Influence and Implications of Renaissance Humanism in Leonardo
Influence and Implications of Renaissance Humanism in Leonardo
Influence and Implications of Renaissance Humanism in Leonardo
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░ <strong>Influence</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Implications</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Renaissance</strong> <strong>Humanism</strong> 137cial patronage for survival, his experience was different from that <strong>of</strong> artistswho had preceded him. Pr<strong>in</strong>cipally, as opposed to engag<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> vigorous competitionfor limited commissions, his skill ensured that he was able to carefullychoose his patrons; furthermore, his works were among the first to be collected,regardless <strong>of</strong> their content. 12 This was not, however, the case for most<strong>of</strong> his contemporaries; <strong>in</strong>deed, even as late as the sixteenth century, patronswere <strong>of</strong>ten considered the “makers” <strong>of</strong> the work, thus highlight<strong>in</strong>g the directconceptual association between f<strong>in</strong>ance <strong>and</strong> creativity, also evident <strong>in</strong> earlierassociations between patronage <strong>and</strong> a “nobility <strong>of</strong> heart.” 13Perhaps <strong>in</strong> response to this apparent threat, <strong>Leonardo</strong>'s <strong>in</strong>fluential work<strong>of</strong>fers a paradigmatic shift <strong>in</strong> power relations from patron to the artist. His treatisedemonstrates a language <strong>of</strong> process, <strong>in</strong>dicative <strong>of</strong> his emphasis upon theformal, mechanical element <strong>of</strong> the artistic activity, as opposed to its subjectmatter or potential reception. 14 <strong>Leonardo</strong> thus attempts to shift focus from the“false” productive role <strong>of</strong> the patron, to the “true” productivity <strong>of</strong> the artist; assuch, he transfers power from f<strong>in</strong>ance to mechanical praxis. 15 While the <strong>in</strong>dividualartist is the focus <strong>of</strong> <strong>Leonardo</strong>'s analysis, his true concern is the redef<strong>in</strong>ition<strong>of</strong> the artist as a composer <strong>of</strong> form.This crucial shift highlights a significant discrepancy between the idealrealm <strong>of</strong> <strong>Leonardo</strong>'s treatise, <strong>and</strong> social realities for the renaissance artist.Pr<strong>in</strong>cipally, this issue is manifest <strong>in</strong> the unresolved problem <strong>of</strong> the renaissancepatron as “maker” <strong>of</strong> the work, <strong>in</strong> spite <strong>of</strong> <strong>Leonardo</strong>'s alternative proposition<strong>and</strong> apparent resolution.<strong>Leonardo</strong>’s <strong>in</strong>sufficiency <strong>in</strong> justify<strong>in</strong>g the autonomy <strong>of</strong> the artist requirescloser exam<strong>in</strong>ation. As opposed to an explicit dismissal <strong>of</strong> the notion <strong>of</strong> “productivepatronage,” <strong>Leonardo</strong> encourages a “narrow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> focus,” an <strong>in</strong>creasedspecificity which does not exclude, but <strong>in</strong>corporates as difference,such external <strong>in</strong>fluence as a condition<strong>in</strong>g aspect <strong>of</strong> the artistic process. 16 Significantly,the patron is relegated to the “shadows” <strong>of</strong> the artist's workshop.<strong>Leonardo</strong>'s <strong>in</strong>tention, <strong>and</strong> the necessity <strong>of</strong> this apparent exclusion, will bemade clear through an exam<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> artistic techniques which <strong>Leonardo</strong> heldto be the most essential; <strong>in</strong> particular, One-Po<strong>in</strong>t Perspective <strong>and</strong> sfumato.The first artists credited with the pictorial emancipation from medievaltwo-dimensional pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g were the thirteenth century pa<strong>in</strong>ters Giotto <strong>and</strong> Duccio.In particular, Giotto developed a method referred to as "depth by way <strong>of</strong>empathy"; the generation <strong>of</strong> the third-dimension <strong>of</strong> depth from a twodimensionalsurface through the manipulation <strong>of</strong> figures <strong>in</strong> space, rather thanthe manipulation <strong>of</strong> space itself. 17 The illusion <strong>of</strong> depth, loosely referred to as"two-po<strong>in</strong>t perspective,” was achieved by Giotto through the placement <strong>of</strong> objects“slantwise” <strong>in</strong> space, with the result that the previously solid plane appearedto “lose its materiality.” 18
138Chris Bassett░Build<strong>in</strong>g upon the foundation laid by the work <strong>of</strong> Giotto <strong>and</strong> Duccio, theFlorent<strong>in</strong>e architect <strong>and</strong> sculptor Filippo Brunelleschi designed a successfulperspectival method based upon architectural pr<strong>in</strong>ciples. This system, compris<strong>in</strong>g<strong>of</strong> a ground plan <strong>and</strong> a vertical structure, has been attributed toBrunelleschi approximately fifteen years prior to the most famous proponent <strong>of</strong>perspectival design, Leon Battista Alberti. 19Considered to have been <strong>in</strong>fluenced by Brunelleschi's design, Alberti wasthe first artist to document a detailed, mathematical approach to one-po<strong>in</strong>tperspective. 20 Brunelleschi's <strong>in</strong>fluence is apparent <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>corporation <strong>of</strong> thevertical aspect <strong>in</strong>to his pre-designed perspectival tool, a geometrical grid (velum),used by Alberti <strong>in</strong> a workshop. 21 As such, the mature form <strong>of</strong> one-po<strong>in</strong>tperspective featured the convergence <strong>of</strong> all parallel l<strong>in</strong>es <strong>in</strong>to “vanish<strong>in</strong>gpo<strong>in</strong>ts.” 22 All parallels <strong>in</strong>tersect<strong>in</strong>g at right angles (orthogonals) converged at acentral “vanish<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>t,” thus produc<strong>in</strong>g a “horizon” effect. 23An architect by pr<strong>of</strong>ession, though also credited with pa<strong>in</strong>ted works <strong>of</strong>limited quality, Alberti's aim appears to have been to transfer the three dimensionalaspects <strong>of</strong> architecture <strong>and</strong> sculpture <strong>in</strong>to the realm <strong>of</strong> pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g, as part<strong>of</strong> an anticipated historical development which would culm<strong>in</strong>ate <strong>in</strong> a dissolution<strong>of</strong> boundaries between humans <strong>and</strong> div<strong>in</strong>e nature. 24 Geometric perspective,he argued, would permit man to accurately re-produce nature, with theaim <strong>of</strong> eventual transcendence. 25Alberti's apparently hubristic aim <strong>of</strong> transcend<strong>in</strong>g nature through art emphasisesthe radical potential <strong>of</strong> one-po<strong>in</strong>t perspective. A mathematicallygroundedapproach, one-po<strong>in</strong>t perspective permits the artist to apparently “recreate”perspectival vision by scientific means, transcend<strong>in</strong>g merely symbolicpa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g. 26 As such, the artist equipped with this technique effectively threatenedto displace God as creator <strong>of</strong> “reality”; <strong>in</strong>deed, this implication is clear <strong>in</strong>Descartes' reference to the three-dimensionality <strong>of</strong> perspective as a substanceétendue (the implicitly cont<strong>in</strong>uous <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>f<strong>in</strong>ite extension <strong>of</strong> the subject).27 That which secured the centrality <strong>of</strong> God, however, was the twodimensionalnature <strong>of</strong> the canvas, which provided an implicit limit to the creativity<strong>of</strong> humans <strong>in</strong> relation to the Div<strong>in</strong>e. Thus, one-po<strong>in</strong>t perspective rema<strong>in</strong>edthe illusion <strong>of</strong> perspectival vision; as such, it concretely re<strong>in</strong>forced theimpression <strong>of</strong> an ambiguity implicit with<strong>in</strong> the renaissance conception <strong>of</strong> humanitas.The ramifications <strong>of</strong> the development <strong>of</strong> perspective upon the perceivedstatus <strong>of</strong> the artist were evident <strong>in</strong> the contemporary transformation <strong>of</strong> artisticschool<strong>in</strong>g. Euclidean geometry, the foundation <strong>of</strong> Alberti's approach, requireda greater degree <strong>of</strong> mathematical skill than was usually taught at a basiclevel. 28 In pre-<strong>Renaissance</strong> Italy, all children attended the botteghuzza, anearly level school<strong>in</strong>g, after which the more promis<strong>in</strong>g children cont<strong>in</strong>ued to at-
░ <strong>Influence</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Implications</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Renaissance</strong> <strong>Humanism</strong> 139tend Abacus schools, <strong>in</strong> which they were taught basic mathematics <strong>and</strong> geometry,sufficient for merchant occupations. 29 Artist apprenticeships followed,known as bottega, <strong>in</strong> which students would practice <strong>in</strong> a room adjacent to theirmaster. 30The early <strong>Renaissance</strong> period witnessed a significant development <strong>in</strong> artistictutelage. One effect <strong>of</strong> recent changes was an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> artistic freedom,previously limited to the “liberal” arts <strong>of</strong> literature <strong>and</strong> poetry, a transformationevident with<strong>in</strong> the bottega. 31 Of greater significance, however, was thedevelopment <strong>of</strong> a higher level <strong>of</strong> artisanal study, the studium, <strong>in</strong> which highermathematics <strong>and</strong> geometry, as well as perspective <strong>and</strong> foreshadow<strong>in</strong>g, weretaught. 32Thus considered, the <strong>in</strong>ternal realm <strong>of</strong> artistic tutelage reflected the decentralisation<strong>of</strong> the religious realm <strong>in</strong> response to the rise <strong>of</strong> humanism.Whereas pre-renaissance tutelage had focused upon a direct, imitatory relation<strong>of</strong> the student to their master, the <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g centrality <strong>of</strong> the human asthe site <strong>of</strong> knowledge witnessed a movement towards an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g artistic<strong>in</strong>dependence for students. Students were taught not simply to imitate, but toexperiment.III.With his Paragone, <strong>Leonardo</strong> stood at the <strong>in</strong>tersection <strong>of</strong> humanist values,<strong>and</strong> a correspond<strong>in</strong>g rise <strong>in</strong> an empirical, scientific attitude. The foundation<strong>of</strong> <strong>Leonardo</strong>'s position rest upon a belief <strong>in</strong> the positive role <strong>of</strong> human,sensible experience, the epistemic centrality <strong>of</strong> human, analytic thought, <strong>and</strong> arejection <strong>of</strong> the medieval notion <strong>of</strong> div<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong>spiration <strong>in</strong> favor <strong>of</strong> human <strong>in</strong>tuition.Experience was central. <strong>Leonardo</strong> associated the work <strong>of</strong> the artist withthat <strong>of</strong> a scientist; as the scientist engaged <strong>in</strong> experiment, the artist ought tosimilarly engage with the natural world. 33 Experience was thus contrastaga<strong>in</strong>st imag<strong>in</strong>ation, which <strong>Leonardo</strong> held to be the weakest aspect <strong>of</strong> theprocess <strong>of</strong> pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g. 34 This contrast between the sensible <strong>and</strong> the (<strong>in</strong>ferior)ephemeral, as between the known <strong>and</strong> unknown, is fundamental to <strong>Leonardo</strong>'streatise, plac<strong>in</strong>g it securely <strong>in</strong> accordance with the history <strong>of</strong> westernphilosophy s<strong>in</strong>ce Plato, <strong>and</strong> as such re-assert<strong>in</strong>g its humanist character. 35Coupled with experience, <strong>Leonardo</strong> emphasised the centrality <strong>of</strong> the <strong>in</strong>dividualthrough a glorification <strong>of</strong> the visual sense. 36 He described vision as "themost noble sense" recollect<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>and</strong> transcend<strong>in</strong>g, notions <strong>of</strong> a "noble heart";with<strong>in</strong> <strong>Leonardo</strong>'s work, morality gives way to scientific validity. 37 Of pr<strong>in</strong>cipal<strong>in</strong>terest for <strong>Leonardo</strong>, however, was the way <strong>in</strong> which he believed vision wasdirectly translatable <strong>in</strong>to perspectival pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g. He understood visual perceptionas similar <strong>in</strong> function to that <strong>of</strong> a mirror, <strong>in</strong> which the “visual image” was re-
140Chris Bassett░flected onto a plane surface with<strong>in</strong> the eye (the “impressiva”), which was <strong>in</strong>turn apprehended with<strong>in</strong> the imag<strong>in</strong>ation. 38 As such, the m<strong>in</strong>d “possessed” theimage <strong>and</strong>, through the comb<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> mechanical application <strong>and</strong> geometricperspective, translated directly <strong>in</strong>to pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g. Consequently, the image <strong>of</strong> theeye, considered to be “universally <strong>in</strong>telligible,” was also scientifically verifiable.39 Crucially, the path <strong>of</strong> the image from div<strong>in</strong>e nature to canvas was consideredto be un<strong>in</strong>terrupted.Central to <strong>Leonardo</strong>'s conception <strong>of</strong> the nature <strong>of</strong> pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> turn hisunderst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the nature <strong>of</strong> reality, was the notion <strong>of</strong> "harmonic proportionality."40 The foundation <strong>of</strong> this conception was <strong>Leonardo</strong>'s underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g thatthe universe was divided <strong>in</strong>to a multiplicity <strong>of</strong> m<strong>in</strong>ute fragments, travel<strong>in</strong>gthrough space at extraord<strong>in</strong>ary speeds. 41 The apparently solid vision <strong>of</strong> theworld which appears to perception is the result <strong>of</strong> the <strong>in</strong>tersection <strong>of</strong> thesefragments, which appear as "lum<strong>in</strong>ous rays,” form<strong>in</strong>g pyramidal shapes, which<strong>in</strong> turn <strong>in</strong>tersect, form<strong>in</strong>g a multiplicity <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>f<strong>in</strong>itely smaller pyramids. 42With<strong>in</strong> <strong>Leonardo</strong>'s system, the artist “captures” the image <strong>of</strong> the world atthe moment at which the chaotic flux <strong>of</strong> fragments becomes untenable. Assuch, the artist ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>s the momentary harmony <strong>of</strong> the elements, beforedispersal <strong>in</strong>to a myriad <strong>of</strong> other formations; the moment <strong>of</strong> time, considered asthe flux <strong>of</strong> the m<strong>in</strong>ute elements <strong>of</strong> the universe, is held still by the artist. 43With<strong>in</strong> <strong>Leonardo</strong>'s conception <strong>of</strong> the art <strong>of</strong> pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g, the artist holds the image<strong>in</strong>tuitively, <strong>and</strong> presents it upon a two-dimensional surface, <strong>in</strong> the same wayas God views the world: "at a glance." 44However, perspective rema<strong>in</strong>ed ground <strong>in</strong> illusion; build<strong>in</strong>g upon the developments<strong>of</strong> Brunelleschi <strong>and</strong> Alberti, <strong>Leonardo</strong>'s Paragone outl<strong>in</strong>es a system<strong>of</strong> representation by which a two-dimensional surface may appear similarto a three-dimensional image. 45 Whereas Alberti emphasised the significance<strong>of</strong> colour, <strong>Leonardo</strong> <strong>in</strong>sists upon the chiaroscuro effect <strong>of</strong> shadow <strong>and</strong> light,comb<strong>in</strong>ed with perspective, otherwise known as sfumato. Hence, “life” is <strong>in</strong>s<strong>in</strong>uatedthrough perspective – the ma<strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>es <strong>of</strong> bodies, the dim<strong>in</strong>ution <strong>of</strong> colourswith distance, <strong>and</strong> the loss <strong>of</strong> cognition <strong>of</strong> bodies with appropriate distance– <strong>and</strong> is further embodied through the addition <strong>of</strong> shadow <strong>and</strong> light. 46The apparent necessity <strong>of</strong> sfumato <strong>and</strong> perspective <strong>in</strong> themselves confirmthe limitation <strong>of</strong> the two-dimensional surface; although both engage withthe manipulation <strong>and</strong> enhancement <strong>of</strong> bodies <strong>in</strong> apparent space, their purposeis to create the illusion <strong>of</strong> space. <strong>Leonardo</strong>’s use <strong>of</strong> sfumato appears to confirmthat the third dimension rema<strong>in</strong>s beyond the artistic, creative reach <strong>of</strong> thepa<strong>in</strong>ter.Through the “realistic” presentation <strong>of</strong> the comb<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> light <strong>and</strong> shade,<strong>Leonardo</strong>’s development <strong>of</strong> sfumato re<strong>in</strong>forces the dom<strong>in</strong>ant religious perspective,<strong>in</strong> which the <strong>in</strong>dividual is unable to st<strong>and</strong> with<strong>in</strong> the light <strong>of</strong> all knowl-
░ <strong>Influence</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Implications</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Renaissance</strong> <strong>Humanism</strong> 141edge. Yet <strong>Leonardo</strong> goes further, <strong>in</strong>sist<strong>in</strong>g that it is shadow which formallycreates the image. 47 Therefore, areas <strong>of</strong> shadow <strong>and</strong> darkness, spaces whichrema<strong>in</strong> concealed, appear to be <strong>in</strong>dicative <strong>of</strong> the limitation <strong>of</strong> human perspectivebefore the Div<strong>in</strong>e; <strong>and</strong>, by implication, it is the existence <strong>of</strong> this difference,manifest <strong>in</strong> darkness <strong>and</strong> light, which constitutes “reality.” 48This apparent limitation, despite its creative function, appears <strong>in</strong>congruouswhen considered <strong>in</strong> relation to <strong>Leonardo</strong>'s emphasis upon the epistemologicalcentrality <strong>of</strong> the human be<strong>in</strong>g; an argument which lends priority to empiricalperspective, scientific experiment <strong>and</strong> experience. It is necessary to reconsiderthis evaluation <strong>of</strong> sfumato.Throughout <strong>Leonardo</strong>'s major areas <strong>of</strong> focus with<strong>in</strong> the Paragone, thereexists one pr<strong>in</strong>ciple element <strong>in</strong> common: all relate to form or design. This isclear <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> mechanical action <strong>and</strong> geometry; yet it is also evident <strong>in</strong> hisscientific consideration <strong>of</strong> optics, directly connected to mechanical applicationas opposed to the imag<strong>in</strong>ation. Similarly, <strong>in</strong> relation to sfumato, shadow is thatwhich “formally creates.” Sfumato is, therefore, a formal, design element, asmuch as optics or geometry. It is only secondarily “content.”Further, <strong>Leonardo</strong>'s conception <strong>of</strong> vision underm<strong>in</strong>es the significance <strong>of</strong>the imag<strong>in</strong>ation, <strong>in</strong> that it holds the viewed image, effectively stor<strong>in</strong>g it with<strong>in</strong>memory while the artist mechanically transfers it from impressiva to canvas.The process was direct, <strong>and</strong> scientifically repeatable. 49 <strong>Leonardo</strong> argued thatthe pa<strong>in</strong>ter possesses his object, the proportional harmony <strong>of</strong> the world.Whereas Alberti distanced man from the Div<strong>in</strong>e, yet anticipated a closure <strong>of</strong>the divide, <strong>Leonardo</strong> subtly shifts focus from method alone to a comb<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong>speculative biology <strong>and</strong> human, mechanical action; the artist does not <strong>in</strong>vent,but re-constitutes div<strong>in</strong>e nature. 50This suggestion is supported by the text <strong>of</strong> the Paragone, manifestthrough <strong>Leonardo</strong>'s specific avoidance <strong>of</strong> the terms creare <strong>and</strong> creazionewith<strong>in</strong> discussions <strong>of</strong> the relation between the human artist <strong>and</strong> the Div<strong>in</strong>e;rather, <strong>Leonardo</strong> uses as an alternative the more general terms, generare <strong>and</strong>generazione. The implication is clear; the role <strong>of</strong> the artist is not to create, butto formally re-establish div<strong>in</strong>e nature.Sfumato expresses that which is implicit throughout <strong>Leonardo</strong>'s treatise;<strong>in</strong> epistemological terms, it is present with<strong>in</strong> the dist<strong>in</strong>ction between a “knowable”<strong>and</strong> positively verifiable “reality,” <strong>and</strong> an “unknowable,” metaphysicalrealm. The extent <strong>of</strong> human <strong>in</strong>fluence is limited to formal elements, <strong>in</strong> contrastto essential or spiritual realms. In social terms, the dist<strong>in</strong>ction is apparent betweenthe formal mastery <strong>of</strong> technique by the artist, <strong>and</strong> the hidden, condition<strong>in</strong>grole <strong>of</strong> the patron.The Paragone – ostensibly an <strong>in</strong>structive work for artists - thereby revealsthe grow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>of</strong> empricism, as well as a systematicity ground
142Chris Bassett░by its own <strong>in</strong>ternal laws. Those elements which the system alienates –through their existence as oppositions which def<strong>in</strong>e the subject – simultaneouslydef<strong>in</strong>e the text as appropriate to a renaissance underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> humanism.Pan<strong>of</strong>sky writes: "The Humanist rejects authority. But he respects tradition."51 The <strong>in</strong>consistency <strong>of</strong> this statement perhaps best describes <strong>Leonardo</strong>'s“conditional emancipation” <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Renaissance</strong> artist. The rejection <strong>of</strong>authority necessitates a rejection also <strong>of</strong> dom<strong>in</strong>ant tradition; <strong>in</strong> much the sameway, a liberation <strong>of</strong> the artist would require a renunciation <strong>of</strong> traditional roles<strong>and</strong> context. <strong>Leonardo</strong>'s treatise <strong>of</strong>fers a theoretical freedom, pr<strong>in</strong>cipally acelebration <strong>of</strong> technical advances, as opposed to a reconfiguration <strong>of</strong> artisanalroles. Demonstrative <strong>of</strong> the repressive ambiguity with<strong>in</strong> the renaissance conception<strong>of</strong> <strong>Humanism</strong>, <strong>Leonardo</strong>'s text complies with a view <strong>of</strong> the human be<strong>in</strong>gslocated at a po<strong>in</strong>t “<strong>in</strong>-between” the creatively oppositional poles <strong>of</strong> darkness<strong>and</strong> light.Warwick Universitychris.bassett@hotmail.comNOTES1 Michael Bax<strong>and</strong>all, Giotto <strong>and</strong> the Orators: Humanist Observers <strong>of</strong> Pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Italy<strong>and</strong> the Discovery <strong>of</strong> Pictorial Composition 1350-1450 (Oxford: Oxford UP, 1986),p. 1.2 Erw<strong>in</strong> Pan<strong>of</strong>sky, Mean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the Visual Arts (Chicago: Chicago UP, 1982), pp. 2-3.3 Pan<strong>of</strong>sky, Mean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the Visual Arts, p. 3.4 Pan<strong>of</strong>sky, Mean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the Visual Arts, p. 1.5 Brian Kempers, Pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g, Power <strong>and</strong> Patronage: The Rise <strong>of</strong> the Pr<strong>of</strong>essional Artist<strong>in</strong> the Italian <strong>Renaissance</strong>, trans. Beverley Jackson (London: Allen Lane – ThePengu<strong>in</strong> Press, 1992), p. 22.6 Kempers, Pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g, Power <strong>and</strong> Patronage, p. 22.7 John Stephens, The Italian <strong>Renaissance</strong>: The Orig<strong>in</strong>s <strong>of</strong> Intellectual <strong>and</strong> ArtisticChange before the Reformation (London & New York: Longman, 1990), p. 6.8 Stephens, The Italian <strong>Renaissance</strong>, p. 59.9 Stephens, The Italian <strong>Renaissance</strong>, p. 59.10 Stephens, The Italian <strong>Renaissance</strong>, p. 80.11 Kempers, Pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g, Power <strong>and</strong> Patronage, p. 36.12 Andre Chastel, "Introduction,” The Genius <strong>of</strong> <strong>Leonardo</strong> da V<strong>in</strong>ci: <strong>Leonardo</strong> daV<strong>in</strong>ci on Art <strong>and</strong> the Artist, trans. Ellen Callmann (New York: The Orion Press,
░ <strong>Influence</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Implications</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Renaissance</strong> <strong>Humanism</strong> 1431961), p. xi.13 Claire Farago, <strong>Leonardo</strong> da V<strong>in</strong>ci's Paragone: A Critical Interpretation with a NewEdition <strong>of</strong> the Text <strong>in</strong> the Codex Urb<strong>in</strong>as (Leiden, New York, Københarn & Köln: E.J. Brill, 1992), p. 119.14 Farago, <strong>Leonardo</strong> da V<strong>in</strong>ci's Paragone, p. 334.15 Terms <strong>in</strong>dicative <strong>of</strong> value, <strong>in</strong> this case “true” <strong>and</strong> “false,” are appropriate with<strong>in</strong> thiscontext given the systemic structure <strong>of</strong> <strong>Leonardo</strong>'s Paragone. <strong>Leonardo</strong>'s systemwill be further elaborated <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>vestigated with<strong>in</strong> this paper.16 “Process” here<strong>in</strong> refers to a mechanical, socially-ground movement.17 Erw<strong>in</strong> Pan<strong>of</strong>sky, <strong>Renaissance</strong> <strong>and</strong> Renascences <strong>in</strong> Western Art (Stockholm: Almqvist& Wiksell, 1960), p. 119.18 Pan<strong>of</strong>sky, <strong>Renaissance</strong> <strong>and</strong> Renascences <strong>in</strong> Western Art, p. 119.19 Pan<strong>of</strong>sky, <strong>Renaissance</strong> <strong>and</strong> Renascences <strong>in</strong> Western Art, p. 123, f. 2.20 The fact that Alberti was the first to document <strong>and</strong> publish these f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs does not,however, rescue him from criticism. Vasari, <strong>in</strong> particular, cites Alberti as an example<strong>of</strong> the necessity for experience as well as theoretical knowledge relat<strong>in</strong>g to theproduction <strong>of</strong> artworks; while he duly notes that Alberti published widely, he impliesthat the published text implies a mastery not entirely applicable to the author– "such has been the <strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>of</strong> his writ<strong>in</strong>gs on the pens <strong>and</strong> speech <strong>of</strong> scholarlymen that he is commonly believed to be superior to those who were, <strong>in</strong> fact, superiorto him" (Giorgio Vasari, Artists <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Renaissance</strong>, trans. George Bull [London:Alien Lane, 1978], p. 129; cf. also, Pan<strong>of</strong>sky, <strong>Renaissance</strong> <strong>and</strong> Renascences<strong>in</strong> Western Art, p. 126, f. 2; <strong>and</strong>, Cecil Grayson, "Introduction,” On Pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> OnSculpture: The Lat<strong>in</strong> Texts <strong>of</strong> De Pictura <strong>and</strong> De Statua [London: Phaidon, 1972],p. 12).21 Pan<strong>of</strong>sky, <strong>Renaissance</strong> <strong>and</strong> Renascences <strong>in</strong> Western Art, p. 126.22 The use <strong>of</strong> the term “Vanish<strong>in</strong>g Po<strong>in</strong>t,” <strong>in</strong> this context, has been first attributed toVillard de Honnecourt; cf. Pan<strong>of</strong>sky, <strong>Renaissance</strong> <strong>and</strong> Renascences <strong>in</strong> WesternArt, p. 133.23 Erw<strong>in</strong> Pan<strong>of</strong>sky, Early Netherl<strong>and</strong>ish Pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g: Its Orig<strong>in</strong>s <strong>and</strong> Character (Cambridge,MA: Harvard UP, 1953), p. 5.24 Vasari suggests that "<strong>in</strong> pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g Alberti achieved noth<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> any great importanceor beauty" (Vasari, Artists <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Renaissance</strong>, p. 133; see also Grayson, "Introduction,”p. 18).25 Grayson, "Introduction,” pp. 10,15.26 Ground <strong>in</strong> Euclidean geometry, Alberti's treatise was unique <strong>in</strong> its focus upon acontemporary underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> Optics. Cf. Grayson, "Introduction,” p. 12.27 Pan<strong>of</strong>sky, Early Netherl<strong>and</strong>ish Pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g, p. 5.28 Grayson, "Introduction,” p. 12.29 Frances-Anne Ames-Lewis, The Intellectual Life <strong>of</strong> the Early <strong>Renaissance</strong> Artist(New Haven & London: Yale UP, 2000), pp. 30-1.30 Ames-Lewis, The Intellectual Life <strong>of</strong> the Early <strong>Renaissance</strong> Artist, p. 35.
144Chris Bassett░31 Ames-Lewis, The Intellectual Life <strong>of</strong> the Early <strong>Renaissance</strong> Artist, p. 273.32 Ames-Lewis, The Intellectual Life <strong>of</strong> the Early <strong>Renaissance</strong> Artist, p. 57.33 <strong>Leonardo</strong> da V<strong>in</strong>ci, "Parte Prima,” <strong>Leonardo</strong> da V<strong>in</strong>ci's Paragone: A Critical Interpretationwith a New Edition <strong>of</strong> the Text <strong>in</strong> the Codex Urb<strong>in</strong>as. ed. Claire Farago(Leiden, NY, Københarn & Köln: E. J. Brill, 1992), Ch. 14, p. 197.34 Da V<strong>in</strong>ci, "Parte Prima,” Ch. 31, p. 251.35 It would seem clear that <strong>Leonardo</strong> would not have approved <strong>of</strong> the more keenlyradical work <strong>of</strong> Jan van Eyck, whose extension <strong>of</strong> the laws <strong>of</strong> perspective beyondsimple representation, <strong>and</strong> towards radical omniscience, appear to gesture towardslater Idealist philosophy. Van Eyck's approach, ground by the "two <strong>in</strong>f<strong>in</strong>ites"<strong>of</strong> the <strong>in</strong>f<strong>in</strong>itesimally small, <strong>and</strong> the <strong>in</strong>f<strong>in</strong>itely large, simultaneously presented with<strong>in</strong>the s<strong>in</strong>gle work, was achieved through a compositional technique which comprised<strong>of</strong> a seem<strong>in</strong>gly <strong>in</strong>f<strong>in</strong>ite multiplicity <strong>of</strong> details (cf. Pan<strong>of</strong>sky, Early Netherl<strong>and</strong>ishPa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g, p. 181). In this way, Van Eyck presented the vision <strong>of</strong> the artist asthat which appeared to genu<strong>in</strong>ely rival the perspective <strong>of</strong> the Div<strong>in</strong>e.36 Da V<strong>in</strong>ci, "Parte Prima,” Ch. 7, p. 192.37 Notably, the conception <strong>of</strong> vision as the "most noble" sense is characteristic <strong>of</strong>August<strong>in</strong>ian attitudes towards vision (Farago, <strong>Leonardo</strong> da V<strong>in</strong>ci's Paragone, p.292).38 Farago, <strong>Leonardo</strong> da V<strong>in</strong>ci's Paragone, p. 301.39 Da V<strong>in</strong>ci, "Parte Prima,” Ch. 7, p. 187.40 Da V<strong>in</strong>ci, "Parte Prima,” Ch. 15, p. 201 <strong>and</strong> Ch. 32, p. 249.41 Chastel, "Introduction,” p. xvi. See also John White, The Birth <strong>and</strong> Rebirth <strong>of</strong> PictorialSpace (London <strong>and</strong> Boston: Faber & Faber, 1987), p. 213.42 Chastel argues that Alberti held similar views, although there is no support<strong>in</strong>g evidencefor this with<strong>in</strong> On Pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g (Chastel, "Introduction,” p. xvi).43 Chastel, "Introduction,” p. xvi.44 Da V<strong>in</strong>ci, "Parte Prima,” Ch. 14, pp. 197-9.45 Da V<strong>in</strong>ci, "Parte Prima,” Ch. 3, p. 181.46 Da V<strong>in</strong>ci, "Parte Prima,” Ch. 6, p. 185.47 Da V<strong>in</strong>ci, "Parte Prima,” Ch. 5, p. 181.48 Giovanni Maior<strong>in</strong>o, <strong>Leonardo</strong> da V<strong>in</strong>ci: The Daedalian Mythmaker (Pennsylvania:Pennsylvania State UP, 1992), p. 144.49 Subject, however, to the <strong>in</strong>stabilities <strong>of</strong> memory.50 Da V<strong>in</strong>ci, "Parte Prima,” Ch. 14, p. 197.51 Pan<strong>of</strong>sky, Mean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the Visual Arts, p. 3.