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Anselmi Archaic to Contact Period Copper-based Metal Artifacts 81A Brief Historical Retrospective of Investigations of Archaic toContact Period Copper-based Metal Artifacts in NortheasternNorth AmericaL.M. AnselmiThe use of native or pure copper and European-introduced copper-based metals in the production of ornamentaland utilitarian forms by First Nations groups has long been recognized in Ontario and the broadernortheastern North America region. This paper presents a brief review of some of the projects that haveexamined these artifacts and the use of metal materials beginning with Sir Daniel Wilson’s investigationsin the late 1800s of native copper used by Archaic groups and ending with recent research into the use ofEuropean-introduced copper-based metals by First Nations groups during the early and middle contactperiods undertaken at the University of Toronto. In particular, this paper highlights Martha A. Latta’s rolein these latter studies, many of which have been completed by graduate students under her supervision.IntroductionThe use of copper-based metals by First Nationsgroups has long been recognized in Ontario andthe broader northeastern North America region.This paper is a review of some of the projects thathave examined these artifacts and the use of metalsin this region and, while extensive, is notmeant to be exhaustive. The primary focus is tohighlight the role of scholars, especially MarthaA. Latta, based at the University of Toronto, inthese investigations. Though investigation of themeaning of these materials is important and hasbeen addressed by several researchers, this paperfocuses primarily on the projects that examinedthe forms created from copper-based metals, thetechnological aspects of the copper-based artifactsincluding the techniques used to manipulatethe metal, and the use of advanced analyticaltechniques to determine the chemistry of themetal artifacts.Examinations of Native CopperEarly to Modern InvestigationsDuring the mid-nineteenth century, increasingnumbers of metallic artifacts, especially thosecrafted from native copper, were recoveredthroughout the Northeast. The earliest discoveriesof native copper artifacts recovered in contextoccurred through Ephraim Squier and EdwinDavis’s investigations of the Moundbuilder siteslocated throughout the central Ohio region(Squier and Davis 1848). Their field work coincidedwith the earliest systematic descriptions bya variety of antiquarians and early scholars of precontactcopper mining and working from areasnear Lake Superior, a rich source of native copperin this part of the continent (Martin 1999:49).Sir Daniel Wilson and his colleagues at theUniversity of Toronto were the first “Canadian”researchers to scientifically investigate copperartifacts of this type. Their work focused onforms recovered from Ontario sites beginning inthe early 1850s (Wilson 1876). At this timeWilson and his colleagues were primarily concernedwith the origin of the material, whetherall of the material was native copper procuredfrom the rich copper-mining area near LakeSuperior, or whether this material was smeltedmetal introduced from elsewhere (Wilson1876:215). They submitted samples of the artifactsfor chemical testing to determine the specificgravity of the samples and dissolution of thesamples by immersion into nitric acid and subsequentidentification of the residual liquid forother metals and trace elements. This work,undertaken at the University of Toronto under

82 Ontario Archaeology No. 77/78, 2004the direction of Professor Henry Croft, led them toconclude that the sampled artifacts were fashionedfrom native or pure copper. Wilson also investigatedthe manufacturing techniques used for bothmining the copper and for fashioning artifactsfrom the metal (Martin 1999:54; Wilson1876:228, 237). Importantly, Wilson’s use of thecomparative method led him to evaluate the evidencerecovered in the Lake Superior regionagainst other areas of mining activity, in particularthe mining districts of Wales. This led to his observationthat the basic technique used to work thematerial in North America – hammering – wasused by metalworkers in other parts of the world,suggesting that people confronting similar materialssolved manufacturing problems in similar ways(Martin 1999:54; Wilson 1876:228, 237).Through their investigations, Wilson and his colleaguesformally introduced the Lake Superiorregion as a probable source area of the native copperused by First Nations people throughout theNortheast, a model which has long been used withoutchallenge (see Martin 1999; also Levine 1996,1999 for arguments against this model).Many others have followed these early investigationswith their own examination and descriptionsof the native copper artifacts characteristic of theOld Copper Complex (and contemporary LateArchaic/Early Woodland period cultures), theAdena (and concurrent Early/Middle Woodlandperiod cultures), the Hopewell (and related Middleto Late Woodland cultures) and later Mississippiancultures (such as those artifacts recovered at theEtowah, Spiro and Moundville sites among otherlocations) (see for example Blitz 1986; Brown1989; Cree 1992; Esarey 1986; Fogel 1963;Fundaburk and Foreman 1957; Goad and Noakes1980; Goodman 1984; Greber and Ruhl 1989;Halsey 1996; Heckenberger et al. 1990; Jury 1965;Kenyon 1986; Larson 1959, 1989; Martin 1999;Popham and Emerson 1954; Ritzenthaler andQuimby 1962; Steinbring 1970, 1990, amongothers). The approaches of these researchers varyextensively from simple description and counts ofrecovered artifacts (see for example Jury 1965) touse of advanced analytical techniques to addressquestions of source material and /or trade (seeGoad and Noakes 1980).Early Experimental Work on Native CopperThe earliest experimental work on the manufacturingtechniques used to construct native copperartifacts was by Frank Hamilton Cushing ofthe Bureau of American Ethnology in the 1890s(Cushing 1894; Martin 1999:113-114). Hiswork focused on copper objects recovered fromgroups in the contemporary Southwest (in particularthe Zuñi) and from earlier Adena andHopewell sites. He experimented with differentmanufacturing techniques in an effort to determinethe process of manufacture used for theircreation and was the first to suggest that the techniquesemployed on metallic raw materials werebased on those used in the creation of otherobjects crafted from different raw materials suchas stone or shell (Cushing 1894:97). Cushingargued that almost all native communities usedheating techniques to produce hide or hornobjects and to straighten arrow-shafts and thatthis surely led to the application of heat on copper,which led to annealing of the material(Cushing 1894:98). Annealing of the copperenables the reversal of work-hardening effects ofinitial hammering of the object. After the applicationof heat, the copper returns to a more malleablestate. Cushing argued especially that thetechnological activities of hide-working andhammering copper into sheet have marked similarities,including the placement of material onstone anvils and the use of stone mauls to ‘spread’the hide and copper through a particular hammeringpattern (Cushing 1894:100). Cushingexperimented with these techniques himself andfound it relatively easy to groove plates with boneor antler embossing tools and to remove theresulting figural designs by grinding the raisedlines present on the reverse surface of the piece(Cushing 1894:101-104). This process wouldleave raised edges on the removed pieces thatcould then be flattened after removal.Charles C. Willoughby’s early work echoedCushing’s work on metal objects fromMoundbuilder sites (see Martin 1999:116-119 fora general discussion; Greber and Ruhl 1989 forspecifics). Willoughby (1903:55) experimentedwith native copper from Lake Superior mining sitesand used traditional techniques of cold-working

Anselmi Archaic to Contact Period Copper-based Metal Artifacts 83and annealing in a successful attempt to duplicaterecovered Hopewell ear spool forms. He followeda simple manufacturing sequence, hammeringa nugget of native copper into sheet withwater-worn stones and performing a low-temperatureanneal of the pieces using a camp-fire. Hefinished the sheet he created by grinding it to auniform thickness between two flat stones, usingfine sand between them as an abrasive. He cutthe sheet into circular forms by using sharp flintsto outline the shape, breaking off the excessmaterial, and grinding the rough edges. He thencladded the experimental piece (i.e., worked thecopper sheet over a wooden form) he was trying torecreate and burnished the copper around the formusing an expedient pressing tool manufacturedfrom discarded bone. To finish the piece, he perforatedit using a flint ‘drill’ and polished the pieceusing a final grinding of fine sand followed by shiningwith wood ashes (Willoughby 1903:55).Additionally, a number of experimental studiesundertaken in the early 1980s, on native copper,showed that it would have been quite possible, iftime-consuming, for native craftsmen to manufactureobjects like tubular beads themselves (seeFranklin et al. 1981; Franklin 1982). UrsulaFranklin, a metallurgist formerly at theUniversity of Toronto, experimented with nativecopper in order to replicate copper objects recoveredfrom Thule, Copper Eskimo, Athabascanand Chipewyan contexts in the Canadian Arctic.She succeeded in duplicating the microstructuresobserved in the original pieces by following aworking-annealing-working-folding sequenceand also by hot working small fragments ofnative copper (Franklin 1982:50).Another experimental study, undertaken byJonathan Leader (then at the University ofFlorida), showed that metal artifacts were oftenbased on artifact forms crafted from other materialssuch as shell or wood and that the manufacturingtechniques employed were those initially usedon these other materials, an idea first put forwardby Cushing following his observations of Zuñimetalworkers (Cushing 1894; Leader 1988, 1991).This research focused on the retention of basictechniques over time and the adoption of newtechniques by examining metalworking techniquesused by different cultural groups in the Northeastfrom the Late Archaic (Old Copper Culture), toMiddle Woodland (Adena/Hopewell) andMississippian (Etowah and SoutheasternCeremonial complex) periods (Leader 1988).Approaches to Analysis: Native CopperSophisticated analytical techniques, such as metallography,were also employed in the examination ofrecovered metal material during the very earliestphases of investigation of native copper artifacts.Curtis Wilson and Melville Sayre used this techniquein 1935 to compare native copper from theLake Superior region with copper recovered fromOhio mound sites and sites in Wisconsin (Wilsonand Sayre 1935). Metallographic study necessitatesremoval of a section of the study piece, then polishingand etching it to reveal its granular structure(Martin 1999:115; Vernon 1990:500; Wilson andSayre 1935:109). Those structures form specific patternsthat reflect the treatment of the metal, whetherit was annealed or cold worked, for example.Metallography, as well as advanced analyticaltechniques such as neutron activation analysis(NAA) and x-ray fluorescence spectroscopy(XRF), has also been applied to artifacts originallydescribed by Squier and Davis fromMoundbuilder sites in the Ohio River Valley andfrom Copper Inuit sites under the direction ofMichael Wayman and his colleagues at theSlowpoke Reactor Facility at the University ofAlberta (Wayman et al. 1992; Wayman et al.1985, respectively).Examination of European-introducedCopper-based MetalsDescriptions and the Construction of TypologiesEarly analytical work on artifacts made fromEuropean-introduced copper-based metals 1 frequentlytook the form of description and visualanalysis. This is particularly true of WilliamBeauchamp’s (1903a, 1903b) work for the NewYork State Museum, which is a record of his personalobservations of metal implements andornaments recovered from precontact and postcontactsites in New York within the frameworkof broadly functional typologies that separated

84 Ontario Archaeology No. 77/78, 2004ornamental forms (such as beads, pendants andbracelets) from utilitarian forms (such as projectilepoints and knives). Beauchamp discussed thegeneral importance of metal in native culture andincluded detailed drawings of the studiedobjects. Interesting is his description of severalexamples of copper and copper-alloy beaded“belts” on which roughly standard-size tubularbeads were apparently sewn in uniform rows,reminiscent of later wampum belt configurations(Beauchamp 1903b:Plate 25).In Ontario, David Boyle’s Annual ArchaeologicalReports were the primary venue for reporting earlyfinds of European-introduced copper-based metalartifacts (Boyle 1889, 1891, 1892, 1896). This primarilytook the form of detailed descriptions ofcopper-based metal artifacts as they were recoveredthrough intentional excavation or through farmingand construction activities throughout the regionduring the late 1880s and 1890s.The independent work of Beauchamp andBoyle foreshadowed W. J. Wintemberg’s analysisof objects recovered on Iroquoian sites inOntario in the 1920s (1926) and Charles C.Willoughby’s examinations of objects recoveredfrom New England sites (Willoughby 1973),research which was undertaken in the 1930s.Like Beauchamp, Willoughby also describedlengths of copper and copper-alloy tubular beadsrecovered from sites of the early (ca. AD1480/1500-1614) and middle (ca. AD 1614-1690) contact periods (Willoughby 1973:237).The first researcher to tie the use of native copperand other metals to historical records wasT.A. Rickard (1934). His analysis highlighted thedifferences between native copper and Europeanintroducedcopper-based metals. Similarly, manyscholars have published descriptive essays ofarchaeological sites that include detailed descriptionsof the artifacts recovered. Examples includereports on grave sites in Rhode Island,Massachusetts, Nova Scotia, Long Island,Ontario (Brenner 1988; Chapin 1926, 1927;Dincauze 1974; Dunbar and Ruhl 1974; Fowler1973; Hadlock 1948; Harper 1957; Jeppson1964; Latham 1957; Noble 1971; Robbins1959, 1968; Sherman 1960) and from other sitesassociated with contact-period trading activities(Boisvert et al. 1994; Cox 1996). Site artifact catalogueshave also been produced for six of theearly contact Seneca sites (Sempowski andSaunders 2001; Wray et al. 1987; Wray et al.1991).William Fowler, working in the early 1970s,suggested from a visual examination of “certainexcavated evidence” that the Dutch importedtubular copper-based metal beads of uniformlength specifically for the fur trade (Fowler1973:30). Unfortunately, he revealed no detailsof this evidence nor do Dutch historical recordsof this period appear to support his claim.Reworking of European-introduced Copper-basedMetals as an IndustryIn the mid-1970s researchers shifted towards anacknowledgment of native choice and active adoptionof certain European trade goods during theearly and middle contact periods in the Northeast.Martha A. Latta, working with Wendat collectionsin Ontario, was the first researcher to recognizethat European trade kettles might have beenimportant as a raw material source rather than foruse in their European forms while James Bradley,working with Onondaga collections in New York,was the first to focus upon the use of copper andcopper-alloy materials as an industry equivalent tolithic or ceramic production (Bradley 1979, 1987a,b; Latta 1976: 229).Approaches to Analysis: European-introducedCopper-based MetalsSimilar to its use in examining native copper artifacts,metallography has been applied in investigationsof European-introduced copper-basedmetals. Metallographic analysis makes it possibleto determine if the metal has been smelted,allowing the sorting of native and smelted coppersand alloys. This technique has been used byHelene Dunbar and Katherine Ruhl (1974) forthis purpose in their examination of seven copperartifacts recovered from the SusquehannockEngelbert site in New York. They determinedthat two of the artifacts had been formed fromnative copper, while the rest had been fashionedthrough the re-use of European-introducedsmelted copper-based metal.

Anselmi Archaic to Contact Period Copper-based Metal Artifacts 85James Bradley and S. Terry Childs noted thatmetallographic analysis provides a means forreconstructing the processes of manufacture aftercasting but recognized that, for postcontact artifactsrecovered in the Northeast, metallographicanalysis may also identify the last stages inEuropean processing of the original kettles orsheets rather than solely the Native metalworker’suse of annealing and cold working (Bradley andChilds 1987:55). They employed metallographicanalysis to ascertain the manufacturing techniquesused to create specific types of copperbasedmetal artifacts commonly known as spiralsand hoops found on several early Seneca,Onondaga and Susquehannock sites (Bradleyand Childs 1991). Their research highlighted thelikelihood that these spiral and hoop types weremanufactured by native artisans, based on threereasons (Bradley and Childs 1991:15). First, differentmetals were used for the same forms on thesame site, which would probably not be the caseif they were European-manufactured pieces.Second, the techniques used to manufacture thesepieces were well within the documented abilities ofprecontact Native metalworkers and there is noevidence for advanced techniques, such as solderingor joining, that were practiced in Europe duringthis time period. Third, the manufacture ofthese pieces varied but the pieces themselvesshowed similarity in shape and style, suggestingthat there was no one set of steps followed to makethese artifacts—i.e., no rigid chaîne opératoire—butrather individual or localized preferences (seeAnselmi 2004 for further discussion).Advanced Techniques: Identifying ChemicalCompositionAdvanced analytical techniques such as opticalemission spectrography (OES), electron microprobe(EMP), atomic absorption spectroscopy(AAS), proton-induced emission spectroscopy(PIXE), and especially neutron activation analysis(NAA), have been principally used to sortmaterials according to base metal, whether nativecopper, smelted copper or copper-alloy. This is ofparticular importance as the presence of smelted,European-introduced metal is a diagnostic featureof early contact period sites.Optical emission spectrography (OES)involves the recording of emitted wavelengths oflight following the excitation of electrons, usuallyfrom an electrical source (flame, spark or arc;Leute 1987:141). Emitted wavelengths are specificto elemental composition of the sample testedand the more intense an emitted wavelength,the greater the amount of that element in thesample. Researchers at Revere Copper and Brass(New Bedford, Massachusetts) first used thistechnique to determine the chemistry of a copperbead discovered in a grave in Holyoke,Massachusetts, in the 1940s (General ResearchDepartment 1942). Bradley and Childs (1987)used this method as well, though in combinationwith metallographic analysis to examine an artifactfrom the Palmer Site in Massachusetts in thelate 1980s. Their examination showed that theartifact was fashioned from smelted brass.Valerie Monahan (1990) tested 22 samples inthe early 1990s from a range of archaeologicalsites in the Maritimes using electron microprobe(EMP) in order to distinguish between nativeand smelted copper-based metal artifacts. InEMP, samples are subjected to a small electronbeam, causing the excitation of electrons at theintersecting surface location. As the electronsreturn to their original level they emit x-rays thatcan be measured and matched to elements presentin the sample (Leute 1987:148).Bradley and Childs (1991) used a combinationof metallographic techniques and atomic absorptionspectroscopy (AAS) to investigate the spiraland hoop ornaments recovered from Seneca,Onondaga and Susquehannock sites in theNortheast. AAS involves the measurement of visiblelight (Leute 1987:139). A sample tested inthis manner is aspirated into a hot flame. Thesample is exposed to light of a wavelength associatedwith the element of interest. If the elementis present, the light is absorbed, causing theupward movement of an electron for that element.The amount of light absorbed may berecorded and plotted to obtain the percentage ofthat element in the sample. The application ofAAS by Bradley and Childs revealed that all ofthe tested spirals and hoops were manufacturedfrom smelted copper and brass and further that

88 Ontario Archaeology No. 77/78, 2004examined smelted copper-based metals usingboth simple and advanced analytical techniques.The first of these, in the mid-1990s, was my ownmaster’s thesis, which used neutron activationanalysis in combination with the scratch test andvisual examination to explore the copper-basedmetal collection recovered from the Auger site.Using the neutron activation analysis results from150 samples, I determined the minimum numberof kettles present in the sample group and suggestedpreference of material for artifact types. Iwas also able to suggest possible trading patternswithin and between interacting populations asreflected by the archaeological assemblages (seeabove, Anselmi 1995; Anselmi et al. 1997).Caroline Walker also undertook an analysis ofcopper-based metal artifacts for her master’sresearch in the mid-1990s (Walker et al. 1999).Her work applied both visual examination andneutron activation analysis to a number of Petunsite copper-based metal collections. She used theresults of the NAA to assist in the developmentof a new chronological seriation for the Petunsites. More recently, Paul Thibaudeau’s (2002)doctoral research on the Thomson Walker sitecollection focused on traces of use-wear. Hisresearch, which included an experimental component,found that several of the irregularlyshaped forms with evidence of working wereused for hide preparation.My own doctoral research sought to broadenour understanding of the use of these metals byaboriginal peoples during the early and middlecontact periods through a comparative regionalapproach (Anselmi 2004). I examined a numberof copper-based metal collections attributed tothe nations of the Wendat confederacy inOntario and to the Seneca, Onondaga andMohawk nations of the Haudenosaunee confederacyin New York. I also examined contemporarycollections crafted by European metalworkersin the New World, such as those recovered atFrench Sainte Marie I and English Jamestownsites. Through this comparative approach and asmall experimental study, I was able to demonstratea predictable difference between the waysthat aboriginal individuals were working copperbasedmetals taken from introduced trade goodsand the ways that trained European metalworkerswere using similar materials. My post-doctoralresearch has included the examination of copper-basedmetal collections attributed to theSusquehannock. Analysis of the collected datacontinues but preliminary results suggest that theSusquehannock used copper-based metals in verydifferent ways than other Iroquoians.Without Martha A. Latta’s guidance andenthusiasm, none of these graduate student projectswould likely have been completed. Marti’scommitment to the investigation of copper-basedmetals, from their excavation to her own researchinto expedient tools as well as her support ofgraduate students, is one of the lasting legacies ofher long career in Ontario archaeology.ConclusionsInvestigations of the ways that native copper andEuropean-introduced copper-based metals havebeen used by aboriginal peoples have a long history.Recent investigations of the active ways thataboriginal people chose to recycle introducedcopper-based metals have been influenced byMartha A. Latta through both her personalresearch and her role as advisor to graduate students.Future work suggested by her own and herstudents’ research might focus on expanded usewearanalysis of copper-based metal artifacts aswell as implementation of an advanced analyticalprogram to test additional artifacts throughoutthe Northeast in order to ascertain their chemicalsignature. Once these data are collected, it maythen be possible to trace usage patterns across sitesas well as local and regional trading networks.Acknowledgments. This paper was originally presentedat a session in honour of Martha A. Latta atthe 2004 combined Ontario ArchaeologicalSociety/Eastern States Archaeological Federationmeeting in Midland, Ontario. I wish to thank theorganizers of that session, Mima Kapches and PatReed, for their invitation to participate in the sessionand this volume. I would also like to thankMarti, the supervisor of both my master’s and doctoralresearch projects. I am ever grateful for hersupport and guidance.

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94 Ontario Archaeology No. 77/78, 2004En Ontario et dans toute la région nord-est de l’Amérique du Nord, on a depuis longtemps reconnuque les groupes des Premières Nations ont utilisé le cuivre natif, ou pur, et les métaux à base de cuivreintroduits par les Européens pour fabriquer des objets ornementaux et utilitaires. Cet articleprésente une brève revue de quelques projets qui ont examiné ce genre d’objets à la lumière de l’usagedes métaux. On débute par les enquêtes menées, dans les dernières années de 1800, par Sr DanielWilson concernant le cuivre natif utilisé par les Archaïques et on termine avec les recherches récentesentreprises par l’université de Toronto, recherches qui se rapportent à l’utilisation, par les groupes desPremières Nations, des métaux à base de cuivre introduits par les Européens durant les périodes decontact ancienne et moyenne. Cet article souligne en particulier le rôle qu’a joué Martha A. Latta dansces dernières études, dont plusieurs ont été complétées par des étudiants gradués sous sa supervision.L.M. AnselmiAnthropology DepartmentBuffalo State College1300 Elmwood Avenue,Buffalo, New York, USA 14222anselmlm@buffalostate.edu