMlama, P.M.( 1998). Increasing Acc<strong>es</strong>s and Equity in Higher Educ<strong>at</strong>ion: Gender Issu<strong>es</strong>. In: Shabani, J.(eds.), Higher Educ<strong>at</strong>ion in Africa: Achievements, Challeng<strong>es</strong> and Prospects, Dakar, UNESCORegional Office for Higher Educ<strong>at</strong>ion in Africa (BREDA).Mlama, P. (2001). Gender equity programming in Higher Educ<strong>at</strong>ion. Paper pr<strong>es</strong>ented <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> HigherEduc<strong>at</strong>ion Policy Forum, Nairobi, Kenya.R<strong>at</strong>hgeber, E.M.(1995). Missing Links: Gender Equity in Science and Technology for Development.Gender Working Group <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> United N<strong>at</strong>ions Commission on Science and Technology forDevelopment (UNCSTD).United Republic <strong>of</strong> Tanzania.(1998).The Constitution <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> United Republic <strong>of</strong>Tanzania <strong>of</strong> 1977. Dar <strong>es</strong> Salaam: M.P.P Printers.United Republic <strong>of</strong> Tanzania. (2004). Higher Educ<strong>at</strong>ion Students‟ Loans Board Act. Act No 9 <strong>of</strong> 2004. Dar<strong>es</strong> Salaam: Key Hole Publishers.United Republic <strong>of</strong> Tanzania (URT), (2004). Higher Educ<strong>at</strong>ion St<strong>at</strong>istics 1999-2003280
European Journal <strong>of</strong> Educ<strong>at</strong>ional Studi<strong>es</strong> 2(3), 2010University <strong>of</strong> Dar <strong>es</strong> Salaam. (1996). Five Year Str<strong>at</strong>egic Plan 1998-2003, Dar <strong>es</strong> Salaam: UDSM.University <strong>of</strong> Dar <strong>es</strong> <strong>salaam</strong> (2001). Pre-entry programme; remedial cours<strong>es</strong> for admission <strong>of</strong> femalecandid<strong>at</strong><strong>es</strong> in Science and Engineering <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> University <strong>of</strong> Dar <strong>es</strong> Salaam: progr<strong>es</strong>s Report for2001, Dar <strong>es</strong> <strong>salaam</strong>: Faculty <strong>of</strong> Science, UDSM281