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Figure 8: Cost to Send from the U.S. Average Amount to Home CountrySource: Data compiled by the author. See methodology at end of documentFigure 9: Commission in the Exchange Rate as Percent of Total Costs (June 2004)Source: Data compiled by the author. See methodology at end of document328Historically, the U.S. remittance-sending market was built on whateverwas available to immigrants, including money transfer companies,especially Western Union, or informal methods of remitting. People paidhigher sending costs because there either were no viable alternatives orthey had no means (e.g., transport and bank accounts) of accessing those
alternatives. Five years ago, it was more difficult and more costly thanit is now to send money to relatives; some companies charged up to 20percent of the principal sent, and in many cases they did it through a veryunfavorable exchange rate of the dollar against national currency.It is worth emphasizing that the costs of sending money have been fallingslowly over the last five years. Competition, legal demands, consumerprotests, a Congressional investigation in the United States into abusesagainst immigrants, criticism from the Inter-American Development Bank,and the work of some research centers have worked together to result in areduction in the costs of sending money.Competitors are increasing in number and are seeking market share bylowering prices. One way to measure competition in remittance transfersis by looking at variations in prices among companies. Where companiescompete through pricing, the variance between the highest and lowestnumber usually is closer to the mean value. The chart below shows thestandard deviation of prices (as a percentage of the $200, on average, sent)among various companies remitting to four Latin American and Caribbeancountries. As the chart shows, the standard deviation has decreased andmost companies offer similar fees for sending to the same country. TheDominican Republic is an exception and reflects the foreign-currencycrisis in the country rather than increased manipulation by companies.Figure 10: Standard Deviation of Foreign Exchange Commission among CompaniesSource: Data compiled by the author. For the methodology see the Appendix at the end of the chapter.329Savings and credit: Although there may be an inherent relationshipbetween remittances and finance institutions, the participation of financialinstitutions, traditional or non-traditional, is still limited. It is important
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The opinions expressed in the repor
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Table of ContentsForeword1 Migratio
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Foreword
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UN recorded that 61 million migrant
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about this and other programmes. Se
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Introduction
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overseas ethnic markets; and the wa
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labor migration. This narrower topi
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narrowing income inequalities withi
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and 2004 has increased the urban po
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Connecting Internaland Internationa
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it comes to questions of migration
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internal and international migratio
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the larger cities. British ships we
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states. At present, as part of our
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36and one on international migratio
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perspective 3 that gives methodolog
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commercial, industrial and service
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taken place in migration flows. The
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to what was left of the original en
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sought refuge in Lima. It was not p
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husband who sought refuge and work
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that take place between migrants an
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to the flows of goods, resources an
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migration and close to Huancayo) or
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In some cases, families would regul
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Furthermore, the precise compositio
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This suggests that, instead of aimi
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Brynes, D.M.2003 Driving the State:
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1984 Miners, Peasants and Entrepren
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Werbner, P.1990 The Migration Proce
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Genealogy 1: Jiménez Family in 197
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Since the 1990s, there has been a b
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migrant receiving areas, 2 but focu
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well as discussing some of the cons
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carried to Ghana by migrants. 40 pe
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Table 2. Cost (in Euro) of Formal a
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home countries, for example, throug
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These insurance events can constitu
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Having people collect similar data
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people they knew. In fact, some of
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For migration research, this means
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ReferencesAppadurai, A.1996 Moderni
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Glick Schiller, N., and G. Fouron19
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Marcus, G.1995 “Ethnography in/of
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Portes, A., and J. DeWind2004 “A
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Stark, O., and D. Bloom1985 “The
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AppendixTable A.1. Two-country Tran
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initially entails high costs and ri
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To our knowledge, no study has esti
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2.1 Remittances and Income in Rural
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with its neat correspondence to the
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let z > 0 denote the predetermined
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Table 3. Gini Decomposition by Inco
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Table 4b. Gini Decomposition by Inc
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3.2 Effects of Migrant Remittances
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4. ConclusionsOur findings using na
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Knowles, J.C., and R.B. Anker1981
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Taylor, J.E.1992 “Remittances and
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124Table 2. Rural Mexico Household
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Central Region45Percentage of Villa
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128Figure 3. Relationship between P
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7Labor Market Flooding? Migrant Des
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Reibel (1997); David Card (2001); a
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The net immigration rate can be tak
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is S 0. It establishes an equilibri
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consequence a highly elastic supply
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in the populous fourteen states of
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out were both at work in this case
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Figure 7 identifies what we call
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Figure 9. Total Net In-Migration an
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Figure 10. Dynamic Economy ModelFig
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6. ConclusionThe dynamic and open e
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ReferencesAbowd, J.M., and R. Freem
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1999 “Historical perspectives on
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Hatton, T., and J.G. Williamson1998
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White, M.J. and Y. Imai1994 “The
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seasonal basis, to areas with more
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for agricultural labor were 15 and
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3. Why People MoveThe decision to m
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producers are facing heavy losses a
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in Mumbai, which capitalizes on peo
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In conclusion, migration can bring
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is also being experienced in many r
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ReferencesBal Kumar, K.C.2003 “Mi
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Lipton, M.1980 “Migration from ru
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Shylendra, H.S., and P. Thomas1995
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182Able-bodied men.Women migrateonl
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Majority of (ST)Baiga and Ghondsmig
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Single caste villageof (OBC) Dhimar
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9A Socio-Cultural Perspective on Mi
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of households reported having at le
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Drawing on these perspectives, I ar
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migration tend to imitate the behav
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What is presented below is therefor
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ate of exchange and was thus sent t
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which was an important consideratio
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some migrants had started chitties,
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The extended family constituted a c
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much individuals had “locked up i
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edistribution were enforced through
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and the definition of status in eac
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perceived, the status-seeking activ
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Engelbrektsson, U.1978 The force of
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Parry, J. and M. Bloch1989 “Intro
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10Migrant Workers’ Remittances an
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in labor migration emerged after, a
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husband and wife, four daughters an
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(Table 3). In the central and weste
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Table 5. Composition of Rural House
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Figure 3. Rural households’ Net I
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schistosomiasis, etc. This decline
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of them deposit the money in a bank
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to train new rural migrants in the
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Figure 4. Per Capita Temittance in
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ReferencesBai Nansheng et al.2002
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Lu Mai et al.2002 “Zhongguo nongc
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Xinhuanet2002 “Woguo Zhongxibu la
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agriculture (Cook 1999), producing
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evenue (MR) minus the marginal cost
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Before reform, the annual quota of
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Table 2 Regional Distribution of In
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Figure 3. Sources of China’s Econ
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migration are removed, all wage and
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urban-biased policies persisted, pr
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eform. Under the hukou system, Chin
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The institutional barriers faced by
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ecause of the rapid migration of th
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Migrant workers have hardly any opp
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ReferencesAu, Chun-Chung, and Verno
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Lin, Justin, Gewei Wang, and Yaohui
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12International Migration and Devel
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2. BackgroundThe recent rise in int
Page 279 and 280: of remittances: self-employment, a
Page 281 and 282: Given the size of recent emigration
Page 283 and 284: 5. Remittances: An OverviewTable 1
Page 285 and 286: interpret. Some of it may be caused
Page 287 and 288: 8. A Decision to Repatriate MoneyIn
Page 289 and 290: emittances in the year prior to the
Page 291 and 292: fourth one, Xiamen, is in Fujian Pr
Page 293 and 294: ReferencesAdelman, I., J.E. Taylor,
Page 295 and 296: Massey, D.1988 “International mig
Page 297 and 298: AppendixTable 1. Village-Level Remi
Page 299 and 300: Table 4. Logistic Regression Models
Page 305 and 306: 13Remittances in the Latin American
Page 307 and 308: to anti-money laundering and suspic
Page 309 and 310: Finally, mulas may be sporadic trav
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Page 313 and 314: Table 2: Remittances and Key Econom
Page 315 and 316: Source: National Money Transmitters
Page 317 and 318: One way this redistributive effect
Page 319 and 320: Managua reported having a relative
Page 321 and 322: America have a higher rate of havin
Page 323 and 324: Table 9 Frequency of Immigrant Trav
Page 325 and 326: Guyana offers an interesting exampl
Page 327 and 328: In addition to exports of these goo
Page 329: Hemisphere. Figure 7 refers to the
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Page 335 and 336: emittance recipients have a higher
Page 337 and 338: AppendixData Methodology on Pricing
Page 339 and 340: Fagen, P., and M. Bump2005 “Remit
Page 341: 2003 Receptores de remesas en Ecuad
Page 345 and 346: 14A Framework for Linking and Compa
Page 347 and 348: to jobs, savings, and networks that
Page 349 and 350: were expanding. That “flooding”
Page 351 and 352: ural families to repay debts, satis
Page 353 and 354: ut case studies, including that of
Page 355 and 356: would do well to examine how variou
Page 357 and 358: Carter and Sutch challenge the argu
Page 359 and 360: networks combine internal and inter
Page 361 and 362: 4. Policy ImplicationsWhat implicat
Page 363 and 364: government should improve migrant w
Page 365 and 366: challenge for development practitio
Page 367 and 368: community members could help to cla
Page 369: itself). While research and analysi
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