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6 Chapter 1 - Risk Management: Preparing for the Unexpectedrepay on time. The penalties for late payment or nonpayment should be transparent, credible, and enforceable—while rewards, such as interest rate rebates for perfect performance, should also be clear.To ensure portfolio quality, the internal control or risk assessment unit should define risks, establish creditlimits and selection criteria, and learn to recognize early signs of trouble. For example, a credit informationsystem can be constructed to identify the characteristics of poor performers and to lower the risk to the MFIover time. This system will promote a sound credit culture.Product riskUsing experiences, demand studies, and other techniques, the MFI management team designs credit, savings,and other financial products. Every design choice, no matter how small, can create additional risks. Key elementsof the design include• Maximum and minimum loan amount• Grace period• Loan maturity• Effective interest rate• Payment schedule (monthly or seasonal payments)• Collateral requirements• Currency of the loanThe wrong product design choices can lead to disaster because they do not match the local culture andlimitations of the MFI’s clients. For example, loans that are too large can lead to overindebtedness. Loans thatare too small can make it difficult for the borrower to meet operational expenses. Moreover, a long grace periodmay increase the risk of loan default, because there is no early indication of the client’s ability or willingnessto repay on time. If long-term loans dominate the portfolio, the MFI could experience a loss in the event of asudden spike in inflation.Lending in a foreign currency can be popular with clients because it allows them to import machinery moreeasily. However, the foreign exchange risk exposure can hurt the MFI’s financial position if the foreign currencystrengthens. In 2001, the Superintendency of Banks in Peru was concerned about the foreign currency mismatchfor the Cajas Municipales de Ahorro y Crédito system. The portfolio—equivalent to 40 percent of foreigncurrency liabilities—left the MFIs vulnerable to a relative appreciation of the dollar. As the MFIs becameaware of the currency risk, they began to monitor their currency exposure and adjusted the asset and liabilitysides of the balance sheet. By 2004, the foreign currency portfolio had reached more than 70 percent of theliabilities in dollars, a more manageable currency match.The MFI may also include the “rules of the game” such as group requirements (meetings), participation intechnical training, or forced savings (also known as compensatory balances). However, the MFI should considereach requirement’s potential impact on the client’s ability to pay and its own financial health. The MFI canreduce the risks by offering loan products designed to reflect the client’s preferences, cashflow profiles andability to repay, and seasonal and other opportunities or risks. For savings, the product can be based on thesaver’s preferences and seasonal excess liquidity holdings. However, if savings and loan products are based onthe cashflow, liquidity, and other needs of the MFI, risks are very likely to increase. For instance, forced savingsrepresent short-term liquidity and a kind of collateral to the MFI. However, forced savings take working capitalout of the microbusiness and can increase the likelihood of late payment or nonpayment.
Managing Risk and Creating Value with Microfinance7Portfolio compositionThe types of loans in the MFI’s portfolio can create or balance the risks inherent in lending money to informalbusinesses. Understanding the risks should lead to adequate loan loss provisions and reserves. Such reservesare a useful mechanism in risk management. For instance, a portfolio consisting of small short-term loans torural borrowers can be sensitive to droughts, crop and animal diseases, floods, and hurricane winds. Urbantransportation strikes, protests, and flooding from heavy rains are examples of urban portfolio risks. Inboth cases, inadequate management of overdue loans can put the MFI at risk.Maintaining adequate loan loss provisions will permit the institution to cover the likely losses. This maintenanceis commonly achieved by building reserves based on the length of time a payment is overdue. For instance, anMFI may set up a reserve equal to 25 percent of loan balances with an overdue payment of 30 to 60 days; 50percent of loan balances with an overdue payment of 61 to 90 days; and 100 percent of those with an overduepayment of more than 90 days. Finally, write-off policies play a complementary role to loan loss provisioningand reserves; a common practice is to write off loans more than 180 days past due.Loan processing and information managementAnother source of risk includes the processes, practices, and information systems used to track the loan portfolio.A management information system tracks individuals, groups, sectors, and branches to identify quickly anythreats to strong portfolio performance. The German microfinance management firm Internationale ProjektConsult GmbH has developed the ProCredit banking system, a standardized management information systemthat provides daily delinquency reports to loan officers. This system emphasizes the importance of timelyfollow-up and rewards loan officers with bonuses based on the performance of their loan portfolio. 4Finally, other internally and externally determined risk factors affect an MFI’s ability to manage the clientdevelopment and loan collection processes. The internally determined risk factors include hiring policies,incentive systems, operating policies and procedures, employee evaluations, management information systemsand reports, asset and liability management, currency management (hedging), and internal controls and audits.External factors are the accessibility and usefulness of credit bureaus, the ease of collateral valuation and recovery(when necessary), competitive pressures, and the availability of insurance for clients. 5Producer RisksThe producer risks that urban microbusinesses represent are largely the result of the businesses’ informaloperations. Microbusinesses usually fail to diversify their sources for key components and raw materials, relyinginstead on a few local suppliers. Because they often work out of home-based workshops, they rarely have formalwarehouses to store raw materials, work in progress, and finished products. Those businesses also rely heavilyin many cases on neighborhood clients, rather than developing long-lasting relationships with institutionalclients. Their scale of operations is very limited, often making it difficult to meet the demands of schools,universities, and hospitals. Many microbusinesses use outdated designs and substandard materials, which limittheir ability to find clients. They can also be affected by general strikes, which paralyze urban markets with little4. See Internationale Projekt Consult GmbH, http://www.ipcgmbh.com/.5. See chapter 4 of this volume for a discussion of microinsurance.
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Eco-AuditEnvironmental Benefits Sta
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