Synthesis of Existing Knowledge and Experience on the Provision of ...
Synthesis of Existing Knowledge and Experience on the Provision of ...
Synthesis of Existing Knowledge and Experience on the Provision of ...
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<str<strong>on</strong>g>Syn<strong>the</strong>sis</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Existing</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Knowledge</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Experience</str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> Provisi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Water Supplies to PastoralCommunities in EthiopiaMagda Nassef with Mulugeta BelayhunVersi<strong>on</strong> 1
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Syn<strong>the</strong>sis</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Existing</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Knowledge</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Experience</str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> Provisi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Water Supplies to PastoralCommunities in EthiopiaMagda Nassef with Mulugeta BelayhunNote to <strong>the</strong> reader:This report is an unedited versi<strong>on</strong> 1.An edited versi<strong>on</strong> (Part I –<str<strong>on</strong>g>Syn<strong>the</strong>sis</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Existing</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Knowledge</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Experience</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> Provisi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>Water Supplies to Pastoral Communities in Ethiopia, Part II: Annexes) will be published shortly <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>be made available <strong>on</strong>www.rippleethiopia.orgDisclaimer:The views presented in this paper are those <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> author <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> do not necessarily represent <strong>the</strong>views <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> RiPPLE, Save <strong>the</strong> Children USA, CARE Ethiopia, UKaid/DFID, or USAID.
TABLE OF CONTENTSLIST OF ACRONYMS................................................................................................................................8EXECUTIVE SUMMARY..........................................................................................................................10Secti<strong>on</strong> 1. Introducti<strong>on</strong> .............................................................................................................................171.1 Introducti<strong>on</strong> .............................................................................................................................171.2 Rati<strong>on</strong>ale <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> purpose <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> report..................................................................................171.3 Scope <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> structure <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> report......................................................................................181.4 Methodology ............................................................................................................................21Secti<strong>on</strong> 2. Overview <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoralism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> development in pastoral regi<strong>on</strong>s up to 1991.............232.1 The mobile pastoral producti<strong>on</strong> system <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> customary natural ....................................resource management ...........................................................................................................232.2 Challenges facing <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoral livelihoods ............................................252.3 Social organizati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> customary l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> water management strategies .............262.4 History <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> ‘external’ water development from <strong>the</strong> 1970s up to 1991 ......................292.5 Changes in thinking.................................................................................................................32Secti<strong>on</strong> 3. Water development today ...................................................................................................353.1 Stakeholders <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> selected interventi<strong>on</strong>s...........................................................................353.1.1 Pastoralists .......................................................................................................... 363.1.2 Government ....................................................................................................... 373.1.2.1. Nati<strong>on</strong>al level actors, policies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> strategies ..............................................373.1.2.2. Regi<strong>on</strong>al level actors <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> policies ..................................................................463.1.2.3. Major Government Programs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Projects ................................................473.1.3 NGOs/Development organizati<strong>on</strong>s .............................................................. 603.1.3.1. Highlighted projects, actors, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> activities ..................................................62Secti<strong>on</strong> 4. Less<strong>on</strong>s learned <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ways forward.....................................................................................694.1 Less<strong>on</strong>s learned .......................................................................................................................694.2 Key observati<strong>on</strong>s in <strong>the</strong> water development sector ......................................................724.2.1 Impacts <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water development....................................................................... 724.2.2 Approaches to water development <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> community engagement......... 754
4.2.3 Water development in <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>text <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> broader natural resource .............management ............................................................................................................................... 784.2.4 Development versus emergency relief......................................................... 794.3 C<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>, ways forward <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> recommendati<strong>on</strong>s..........................................................80REFERENCES ..........................................................................................................................................875
ACKNOWLEDGMENTSI would like to extend my gratitude to <strong>the</strong> many people who have c<strong>on</strong>tributed to this work <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> havegenerously shared <strong>the</strong>ir time, comments <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> feedback.Special thanks to <strong>the</strong> partners who have helped establish <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> facilitate this study, namely <strong>the</strong>Overseas Development Institute (ODI), working through <strong>the</strong> RiPPLE Programme in Ethiopia fundedby UKaid from <strong>the</strong> Department for Internati<strong>on</strong>al Development, CARE Ethiopia, working through <strong>the</strong>Howard G. Buffet Foundati<strong>on</strong> funded Global Water Initiative, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Save <strong>the</strong> Children USA (SC-US)working through <strong>the</strong> USAID funded Enhanced Livelihoods in Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ethiopia/Enhanced Livelihoodsin <strong>the</strong> M<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>era Triangle (ELSE/ELMT) Program.I would particularly like to thank Eva Ludi, Research Fellow at ODI, L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>, Alan Nicol, formerDirector <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> ODI’s RiPPLE Program in Ethiopia, Adrian Cullis, Director <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> Food <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> LivelihoodsProgramme, as well as <strong>the</strong> rest <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> team at SC-US Ethiopia including <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> especially Fi<strong>on</strong>a Flintan,Regi<strong>on</strong>al NRM Technical Advisor for <strong>the</strong> ELSE/ELMT Program <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Coordinator for <strong>the</strong> NRMTechnical Working Group in Addis Ababa, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Charles Hopkins, Pastoral Program Manager forCARE Ethiopia, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> rest <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> team at CARE. I would also like to specially thank <strong>the</strong> staff <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ODI’s RiPPLE Programme in Addis Ababa <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Awassa, who have greatly facilitated <strong>the</strong> in-countrywork c<strong>on</strong>ducted in Ethiopia. Special thanks also go to <strong>the</strong> following people for being especiallygenerous with <strong>the</strong>ir time <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> expertise: Gijs Van’t Klooster, Internati<strong>on</strong>al C<strong>on</strong>sultant <strong>on</strong> Livestockissues, Emergency <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> Coordinati<strong>on</strong> Office, Food <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Agriculture Organizati<strong>on</strong> (FAO)Ethiopia, Feyera Abdi, Executive Director <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> SOS Sahel Ethiopia, Ayele GebreMariam, C<strong>on</strong>sultant forAfri C<strong>on</strong>sult in Addis Ababa, Fesseha Tekele, Director for Somali Regi<strong>on</strong>, Equitable DevelopmentDirectorate at <strong>the</strong> Ministry <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Federal Affairs (MoFA), Belayhun Hailu, Senior Officer, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Knowledge</str<strong>on</strong>g>Management <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Participatory Learning Unit <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> PCDP Program, MoFA, Abebe Wolde, DeputyCommissi<strong>on</strong>er, Oromia Pastoralist Development Commissi<strong>on</strong> (OPDC), Taye Alemayehu, DeputyGeneral Manager, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> rest <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> team at <strong>the</strong> Oromia Water Works Design <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Supervisi<strong>on</strong>Enterprise, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Marco Bassi, Research Officer, African Studies Centre, University <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Oxford, U.K.Special thanks also go to David Murphy, Country Director, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> team at <strong>the</strong> Internati<strong>on</strong>al RescueCommittee (IRC) for <strong>the</strong>ir inputs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> for going out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong>ir way to generate maps <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> graphs, based<strong>on</strong> in-house field assessments, especially for use in this review. Also to <strong>the</strong> GIS team at UN-OCHAfor generating a recent map <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> NGOs involved in <strong>the</strong> water sector in pastoral regi<strong>on</strong>s, again forspecific use in this review.I would also like to thank John Graham, Senior Policy Advisor, Dubale Admasu, Pastoralist <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>Livestock Programs Coordinator, Mohamed Abdinoor, Technical Advisor for <strong>the</strong> Pastoral <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>Livestock Programs, Leulseged Belay, Program Management Specialist, Belay Demissie <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> rest <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>the</strong> team at USAID Ethiopia, Jane Strachan, Disaster Operati<strong>on</strong>s Specialist, Office <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> U.S. ForeignDisaster Assistance (OFDA), Tim M<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>er, Manager <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> Humanitarian Resp<strong>on</strong>se Fund (HRF)Ethiopia, Lorraine Coulter, FEG C<strong>on</strong>sulting, Tilahun Amede, Scientist, Livestock Water <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> NutrientProductivity, Jan de Leeuw, Ecologist <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Project Leader, Vulnerability <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sustainability in (Agro)Pastoral Systems, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Getachew Gebru at <strong>the</strong> Internati<strong>on</strong>al Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) inEthiopia <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kenya, Biruk Asfaw, NRM Technical Advisor, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Abomsa Kebede, SC-US Ethiopia,W<strong>on</strong>du Fisseha <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Fasil Demeke, CARE Ethiopia, Tezera Getahun, Executive Director, PastoralistForum Ethiopia (PFE), Shanko Desta, Director for Afar Regi<strong>on</strong>, Equitable Development Directorate,MoFA, Beruk Yemane, Nati<strong>on</strong>al Pastoral Programme Coordinator, Oxfam GB Ethiopia, YusufAhmed, Country Representative, Islamic Relief Ethiopia, Yoseph Negassa, Director, Acti<strong>on</strong> forDevelopment (AFD), Italo Rizzi, Regi<strong>on</strong>al Policy Advisor, Lay Volunteers Internati<strong>on</strong>al Associati<strong>on</strong>(LVIA) Ethiopia, Tibebu Koji, Water Program Officer, Oxfam US Ethiopia, Abdida’ad Ibrahim,Executive Director, Pastoralist C<strong>on</strong>cern Associati<strong>on</strong> Ethiopia (PCAE), Fekadu Abate, OromiaPastoral Associati<strong>on</strong>, Kaidaki Gezahegn, Bureau Head, SNPPR Pastoral Affairs Bureau, Mitiku Bedru,Bureau Head, SNNPR Water Bureau, Yitbarek Tessema, Senior Water <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sanitati<strong>on</strong> Specialist, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>Assaye Legesse, Senior Agricultural Ec<strong>on</strong>omist, World Bank Ethiopia, <strong>the</strong> team at <strong>the</strong> Gudina Tumsa6
Foundati<strong>on</strong> Ethiopia, Tarekegn Tola, Assistant for Regi<strong>on</strong>al Drought Decisi<strong>on</strong>, FAO Ethiopia,W<strong>on</strong>dirad M<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>efro, Director, Agricultural Extensi<strong>on</strong> Directorate, Mesfin Berhanu, Coordinator for<strong>the</strong> Emerging Regi<strong>on</strong>s Development Coordinati<strong>on</strong> Office, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sileshi Getahun Hailu, Director,Natural Resources Management Directorate, Ministry <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Agriculture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rural Development(MoARD) Ethiopia, Tafessa Mesfin, independent c<strong>on</strong>sultant, Zewdu Tefesse, Department Head <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>the</strong> Water Development Works Affirmative Support Coordinati<strong>on</strong> Department, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Tefari Menkir,Ministry <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Water Resources (MoWR) Ethiopia, Eyasu Elias, independent c<strong>on</strong>sultant, AschalewSidelil, RiPPLE Program, Awassa, Wolfgang Bayer <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ann Waters-Bayer, independent c<strong>on</strong>sultants,Johan Hell<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, Senior Researcher at <strong>the</strong> Chr. Michelsen Institute, Norway, Ced Hesse, PrincipalResearcher for <strong>the</strong> Climate Change Group, Internati<strong>on</strong>al Institute for Envir<strong>on</strong>ment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>Development (IIED), L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Gareth Potts, ODI intern, L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>.7
LIST OF ACRONYMSACDI/VOCAACFAFDCDDCOOPICRSDADCADFIDELSE/ELMTEPRDFEUFAOFICGL-CRSP PARIMAGWIHRFIDPIIEDILRIIRCIWRMLDCLVIAMoARDMDGMoFAMoFEDAgricultural Cooperative Development Internati<strong>on</strong>al/ Volunteers inOverseas Cooperative AssistanceActi<strong>on</strong> C<strong>on</strong>tre La FaimeActi<strong>on</strong> for DevelopmentCommunity Driven DevelopmentCooperazi<strong>on</strong>e ItalianaCatholic Relief ServicesDevelopment AgentDanChurchAidDepartment for Internati<strong>on</strong>al DevelopmentEnhanced Livelihoods in Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ethiopia/Enhanced Livelihoods in<strong>the</strong> M<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>era TriangleEthiopian People’s Revoluti<strong>on</strong>ary Democratic Fr<strong>on</strong>tEuropean Uni<strong>on</strong>Food <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Agriculture Organizati<strong>on</strong>Feinstein Internati<strong>on</strong>al CentreGlobal Livestock Collaborative Research Support Program under<strong>the</strong> Pastoral Risk Management projectThe Global Water InitiativeHumanitarian Resp<strong>on</strong>se FundIrrigati<strong>on</strong> Development ProgramInternati<strong>on</strong>al Institute for Envir<strong>on</strong>ment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> DevelopmentInternati<strong>on</strong>al Livestock Research InstituteInternati<strong>on</strong>al Rescue CommitteeIntegrated Water Resource ManagementLocal Development CommitteeLay Volunteers Internati<strong>on</strong>al Associati<strong>on</strong>Ministry <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Agriculture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rural DevelopmentMillennium Development GoalMinistry <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Federal AffairsMinistry <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Finance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ec<strong>on</strong>omic Development8
MSTMoWROFDAOPDCPAPADDPASDEPPCAEPCDPPLAPLIPRAPRSPPSNPPSNP-PAPRDDRDPRDPSSC-UKSNNPRUAPUNDPWSDPWSSDPWSSPWUAVSFMobile Support TeamsMinistry <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Water ResourcesOffice <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> U.S. Foreign Disaster AssistanceOromia Pastoral Development Commissi<strong>on</strong>Peasant Associati<strong>on</strong>Pastoral Areas Development DepartmentPlan for Accelerated <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sustained Development to End PovertyPastoralist C<strong>on</strong>cern Associati<strong>on</strong> Ethiopia’sPastoral Community Development ProjectParticipatory Learning <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Acti<strong>on</strong>Pastoral Livelihood InitiativeParticipatory Rural AppraisalPoverty Reducti<strong>on</strong> Strategy PaperProductive Safety Net ProgramProductive Safety Net Program Pastoral Areas PilotRegi<strong>on</strong>al Drought Decisi<strong>on</strong>Rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s Development ProjectRural Development Policies, Strategies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> InstrumentsSave <strong>the</strong> Children UKSou<strong>the</strong>rn Nati<strong>on</strong>s, Nati<strong>on</strong>alities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Peoples’ Regi<strong>on</strong>Universal Access ProgramUnited Nati<strong>on</strong>s Development ProgramWater Sector Development ProgramWater Supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sanitati<strong>on</strong> Development ProgramWater Supply, Sanitati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Hygiene ProgramWater Users’ Associati<strong>on</strong>Vétérinaires Sans Fr<strong>on</strong>tières9
EXECUTIVE SUMMARYWater development has <strong>the</strong> potential to bring lasting change in <strong>the</strong> l<strong>on</strong>g term – both positive <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>negative. In Ethiopia’s arid areas, where pastoralism is <strong>the</strong> dominant livelihood, practical fieldexperience over <strong>the</strong> last forty years indicates that water point development divorced from an indepthunderst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoral livelihoods can compromise sustainable development in <strong>the</strong> l<strong>on</strong>gterm despite stemming water shortages in <strong>the</strong> short term.To date, no broad overview exists <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water development in Ethiopia’s pastoral regi<strong>on</strong>s. This reportaims to fill this gap <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> presents a syn<strong>the</strong>sis <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> experience over <strong>the</strong> last forty years in <strong>the</strong> waterdevelopment sector in <strong>the</strong> country’s pastoral regi<strong>on</strong>s. The purpose <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> this report is to first <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>foremost inform <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> improve <strong>the</strong> quality <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> project partners’ 1 work. It is also hoped that thissyn<strong>the</strong>sis usefully informs <strong>the</strong> water development sector more broadly.The report presents an overview <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> past <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> current approaches to water development, who isinvolved, where, how, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> whe<strong>the</strong>r less<strong>on</strong>s have been learned <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> approaches changed over time –all within <strong>the</strong> framework <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> nati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> regi<strong>on</strong>al policies, plans, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> strategies. It essentiallyexamines <strong>the</strong> work d<strong>on</strong>e by <strong>the</strong> partners <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> o<strong>the</strong>r actors, as well as takes a close look at policiesrelevant to water development in pastoral areas. The report also aims to identify opportunities <strong>on</strong>which to build which can enhance <strong>the</strong> positive effects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water development for lives <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> livelihoods.It is recognized that pastoralists are not simply recipients <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> development, but are drivers <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> change<strong>the</strong>mselves, as attested to by <strong>the</strong> complex Borana well systems in sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ethiopia <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong>pastoralist-led introducti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> birkado 2 to <strong>the</strong> Somali regi<strong>on</strong> in <strong>the</strong> 1960s. Pastoral water pointc<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> significantly predates <strong>the</strong> involvement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> state <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> o<strong>the</strong>r actors. Customary watermanagement practices were (<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> still are) tailored to a mobile livelihood system, which itself is aresp<strong>on</strong>se to <strong>the</strong> requirements <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> dryl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> envir<strong>on</strong>ments where climate is highly variable in time <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>space. Pastoralists use water management as a means to manage <strong>the</strong> wider rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, aware thataccess to <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> availability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water affects who <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how many have access to surrounding pasture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>grazing areas. At <strong>the</strong> same time, some pastoralist-led water developments have been shown tohinder pastoral livelihoods. The negative c<strong>on</strong>sequences <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> birkado for rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> health <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoralmobility were observed when people began to permanently settle in wet seas<strong>on</strong> grazing areas, using<strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s year-round in areas formerly allowed to rest <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> regenerate for parts <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> year.The c<strong>on</strong>centrati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> livestock in limited areas also made herds more vulnerable to disease. Theseimpacts have today been recognized in some areas by pastoralists <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> o<strong>the</strong>rs (notably somedevelopment organizati<strong>on</strong>s), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoral communities have begun to take active first steps toaddress <strong>the</strong> problems by putting in place binding customary agreements. In o<strong>the</strong>r parts, birkadoc<strong>on</strong>tinue to be a popular feature <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> water development opti<strong>on</strong>s list.From <strong>the</strong> 1970s, especially after severe drought in 1973, pastoral regi<strong>on</strong>s became a focus <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>attenti<strong>on</strong> for government as well as nati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> internati<strong>on</strong>al development <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> humanitarianagencies. Soluti<strong>on</strong>s to water shortages at <strong>the</strong> time were technocratically driven <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> top down, withlittle participati<strong>on</strong> from <strong>the</strong> grassroots. Interventi<strong>on</strong>s aimed to settle pastoralists – to ‘bring order’ to<strong>the</strong>ir way <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> life which was seen as backward <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> outmoded. There was little underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ing thatmobility is a sophisticated resp<strong>on</strong>se to <strong>the</strong> unique characteristics <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> dryl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> envir<strong>on</strong>ments, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> is1 The partners are <strong>the</strong> RiPPLE Programme, funded by UKaid from <strong>the</strong> Department for Internati<strong>on</strong>alDevelopment through ODI, SC-US working through <strong>the</strong> USAID funded Enhanced Livelihoods in Sou<strong>the</strong>rnEthiopia/Enhanced Livelihoods in <strong>the</strong> M<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>era Triangle (ELSE/ELMT) programme, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> CARE Ethiopia, working through <strong>the</strong>Howard G. Buffet Foundati<strong>on</strong> funded Global Water Initiative.2 Cement lined underground cisterns.10
central to ensuring that <strong>the</strong> pastoral livelihood remains sustainable in an envir<strong>on</strong>ment where o<strong>the</strong>rsedentary l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> uses have failed.In turn, early water developments were inserted into pastoral areas with little underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>pastoral l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use dynamics <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> logic behind <strong>the</strong>ir natural resource management strategies. Earlywater interventi<strong>on</strong>s thus c<strong>on</strong>tributed to <strong>the</strong> erosi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> traditi<strong>on</strong>al water management systems <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tol<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> degradati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flict. The c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> large p<strong>on</strong>ds, for example, made water availableyear-round, encouraging permanent settlement <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> year-round grazing in areas which werepreviously <strong>on</strong>ly seas<strong>on</strong>ally used to allow pasture to regenerate. Overgrazing <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> erosi<strong>on</strong> werefrequently observed around <strong>the</strong>se water points, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> increasingly sedentary herds amplified <strong>the</strong>incidence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> human <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> livestock health problems. Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, water points were owned <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>managed by local administrati<strong>on</strong> which <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten lacked sufficient manpower, know-how <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> capacity toeffectively perform this role. This resulted in poorly c<strong>on</strong>trolled access <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> poor maintenance. Inturn, disused <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> damaged water points proliferated <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> violent c<strong>on</strong>flict sometimes arose atgrassroots level over access <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>trol. C<strong>on</strong>flict sometimes also occurred where waterdevelopment was politically motivated or where practiti<strong>on</strong>ers c<strong>on</strong>structed water points with littleunderst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> local social, cultural, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> political dynamics (see figure).Shifts in thinking regarding water development in pastoral areas are now emerging as a result <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>less<strong>on</strong>s learned over <strong>the</strong> last forty years. These shifts have been observed in practice in a number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>government, d<strong>on</strong>or <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> development organizati<strong>on</strong> projects <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> programs. However, <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> whole,translati<strong>on</strong> into acti<strong>on</strong> is still rare. These changes never<strong>the</strong>less represent isl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> hope <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> shouldbe widely shared <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> built up<strong>on</strong> to enhance <strong>the</strong> positive effects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water development. Thesechanges include:• Increased awareness that water points can alter patterns <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> resource use to <strong>the</strong> detriment <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> quality <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> livelihoods. This has prompted practiti<strong>on</strong>ers to attempt a better11
underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> existing natural resource base in a locati<strong>on</strong> (water <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pasture) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how<strong>the</strong>se resources are customarily used prior to developing new water points.• Increased recogniti<strong>on</strong> that pastoral livelihoods are influenced by internal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> external social,cultural <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> political aspects which <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten differ from those in sedentary highl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> communities.These aspects should be properly understood to help ensure appropriate water development.• Increased recogniti<strong>on</strong> that pastoralists have an important role to play in <strong>the</strong> water developmentprocess, especially given <strong>the</strong>ir detailed knowledge <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s. Pastoralists can helpplanners underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> available resources, human-resource dynamics, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> development needs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>priorities at ground level. More emphasis is <strong>the</strong>refore placed <strong>on</strong> grassroots participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>approaches are evolving from end users simply expressing dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> for water <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> being taskedwith <strong>the</strong> operati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> maintenance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water points planned <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> implemented by outsiders, toencouraging a more participatory approach to planning, c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> management.• Increased awareness that water development must be coupled with addressing o<strong>the</strong>rdevelopment needs in <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s to reduce vulnerability <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> overcome poverty. Thisincludes improving marketing opportunities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> channels for livestock, veterinary services, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> health/c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, am<strong>on</strong>g o<strong>the</strong>r needs.• Increased recogniti<strong>on</strong> that <strong>the</strong> ‘s<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>tware’ comp<strong>on</strong>ent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> any water development is as importantas <strong>the</strong> physical infrastructure. Therefore focus <strong>on</strong> planning, management <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sustainability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>water points is increasing to ensure that <strong>the</strong>y are appropriate to <strong>the</strong> local c<strong>on</strong>text, that <strong>the</strong>yeffectively serve <strong>the</strong> needs <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> different users, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that <strong>the</strong>y remain functi<strong>on</strong>al.• Increased emphasis <strong>on</strong> rehabilitating existing water points to avoid <strong>the</strong> risks associated with newdevelopments, especially when project durati<strong>on</strong> is short (for example in emergency reliefinterventi<strong>on</strong>s).• Increased emphasis <strong>on</strong> linking emergency relief interventi<strong>on</strong>s to l<strong>on</strong>ger-term developmentobjectives, to better adhere to <strong>the</strong> ‘do no harm’ principle.• Increased emphasis <strong>on</strong> promoting community buy-in to water development (ei<strong>the</strong>r by requiringan in-cash or in-kind c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> by communities) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> selecting simpler water pointtechnologies which are familiar at <strong>the</strong> local level, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> whose parts are easily obtainable. There isalso increasing focus am<strong>on</strong>g practiti<strong>on</strong>ers <strong>on</strong> training local artisans to c<strong>on</strong>struct <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> maintainwater points to build a cadre <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> local expertise <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> decrease dependency <strong>on</strong> external support.• Increased emphasis <strong>on</strong> promoting partnerships <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> collaborati<strong>on</strong>. Partnerships <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dialoguebetween different stakeholders are beginning to emerge indicating cross-fertilizati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> ideas <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>approaches to development in <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s (e.g. USAID’s Pastoral Livelihoods Initiative <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>the</strong> CARE-led Global Water Initiative).Despite <strong>the</strong>se shifts, much that occurs in <strong>the</strong> water development arena c<strong>on</strong>tinues to follow businessas usual based <strong>on</strong> water delivery approaches designed for sedentary communities. Al<strong>on</strong>g ac<strong>on</strong>tinuum <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> practice ranging from a technocratic approach with generic methods <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> promotingparticipati<strong>on</strong> (which are <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten <strong>on</strong>ly symbolic) to highly participatory approaches which are specific toparticular localities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> socio-political settings, <strong>the</strong> technocratic approach still predominates. Wateris <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten developed in isolati<strong>on</strong> from broader natural resource management even though it isrecognized as a key resource. It is also frequently developed without due attenti<strong>on</strong> to o<strong>the</strong>r criticaldevelopment needs such as access to markets, health services for people <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> livestock, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>educati<strong>on</strong>.Policies related to development in arid areas play a major role in shaping water developmentstrategies, plans, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> practice. The current policy setting (see <strong>the</strong> 2008 draft policy statement for <strong>the</strong>sustainable development <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoral <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> agro-pastoral areas <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ethiopia) paints a c<strong>on</strong>flicting <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>12
c<strong>on</strong>fusing picture <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> how sustainable development is to be achieved in <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s. In <strong>the</strong> shortterm, nati<strong>on</strong>al policy aims to support customary pastoral producti<strong>on</strong> systems. But in <strong>the</strong> l<strong>on</strong>g term,nati<strong>on</strong>al policy focuses <strong>on</strong> ‘voluntarily’ settling pastoralists by providing livelihood diversificati<strong>on</strong>opportunities most notably fixed <strong>on</strong> irrigated agriculture. This may encourage ra<strong>the</strong>r than reduce <strong>the</strong>sedentarizing effects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water schemes. The l<strong>on</strong>g-term policy visi<strong>on</strong> for pastoral areas is influencedby <strong>the</strong> belief that pastoralism cannot survive in its current, mobile form. Widespread thinking am<strong>on</strong>gdecisi<strong>on</strong> makers is that increased populati<strong>on</strong> (which has trebled over <strong>the</strong> last forty years <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>c<strong>on</strong>tinues to rise), poverty, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> competiti<strong>on</strong> over natural resources, coupled with reduced quality<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> increased incidence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> climatic shocks renders <strong>the</strong> pastoral systemincapable <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> surviving in its current form. However, <strong>the</strong> significant ec<strong>on</strong>omic c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>pastoralism to nati<strong>on</strong>al ec<strong>on</strong>omies is today much better known, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> healthy ec<strong>on</strong>omicperformance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> pastoral producti<strong>on</strong> system in some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> harshest l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>scapes in <strong>the</strong> countryattests to its value, despite <strong>the</strong> challenges faced. For example, it was shown that pastoralismc<strong>on</strong>sistently outperforms sedentary ranching to a significant degree in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> meat producti<strong>on</strong>,generating energy or providing cash, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> yields a higher return per hectare <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> than ranching(IIED <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> SOS Sahel, 2010). The livestock sector is also <strong>the</strong> sec<strong>on</strong>d largest foreign exchange earnerafter c<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>fee, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> in 2006 <strong>the</strong> country earned $121 milli<strong>on</strong> from livestock <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> livestock relatedproducts (ibid). The direct value <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoralism is estimated to be 1.68 billi<strong>on</strong> USD per annum (SOSSahel Ethiopia 2008), which excludes <strong>the</strong> substantial un<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ficial trade in livestock <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> livestockproducts that is not reflected in this figure. In Somali regi<strong>on</strong>, for example, <strong>the</strong> value <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> un<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ficialcross-border trade in livestock <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> related products is said to be 3-6 times that <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ficial figuresfor <strong>the</strong> whole country (Scott-Villiers, 2006). Studies have shown that service delivery in pastoralareas which is tailored for sedentary populati<strong>on</strong>s c<strong>on</strong>strains mobility – a central strategy whichensures <strong>the</strong> viability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> this producti<strong>on</strong> system – affecting productivity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> reducing ec<strong>on</strong>omicperformance. Why service delivery which encourages sedentarizati<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tinues unabated <strong>the</strong>reforedeserves fur<strong>the</strong>r analysis, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> clarifying ways forward at <strong>the</strong> policy level in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> what c<strong>on</strong>stitutessustainable development in arid areas is <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> critical importance with important implicati<strong>on</strong>s for waterdevelopment. It is recognized that today’s realities in many <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> country’s arid areas cannot beignored, including <strong>the</strong> fact that populati<strong>on</strong> is increasing, that people require diverse livelihoodopportunities which may lie outside pastoral producti<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that highl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> populati<strong>on</strong>s are beingresettled to <strong>the</strong> lowl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> will require livelihood opti<strong>on</strong>s. However, <strong>the</strong> multiple needs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>priorities in <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s must be acknowledged, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> all opti<strong>on</strong>s fully <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> fairly explored(importantly including pastoral producti<strong>on</strong> 3 ) to enhance nati<strong>on</strong>al ec<strong>on</strong>omic growth <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ensuresustainable livelihoods.Ambitious government targets for water supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> expansi<strong>on</strong> also influence waterdevelopment practice. Pressure to meet targets could see c<strong>on</strong>tinued emphasis <strong>on</strong> hardwarec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> at <strong>the</strong> expense <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> buy-in from <strong>the</strong> grassroots <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> also at <strong>the</strong> expense<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> embedding local capacity to operate, manage, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> maintain water schemes. These aspects may fallby <strong>the</strong> wayside unless actively prioritized. This is not helped by observati<strong>on</strong>s at field level whichindicate that much more attenti<strong>on</strong> is given to reporting outputs at <strong>the</strong> expense <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> quality oreffectiveness, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> very little is d<strong>on</strong>e in <strong>the</strong> way <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> measuring impact <strong>on</strong> livelihoods. Failure to focus<strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> s<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>tware aspect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water interventi<strong>on</strong>s could decrease <strong>the</strong> likelihood that water schemes willbe locally suitable <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sustainable. Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, persistent incoherence in approach to waterdevelopment am<strong>on</strong>g actors, ranging from NGOs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> development organizati<strong>on</strong>s to governmentagencies, in additi<strong>on</strong> to weak linkages between <strong>the</strong>m, creates an envir<strong>on</strong>ment where it is easy forinappropriate water development to go unchecked. This lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> coherence is recognized by allactors as an impediment to sustainable development in <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> moves are being made toimprove dialogue between <strong>the</strong> various stakeholders.3 For example, <strong>the</strong> Oromia regi<strong>on</strong>al government’s prominent Oromia Growth Corridors Plan has declaredthat a large porti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoral l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> in Oromia should be maintained as rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> should not be c<strong>on</strong>vertedfor agriculture.13
Agreed up<strong>on</strong> guidelines for water development in pastoral areas do not exist in Ethiopia. This als<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>rustrates moves towards streamlining practice across <strong>the</strong> water development sector. However,<strong>the</strong>re are a number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> existing guidelines <strong>on</strong> water, participatory mapping <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flict sensitiveplanning 4 . These may prove useful as a foundati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> which to build a broadly applicable set <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>guidelines for water development for productive use, which are versatile enough to allow c<strong>on</strong>textspecific planning in pastoral rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s. These guidelines could <strong>the</strong>n be mainstreamed into practicethrough <strong>the</strong> multiple existing coordinati<strong>on</strong> groups c<strong>on</strong>cerned with development <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> developmentorientedemergency relief in pastoral areas. Doing so could redress <strong>the</strong> fact that <strong>the</strong>re are currentlyno specific coordinati<strong>on</strong> efforts <strong>on</strong> water for productive use in <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> in turn nocoherence across agencies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> no comm<strong>on</strong> set <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> indicators <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> success.Despite l<strong>on</strong>ger-term developments beginning to emphasize s<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>tware aspects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> design, such projects<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> programs are dwarfed in number by <strong>the</strong> more widespread short-term emergency relief projects.The short term nature <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> emergency relief compels implementing agencies to address watershortages <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> meet targets at <strong>the</strong> expense <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> appropriate planning <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ensuring sustainability, whichrequires much more time. The need to streng<strong>the</strong>n linkages <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> improve complementarities betweenhumanitarian <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> development approaches <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> activities is recognized, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong>re is interest am<strong>on</strong>ghumanitarian d<strong>on</strong>ors to improve <strong>the</strong> effectiveness <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> emergency interventi<strong>on</strong>s by tapping into <strong>the</strong>experience <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> development programs. For example, using impact assessments from developmentoriented programs is being explored to help gauge <strong>the</strong> impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> emergency relief interventi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong>livelihoods. Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, an emerging trend observed in <strong>the</strong> last 10 years is <strong>the</strong> introducti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> al<strong>on</strong>ger term livelihoods approach to humanitarian interventi<strong>on</strong>s in some programs. There are also anumber <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cases <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> NGOs using <strong>the</strong>ir experience with communities in a humanitarian relief c<strong>on</strong>textas an entry point for l<strong>on</strong>ger term development.Earlier-menti<strong>on</strong>ed shifts in thinking generally represent what practiti<strong>on</strong>ers in Ethiopia c<strong>on</strong>sider goodpractice in <strong>the</strong> water development arena. But as menti<strong>on</strong>ed, very little is d<strong>on</strong>e in <strong>the</strong> way <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>measuring impact <strong>on</strong> livelihoods. Using impact assessments can help guide practiti<strong>on</strong>ers towardsusing evidence based ‘best practice,’ <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> can help <strong>the</strong>m better navigate evolving livelihood <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>natural resource c<strong>on</strong>texts as each additi<strong>on</strong>al generati<strong>on</strong> puts fur<strong>the</strong>r dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> existing resources.Water development can potentially undermine ra<strong>the</strong>r than promote development in pastoral regi<strong>on</strong>sif local needs, l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use patterns, livelihood systems, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ecological functi<strong>on</strong>s (<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> relati<strong>on</strong>shipbetween <strong>the</strong>m) are not sufficiently understood <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>sidered. A fragmented approach to waterdevelopment also c<strong>on</strong>tributes to entrenching bad practice. The following table outlines comm<strong>on</strong>practice, potential outcomes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> recommendati<strong>on</strong>s:4 These include <strong>the</strong> Ministry <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Water Resources’ Implementati<strong>on</strong> Guidelines for Water Supply, Sanitati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>Hygiene Projects in Pastoral Areas (2006), <strong>the</strong> Ministry <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Agriculture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rural Development’s Nati<strong>on</strong>alGuidelines for Livestock Relief Interventi<strong>on</strong>s in Pastoralist Areas <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ethiopia (2008), <strong>the</strong> internati<strong>on</strong>al LivestockEmergency Guidelines <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> St<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ards (2009), <strong>the</strong> internati<strong>on</strong>al humanitarian Sphere guidelines which include asecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> water, sanitati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> hygiene, Catholic Relief Services’ Guidelines for <strong>the</strong> Development <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Small-Scale Rural Water Supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sanitati<strong>on</strong> Projects in East Africa (2005), <strong>the</strong> SC-US <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ELSE/ELMT TechnicalWorking Group led introductory volume <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> guidelines <strong>on</strong> participatory rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> management (forthcoming,2010), <strong>the</strong> guidelines <strong>on</strong> participatory resource mapping developed independently by <strong>the</strong> government’sProductive Safety Net Program <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> USAID’s Pastoral Livelihoods Initiative, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> CARE’s Guidelines for C<strong>on</strong>flictSensitive Programming (2008).14
Comm<strong>on</strong> PracticeDevelop water points based <strong>on</strong> technological <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> geomorphological c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>s to meetimmediate water shortages <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>.Potential OutcomesDem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> for water met, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> human lives <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>livelihoods protected.Unforeseen negative c<strong>on</strong>sequences despitewell-intenti<strong>on</strong>ed development includingrangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> degradati<strong>on</strong>, c<strong>on</strong>flict, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>increased vulnerability (for example,increased incidence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> disease due to highc<strong>on</strong>centrati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> livestock for protractedperiods <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> time).Recommendati<strong>on</strong>s • As ‘good’ <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> poor’ practice in relati<strong>on</strong> to impact <strong>on</strong> livelihoods is hardly measured ordocumented, promote <strong>the</strong> use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> impact assessments such as those used underUSAID’s PLI program to measure <strong>the</strong> impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water developments <strong>on</strong> livelihoods<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> learn from documented ‘good’ <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ‘poor’ experiences. This is currently a majorgap in practice <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> applies across <strong>the</strong> board from development <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> humanitarianagencies to local NGOs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> government.• Thoroughly underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> local social, envir<strong>on</strong>mental, ec<strong>on</strong>omic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> political c<strong>on</strong>textto inform planning.• Develop comm<strong>on</strong> guidelines for water development in <strong>the</strong> pastoral c<strong>on</strong>text, flexibleenough to allow for c<strong>on</strong>text specific planning. Streamline <strong>the</strong> use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong>se guidelinesthrough existing coordinati<strong>on</strong> fora dealing with development <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> emergencyinterventi<strong>on</strong>s in pastoral regi<strong>on</strong>s.• Ensure that water is developed as part <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a participatory rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> developmentsystem/process, with a prerequisite in-depth analysis <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> broader political, instituti<strong>on</strong>al<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> funding priorities to inform this process.• Promote effective participati<strong>on</strong> through <strong>the</strong> involvement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> recognized instituti<strong>on</strong>s orgroups representative <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> local communities. These groups or instituti<strong>on</strong>s may exist(customary instituti<strong>on</strong>s, water user associati<strong>on</strong>s, pastoral associati<strong>on</strong>s) or may stillneed to be established. For example, customary instituti<strong>on</strong>s may not represent alllivelihood groups in a given area (Muir, 2007), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten do not represent <strong>the</strong> needs<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> views <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> women, while water user associati<strong>on</strong>s may not sufficiently representpastoral needs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>cerns <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> generally do not incorporate or build up<strong>on</strong> existingnatural resource management strategies. Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, existing instituti<strong>on</strong>s haveevolved with time, including traditi<strong>on</strong>al pastoral instituti<strong>on</strong>s. This change must beacknowledged <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> nature <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> change carefully documented to help identifyinstituti<strong>on</strong>al strengths <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> weaknesses, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to establish modalities <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> engagement with<strong>the</strong>se instituti<strong>on</strong>s. To date, <strong>the</strong> role <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> customary instituti<strong>on</strong>s is poorly researched inEthiopia <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> development practiti<strong>on</strong>ers <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten view <strong>the</strong>se instituti<strong>on</strong>s as fossilizedentities retaining a set <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> characteristics described in historical texts. This is no l<strong>on</strong>ger<strong>the</strong> case, as pastoral customary instituti<strong>on</strong>s have changed with time in resp<strong>on</strong>se tochanging circumstances. Establishing new groups or adjusting <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>figurati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>existing groups may thus become necessary.• Simultaneously address o<strong>the</strong>r development needs in <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s besides <strong>the</strong> needfor water (e.g. human <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> livestock health <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> access to markets) to effectivelyaddress vulnerability <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> poverty l<strong>on</strong>g-term.15
• Make better use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> existing research to inform water development planning <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> promote knowledge sharing between practiti<strong>on</strong>ers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> projects.This can be d<strong>on</strong>e through establishing learning <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> practice alliances.• Create an enabling envir<strong>on</strong>ment where local groups representative <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water users in agiven area have <strong>the</strong> capacity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> authority to c<strong>on</strong>struct, operate, manage, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> maintainwater points, effectively making <strong>the</strong>m implementers ra<strong>the</strong>r than merely recipients <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>development.• Promote <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>sortium approach to water development am<strong>on</strong>g development <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>humanitarian practiti<strong>on</strong>ers. This approach can help harm<strong>on</strong>ize activities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> has beenviewed favourably by agencies in <strong>the</strong> water development sector in Ethiopia.Alternatively, link development <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> humanitarian practiti<strong>on</strong>ers to existing (orpotential) technical working groups that h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>le water issues, such as <strong>the</strong> NaturalResources Management Technical Working Group.16
Secti<strong>on</strong> 1. Introducti<strong>on</strong>1.1 Introducti<strong>on</strong>Water scarcity is a perennial challenge in Ethiopia’s pastoral regi<strong>on</strong>s. For centuries, pastoralists havedeveloped <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> managed water resources, harvesting rainwater, managing access to rivers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>groundwater-fed permanent water sources. Forty years ago, n<strong>on</strong>-pastoral actors – namelygovernment, d<strong>on</strong>ors, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> development organizati<strong>on</strong>s – have joined in <strong>the</strong> effort, especially following<strong>the</strong> major drought in 1973, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> have become active participants in <strong>the</strong> water development arena in<strong>the</strong>se regi<strong>on</strong>s ever since.As much as water development can help address water deficits in <strong>the</strong> short term, it is increasinglyrecognized that it has <strong>the</strong> potential to bring lasting change in <strong>the</strong> l<strong>on</strong>g term – both positive <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>negative. For example, h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dug wells al<strong>on</strong>g rivers give communities much needed access to cleanwater, while oversized p<strong>on</strong>ds encourage sedentarizati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> overc<strong>on</strong>centrati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> people <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>livestock in potentially fragile l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>scapes. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Experience</str<strong>on</strong>g> over <strong>the</strong> last forty years indicates that waterdevelopment divorced from an in-depth underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoral livelihoods, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> unique l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>use <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> customary natural resource management strategies central to <strong>the</strong>se livelihoods, cancompromise development 5 in pastoral regi<strong>on</strong>s. Having said this, it is recognized that pastoralists arenot simply recipients <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> development, but are also drivers <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> change <strong>the</strong>mselves. Waterdevelopments in Somali regi<strong>on</strong> are a case in point, where <strong>the</strong> proliferati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> birkado 6 was originallyinstigated by Somali pastoralists in <strong>the</strong> 1960s. The negative c<strong>on</strong>sequences <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> birkado for rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>health <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mobile pastoral livelihoods have today been recognized by pastoralists <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> developmentpartners <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> steps taken at community level to begin to address <strong>the</strong>se negative aspects (Gomes,2006) in some parts <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> country. In o<strong>the</strong>r parts, birkado c<strong>on</strong>tinue to dominate <strong>the</strong> waterdevelopment opti<strong>on</strong>s list am<strong>on</strong>g development agencies.This paper looks at experience in <strong>the</strong> water development arena in pastoral regi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ethiopia over<strong>the</strong> last forty years; ever since development organizati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> government began taking an activeinterest in <strong>the</strong> dryl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s. It presents an overview <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> past <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> current approaches to waterdevelopment by different actors to determine how thinking may have changed over time. It also aimsto identify opportunities <strong>on</strong> which to build, which can enhance <strong>the</strong> positive effects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> waterdevelopment for lives <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> livelihoods.1.2 Rati<strong>on</strong>ale <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> purpose <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> reportAware <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> broad strategy documents to guide implementers in <strong>the</strong> pastoral areas <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>Ethiopia, a group <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> interested partners came toge<strong>the</strong>r to prepare a syn<strong>the</strong>sis <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> current policy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>practice specifically focused <strong>on</strong> water development to identify <strong>the</strong> less<strong>on</strong>s learned to-date. Thesepartners included <strong>the</strong> RiPPLE Programme, funded by UKaid from <strong>the</strong> Department for Internati<strong>on</strong>alDevelopment DFID through <strong>the</strong> Overseas Development Institute (ODI), Save <strong>the</strong> Children/US (SC-US) working through <strong>the</strong> USAID funded Enhanced Livelihoods in Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ethiopia/EnhancedLivelihoods in <strong>the</strong> M<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>era Triangle (ELSE/ELMT) programme, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> CARE Ethiopia, working through<strong>the</strong> Howard G. Buffet Foundati<strong>on</strong> funded Global Water Initiative. The partners intend for this report5 ‘Development’ here is meant as per Amartya Sen’s definiti<strong>on</strong>; a model which goes bey<strong>on</strong>d fulfilling basic physical <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>m<strong>on</strong>etary needs – freedom from poverty – to include exp<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ing people’s freedom to do <strong>the</strong> best for <strong>the</strong>mselves <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong>irsocieties – freedom to take beneficial acti<strong>on</strong> (as described in UN OCHA Pastoralist Communicati<strong>on</strong> Initiative’s ‘The Future<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pastoralism’, 2007).6 Cement lined underground cisterns.17
to inform <strong>the</strong>ir own work <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> help <strong>the</strong>m implement higher quality water development interventi<strong>on</strong>sin pastoralist areas <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> with pastoralist communities in future.It is hoped that in additi<strong>on</strong> to facilitating learning am<strong>on</strong>gst <strong>the</strong> partners that <strong>the</strong> findings will alsoinform o<strong>the</strong>r actors engaged in water development in pastoral areas, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> perhaps encourageincreased reflecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> current approaches <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> practice leading to more appropriate, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> it isbelieved ‘successful 7 ’, water development in pastoral areas.The research informing this overview was not restricted to a review <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> partners own work, butalso mapped out <strong>the</strong> bigger picture <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> who is involved, where, how, whe<strong>the</strong>r <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how approaches towater development have changed over <strong>the</strong> last few decades, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> what some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> current majorinterventi<strong>on</strong>s are – all within <strong>the</strong> framework <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> nati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> regi<strong>on</strong>al policies, plans, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> strategies. Italso explores <strong>the</strong> level <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> coordinati<strong>on</strong> between different actors in <strong>the</strong> field, whe<strong>the</strong>r activities build<strong>on</strong> existing pastoral natural resource management know-how, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> less<strong>on</strong>s learned from previouswater development interventi<strong>on</strong>s.Based <strong>on</strong> an extensive review <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> published <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> unpublished documents, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> over fifty in-depthinterviews with development practiti<strong>on</strong>ers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> representatives <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> government <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> d<strong>on</strong>or agenciesengaged in water development in pastoral regi<strong>on</strong>s, this report also highlights ‘good’ <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> poor’practice as identified by interviewees. For <strong>the</strong> purposes <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> this report, ‘good’ <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ‘poor’ practice ispresented as: 1) approaches that are unanimously seen to work in <strong>the</strong> pastoral c<strong>on</strong>text, 2)approaches that are seen as problematic, 3) approaches which appear promising but where morefield level research <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> documentati<strong>on</strong> is likely to be necessary.1.3 Scope <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> structure <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> reportThe partners specifically restricted <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> this report to a discussi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water developmentfor livestock use (<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> human use 8 ) in arid areas where livestock keeping is <strong>the</strong> dominant livelihood,<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> where agricultural producti<strong>on</strong> is limited due to insufficient <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> unreliable rainfall. Therefore <strong>the</strong>main thrust <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> this report is <strong>on</strong> water development for human <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> livestock use in regi<strong>on</strong>spredominantly inhabited by pastoralists (ra<strong>the</strong>r than agro-pastoralists or farmers). The areas coveredare those regi<strong>on</strong>s or areas where absolute rainfall is low. These areas generally occupy <strong>the</strong> lowl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>areas <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> country. Regi<strong>on</strong>s included in this review include Afar, Somali, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> arid z<strong>on</strong>es <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>Oromia <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Nati<strong>on</strong>s, Nati<strong>on</strong>alities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Peoples’ Regi<strong>on</strong> (SNNPR) (See Figures 1 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2).It was not within <strong>the</strong> scope <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> this report to include informati<strong>on</strong> from o<strong>the</strong>r pastoralist areas such asparts <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Gambella, Benishangul-Gumuz <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Tigray.Figure 1: Rainfall distributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> elevati<strong>on</strong> maps, Ethiopia.7 Meant here as developments which will address water shortages <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> meet <strong>the</strong> dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> for water withoutencouraging c<strong>on</strong>flict, <strong>the</strong> degradati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> weakening <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>-dependent livelihoods.8 Since water for human use is also generally water for livestock use in pastoral regi<strong>on</strong>s.18
Source: UN-OCHA Map Centre 99 http://ocha<strong>on</strong>line.un.org/MapCentre/ReferenceMaps/tabid/2953/language/en-US/Default.aspx19
Within pastoral areas, it is recognized that l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use patterns are changing in line with governmentintenti<strong>on</strong>s to diversify pastoral livelihoods by introducing <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> exp<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ing medium <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> large scaleirrigati<strong>on</strong> schemes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> promoting agro-pastoralism (Box 1). Yet it is bey<strong>on</strong>d <strong>the</strong> scope <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> this paperto give a detailed analysis <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic ramificati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> agricultural expansi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> resultingBox 1: Promoting irrigated agricultureIn <strong>the</strong> last 50 years, as per 2003 estimates, nearly 50-60,000 ha <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> key dry seas<strong>on</strong> grazing areas have been developedfor irrigated agriculture al<strong>on</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Awash River. In Somali regi<strong>on</strong>, <strong>the</strong> Gode irrigati<strong>on</strong> scheme is in place with27,000 ha earmarked for irrigati<strong>on</strong> expansi<strong>on</strong>. In South Omo in SNNPR, large-scale commercial irrigati<strong>on</strong> schemesare planned which may also result in <strong>the</strong> loss <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> key grazing l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s. Estimates in 2003 indicate that about 1.9 milli<strong>on</strong>hectares have been excised from <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s for crop producti<strong>on</strong>, (Yemane, 2003) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> today this figure isundoubtedly higher as irrigati<strong>on</strong> expansi<strong>on</strong> is a c<strong>on</strong>tinued pursuit in Ethiopia’s pastoral regi<strong>on</strong>s.sedentarizati<strong>on</strong>. It is acknowledged, however, that <strong>the</strong> expansi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> is a c<strong>on</strong>tentious issuein pastoral areas given <strong>the</strong> central importance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> resource access for pastoral livelihoods,with many voices for <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> against it. Several authors argue that regardless <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>its to be hadfrom farming, “<strong>the</strong> ec<strong>on</strong>omic losses <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social costs <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> declining pastoral producti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten outweighit” (UN OCHA Pastoralist Communicati<strong>on</strong> Initiative, 2007; 8). But to do justice to <strong>the</strong> topic <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>water use for irrigati<strong>on</strong> in <strong>the</strong> Ethiopian c<strong>on</strong>text, a separate undertaking is recommended tounderst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how <strong>the</strong> expansi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigated agriculture will enhance or h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>icap local livelihoods. Italso deserves a detailed ec<strong>on</strong>omic analysis to determine whe<strong>the</strong>r it is more pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>itable as well asbeneficial for <strong>the</strong> state <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> for local people, to develop l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> for irrigati<strong>on</strong>, to maintain <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> improverangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s for pastoral livestock producti<strong>on</strong>, or to explore a combinati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> two. Despite <strong>the</strong>fact that this report does not go into detail regarding <strong>the</strong> implicati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> agricultural expansi<strong>on</strong> inpastoral regi<strong>on</strong>s, it is recommended that development in <strong>the</strong>se regi<strong>on</strong>s should not be looked at inisolati<strong>on</strong> from development plans for <strong>the</strong> rest <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> country, since <strong>the</strong> lowl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s play a c<strong>on</strong>siderablerole in government plans to reduce populati<strong>on</strong> pressure <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> poverty in <strong>the</strong> highl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s. Fur<strong>the</strong>rstudies exploring <strong>the</strong> relati<strong>on</strong>ship between development in <strong>the</strong> highl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> development in <strong>the</strong>lowl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, <strong>the</strong> synergies (or lack <strong>the</strong>re<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>) between <strong>the</strong> two, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> implicati<strong>on</strong>s for pastoral <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> n<strong>on</strong>pastorallivelihoods are <strong>the</strong>refore recommended.Given <strong>the</strong> limited timeframe for this study, it was not possible to capture <strong>the</strong> complete range <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>current water development experience. This report <strong>the</strong>refore presents a selecti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> highlights,based <strong>on</strong> what practiti<strong>on</strong>ers put forward as ‘good’ practice, ra<strong>the</strong>r than a comprehensive list <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> allwater development activities in <strong>the</strong> country’s pastoral regi<strong>on</strong>s. Highlighted approaches <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> practiceare project or area specific, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> are <strong>the</strong>refore not meant to serve as general blueprints. Ra<strong>the</strong>r, <strong>the</strong>yshould be taken as inspirati<strong>on</strong> for potential ways forward <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> are meant to promote dialogue <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>debate around issues related to water. Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, <strong>the</strong> author acknowledges that <strong>the</strong>re are o<strong>the</strong>rexamples <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> ‘good’ practice which may not have been captured in this overview, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that this doesnot detract from <strong>the</strong> value <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> o<strong>the</strong>r experience which may have been missed in this report.A note <strong>on</strong> terminologyThe terms ‘capacity building’, ‘participati<strong>on</strong>’ <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ‘community’, am<strong>on</strong>g o<strong>the</strong>r terminology, <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten appearin reports dealing with development in pastoral rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s. Yet frequently <strong>the</strong>se terms lackclarificati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> what exactly is meant by <strong>the</strong>m. Even <strong>the</strong> term ‘development’ has differentinterpretati<strong>on</strong>s. As this report is not based <strong>on</strong> primary research but ra<strong>the</strong>r aggregates <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> analyses<strong>the</strong> experience <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> o<strong>the</strong>rs, it is difficult to present an exact meaning for some terminology unless anexplanati<strong>on</strong> has been provided by <strong>the</strong> pers<strong>on</strong> interviewed or by <strong>the</strong> literature c<strong>on</strong>sulted. Whereclarificati<strong>on</strong>s are given, <strong>the</strong>se will be provided. O<strong>the</strong>rwise, it is acknowledged that a lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>arddefiniti<strong>on</strong>s presents some blind-spots in what can be understood under <strong>the</strong> different policies, plans,strategies, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> programs highlighted.20
This report is structured in 4 secti<strong>on</strong>s. Secti<strong>on</strong> 1 provides an overall introducti<strong>on</strong> to <strong>the</strong> report.Secti<strong>on</strong> 2 presents an overview <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoralism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> its challenges in Ethiopia. It outlines traditi<strong>on</strong>alnatural resource management strategies (primarily related to water), highlights how pastoralism isperceived by different actors, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> provides a history <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water development <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> natural resourcemanagement in <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s up until 1991, when <strong>the</strong> current government came to power. Secti<strong>on</strong>3 provides an overview <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water development since 1991, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> includes an overview <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> nati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>regi<strong>on</strong>al level policies which guide <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> influence development in <strong>the</strong> country in general <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> in <strong>the</strong>regi<strong>on</strong>s in particular. It also provides an overview <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> stakeholders <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how <strong>the</strong>y are involved <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> aselecti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> major programs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> projects associated with <strong>the</strong> different actors. Secti<strong>on</strong> 4 providesless<strong>on</strong>s learned <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> key observati<strong>on</strong>s in <strong>the</strong> water development sector as well as potential waysforward <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> recommendati<strong>on</strong>s. The final secti<strong>on</strong> also presents an example set <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> guidelines –essentially an amalgamati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> existing guidelines – which could serve as a starting point <strong>on</strong> which tobuild to establish comm<strong>on</strong> guidelines for water development in <strong>the</strong> pastoral c<strong>on</strong>text.1.4 MethodologyThe data for this work was collected over a 2 m<strong>on</strong>th period primarily in Addis Ababa with visits toSNNPR, Somali <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Afar regi<strong>on</strong>s. One-<strong>on</strong>-<strong>on</strong>e semi-structured interviews were c<strong>on</strong>ducted with overfifty representatives from nati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> regi<strong>on</strong>al government, development organizati<strong>on</strong>s, d<strong>on</strong>ors,research instituti<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoral associati<strong>on</strong>s. An extensive review <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> published <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> unpublisheddocuments was also c<strong>on</strong>ducted. An Ethiopian c<strong>on</strong>sultant was brought <strong>on</strong> board to focus <strong>on</strong>interviews <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> documentati<strong>on</strong> review in Somali <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Afar regi<strong>on</strong>s to determine whe<strong>the</strong>r feedback atregi<strong>on</strong>al level corroborates findings at federal level. Data, viewpoints, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> documentati<strong>on</strong> were alsoobtained through email communicati<strong>on</strong>s with several internati<strong>on</strong>al experts with expertise in pastoraldevelopment.The semi-structured interviews used were designed to allow an underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>:• Current projects, plans, programs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> strategies, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> rati<strong>on</strong>ale behind selectedapproaches to water development in pastoral areas.• Percepti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> what is happening in <strong>the</strong> water development sector more broadly <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> whatsome <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> strengths <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> weaknesses are.• Past interventi<strong>on</strong>s (over <strong>the</strong> last 40 years - since <strong>the</strong> start <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> government, d<strong>on</strong>or <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> NGOinvolvement in Ethiopia’s dryl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> influence <strong>the</strong>se have had <strong>on</strong> shaping approachesover <strong>the</strong> last 10 years.• The policy setting in <strong>the</strong> past <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> today <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how this influences development in pastoralregi<strong>on</strong>s.• Whe<strong>the</strong>r existing customary natural resource management practices are understood,c<strong>on</strong>sidered in planning <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> built up<strong>on</strong> as part <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> organizati<strong>on</strong>’s/entity’s approach.• What different actors – including <strong>the</strong> partners – c<strong>on</strong>sider good <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> bad practice, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> why.• Some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> knowledge gaps.• Planned interventi<strong>on</strong>s in pastoral regi<strong>on</strong>s.Literature was also collected from experts <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> practiti<strong>on</strong>ers in <strong>the</strong> field or from resource centres inAddis Ababa <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> elsewhere. Material collected <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> reviewed includes: 1) documents which describegovernment, d<strong>on</strong>or, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> development organizati<strong>on</strong>s’ plans, programs, policies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> projects inpastoral regi<strong>on</strong>s, 2) research <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> academic literature related to pastoralism, customary naturalresource management strategies, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> development interventi<strong>on</strong>s in <strong>the</strong> pastoral c<strong>on</strong>text, 3) greyliterature which may be unpublished or not widely available related to specific projects (evaluati<strong>on</strong>s<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> assessment reports), policies, plans <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> guidelines, project newsletters, unpublished scholarlywriting, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> o<strong>the</strong>r similar literature.21
Secti<strong>on</strong> 2. Overview <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoralism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> development in pastoralregi<strong>on</strong>s up to 19912.1 The mobile pastoral producti<strong>on</strong> system <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> customary natural resourcemanagementTable 1: Pastoralist <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> agro-pastoralist populati<strong>on</strong>s in selected regi<strong>on</strong>sSources: FDRE, 2007; PCDP II, 2008; Oromia Water Works Design <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Supervisi<strong>on</strong> Enterprise,2009.Regi<strong>on</strong> Populati<strong>on</strong> Pastoral Agro-pastoralAfar 1.4 milli<strong>on</strong> 1.26 milli<strong>on</strong> 0.14 milli<strong>on</strong>Somali 4.4 milli<strong>on</strong> 3.74 milli<strong>on</strong> 0.66 milli<strong>on</strong> (includeso<strong>the</strong>r livelihood groups)Oromia 27 milli<strong>on</strong> 4.32 milli<strong>on</strong>Pastoral producti<strong>on</strong> remains <strong>the</strong> dominant l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use in Ethiopia’s lowl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, which occur below 1500melevati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>stitute between 54% <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 61% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> country’s surface area (Coppock, 1994;Oromia Water Works Design <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Supervisi<strong>on</strong> Enterprise, 2009). Of <strong>the</strong> estimated 1.4 milli<strong>on</strong>people in Afar regi<strong>on</strong>, 90% are pastoralists 10 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 10% agro-pastoralists 11 while <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Somali regi<strong>on</strong>’s 4.4milli<strong>on</strong> people, 85% are pastoralists, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> remainder a combinati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> agro-pastoralists, farmers<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> urban dwellers (FDRE, 2007; PCDP II, 2008). Pastoralists also represent a significant proporti<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> populati<strong>on</strong> in Oromia <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> SNNPR’s arid lowl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s (PCDP II, 2008). To date, agriculturalproducti<strong>on</strong> is limited in many <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> country’s pastoral regi<strong>on</strong>s. In Afar, <strong>on</strong>ly about 0.3% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> totall<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> area is used for crop farming <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> in Somali, 5.5% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> total l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> area is used for mostly rainfed agriculture, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 0.2% for irrigati<strong>on</strong> (Ibid). However, crop producti<strong>on</strong> is becoming morewidespread in some parts. About 40% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Oromia regi<strong>on</strong> is c<strong>on</strong>sidered pastoral, where most <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cover c<strong>on</strong>stitutes rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> about 5% is under cultivati<strong>on</strong> (Oromia Water Works Design<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Supervisi<strong>on</strong> Enterprise, 2009). In parts <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> this regi<strong>on</strong>, however, where changing l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use ispredominant, a study has shown that in <strong>the</strong> late 1990s 16.3% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> total l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> area <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> study sitewas set aside for crop producti<strong>on</strong>, up from <strong>on</strong>ly 1.4% in 1986 (McCarthy et al, 2001). The extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> enclosed for grazing has also grown al<strong>on</strong>gside, with an additi<strong>on</strong>al 3.67% enclosed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> privatized,indicating recent changes in property rights dynamics in some areas (ibid). Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, whereas 30years ago <strong>on</strong>ly 10% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> study sample c<strong>on</strong>tained households who practiced cultivati<strong>on</strong>, by <strong>the</strong> late1990s about 80% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> sample included households engaged in crop producti<strong>on</strong> (ibid).10 C<strong>on</strong>sistently defined in various literature as people who obtain more than 50% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong>ir income fromlivestock <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> livestock products. Pastoralists also characteristically practice mobility to avoid risk, resp<strong>on</strong>d tovariable climatic c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ensure healthy livestock <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s.11 C<strong>on</strong>sistently defined as people who obtain less than 50% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong>ir income from livestock <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> livestockproducts, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> most <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> remaining income from cultivati<strong>on</strong>. Mobility is practiced but to a more limitedextent as compared to pastoralists.23
Despite <strong>the</strong>se localized changes, pastoral livestockproducti<strong>on</strong> remains <strong>the</strong> dominant l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use acrosspastoral regi<strong>on</strong>s. It also c<strong>on</strong>tributes significantly to<strong>the</strong> nati<strong>on</strong>al ec<strong>on</strong>omy. The livestock sector is <strong>the</strong>sec<strong>on</strong>d largest foreign exchange earner afterc<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>fee, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> in 2006 <strong>the</strong> country earned $121milli<strong>on</strong> from livestock <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> livestock relatedproducts (IIED <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> SOS Sahel, 2010). Pastorallivestock producti<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tributes about 30% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>GNP <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 90% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> hard currency generatedfrom live animal exports (Kassahun, 2003 inKassahun et al, 2008). The direct value <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>pastoralism is estimated to be 1.22 billi<strong>on</strong> USDper annum. In additi<strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong>re are a large number<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> indirect ec<strong>on</strong>omic values (including draughtpower, manure, tourism, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> productssuch as gums <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> resins) which are estimated toexceed 458 milli<strong>on</strong> USD, leading to a total <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> atleast 1.68 billi<strong>on</strong> USD per annum (SOS SahelEthiopia 2008). Still this is very likely anunderestimati<strong>on</strong> as many <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ficial livestock salesfigures do not reflect reality. For example, <strong>the</strong>actual value <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cross-border livestock sales inSomali regi<strong>on</strong> is said to be 3-6 times that <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ficial figures for <strong>the</strong> whole country (Scott-Villiers, 2006).Figure 2: Formal governance structure inEthiopiaPasture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> water are essential for pastorallivestock producti<strong>on</strong>. Pastoralists depend <strong>on</strong> mobility to make use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> regi<strong>on</strong>s’ extensive rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s,where presence/absence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pasture is dictated by scarce <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> variable rainfall. Water, <strong>the</strong>refore, plays acritical role in pastoral decisi<strong>on</strong>-making <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> influences how <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> when pastoralists move. In <strong>the</strong> rainyseas<strong>on</strong>, pastoralists disperse over wide areas with <strong>the</strong>ir herds, making <strong>the</strong> most <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastures revitalized<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> made accessible by rainfall <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> surface water p<strong>on</strong>ds. In <strong>the</strong> dry seas<strong>on</strong>, pastoralists move to grazingareas around permanent water sources such as rivers or groundwater-fed wells. The seas<strong>on</strong>almovement between wet <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dry seas<strong>on</strong> grazing areas, organized through customary instituti<strong>on</strong>s, allowspasture to recover ensuring that <strong>the</strong> pastoral producti<strong>on</strong> system remains sustainable. Dry seas<strong>on</strong>grazing areas, in particular, are critical to <strong>the</strong> survival <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> pastoral producti<strong>on</strong> system, without which<strong>the</strong> system would collapse. These areas are also generally near water bodies, which is <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten whereirrigati<strong>on</strong> areas are earmarked.Pastoralists have for centuries translated scarce <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> variable resources into a thriving producti<strong>on</strong>system, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> as menti<strong>on</strong>ed above, have developed specialized management strategies based <strong>on</strong> mobilityto do so. Besides supporting livestock producti<strong>on</strong>, pastoral natural resource management strategiesare also recognized to c<strong>on</strong>tribute to maintaining rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> health. Extensive grazing opens up pasture,stimulates vegetati<strong>on</strong> growth, fertilizes <strong>the</strong> soil, aids in seeds dispersal to maintain pasture diversity,prevents bush encroachment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> enhances <strong>the</strong> cycling <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> nutrients through <strong>the</strong> ecosystem (Thebaud,2004, in Hesse <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> MacGregor, 2006). In fact, much more pasture degradati<strong>on</strong> is apparent in areasaround permanent settlements than in open rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s where mobile pastoralism c<strong>on</strong>tinues to bepracticed (Niamir Fuller, 1999).Communal l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tenure accommodates pastoralists’ need to be mobile. Groups are <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten associatedwith specific territories which c<strong>on</strong>tain critical natural resources such as grazing l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> waterresources, but boundaries between <strong>the</strong>se territories as well as membership within <strong>the</strong>m is <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten illdefinedor ‘fuzzy’ to accommodate for mobility between <strong>the</strong>m in times <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> scarcity (Mwangi <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>24
Dohrn, 2006). Spatially variable rainfall means that <strong>the</strong> locati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rainy seas<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dry seas<strong>on</strong>pastures may vary from year to year (Hell<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 1980: 60). To accommodate for this variability, accessfrom rain poor to rain rich territories is ei<strong>the</strong>r allowed or negotiated (if <strong>the</strong> visiting herders areunrelated) between neighbouring groups. This type <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> arrangement helps pastoralists deal withclimatic variability, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> reciprocity – a key feature <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoral systems – is expected when <strong>the</strong> tablesare turned (Beyene <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Korf, 2008). Therefore movement between territories is based <strong>on</strong>negotiati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> reciprocity, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> traditi<strong>on</strong>al instituti<strong>on</strong>s are in place to represent different clans orgroups in decisi<strong>on</strong>-making regarding access to l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> water (Thébault, 1995 in Gomes, 2006).Communal tenure cannot <strong>the</strong>refore be equated with ‘free’ or ‘open’ access regimes which lackownership or management plans (Lane, 1996 in Gomes, 2006). In turn, <strong>the</strong> tragedy <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> comm<strong>on</strong>s<strong>the</strong>ory expounded by Hardin in <strong>the</strong> late 1960s, which argues that in such a situati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> ‘open access’individual herders maximize short term gain through <strong>the</strong> indiscriminate use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastures to increase<strong>the</strong>ir herd size, eventually leading to overgrazing <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> depleted pasture (Hardin, 1968), does notreflect reality in <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s. However, tragedy <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> comm<strong>on</strong>s thinking has greatly influencedapproaches in <strong>the</strong> early years <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> development in Ethiopia’s lowl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> unfortunately c<strong>on</strong>tinues todo so even though <strong>the</strong> validity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>ory has been repeatedly challenged.The pastoralist livelihood strategy is still c<strong>on</strong>sidered a highly rati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> flexible l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use for much<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> arid lowl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, as attested to by <strong>the</strong> persistence <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> performance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> livelihood in thissetting (where mobility is still practiced relatively unimpeded). Devereux (2006) found that wheremobility is unhindered, pastoral households are more ec<strong>on</strong>omically <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> food secure than <strong>the</strong>irsettled counterparts. In Ethiopia, it was found that livestock are more at risk <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> succumbing todrought in areas where pastoralists are settled into a semi-sedentary lifestyle. In 2004 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2006many pastoral settlements were partially or entirely ab<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>on</strong>ed, as people moved to evade <strong>the</strong>drought (Devereux, 2006). Little et al (2008) reached a similar c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>, showing that householdswere less likely to lose <strong>the</strong>ir livestock assets <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> become food insecure if <strong>the</strong>y remained mobile.However, certain realities in parts <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s cannot be ignored, including <strong>the</strong> fact thatpopulati<strong>on</strong> is increasing, that people require diverse livelihood opportunities which may lie outsidepastoral producti<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that highl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> populati<strong>on</strong>s are being resettled to <strong>the</strong> lowl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> willrequire livelihood opti<strong>on</strong>s more than likely based <strong>on</strong> agricultural producti<strong>on</strong>. The multiple needs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>priorities in <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s must <strong>the</strong>refore be acknowledged, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> all opti<strong>on</strong>s fully <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> fairly explored(importantly including pastoral producti<strong>on</strong> 12 ) to enhance nati<strong>on</strong>al ec<strong>on</strong>omic growth withoutcompromising sustainable livelihoods.2.2 Challenges facing <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoral livelihoodsDespite <strong>the</strong> positive c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoralism to livelihoods, <strong>the</strong> ec<strong>on</strong>omy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>health, <strong>the</strong>re are persistent challenges. These include <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tinued degradati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s,<strong>the</strong> shrinkage <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> available for grazing, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> reduced opportunities for mobility. These challengeshave clear implicati<strong>on</strong>s for pastoral producti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> for livelihoods. The stubborn encroachment <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>Prosopis juliflora, <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tinued excisi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> key grazing areas for irrigati<strong>on</strong> expansi<strong>on</strong> (see Box 1) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>o<strong>the</strong>r uses such as nati<strong>on</strong>al parks <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crop cultivati<strong>on</strong> (<strong>the</strong> latter by some pastoralists, as well asimmigrants <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> refugees), <strong>the</strong> proliferati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pasture enclosures for private use, increasedsedentarizati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> proliferati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water points which promote settlement, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> poor rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>management all c<strong>on</strong>tribute to <strong>the</strong> persistence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong>se problems. Increasing populati<strong>on</strong>, poverty,c<strong>on</strong>flict, frequent drought, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> policies which promote sedentarizati<strong>on</strong> exacerbate <strong>the</strong> challenges.These c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s have been associated with decreased per capita holdings <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> livestock, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> anincreased trend towards agro-pastoralism am<strong>on</strong>g Ethiopia’s pastoral communities (Yemane, 2003).Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, <strong>the</strong> numbers <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoral dropouts – those who have lost <strong>the</strong>ir livestock assets <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> do12 For example, <strong>the</strong> Oromia regi<strong>on</strong>al government’s prominent Oromia Growth Corridors Plan has declaredthat a large porti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoral l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> in Oromia should be maintained as rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> should not be c<strong>on</strong>vertedfor agriculture.25
not engage in agricultural producti<strong>on</strong>, settling in permanent settlements in search <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> petty labor –are also observed to be <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> increase, as shown in a study c<strong>on</strong>ducted in <strong>the</strong> Borana z<strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>Oromia regi<strong>on</strong> (Desta et al, 2008). Government, d<strong>on</strong>ors, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> development agencies c<strong>on</strong>tinuouslygrapple with <strong>the</strong>se challenges with multiple approaches taken to address <strong>the</strong> various pressures.These approaches run al<strong>on</strong>g a c<strong>on</strong>tinuum from staunch support for mobility to encouragingsedentarizati<strong>on</strong>. Government at nati<strong>on</strong>al level seems to lean towards promoting settlement as a l<strong>on</strong>gterm objective, believing this to be <strong>the</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly lasting <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sustainable soluti<strong>on</strong> to protect livelihoods. Atlocal level, many government pers<strong>on</strong>nel living in pastoral regi<strong>on</strong>s, <strong>the</strong>mselves from pastoral families,inevitably keep livestock. For those who do, <strong>the</strong>y are aware <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> importance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> livestock mobilityincluding <strong>the</strong> need for rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s to be sufficiently rested to recover before <strong>the</strong>y are again grazed.Am<strong>on</strong>g NGOs, many c<strong>on</strong>tinue to make water development decisi<strong>on</strong>s based primarily <strong>on</strong> technicalc<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>s with insufficient c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> livelihood dynamics. At <strong>the</strong> same time, more NGOsunderst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> rati<strong>on</strong>ale <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> livestock mobility <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> make efforts to accommodate it, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> many NGOstaff recruited from pastoral areas own livestock <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> are <strong>the</strong>refore aware <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> benefits <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> livestockmobility. Though <strong>the</strong>re are multiple approaches <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> perspectives, all stakeholders seem to share <strong>the</strong>sentiment that <strong>the</strong>re is a need to ensure access to diversified ec<strong>on</strong>omic opportunities for those wh<strong>on</strong>o l<strong>on</strong>ger remain in <strong>the</strong> pastoral system.2.3 Social organizati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> customary l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> water managementstrategies 13Identity plays a central role across Ethiopia in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> who has access to which l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>. In Somali <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>Afar regi<strong>on</strong>s for example, clans or sub-clans are associated with specific home areas, even thougho<strong>the</strong>r groups are allowed access based <strong>on</strong> established relati<strong>on</strong>ships <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> negotiati<strong>on</strong> (Hogg, 1997;Getahun 2004). Traditi<strong>on</strong>ally in Borana, being Borana is an entitlement in itself <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> “every Boranahas <strong>the</strong> right to graze his livestock wherever he wants within <strong>the</strong> Borana areas” (Hell<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 1980: 47).Although in practice most Borana graze <strong>the</strong>ir livestock within quite defined areas, in <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<strong>the</strong>y have grown to know best.Access to <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> availability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water affects who <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how many have access to surrounding pasture<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> grazing areas (Bassi, 2005; Hell<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 1980). Water availability in <strong>the</strong> past influenced how manylivestock <strong>the</strong> ecosystem could support, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> livestock exceeding <strong>the</strong> capacity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> dry seas<strong>on</strong> waterpoints would not survive (Hell<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 1997). Water, <strong>the</strong>refore, played a limiting role. Densityindependentfactors also affected populati<strong>on</strong> numbers (<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> still do), including disease epidemics <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>drought (Hell<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 1997), which resulted in a cyclical rhythm <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> populati<strong>on</strong> build up <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> decline in <strong>the</strong>arid lowl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s in resp<strong>on</strong>se to <strong>the</strong>se episodes <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> density-independent events. These natural dynamicsin <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s counter Hardin’s hypo<strong>the</strong>sis that human acti<strong>on</strong> is solely to blame for envir<strong>on</strong>mentaldegradati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> livestock asset depleti<strong>on</strong>.Customary rules <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> regulati<strong>on</strong>s modulating water access <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use exist am<strong>on</strong>g different pastoralgroups across <strong>the</strong> country. A few comm<strong>on</strong> characteristics are shared between <strong>the</strong>m. In <strong>the</strong> wetseas<strong>on</strong> when rainfall opens up wet seas<strong>on</strong> grazing pasture, any<strong>on</strong>e with grazing rights in a given areahas access to water collected in natural pans for as l<strong>on</strong>g as it naturally lasts, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong>refore tosurrounding pastures (Hell<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 1980 in S<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ford, 1983). Access to traditi<strong>on</strong>al seas<strong>on</strong>al water pointssuch as p<strong>on</strong>ds involves some regulati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> some labour is required to maintain <strong>the</strong> water point(Hogg, 1997; Hell<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 1980). Access to water from permanent water sources in dry seas<strong>on</strong> grazingareas is likely to be strictly c<strong>on</strong>trolled. In times <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> scarcity, c<strong>on</strong>trol <strong>on</strong> water use is even stricter.Water <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pasture need to last through <strong>the</strong> dry seas<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> water points are <strong>the</strong>refore managed tosupport a limited number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> people <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> livestock (Hell<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 1980 in S<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ford, 1983).13 It is recognized that customary instituti<strong>on</strong>s have evolved over time <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> are not fossilized entities whichc<strong>on</strong>form to historical descripti<strong>on</strong>s. The extent to which <strong>the</strong>se instituti<strong>on</strong>s have evolved requires fur<strong>the</strong>ranalysis to help development practiti<strong>on</strong>ers identify appropriate modes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> levels <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> engagement, with <strong>the</strong>ultimate goal <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> properly informing development.26
The following broad overview touches <strong>on</strong> how some pastoral groups in different regi<strong>on</strong>s managel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> water.BoranaTraditi<strong>on</strong>ally, management <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (pasture) is not a clan resp<strong>on</strong>sibility am<strong>on</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Borana, but <strong>the</strong>resp<strong>on</strong>sibility <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> ‘territorial units’ (Tache, 2000) called dheedhas. These dheedhas do not have hard <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>fast boundaries, but ra<strong>the</strong>r may change according to resources available, are highly porous, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> aresimply ‘known’ ra<strong>the</strong>r than being clearly defined <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> written down. Fur<strong>the</strong>r though ‘territorial’ innature <strong>the</strong>y are administered by a complex social organizati<strong>on</strong>. This complex customary administrativestructure, known as <strong>the</strong> gaada, applies <strong>the</strong> customs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> laws <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> Borana (ada seera).The smallest territorial unit am<strong>on</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Borana is <strong>the</strong> warra, which c<strong>on</strong>stitutes a Borana household. Agroup <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> warra with associated cattle enclosures c<strong>on</strong>stitute an olla, or village. Clan affiliati<strong>on</strong> is notnecessary to ensure cooperati<strong>on</strong> within a village (Tache, 2000) where several clans may exist, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>warra members cooperate based <strong>on</strong> being Borana <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sharing territory. Adjacent villages toge<strong>the</strong>rc<strong>on</strong>stitute <strong>the</strong> next territorial unit up, <strong>the</strong> ardaa. At this level, a council <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> elders (jarsa ardaa) isnominated to deal with <strong>the</strong> management <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> communal pasture, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> intervenes when <strong>the</strong>re are signs<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pasture depleti<strong>on</strong> (Ibid). Decisi<strong>on</strong>s are made at this level regarding lactating stock (lo<strong>on</strong> warraa),which graze around <strong>the</strong> villages, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dry stock (lo<strong>on</strong> fooraa), which has to be grazed fur<strong>the</strong>r away toavoid pasture depleti<strong>on</strong> in <strong>the</strong> vicinity. Neighbouring ardaa toge<strong>the</strong>r c<strong>on</strong>stitute a reera, with no rigidboundaries between <strong>the</strong>m. At this level, <strong>the</strong>re is cooperati<strong>on</strong> to mobilize labor for importantoccasi<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> also cooperati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> p<strong>on</strong>ds. The next level up is <strong>the</strong> maddaa, which c<strong>on</strong>sists<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> several reera <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> is comm<strong>on</strong>ly named after a permanent water point (Ibid). A collecti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> maddaatoge<strong>the</strong>r makes up <strong>the</strong> largest Borana unit, <strong>the</strong> dheedha, which toge<strong>the</strong>r make up <strong>the</strong> entire Boranaterritory.Being Borana technically entitles any Boran to graze anywhere 14 , <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> different c<strong>on</strong>trollingmechanisms are put in place by <strong>the</strong> different territorial units to make sure that pasture is notoverused (limiting where <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> when people can settle, restricting grazing by stock type, establishingcalf reserves or kaloo whose locati<strong>on</strong> changes from year to year to avoid overgrazing, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>establishing wet <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dry seas<strong>on</strong> grazing locati<strong>on</strong>s) (Ibid). However, access to water, especially dryseas<strong>on</strong> water, is <strong>the</strong> decisi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> clans who manage permanent wells. Therefore clan-based decisi<strong>on</strong>s<strong>on</strong> water influence which pasture can be used when <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> by whom.Ethiopia’s Borana have some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> most elaborate water c<strong>on</strong>trol <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> management systems in <strong>the</strong>country. For p<strong>on</strong>ds <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pools which fill up in <strong>the</strong> rainy seas<strong>on</strong>, any<strong>on</strong>e can use <strong>the</strong>se structures as l<strong>on</strong>gas <strong>the</strong>y c<strong>on</strong>tribute to <strong>the</strong>ir maintenance. However, reera members are expected to use p<strong>on</strong>ds within<strong>the</strong>ir own territory <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> are discouraged from using those in o<strong>the</strong>r reera to avoid overusingneighbouring resources (Ibid). If water levels in p<strong>on</strong>ds drop too fast <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> it is feared that <strong>the</strong> supply isoverused, precedence is given for <strong>the</strong> domestic use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> closest ollas, adult cattle are excluded infavour <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> calves, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> if necessary, even calves will not be allowed access. The animals denied accessmust <strong>the</strong>n be moved to o<strong>the</strong>r p<strong>on</strong>ds or wells (Bassi, 2005). P<strong>on</strong>ds <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> o<strong>the</strong>r surface catchments areusually c<strong>on</strong>structed by reera families, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> management <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> maintenance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> water point iscommunal at this level.For traditi<strong>on</strong>al wells, which ‘bel<strong>on</strong>g’ to clans, access <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use is managed much more strictly, asc<strong>on</strong>siderable labour inputs are needed both for c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> well <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> extracti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water from<strong>the</strong> well. An individual instigates <strong>the</strong> digging <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a well, called <strong>the</strong> k<strong>on</strong>fi, who must recruit assistance forwell excavati<strong>on</strong>. This is usually from within his own clan, but also from o<strong>the</strong>r clans <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> lineages, whoprovide <strong>the</strong> labour <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> cattle to sustain <strong>the</strong> digging crew during <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> work, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>14 This entitlement is applied to various degrees in Borana areas, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> is influenced by various social, political<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ec<strong>on</strong>omic factors which differ between locati<strong>on</strong>s.27
<strong>the</strong>reby earn permanent access rights to <strong>the</strong> well. The well is however managed by <strong>the</strong> clan or lineage<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> k<strong>on</strong>fi. The k<strong>on</strong>fi is c<strong>on</strong>sidered <strong>the</strong> ‘fa<strong>the</strong>r <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> well’ or abbaa ellaa <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> is <strong>the</strong> pers<strong>on</strong> resp<strong>on</strong>siblefor it. This does not translate into absolute ownership, but <strong>the</strong> abbaa ellaa does have access priority<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> makes decisi<strong>on</strong>s c<strong>on</strong>cerning <strong>the</strong> well (Bassi, 2005). He is closely observed by clan elders who makesure that <strong>the</strong> k<strong>on</strong>fi makes decisi<strong>on</strong>s in line with <strong>the</strong> customs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> laws <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> Borana (ada seera)(Hell<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 1980). Traditi<strong>on</strong>al regulati<strong>on</strong>s dictate that access to <strong>the</strong> well is structured by day <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> positi<strong>on</strong>in <strong>the</strong> queue for that day, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> those clans or lineages who c<strong>on</strong>tributed to c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> have right <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>access (Bassi, 2005). However, Borana who have not c<strong>on</strong>tributed to well c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> are alsoextended temporary access rights in times <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> need. Turns at <strong>the</strong> well are decided by <strong>the</strong> ‘fa<strong>the</strong>r <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>turns’ or <strong>the</strong> abbaa herregaa, who is chosen by <strong>the</strong> abbaa ellaa, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> positi<strong>on</strong>s in <strong>the</strong>queue are restricted by <strong>the</strong> amount <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water available <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> by <strong>the</strong> rate <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water seepage 15 (Bassi, 2005).A well council, or cora ellaa, composed <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> those with permanent rights <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> well usage (primarily thosewho have c<strong>on</strong>tributed to its c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>), has overall authority over <strong>the</strong> well (Hell<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 1980) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>decide who gains access; a decisi<strong>on</strong> informed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> guided by <strong>the</strong> ada seera. Gaining access to a wellcritically depends <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> labour commensurate with <strong>the</strong> herd size to be watered, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>on</strong> “establishing <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> legitimizing links with <strong>the</strong> well council [where] <strong>the</strong> organizati<strong>on</strong>al units <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Boranasociety, such as <strong>the</strong> lineage organizati<strong>on</strong>, <strong>the</strong> Gada system, <strong>the</strong> age sets <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> relati<strong>on</strong>ships between<strong>the</strong>m, provide a grid <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> potential links am<strong>on</strong>g individuals” (Hell<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 1980: 71). Failure to provide labourrequirements or to adequately c<strong>on</strong>vince <strong>the</strong> well council <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> claims to water will result in exclusi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>water must <strong>the</strong>n be sought elsewhere.SomaliUnlike <strong>the</strong> Borana, territories in Somali are associated with particular clans <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sub-clans, with fluidboundaries between <strong>the</strong>m. Boundaries in <strong>the</strong> past were not fixed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> shifted based <strong>on</strong> power dynamicsbetween neighbouring clans (Hogg, 1997). Rivers, p<strong>on</strong>ds, shallow <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> deep wells <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> birkado arecomm<strong>on</strong> water sources within <strong>the</strong> different territories. In <strong>the</strong> past (prior to <strong>the</strong> 1960s) <strong>the</strong> Haudplateau, now dominated by numerous birkado, was predominantly wet seas<strong>on</strong> grazing l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, withassociated permanent dry seas<strong>on</strong> water points located in Somalil<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Pastoralists would use grazingareas in <strong>the</strong> Haud during <strong>the</strong> wet seas<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> fall back to <strong>the</strong> permanent water points in Somalil<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> in<strong>the</strong> dry seas<strong>on</strong> (Walker <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sugule, 1998). However, birkad c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> by pastoralists allowedpeople to settle permanently around <strong>the</strong>se structures in <strong>the</strong> Ethiopian Haud, effectively establishing dryseas<strong>on</strong> nuclei across a formerly wet seas<strong>on</strong> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>scape <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> changing l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use dynamics (Gomes, 2006).Today, water use systems in Somali differ according to locati<strong>on</strong> within <strong>the</strong> regi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> aredifferentiated by dry seas<strong>on</strong> water resources <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how <strong>the</strong>y are used (Devereux, 2006). In most aridparts <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> regi<strong>on</strong>, water is <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten <strong>on</strong>ly obtainable from birkado in <strong>the</strong> dry seas<strong>on</strong>. As birkado aregenerally privately owned, water access is usually against payment. The private ownership <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> birkadomeans potential exclusi<strong>on</strong> from water access for those with no means to pay (or for o<strong>the</strong>r reas<strong>on</strong>s),which in turn means exclusi<strong>on</strong> from surrounding grazing (for those birkado which are also used forwatering livestock), forcing herders to seek out o<strong>the</strong>r birkado with more agreeable owners orprovoking c<strong>on</strong>flict over access (Devereux, 2006). Birkado are usually owned by wealthier individuals(or sometimes groups) who have <strong>the</strong> means to pay for <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>siderable c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> costs. Thosewho cannot afford to c<strong>on</strong>struct <strong>the</strong>ir own birkado have to pay for access, where <strong>the</strong> price <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water isnegotiated <strong>on</strong> an individual basis <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> depends <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> seas<strong>on</strong>, at its highest in <strong>the</strong> dry seas<strong>on</strong> (Ibid).15 Each well has its own capacity to produce water. When pastoralists drain water out, <strong>the</strong> water accumulatedin its bottom decreases, but it is c<strong>on</strong>stantly fed by seepage. Seepage varies with <strong>the</strong> seas<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> can be slow orfast, which affects <strong>the</strong> number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cattle that can be watered daily. Good wells <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> localities are those that areless affected by droughts. The use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> mechanised pumps in <strong>the</strong> vicinity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> traditi<strong>on</strong>al wells is likely to deeplyaffect this capacity (Marco Bassi, pers<strong>on</strong>al communicati<strong>on</strong>).28
In areas <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> adequate groundwater, h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dug wells are comm<strong>on</strong>. These usually bel<strong>on</strong>g to clans, butare sometimes owned individually. When water is plentiful, clan owned wells are open access too<strong>the</strong>r clans living in <strong>the</strong> area <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> for those migrating in search <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water. Water is free, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> water saleis not a usual practice. However, access to water follows an established hierarchy, which is strictlyenforced especially in times <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> scarcity. The pers<strong>on</strong> who c<strong>on</strong>structed <strong>the</strong> well <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> his family are firstin line to <strong>the</strong> water, followed by clan members, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> n<strong>on</strong>-clan members last (Ibid). Deep wells, whichrequire c<strong>on</strong>siderable labour for excavati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> water extracti<strong>on</strong>, follow a similar managementsystem as for <strong>the</strong> Borana.AfarIndigenous pastoral law determines access to <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>trol <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> natural resources. L<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> in Afar isdivided into sultanates, which are fur<strong>the</strong>r divided into tribe <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> clan territories (Getahun, 2004).Each clan usually presides over a number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> strategic resources, such as wet <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dry seas<strong>on</strong> grazingareas <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> water points. Decisi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> access <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>trol <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> natural resources are made by <strong>the</strong> villagecouncil, which c<strong>on</strong>sists <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> clan leader, clan elders, local wise men, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a traditi<strong>on</strong>al rule-enforcingunit (Hundie, 2006). In <strong>the</strong> wet seas<strong>on</strong>, Afar livestock graze open rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, which are managed by<strong>the</strong> different tribal units. However, scarcity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water in <strong>the</strong> dry seas<strong>on</strong> leads pastoralists back to <strong>the</strong>Awash River which is <strong>the</strong> principal dry seas<strong>on</strong> water source. Grazing around <strong>the</strong> river is delineated<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> managed by clans through a leader’s council (Law, 2000 in Getahun, 2004), where territorialaffiliati<strong>on</strong>s are str<strong>on</strong>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> infringements <strong>on</strong> traditi<strong>on</strong>al law are penalized by traditi<strong>on</strong>al managementunits (Ibid).2.4 History <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> ‘external’ water development from <strong>the</strong> 1970s up to 1991Figure 3: Timeline <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> events influencing development practice in Ethiopia29
The Derg regimePrior to <strong>the</strong> 1970s, not much attenti<strong>on</strong> was given to pastoral regi<strong>on</strong>s in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> sustaining <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>protecting livelihoods, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> interventi<strong>on</strong>s c<strong>on</strong>centrated almost solely <strong>on</strong> developing l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> forcommercial irrigated agriculture al<strong>on</strong>g rivers. Measures <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> policies implemented under <strong>the</strong> Dergregime (1974 to 1991), however, left a lasting impact <strong>on</strong> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> people in <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s. The mostimportant <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong>se include: 1) <strong>the</strong> ban 16 <strong>on</strong> using c<strong>on</strong>trolled burning 17 to manage <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s,which saw an increase in bush encroachment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> shrinkage <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> usable for grazing; 2) <strong>the</strong>aggressive promoti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> agricultural expansi<strong>on</strong>, which also reduced <strong>the</strong> extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> range; 3) <strong>the</strong>creati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Peasant Associati<strong>on</strong>s (PAs) as lowest level <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ficial administrative units 18 ; 4) <strong>the</strong>enforcement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> policies to sedentarize pastoralists (Kamara et al, 2003); <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 5) l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> nati<strong>on</strong>alizati<strong>on</strong>in <strong>the</strong> highl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s.Approaches to rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> development under <strong>the</strong> Derg were top down with soluti<strong>on</strong>s prescribedbased <strong>on</strong> what was believed ‘best’ for <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> in turn for pastoralists, with littleparticipati<strong>on</strong> from <strong>the</strong> grassroots. The 1975 Nati<strong>on</strong>alizati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rural L<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s Proclamati<strong>on</strong> states that“<strong>the</strong> government shall have <strong>the</strong> resp<strong>on</strong>sibility to improve grazing areas, to dig wells <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to settle <strong>the</strong>nomadic people for farming purposes” <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that nomadic associati<strong>on</strong>s were “to induce <strong>the</strong> nomads tocooperate in <strong>the</strong> use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> grazing <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> water rights” (in Hogg, 1993: 30). Even though <strong>the</strong> 1975 L<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>Reform in principle granted pastoralists rights to access grazing l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <strong>the</strong>ir priorities came sec<strong>on</strong>d tothose <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> state (Elias, 2008). The Reform nati<strong>on</strong>alised all commercial agricultural c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong>sgranted under <strong>the</strong> emperor Haile Selassie, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> regime aggressively pursued <strong>the</strong> expansi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> statefarms with special support provided for agricultural development. Choice areas set aside for stateirrigati<strong>on</strong> projects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten lay in key pastoral dry seas<strong>on</strong> grazing areas which were essential for livestocksurvival in times <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> drought (Hell<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2006).The establishment <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> PAs effectively introduced a parallel system <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> natural resource governance in<strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, al<strong>on</strong>gside customary governance. Where access to l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> water resources werepreviously negotiated between different pastoral groups <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> boundaries between <strong>the</strong>m were ‘fuzzy’to accommodate for mobility, PA boundaries “legitimized <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> hardened clan-based claims to l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> water resources” as PA boundaries were loosely based <strong>on</strong> maadda boundaries in Borana <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong><strong>the</strong> home areas <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Somali sub-clans in Somali regi<strong>on</strong> (Hogg, 1997). PA chairmen, usually <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ficials with<strong>the</strong> received wisdom <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> agricultural highl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, had little knowledge or appreciati<strong>on</strong> for traditi<strong>on</strong>all<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> management systems already in place, or for <strong>the</strong> logic behind <strong>the</strong>se systems, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> were vestedwith <strong>the</strong> authority to allocate l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, preside over issues related to resource use, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> make decisi<strong>on</strong>s<strong>on</strong> water rights, effectively replacing <strong>the</strong> role <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> traditi<strong>on</strong>al elders (Kamara, 2003). It is <strong>the</strong>reforeunsurprising that agriculture was actively promoted.The overlap <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten c<strong>on</strong>flicts between, <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ficial <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> customary governance systems weakened<strong>the</strong> authority <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoral elders. As traditi<strong>on</strong>al decisi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> water use did not hold sway in<strong>the</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ficial arena, individual pastoralists (<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> n<strong>on</strong>-pastoralists) could disregard <strong>the</strong> codes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>decisi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> customary instituti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> seek potentially more favourable outcomes from PAauthorities (S<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ford, 1983; Tache, 2000). This dual l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> management system, in effect, made spacefor <strong>the</strong> excepti<strong>on</strong> to dominate <strong>the</strong> rule, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> individuals (pastoralists <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> n<strong>on</strong>-pastoralists) could nowbenefit or manoeuvre at <strong>the</strong> expense <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> wider community. Also with communal tenure not beingformalized, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tinued appropriati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> grazing l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> for farming <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong>, a comm<strong>on</strong>16 This ban was enforced across regi<strong>on</strong>s but was not based <strong>on</strong> any <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ficial legislati<strong>on</strong> or policy but ra<strong>the</strong>r <strong>on</strong>what was perceived as ‘correct’ l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> management practice at <strong>the</strong> time.17 A traditi<strong>on</strong>al l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> management practice used by pastoralists.18 Similar to today’s kebeles.30
observed resp<strong>on</strong>se was for individuals to seek new ways <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> ensuring access to rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, whichincluded <strong>the</strong> creati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> private reserves for different purposes within <strong>the</strong> comm<strong>on</strong>s (Hell<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2006).Water development under <strong>the</strong> DergThe Rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s Development Project (RDP) 19 , initiated in 1975 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> funded by <strong>the</strong> government <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>the</strong> World Bank, was c<strong>on</strong>sidered <strong>the</strong> first large scale range improvement effort by government <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<strong>on</strong>ors. The development <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water infrastructure was a central feature. The RDP is c<strong>on</strong>sidered a keyproject am<strong>on</strong>g water development practiti<strong>on</strong>ers in Ethiopia (across <strong>the</strong> spectrum from governmentto n<strong>on</strong>-government) which illustrates what not to do in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water development in <strong>the</strong>rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s.The RDP aimed to “restructure low output traditi<strong>on</strong>al range practices <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> improve efficiency <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>producti<strong>on</strong>” (World Bank, 1991), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong>refore promoted ranching <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> settled forms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> livestockproducti<strong>on</strong> as a soluti<strong>on</strong> to <strong>the</strong> perceived irrati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> unproductive pastoral use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s(Hogg, 1993). In essence, <strong>the</strong> project did not recognize <strong>the</strong> productivity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> mobile livestockproducti<strong>on</strong> systems. The World Bank completi<strong>on</strong> report published in 1991 admitted that <strong>the</strong>re wasa lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> knowledge <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoralists’ behaviour <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> drivers behind traditi<strong>on</strong>al l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use practices.The c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water points was <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly comp<strong>on</strong>ents <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> project where headwaywas made. Boreholes were c<strong>on</strong>structed <strong>on</strong> ranches where water catchment was restricted, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>p<strong>on</strong>ds proliferated in wet <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dry seas<strong>on</strong> grazing areas. The project rati<strong>on</strong>ale for water pointc<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> in wet seas<strong>on</strong> grazing areas was that it would open up <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> allow more ‘efficient’ use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>pasture in <strong>the</strong>se areas to reduce pressure <strong>on</strong> dry seas<strong>on</strong> grazing areas (Gebre Mariam, 1982). Largep<strong>on</strong>ds were also c<strong>on</strong>structed in dry seas<strong>on</strong> grazing areas (World Bank, 1991).The RDP inserted water points in pastoral areas with little underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoral dynamics <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>the</strong> logic behind pastoral natural resource management strategies. The project did not take <strong>on</strong> boardwhat local people c<strong>on</strong>sidered appropriate, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> water points were planned <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>structed in a topdownfashi<strong>on</strong> by technical pers<strong>on</strong>s with little participati<strong>on</strong> from <strong>the</strong> grassroots. Water points werealso government owned, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> management <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> maintenance were <strong>the</strong> ultimate resp<strong>on</strong>sibility <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> localadministrati<strong>on</strong>. Therefore, project water points were completely external to traditi<strong>on</strong>al systems,which brought with it a loss <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>trol over who, how many, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> when people <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> livestock hadaccess to grazing l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>. In additi<strong>on</strong>, <strong>the</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten weak management capacity by local administrati<strong>on</strong> sawc<strong>on</strong>flict arise at <strong>the</strong> grassroots over c<strong>on</strong>trol <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> access to water points, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> many <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> waterpoints c<strong>on</strong>structed at <strong>the</strong> time fell into disrepair.Assessments <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> project reflected <strong>on</strong> some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> impacts <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water point development:• N<strong>on</strong>-local ownership <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> management resp<strong>on</strong>sibility <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water points resulted in poorlyc<strong>on</strong>trolled access <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> poor maintenance. S<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ford (1983: 29) states that <strong>the</strong> government’sclaimed right to c<strong>on</strong>trol access to water points meant that “additi<strong>on</strong>al people who wouldo<strong>the</strong>rwise have been excluded from water points giving access to certain grazing areas are nowallowed in.” Points were also <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten inadequately sited <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> inappropriately spaced.• The c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> large p<strong>on</strong>ds encouraged permanent settlement so that people could nowmake year-round use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> surrounding pasture. Overgrazing <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> erosi<strong>on</strong> (pasture degradati<strong>on</strong>)were frequently observed around large capacity water points. Alternative modes <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> producti<strong>on</strong>,such as small-scale crop cultivati<strong>on</strong>, also began to appear with <strong>the</strong> year-round availability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>water, introducing a competing l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use in predominantly rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> areas (Gebre Mariam 1982).19 Implemented through <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s Development Unit (SORDU), <strong>the</strong> Jijiga Rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>sDevelopment Unit (JIRDU), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> Nor<strong>the</strong>ast Rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s Development Unit (NERDU).31
• Insufficient recogniti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> distinct communal grazing areas (albeit with ‘fuzzy’ boundaries to allowfor reciprocal mobility between <strong>the</strong>m in times <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> scarcity), <strong>the</strong> importance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water for <strong>the</strong>traditi<strong>on</strong>al regulati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> resource use in <strong>the</strong>se grazing areas, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> relati<strong>on</strong>ship between <strong>the</strong>people with traditi<strong>on</strong>al grazing rights in each, saw frequent fighting around access to projectwater points.Hell<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (1980; 72) hypo<strong>the</strong>sised <strong>the</strong> following 30 years ago, which seems to have come to bear insome pastoral areas:“In technical terms, <strong>the</strong> pastoral resources <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Borana [<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> o<strong>the</strong>r] l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> can easily be exp<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed by diggingstockp<strong>on</strong>ds or sinking boreholes. The sociological implicati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> this, however, are likely to be far-reaching. Ifwater is made freely available, this means that <strong>the</strong> existing social organizati<strong>on</strong>, which regulates labour inputs,access to water <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>trol over pasture, is stripped <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a major functi<strong>on</strong>. At this stage, <strong>on</strong>e can <strong>on</strong>ly predictthat this loss <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> functi<strong>on</strong> will weaken <strong>the</strong> social c<strong>on</strong>trols <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> existing system. If <strong>the</strong> social c<strong>on</strong>trols areweakened, however, <strong>on</strong>e may fur<strong>the</strong>r predict that…free access to water may be advantageous for <strong>the</strong>individual in <strong>the</strong> short run, but will have serious maladaptive implicati<strong>on</strong>s. The short term expansi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong>pastoral resource will be followed by l<strong>on</strong>g term degradati<strong>on</strong>.”In sum, <strong>the</strong> RDP did little to improve rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> management or livestock productivity, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> decisi<strong>on</strong>sregarding water development eroded traditi<strong>on</strong>al water management systems, introduced privateforms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use in <strong>the</strong> communal rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s (in parts <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> country), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> fuelled l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> degradati<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flict. A less<strong>on</strong> learnt from <strong>the</strong> RDP is that <strong>the</strong> “participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> intended beneficiaries indefining <strong>the</strong> project c<strong>on</strong>cept is fundamental” (World Bank, 1991:27).2.5 Changes in thinkingAlthough early experiences in water development had obvious negative impacts in <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s,<strong>the</strong>y also provided a valuable opportunity for practiti<strong>on</strong>ers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> researchers to learn about whatworks <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> what does not in <strong>the</strong> pastoral c<strong>on</strong>text. Some significant changes in approach <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> thinkinghave been observed since. Water development in <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s is now more focused <strong>on</strong> protectinglives <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> livelihoods, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> pastoral producti<strong>on</strong> system is a recognized form <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use menti<strong>on</strong>edexplicitly in <strong>the</strong> current government’s c<strong>on</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong>, as well as in nati<strong>on</strong>al development plans <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>programmes (e.g. <strong>the</strong> Plan for Accelerated <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sustained Development to End Poverty, <strong>the</strong>Productive Safety Net Programme, <strong>the</strong> Poverty Reducti<strong>on</strong> Strategy Paper, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> o<strong>the</strong>rs). The RDP <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>o<strong>the</strong>r such interventi<strong>on</strong>s across East Africa also prompted researchers to critically review <strong>the</strong>relevance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> development approaches, which had an avowedly commercial basis (driven by<strong>the</strong> World Bank <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> o<strong>the</strong>rs) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> were based <strong>on</strong> equilibrium grazing systems 20 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> informed by <strong>the</strong>‘tragedy <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> comm<strong>on</strong>s’ <strong>the</strong>ory. Findings indicate that nei<strong>the</strong>r model nor <strong>the</strong>ory applies in <strong>the</strong>pastoral lowl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a large body <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> research has been generated since <strong>the</strong> 1980s touching <strong>on</strong><strong>the</strong>se points (see for example Behnke, 1994). At <strong>the</strong> same time, towards <strong>the</strong> end <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> 1980s, <strong>the</strong>World Bank funded The Fourth Livestock Project. This initiative was <strong>the</strong> first real attempt atrangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> development with an emphasis <strong>on</strong> pastoral participati<strong>on</strong> to avoid <strong>the</strong> pitfalls <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> previousapproaches. However, <strong>the</strong> project never really took <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>f as it was hampered by <strong>the</strong> political situati<strong>on</strong>at <strong>the</strong> time <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> by <strong>the</strong> costs <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> sustaining a bloated pastoral development bureaucracy (Hogg, 1993).20 Behnke (1994: 6) defines equilibrium grazing systems as “characterized by relatively high levels <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> climaticstability resulting in c<strong>on</strong>stant levels <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> primary producti<strong>on</strong>...livestock populati<strong>on</strong>s in <strong>the</strong>se settings can exp<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>to <strong>the</strong> point where <strong>the</strong>y have a c<strong>on</strong>siderable impact <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> vegetati<strong>on</strong>, both in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> its species compositi<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> density”. C<strong>on</strong>versely, n<strong>on</strong>-equilibrium envir<strong>on</strong>ments are “subjected to extremely variable rainfall, [where]fluctuati<strong>on</strong>s in rainfall may have a much str<strong>on</strong>ger effect than animal numbers <strong>on</strong> vegetati<strong>on</strong>.”32
Specific to water development, several trends <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> practices have been noted. These include:• Increased awareness that pastoral areas - where mobile livestock keeping is a central feature -require a different approach to highl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> areas where sedentary farming practices predominate.Also recognized is that pastoral areas are not homogenous <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> needs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dynamics in towns<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> settlements are different to those in open rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, requiring c<strong>on</strong>text specific planning.• Increased recogniti<strong>on</strong> that <strong>the</strong> pastoral livelihood is more than just livestock producti<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> isinfluenced by internal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> external social, cultural <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> political aspects, which differ between <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>within regi<strong>on</strong>s. These must be properly understood to better inform decisi<strong>on</strong> making related towater development.• Increased recogniti<strong>on</strong> that mobility is an important strategy to resp<strong>on</strong>d <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> adapt to increasingresource variability, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ing mobility patterns can better inform waterdevelopment planning.• Increased focus <strong>on</strong> underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ing <strong>the</strong> existing natural resource base in a locati<strong>on</strong> (water <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>pasture) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> way people use <strong>the</strong>se resources to inform planning, in recogniti<strong>on</strong> that waterpoints functi<strong>on</strong> within <strong>the</strong> broader l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>scape <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> can alter patterns <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> resource use. Waterpoints can add value when placed strategically <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sustainably.• Increased awareness that water provisi<strong>on</strong> in <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s is not <strong>on</strong>ly about availing water forpeople <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> livestock, but also about supporting <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> improving livelihoods. By extensi<strong>on</strong>, value isadded to <strong>the</strong> wider ec<strong>on</strong>omy when livelihoods are supported. Water development is beginningto be coupled with improving livestock marketing opportunities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> channels, veterinaryservices, rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> health/c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> or rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> o<strong>the</strong>r development interventi<strong>on</strong>s.• Increased recogniti<strong>on</strong> that <strong>the</strong> ‘s<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>tware’ comp<strong>on</strong>ent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> any water development is as importantas <strong>the</strong> actual physical infrastructure. Focus <strong>on</strong> planning, management <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sustainability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> waterpoints is increasing to ensure that water points are appropriate to <strong>the</strong> local c<strong>on</strong>text, that <strong>the</strong>yeffectively serve <strong>the</strong> different needs <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> users, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that <strong>the</strong>y remain functi<strong>on</strong>al.• More emphasis is placed <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> existing water points to avoid <strong>the</strong> risksassociated with new developments, especially when project durati<strong>on</strong> is short (for example inemergency relief interventi<strong>on</strong>s).• To address sustainability issues, more emphasis is placed <strong>on</strong> promoting community buy-in towater development (ei<strong>the</strong>r by c<strong>on</strong>tributing in cash or in kind) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> selecting water pointswhich do not require sophisticated c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> or maintenance, where c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> materials<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> spare parts (where needed) are easily obtainable at <strong>the</strong> local level. There is also increasingfocus am<strong>on</strong>g practiti<strong>on</strong>ers <strong>on</strong> training local artisans to c<strong>on</strong>struct <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> maintain water points inorder to build a cadre <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> local expertise <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> decrease dependency <strong>on</strong> external support (whichmay or may not be available).• Increased awareness <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> value <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> combining scientific <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> customary knowledge systems.Practiti<strong>on</strong>ers increasingly recognize that pastoralists have an important role to play in <strong>the</strong> waterdevelopment process, especially given <strong>the</strong>ir detailed knowledge <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, to helpplanners underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> needs, dynamics <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> bigger picture at ground level. In Ethiopia, as aresult <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> less<strong>on</strong>s learned from early projects (such as <strong>the</strong> RDP) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> under <strong>the</strong> currentgovernment, more emphasis has been placed <strong>on</strong> grassroots participati<strong>on</strong> in <strong>the</strong> waterdevelopment process. This is highlighted in <strong>the</strong> current government’s focus (in policy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>strategy documents) <strong>on</strong> development being driven from <strong>the</strong> woreda level. Approaches toparticipati<strong>on</strong> are evolving from end users simply expressing dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> for water, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> being taskedwith <strong>the</strong> operati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> maintenance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water points planned <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> implemented by outsiders, to33
encouraging a more participatory approach to planning, c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ensuring <strong>the</strong>sustainability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water points.• Recognized need to improve partnerships <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> linkages between different projects <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> programsacross <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s to streamline approaches to water development.34
Secti<strong>on</strong> 3. Water development todayThis secti<strong>on</strong> presents an overview <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> stakeholders, policies, plans, strategies, projects <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> programsrelated to water (<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoral) development in Ethiopia’s rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, with a discussi<strong>on</strong> to follow inSecti<strong>on</strong> 4.3.1 Stakeholders <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> selected interventi<strong>on</strong>sStakeholders engaged in water development in pastoral regi<strong>on</strong>s can be grouped into four broadcategories – pastoralists, government, development organizati<strong>on</strong>s/NGOs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> private sector.This report primarily focuses <strong>on</strong> activities by government <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> development organizati<strong>on</strong>s/NGOs,including community-based organizati<strong>on</strong>s.D<strong>on</strong>ors are also major stakeholders, but play more <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> an influencing role in how practiti<strong>on</strong>ersengage in <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s. Major d<strong>on</strong>ors funding l<strong>on</strong>g term development initiatives featuring waterinclude USAID, EU, UNDP <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> World Bank. Major humanitarian d<strong>on</strong>ors include OFDA <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> UN-OCHA. Am<strong>on</strong>g d<strong>on</strong>ors funding l<strong>on</strong>g term development, much more emphasis is placed <strong>on</strong> effectivelyinvolving communities in <strong>the</strong> planning <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> management <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water schemes. Am<strong>on</strong>g humanitari<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>on</strong>ors, emphasis c<strong>on</strong>tinues to be <strong>on</strong> short-term emergency interventi<strong>on</strong>s, which automaticallytranslates into less focus <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> s<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>tware comp<strong>on</strong>ent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water schemes (i.e. building local capacity tomanage <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> maintain water points, ensuring fair <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> equitable access, etc). However, a few examples<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> livelihoods based emergency interventi<strong>on</strong>s are currently under way in Ethiopia (e.g. USAID’sPastoral Livelihoods Initiative <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ECHO’s Regi<strong>on</strong>al Drought Decisi<strong>on</strong> 21 ), suggesting <strong>the</strong> beginnings <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>a trend am<strong>on</strong>g certain d<strong>on</strong>ors towards ensuring community resilience to shock ra<strong>the</strong>r than simplyproviding emergency relief. It also appears that d<strong>on</strong>or influence is generally str<strong>on</strong>ger <strong>on</strong> developmentorganizati<strong>on</strong>s/NGOs than <strong>on</strong> government, with <strong>the</strong> excepti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a few major government projects(discussed in Secti<strong>on</strong> 3.1.2.3).Table 2: Water development under humanitarian resp<strong>on</strong>se <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> development scenariosDurati<strong>on</strong> Activities Push factors Observati<strong>on</strong>sEmergencyResp<strong>on</strong>seDevelopmentTypically3-6m<strong>on</strong>thsA year ormoreWater truckingRehabilitati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>water pointsC<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>water pointsRehabilitati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>water pointsC<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>water pointsIncreased incidence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>drought <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> floods <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>weakened capacity tocope, aggravated bypoverty <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flict,firmly entrench <strong>the</strong> needfor reactive emergencyresp<strong>on</strong>se.Increased awareness thatroot causes <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>vulnerability must beaddressed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> adaptivecapacity increased todecrease <strong>the</strong> need for,<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dependence <strong>on</strong>,emergency resp<strong>on</strong>se.• Due to <strong>the</strong> short-termnature <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> interventi<strong>on</strong>s,practiti<strong>on</strong>ers arecompelled to focus muchmore <strong>on</strong> hardware <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>technical interventi<strong>on</strong>sthan planning,participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>sustainability.• There is littlecommunicati<strong>on</strong> orcollaborati<strong>on</strong> betweenemergency resp<strong>on</strong>se <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>development d<strong>on</strong>ors aswell as practiti<strong>on</strong>ers. Thisis true even withinorganizati<strong>on</strong>s whereemergency resp<strong>on</strong>se <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>development are h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>led21 A program which aims to prepare pastoralists across <strong>the</strong> Horn <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Africa regi<strong>on</strong> for increasinglyunpredictable <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> failing rains.35
y different departments.This frustrates ambiti<strong>on</strong>sfor l<strong>on</strong>ger termdevelopment.• More awareness thatroot causes <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>vulnerability need to beaddressed to reduce <strong>the</strong>need for emergencyresp<strong>on</strong>se, as illustratedby <strong>the</strong> emergence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>livelihoods-basedemergency resp<strong>on</strong>se (asd<strong>on</strong>e under <strong>the</strong> ECHOprogramme <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> USAID’sPastoral LivelihoodsInitiative)3.1.1 PastoralistsPastoralists have for centuries managed water resources <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>structed <strong>the</strong>ir own water points.The most comm<strong>on</strong> types <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water points c<strong>on</strong>structed by pastoralists include shallow <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> deep wells,p<strong>on</strong>ds, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> birkado, <strong>the</strong> latter comm<strong>on</strong> in Somali regi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> introduced to o<strong>the</strong>r regi<strong>on</strong>s by n<strong>on</strong>pastoralists.As water scarcity (<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> now pasture scarcity) is a persistent challenge, communities make appeals forwater to government <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> development organizati<strong>on</strong>s/NGOs, ei<strong>the</strong>r to remedy water shortages orto open up new pasture. Communities ei<strong>the</strong>r make direct appeals to local NGO <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>fices, or <strong>the</strong>ysubmit appeals to government at district level. If <strong>the</strong> latter approach is taken, local governmentei<strong>the</strong>r addresses <strong>the</strong> water shortage directly or writes an endorsement letter for NGOs to attendto <strong>the</strong> issue.In terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoral influence <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> planning <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> siting <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water points, this differs depending <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong>entity c<strong>on</strong>structing (<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> funding) <strong>the</strong> point <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> type <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water point c<strong>on</strong>structed. Communitieslead decisi<strong>on</strong> making when it comes to traditi<strong>on</strong>al structures such as p<strong>on</strong>ds, springs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> customarydeep wells. For structures funded <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>structed by n<strong>on</strong>-pastoralists, especially those which aretechnically more complex (like boreholes) decisi<strong>on</strong>-making is primarily driven by government oro<strong>the</strong>r funding agencies (d<strong>on</strong>ors/development organizati<strong>on</strong>s). The degree to which communitiesparticipate in decisi<strong>on</strong> making <strong>the</strong>n depends <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> dispositi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> entity c<strong>on</strong>structing <strong>the</strong> waterpoint. If community participati<strong>on</strong> is high <strong>on</strong> an organizati<strong>on</strong>’s agenda, as is currently <strong>the</strong> case am<strong>on</strong>gmany d<strong>on</strong>or agencies which fund l<strong>on</strong>g term development, <strong>the</strong>n more attenti<strong>on</strong> is given to enablingparticipati<strong>on</strong> in planning, management, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> maintenance. Where it is not as much a priority, as is <strong>the</strong>case am<strong>on</strong>g many NGOs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> local government bureaus, participati<strong>on</strong> is <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten symbolic. However,overall, <strong>the</strong>re are signs <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> improved focus <strong>on</strong> participati<strong>on</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g both government <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> developmentorganizati<strong>on</strong>s22, yet this is by no means mainstreamed in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> practice across <strong>the</strong> country.Labour or cash c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong>s are increasingly expected <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> communities towards <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>,operati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> maintenance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water points to encourage a sense <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> ownership for infrastructure.22 As reflected by increased emphasis <strong>on</strong> participati<strong>on</strong> in government planning <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> strategy documents <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong>development <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> guidelines for participatory <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>text-specific planning am<strong>on</strong>g government <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> developmentorganizati<strong>on</strong>s within projects <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> programmes.36
Eliciting payments for water from local communities remains a c<strong>on</strong>siderable challenge, whereaslabour is much more readily provided.To date <strong>the</strong>re is no structured way in which local pastoral communities engage with localgovernment or NGOs. Dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> is expressed <strong>on</strong> a case by case basis. This results in disjointeddem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> promotes an uncoordinated resp<strong>on</strong>se. Some projects, however, encourage morestreamlined communicati<strong>on</strong> between customary instituti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> local authorities, as illustrated byUSAID’s Pastoral Livelihoods Initiative.At regi<strong>on</strong>al level, Pastoral Associati<strong>on</strong>s have been formed by pastoralists in <strong>the</strong> last four years todirectly <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> formally voice pastoral c<strong>on</strong>cerns to government. These have been established in Oromia<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Afar regi<strong>on</strong>s, <strong>the</strong> former in 2006 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> latter in 2008. The Oromia Pastoral Associati<strong>on</strong> wasformally recognized by regi<strong>on</strong>al government <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> it is well regarded by both pastoralists <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> bygovernment (Fekadu Abate 23 , pers<strong>on</strong>al communicati<strong>on</strong>). These Associati<strong>on</strong>s could act as a vehicle toorganize <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> streamline communicati<strong>on</strong> between local communities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> government (as well asdevelopment organizati<strong>on</strong>s) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> could open up necessary discussi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> priority macro-level issuesrelated to water <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pasture at regi<strong>on</strong>al level. Links between Pastoral Associati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> morelocalized community/government interacti<strong>on</strong> should also be identified <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> promoted.3.1.2 GovernmentFollowing <strong>the</strong> coming to power <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> Ethiopian People’s Revoluti<strong>on</strong>ary Democratic Fr<strong>on</strong>t (EPRDF)in 1991, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> decentralizati<strong>on</strong> policy pursued in <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>text <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a federal state devolved <strong>on</strong> ethnicregi<strong>on</strong>al lines, water development <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoral development more broadly have become regi<strong>on</strong>alresp<strong>on</strong>sibilities. Regi<strong>on</strong>al governments are resp<strong>on</strong>sible for drafting policies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> preparing <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>implementing plans, in line with federal level policies, plans, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> strategies.3.1.2.1. Nati<strong>on</strong>al level actors, policies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> strategiesThree line ministries play a central role in guiding water development <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoral development in<strong>the</strong> regi<strong>on</strong>s: <strong>the</strong> Ministry <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Water Resources (MoWR), <strong>the</strong> Ministry <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Agriculture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> RuralDevelopment (MoARD) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> Ministry <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Federal Affairs (MoFA). By extensi<strong>on</strong>, <strong>the</strong> Ministry <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>Finance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ec<strong>on</strong>omic Development (MoFED) also influences planning. The MoWR <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> MoARDfocus <strong>on</strong> water supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong>, while <strong>the</strong> MoFA focuses <strong>on</strong> pastoral issues <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> technical <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>capacity support to emerging pastoral regi<strong>on</strong>s 24 .Table 3: Ministries involved in water <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoral development.Instituti<strong>on</strong> M<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ate Observati<strong>on</strong>sMinistry <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>WaterResources(MoWR)• Resp<strong>on</strong>sible for <strong>the</strong> country’s water supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>for planning <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> implementing large-scaleirrigati<strong>on</strong> projects.• Sets policy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> coordinates planning <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>development related to water in Ethiopia.Produces strategies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> programs, develops <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>implements water sector laws <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> regulati<strong>on</strong>s,c<strong>on</strong>ducts studies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> research activities, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>provides technical support to regi<strong>on</strong>al water• Even though planning <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>implementati<strong>on</strong> are regi<strong>on</strong>alresp<strong>on</strong>sibilities, centralministries are heavily involvedin planning <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> technicalexpertise provisi<strong>on</strong> at regi<strong>on</strong>allevel in Afar <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Somaliregi<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> also in <strong>the</strong>pastoral areas <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Oromia <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>SNNPR.23 Executive Officer, Oromia Pastoral Associati<strong>on</strong>.24 Emerging regi<strong>on</strong>s include Afar <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Somali regi<strong>on</strong>s.37
Ministry <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>Agriculture<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> RuralDevelopment(MoARD)Ministry <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>Federal Affairs(MoFA)bureaus.• Provides technical <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> instituti<strong>on</strong>al support to<strong>the</strong> emerging pastoral regi<strong>on</strong>s (Afar <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Somali),to embed capacity at regi<strong>on</strong>al level to plan <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>implement projects.• Plans, develops, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> manages <strong>the</strong> country’sagricultural resources <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> develops policies,strategies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> programs.• Develops small <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> medium-scale irrigati<strong>on</strong>projects <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> is also resp<strong>on</strong>sible for <strong>the</strong> livestocksector, including water development for <strong>the</strong>sector.• Provides coordinati<strong>on</strong> support for small-scaleagricultural activities to Afar <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Somali regi<strong>on</strong>s,as well as technical backstopping for Oromia<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> SNNPR when needed.• Hosts <strong>the</strong> Pastoral Areas DevelopmentDepartment (PADD) which providesdevelopment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> capacity building support toemerging regi<strong>on</strong>s (Afar <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Somali), draftspastoral policies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> designs specificdevelopment programs for pastoral regi<strong>on</strong>sinformed by <strong>the</strong> country’s rural developmentvisi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> strategies.• Facilitates vertical support between lineministries <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> regi<strong>on</strong>al governments, as well ashoriz<strong>on</strong>tal support between regi<strong>on</strong>algovernments <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> developed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> regi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>those <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> less developed (emerging) regi<strong>on</strong>s.• Actively participates in preparing regi<strong>on</strong>al downto woreda level acti<strong>on</strong> plans <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> is directlyinvolved in m<strong>on</strong>itoring <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> evaluati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>development activities.• There is an overlap inresp<strong>on</strong>sibility for water relatedissues between <strong>the</strong> MoARD<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> MoWR. Both areinvolved in irrigati<strong>on</strong>development (MoWR developslarge schemes, MoARD <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>the</strong> regi<strong>on</strong>s develop small <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>medium schemes) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> bothministries supply water forlivestock (MoARD explicitlyfor livestock <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> MoWR forhuman as well as livestockc<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong>).• MoFA resp<strong>on</strong>sible for pastorallivelihood issues which cutacross sectors, includingagriculture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> water. MoFA is<strong>the</strong>refore very involved insetting cross-sector prioritiesfor <strong>the</strong>se areas toge<strong>the</strong>r withrelevant ministries.Ministry <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>Finance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>Ec<strong>on</strong>omicDevelopment(MoFED)Resp<strong>on</strong>sible for budget allocati<strong>on</strong>s to line ministries <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> also engaged in nati<strong>on</strong>al policycoordinati<strong>on</strong>, <strong>the</strong>refore plays an implied role in sectoral activities.Ministry <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Water Resources (MoWR)The MoWR was established under proclamati<strong>on</strong> number 4/1995 in resp<strong>on</strong>se to a lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a centralinstituti<strong>on</strong> which sets policy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> coordinates planning <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> development related to water in Ethiopia.The ministry’s m<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ate includes planning, developing, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> managing water resources, developingpolices, strategies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> programs, developing <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> implementing water sector laws <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> regulati<strong>on</strong>s,c<strong>on</strong>ducting studies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> research activities, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> providing technical support to regi<strong>on</strong>al water38
ureaus 25 . The ministry’s interventi<strong>on</strong> priorities, as outlined in <strong>the</strong> country’s nati<strong>on</strong>al water policy(adopted in 1999) are water supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sanitati<strong>on</strong> followed by irrigati<strong>on</strong>, hydropower, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> floodc<strong>on</strong>trol. It is resp<strong>on</strong>sible for producing plans <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> strategies for <strong>the</strong> provisi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water supply, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>also for planning <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> implementing large-scale irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects. For pastoral regi<strong>on</strong>s specifically(especially <strong>the</strong> emerging regi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Afar <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Somali), <strong>the</strong> ministry provides technical <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> instituti<strong>on</strong>alsupport through <strong>the</strong> Water Development Works Affirmative Support Coordinati<strong>on</strong> Department,whose task it is to ensure that <strong>the</strong>re is sufficient technical capacity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> skilled human resources atregi<strong>on</strong>al level to plan <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> implement projects.The Ministry <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Agriculture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rural Development (MoARD)The MoARD’s m<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ate includesplanning, developing <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> managing<strong>the</strong> country’s agriculturalBox 2: The Livestock Policy Forum under MoARDresources, developing policies, The Livestock Policy Forum, established with support from <strong>the</strong>Feinstein Internati<strong>on</strong>al Centre (FIC) at Tufts University, is a first <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> itsstrategies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> programs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>kind platform which brings toge<strong>the</strong>r 70 NGO representatives, <strong>the</strong>providing support to regi<strong>on</strong>al rural private sector, bilateral <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> multilateral d<strong>on</strong>ors, Ethiopian research<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> agricultural bureaus. The instituti<strong>on</strong>s, pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>essi<strong>on</strong>al associati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> government departmentsministry is resp<strong>on</strong>sible for <strong>the</strong> (Behnke et al, 2008). It allows members to share <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> learn from fielddevelopment <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> small <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> some experience <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> develops guidelines <strong>on</strong> emergency livestockinterventi<strong>on</strong>s, which introduce a more livelihoods based approach tomedium scale irrigati<strong>on</strong> in pastoral emergency relief. The five working groups under <strong>the</strong> forum includeregi<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> also for supporting emergency water supply, veterinary care, supplementary feeding forlivestock producti<strong>on</strong> 26 . It developswater for both irrigati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> forlivestock, market <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> destocking support, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> restocking <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong>forum is a str<strong>on</strong>g vehicle for policy dialogue (Pantuliano, 2008).watering livestock, <strong>the</strong> latterprovided primarily through harvesting surface water, which includes p<strong>on</strong>d <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> birkad c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>.Special support for pastoral regi<strong>on</strong>s is provided through a coordinating body within <strong>the</strong> ministrycalled <strong>the</strong> Emerging Regi<strong>on</strong>s Development Coordinati<strong>on</strong> Office. This <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>fice coordinates small-scaleagriculture activities in emerging regi<strong>on</strong>s (Afar <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Somali) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> also provides technical backstoppingfor SNNPR <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Oromia when needed. The recently established Livestock Policy Forum under <strong>the</strong>MoARD is also a str<strong>on</strong>g platform where critical issues related to pastoral livelihoods are discussed(Box 2).The Ministry <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Federal Affairs (MoFA)The Ministry <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Federal Affairs was established in 2001, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> its duties include supportingdevelopment in <strong>the</strong> emerging regi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Afar <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Somali (am<strong>on</strong>g o<strong>the</strong>rs). MoFA’s Pastoral AreasDevelopment Department (PADD) supports development <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> capacity building in <strong>the</strong>se emergingregi<strong>on</strong>s, assists in appropriately structuring government instituti<strong>on</strong>s from regi<strong>on</strong>al down to locallevel, drafts pastoral policies, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> designs specific development programs for pastoral regi<strong>on</strong>s based<strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> country’s rural development visi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> strategies (Tekele, 2005). It also actively participatesin preparing regi<strong>on</strong>al down to woreda level acti<strong>on</strong> plans, provides technical backstopping, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> isdirectly involved in <strong>the</strong> m<strong>on</strong>itoring <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> evaluati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> development activities (Ibid).25 http://www.mowr.gov.et/26 The focus has been <strong>on</strong> livestock products divorced from <strong>the</strong> livelihood system producing <strong>the</strong>se products.However, recent developments like <strong>the</strong> Livestock Policy Forum indicate that <strong>the</strong>re is better recogniti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong>role <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> pastoral livelihood system <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> need to support it to achieve positive outcomes in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>productivity.39
MoFA carries out its duties by facilitating vertical support between line ministries <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> regi<strong>on</strong>algovernments, as well as horiz<strong>on</strong>tal support between <strong>the</strong> regi<strong>on</strong>al governments <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> developed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> lessdeveloped (emerging) regi<strong>on</strong>s.The inter-ministerial boardMost line ministries at federal level have units or desks which h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>le development in pastoralregi<strong>on</strong>s. MoFA chairs an inter-ministerial board which brings toge<strong>the</strong>r representatives from <strong>the</strong>various line ministries, to take stock <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> current activities in pastoral regi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to discuss planning.MoFA <strong>the</strong>n communicates outcomes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> decisi<strong>on</strong>s to regi<strong>on</strong>al government <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> facilitates <strong>the</strong>exchange <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> informati<strong>on</strong> between ministries <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> regi<strong>on</strong>s.Horiz<strong>on</strong>tal coordinati<strong>on</strong>Emerging regi<strong>on</strong>s are given support by neighbouring developed regi<strong>on</strong>s. MoFA coordinates <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>facilitates <strong>the</strong> delivery <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> this support. Current examples <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> inter-regi<strong>on</strong>al support include capacitybuilding, technical <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> implementati<strong>on</strong> support by Amhara <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Tigray regi<strong>on</strong>s to Afar regi<strong>on</strong>algovernment. At present, <strong>the</strong> Amhara <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Tigray regi<strong>on</strong>al Bureaus <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Water Resources h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>le <strong>the</strong>study, design <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> small-scale irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in Afar. For Somali regi<strong>on</strong>, <strong>the</strong>Oromia-Somali Joint Commissi<strong>on</strong> was established for similar purposes.Prior to 2008, support to Afar <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>Somali regi<strong>on</strong>s was provided by <strong>the</strong>Somali Coordinati<strong>on</strong> Department<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> Afar Coordinati<strong>on</strong>Department under MoFA. Thesedepartments ensured that <strong>the</strong>re wasappropriate backstopping fromfederal level to <strong>the</strong> respectiveregi<strong>on</strong>al governments <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> thattransfer <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> knowledge <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> expertisebetween neighbouring regi<strong>on</strong>soccurred. However, <strong>the</strong>sedepartments did not work towardstime-bound targets. Since 2008, both<strong>the</strong>se departments were subsumedunder <strong>the</strong> new Ensuring EquitableDevelopment Directorate. UnderBox 3: Ensuring Equitable Development Directorate – MoFAUnder <strong>the</strong> new Directorate established in 2008, which includes <strong>the</strong>Somali <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Afar Coordinati<strong>on</strong> Departments, strategic goals have beenset to close <strong>the</strong> development gap between regi<strong>on</strong>al states, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> aroadmap developed to meet this goal over <strong>the</strong> coming six years. Stepsinclude:• Identifying gaps between developed (like Oromia <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> SNNPR) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>relatively less developed regi<strong>on</strong>s toge<strong>the</strong>r with internati<strong>on</strong>alpartners (including USAID, UNDP, DFID, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> o<strong>the</strong>rs);• Developing a programme <strong>on</strong> how to close <strong>the</strong>se gaps, incollaborati<strong>on</strong> with internati<strong>on</strong>al partners;• Drawing annual plans from <strong>the</strong> overall programme.• Developing performance measurement <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> management systems;<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>• Implementing annual plans.MoFA <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> partners are currently c<strong>on</strong>ducting a desk review <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> gaps.this directorate, strategic goals <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> objectives have been introduced with <strong>the</strong> aim <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> closing <strong>the</strong>development gap between developed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ‘emerging’ regi<strong>on</strong>s in <strong>the</strong> next six years (Box 3).Policies, laws <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> strategiesPolicies outlining nati<strong>on</strong>al development priorities, in additi<strong>on</strong> to nati<strong>on</strong>al l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> laws clearly haveimplicati<strong>on</strong>s for water development in pastoral regi<strong>on</strong>s. The current policy directi<strong>on</strong> suggests that<strong>the</strong> sedentarizing effect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> some water schemes may be encouraged ra<strong>the</strong>r than mitigated in <strong>the</strong>pastoral c<strong>on</strong>text. The MoFA’s 2008 Draft Policy Statement for <strong>the</strong> Sustainable Development <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>Pastoral <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Agro Pastoral Areas <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ethiopia, for example, states that ‘in <strong>the</strong> l<strong>on</strong>g-term, <strong>the</strong>government envisi<strong>on</strong>s a stable pastoral <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> agro pastoral community through <strong>the</strong> facilitati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>gradual <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> voluntary transiti<strong>on</strong> towards permanent settlement especially al<strong>on</strong>g <strong>the</strong> perennial riverbanks” (MoFA, 2008: 2). Even though this is a sentiment shared by central government ministries,many practiti<strong>on</strong>ers in <strong>the</strong> field believe that sedentarizati<strong>on</strong> is likely to gravely exacerbate <strong>the</strong>challenges facing pastoral livelihoods.40
Nati<strong>on</strong>al policy paints a c<strong>on</strong>flicting picture <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> how sustainable development can be achieved in <strong>the</strong>rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s. It appears that in <strong>the</strong> short term, government aims to support customary pastoralproducti<strong>on</strong> systems. However, <strong>the</strong> l<strong>on</strong>g term focus is <strong>on</strong> ‘voluntarily’ settling pastoralists byproviding livelihood diversificati<strong>on</strong> opportunities most notably fixed <strong>on</strong> irrigated agriculture. Thel<strong>on</strong>g-term policy visi<strong>on</strong> for pastoral areas is influenced by <strong>the</strong> belief that increased populati<strong>on</strong>,poverty, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> competiti<strong>on</strong> over natural resources, coupled with reduced quality <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong>rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> increased incidence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> climatic shocks, renders <strong>the</strong> pastoral system incapable <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>surviving in its current form. Tenure security for pastoral communal rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s also does not seemhigh <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> nati<strong>on</strong>al or regi<strong>on</strong>al agenda.Table 4: Nati<strong>on</strong>al strategies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> laws which influence development in pastoral areas.Policy/StrategyPoverty Reducti<strong>on</strong>Strategy Paper(PRSP)2001Relevance to pastoral development• Emphasises irrigati<strong>on</strong> development in <strong>the</strong> lowl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> supports <strong>the</strong> l<strong>on</strong>g-termvisi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> sedentary livelihoods for pastoralists.• Supports mobile pastoralism in <strong>the</strong> short-term through mobile serviceprovisi<strong>on</strong>.• Recognizes that pastoralists possess important traditi<strong>on</strong>al knowledge thatshould be c<strong>on</strong>sidered <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> brought <strong>on</strong> board to make nati<strong>on</strong>al policy morerelevant for pastoral regi<strong>on</strong>s.Plan for Accelerated<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> SustainedDevelopment to EndPoverty (PASDEP)2006• Echoes <strong>the</strong> PRSP in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> emphasis <strong>on</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong> development in <strong>the</strong>lowl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s as well as <strong>the</strong> l<strong>on</strong>g-term visi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> sedentary livelihoods forpastoralists.• Deeper discussi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoralism-related issues as compared to <strong>the</strong> PRSP. E.g.recognizes that mobility <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> livestock are central to <strong>the</strong> pastoral system <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>that restricted mobility disrupts livelihoods. Also acknowledges that drought,poor market access, poor veterinary services, water shortages, rangedegradati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> poor infrastructure impede pastoral development.• Recognizes that formal instituti<strong>on</strong>s have limited underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoralcommunal range management strategies, which is a challenge for pastorallivelihoods. Highlighted are <strong>the</strong> need to 1) recognize traditi<strong>on</strong>al instituti<strong>on</strong>s<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> leadership, 2) promote linkages between state <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> traditi<strong>on</strong>al governance,3) develop policy innovati<strong>on</strong>s which build <strong>on</strong> traditi<strong>on</strong>al norms as well as statepriorities, 4) develop participatory l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use policies based <strong>on</strong> communcal l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>management systems, 5) c<strong>on</strong>sult pastoral communities in designing <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>implementing development projects in <strong>the</strong>ir areas. Also states that it isimportant to underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> balance <strong>the</strong> ec<strong>on</strong>omic advantages <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>interventi<strong>on</strong>s with <strong>the</strong> social costs.• No clear road map or plan provided for how to achieve <strong>the</strong> above aims.Rural DevelopmentPolicies, Strategies<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Instruments(RDPS)2001• Since agricultural development is earmarked as a central ec<strong>on</strong>omic growthstrategy, <strong>the</strong> RDPS guides development in rural areas to achieve rapid growthin <strong>the</strong> agricultural sector.• In pastoral areas, short <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> medium term strategies focus <strong>on</strong> availing water forlivestock producti<strong>on</strong>, with little menti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> how this should be approached. In<strong>the</strong> l<strong>on</strong>g term, pastoralism is seen as an unsustainable livelihood <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>sedentarizati<strong>on</strong> is encouraged with irrigated agriculture as a core livelihoodactivity.41
• Recognizes <strong>the</strong> value <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> streng<strong>the</strong>ning customary l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> management practicesas well as <strong>the</strong> value <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> local pastoral knowledge. Participati<strong>on</strong> is explicitlymenti<strong>on</strong>ed, but no menti<strong>on</strong> made <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> how this should be achieved.Federal Rural L<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>Law2005• Supports <strong>the</strong> private holding <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> be it for individual farmers to claimagricultural l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> or for pastoralists to claim a porti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s. Doesnot recognize <strong>the</strong> rati<strong>on</strong>ale <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> traditi<strong>on</strong>al communal l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>holding.The Poverty Reducti<strong>on</strong> Strategy Paper (PRSP)The 2001 Poverty Reducti<strong>on</strong> Strategy Paper (PRSP) emphasises <strong>the</strong> importance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> bringing availableareas in <strong>the</strong> lowl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s under cultivati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> states that settlement is <strong>the</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly l<strong>on</strong>g-term soluti<strong>on</strong> forpastoralists. Special agricultural assistance can <strong>the</strong>n be provided <strong>on</strong>ce pastoral groups have settled ina fixed locati<strong>on</strong>. In <strong>the</strong> interim, it menti<strong>on</strong>s that mobile services such as health <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong> shouldbe provided in a manner which accommodates pastoralists who c<strong>on</strong>tinue to be mobile.The PRSP recognizes that in pastoral regi<strong>on</strong>s drinking water cannot be looked at in isolati<strong>on</strong> frompasture, given that livestock – dependent <strong>on</strong> pasture - are frequently kept wherever <strong>the</strong>re arepeople. It states that “it is <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> paramount importance to integrate <strong>the</strong> supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> drinking water <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>that <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pasture so as to accelerate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> improve animal resources development” (PRSP: 58). It alsoacknowledges that pastoralists possess important traditi<strong>on</strong>al knowledge that should be c<strong>on</strong>sidered<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> brought <strong>on</strong> board to make <strong>the</strong> nati<strong>on</strong>al policy more relevant for pastoral regi<strong>on</strong>s. C<strong>on</strong>sultati<strong>on</strong>swere <strong>the</strong>refore held with pastoralists, but <strong>the</strong> final document benefited little from this c<strong>on</strong>sultativeprocess <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> regi<strong>on</strong>al manifestati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> policy differed marginally, if at all, from nati<strong>on</strong>al strategies(Pastoralist Forum Ethiopia, 2009).Specific to water, <strong>the</strong> strategic development plan envisi<strong>on</strong>s: 1) <strong>the</strong> promoti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>p<strong>on</strong>ds <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> o<strong>the</strong>r water harvesting technologies, 2) <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water points near to rangeresources, 3) <strong>the</strong> use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> roadside run-<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>f for crops, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 4) assistance to local irrigati<strong>on</strong> practices.Access to improved water supply should also be facilitated for settled/semi-settled pastoralists toencourage <strong>the</strong>m to stay (PRSP, 2001; Secti<strong>on</strong> 7.3.5 (a)).Plan for Accelerated <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sustained Development to End Poverty (PASDEP)The PASDEP (2006) guides all development activities in Ethiopia from 2006 to 2010 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> essentiallyprovides a nati<strong>on</strong>al strategy to achieve priority nati<strong>on</strong>al goals, including ec<strong>on</strong>omic growth wi<strong>the</strong>mphasis <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> commercializati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> agriculture, industry <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> urban development, as well as scalingup efforts to meet development objectives as outlined in <strong>the</strong> Millennium Development Goals(MDGs). It is essentially a follow up to <strong>the</strong> PRSP, hence it echoes many <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> sentiments expressedin <strong>the</strong> PRSP.The l<strong>on</strong>g term view for pastoral development is in line with most o<strong>the</strong>r policy documents, which is<strong>the</strong> ‘voluntary’ settlement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoralists <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> diversificati<strong>on</strong> into agriculture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> o<strong>the</strong>r n<strong>on</strong>-livestockrelated livelihoods. Settlement is seen as <strong>the</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly l<strong>on</strong>g term soluti<strong>on</strong> to <strong>the</strong> challenges faced in <strong>the</strong>lowl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s.In terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water development, <strong>the</strong> PASDEP emphasizes interventi<strong>on</strong>s to improve livestockproducti<strong>on</strong>, including water development adjacent to grazing areas. At <strong>the</strong> same time, <strong>the</strong>development <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> small <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> medium scale irrigati<strong>on</strong> is encouraged to promote <strong>the</strong> permanentsettlement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoralists. The PASDEP states that “technical support through extensi<strong>on</strong> services42
will be given to pastoralists to encourage <strong>the</strong>m to practice agricultural activities side by side with<strong>the</strong>ir regular activities through <strong>the</strong> introducti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> small-scale irrigati<strong>on</strong>” (PASDEP, 2006: 70).At <strong>the</strong> same time, <strong>the</strong> document provides a wider <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> deeper discussi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoral areas. Itrecognizes that mobility <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> livestock are central to <strong>the</strong> livelihood <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that restricted mobilitydisrupts livelihoods. It also acknowledges that drought, poor market access, veterinary services <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>infrastructure, as well as water shortages <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> degraded rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s impede pastoral development. Itstates that “a proper underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoralism requires an underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> multidimensi<strong>on</strong>alreality <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> pastoralist situati<strong>on</strong> today” (PASDEP, 2006: 195).The document states that <strong>the</strong> ab<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>on</strong>ment <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> traditi<strong>on</strong>al grazing systems has had a serious impact<strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> natural resource base, resulting in overgrazing <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> degradati<strong>on</strong>. These are majorchallenges to pastoral livelihoods <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> represent c<strong>on</strong>straints to development at large. It fur<strong>the</strong>rrecognizes that formal instituti<strong>on</strong>s have a limited underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoral communal rangemanagement strategies, which has resulted in impediments to pastoral livelihoods. It states that inresp<strong>on</strong>se, “Government has set a policy that protects pastoral l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, although it is not yetimplemented fully” (PASDEP, 2006: 195).Traditi<strong>on</strong>al management systems are recognized in <strong>the</strong> PASDEP. Within <strong>the</strong> policy statement, it isacknowledged that it is important to: 1) recognize traditi<strong>on</strong>al instituti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> leadership, 2) promotelinkages between state <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> traditi<strong>on</strong>al governance, 3) develop policy innovati<strong>on</strong>s which build <strong>on</strong>traditi<strong>on</strong>al norms as well as state priorities, 4) develop participatory l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ownership policiesbased <strong>on</strong> communal l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> management systems, 5) c<strong>on</strong>sult pastoral communities in designing <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>implementing development projects in <strong>the</strong>ir areas. It fur<strong>the</strong>r states that it is necessary to underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> balance <strong>the</strong> ec<strong>on</strong>omic advantages <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> interventi<strong>on</strong>s with <strong>the</strong> social costs. However, <strong>the</strong>re is noclear road map or plan for how to achieve <strong>the</strong>se aims.Strategies menti<strong>on</strong>ed to improve c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s in <strong>the</strong> lowl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s include protecting <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rehabilitatingrangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> developing water, but <strong>the</strong> relati<strong>on</strong>ship between water <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pasture in <strong>the</strong>lowl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s is not discussed except perhaps tangentially through menti<strong>on</strong>ing that <strong>the</strong> ab<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>on</strong>ment <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>traditi<strong>on</strong>al grazing has c<strong>on</strong>tributed to rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> degradati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that it is necessary to encouragetraditi<strong>on</strong>al natural resource management mechanisms.As was d<strong>on</strong>e for <strong>the</strong> PRSP, c<strong>on</strong>sultati<strong>on</strong>s were held with pastoralists to discuss <strong>the</strong> PASDEP <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>bring <strong>on</strong> board pastoral c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>s prior to finalizing <strong>the</strong> program. Yet again <strong>the</strong> final documentbenefited little from this c<strong>on</strong>sultative process, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> regi<strong>on</strong>al manifestati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> nati<strong>on</strong>al policy werevery similar to <strong>the</strong> nati<strong>on</strong>al level strategy (Pastoralist Forum Ethiopia, 2009).Rural Development Policies, Strategies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Instruments (RDPS)Since <strong>the</strong> agricultural sector has been earmarked as central to <strong>the</strong> growth <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> nati<strong>on</strong>al ec<strong>on</strong>omy,it was recognized that a nati<strong>on</strong>al policy document was needed to guide development in rural areas<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> achieve rapid growth in <strong>the</strong> sector. This recogniti<strong>on</strong> culminated in <strong>the</strong> publicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> RDPSdocument, produced by <strong>the</strong> Ministry <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Informati<strong>on</strong>. The development policies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> strategiesoutlined in this 2001 document focus predominantly <strong>on</strong> crop cultivati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> extensi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>promoti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> agriculture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> as a central way forward for ec<strong>on</strong>omic growth <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> foodsecurity in Ethiopia.In pastoral areas, short <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> medium term strategies focus <strong>on</strong> availing water for livestock producti<strong>on</strong>,with little menti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> how this should be approached. In <strong>the</strong> l<strong>on</strong>g term, however, pastoralism is seenas an unsustainable livelihood <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sedentarizati<strong>on</strong> is encouraged with irrigated agriculture as a corelivelihood activity. The document states that “settlement in pastoralist areas is more than just achange <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> place; it is a change <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> lifestyle. It is transferring a pers<strong>on</strong> who used to be engaged in43
nomadic livestock husb<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ry to a sedentary farmer…[<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>] it will require a major cultural change”(RDPS, 2001: 77).Participati<strong>on</strong> is explicitly menti<strong>on</strong>ed, but phrases such as “democratically persuade <strong>the</strong> people <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>make <strong>the</strong>m participate” (RDPS, 2001:133) do not clarify how participati<strong>on</strong> is to be promoted orimplemented 27 . Yet at <strong>the</strong> same time, <strong>the</strong> document recognizes <strong>the</strong> value <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> streng<strong>the</strong>ning customaryl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> management practices as well as <strong>the</strong> value <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> local pastoral knowledge. It states that “incollaborati<strong>on</strong> with tribal leaders <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> people representatives, a lot has to be d<strong>on</strong>e to improve <strong>the</strong>management <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> protecti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s” (RDPS, 2001: 74). It also menti<strong>on</strong>s that using “<strong>the</strong>tribal structures <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> people” may be an appropriate platform from whence to “democraticallymotivate <strong>the</strong> people for development” (RDPS, 2001: 149).Federal Rural L<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> LawIssued in 2005, this law supports <strong>the</strong> private holding <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> be it for individual farmers to claimagricultural l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> or for pastoralists to claim a porti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s. In essence, it does notrecognize <strong>the</strong> rati<strong>on</strong>ale <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> traditi<strong>on</strong>al communal l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>holding, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> has been criticized as going against<strong>the</strong> federal c<strong>on</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong> (Abdulahi <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Adenew, 2007). Also argued is that although <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong>does menti<strong>on</strong> pastoral rights to grazing l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, this needs to be fur<strong>the</strong>r developed at <strong>the</strong> regi<strong>on</strong>al level,where Abdulahi <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Adenew (2007) note that regi<strong>on</strong>al laws relating to pastoral rights are ‘vague.’Ethiopian Water Resources Management Policy (MoWR, 1999)The Ministry <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Water Resourcesintroduced <strong>the</strong> country’s first nati<strong>on</strong>alwater resources management policy,outlining <strong>the</strong> country’s visi<strong>on</strong> for <strong>the</strong>development <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rural <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> urbanwater supply, irrigati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>hydropower generati<strong>on</strong>. The policywas adopted to address specificshortcomings in <strong>the</strong> waterdevelopment sector [Box 4].This policy does not specificallydisaggregate between highl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>lowl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> areas, although <strong>the</strong> policyprescripti<strong>on</strong>s, if followed, shouldensure that local c<strong>on</strong>texts arec<strong>on</strong>sidered.Box 4: Ethiopian Water PolicyA comprehensive water resource management policy was setout in 1999 to begin to address:• The lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a comprehensive water resource managementstrategy;• The prevalence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> unrealistic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> unattainable plans <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>programs;• N<strong>on</strong>-objectives oriented programs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> projects;• Uncertain <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ambiguous planning;• Intensive centralism <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> management with no focus <strong>on</strong> ruraldevelopment;• Lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> instituti<strong>on</strong>al sustainability; <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>• Ad hoc development practice lacking coherent objectives<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>tinuity.The policy also recognizes that competiti<strong>on</strong> for water <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>pasture could lead to ethnic tensi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> as such, appropriatewater policy must be developed for pastoral regi<strong>on</strong>s.Water supply focuses <strong>on</strong> availingwater for human <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> livestock use, where livestock water supply is recognized as an integral part <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>the</strong> overall water sector. Water for livestock is explicitly menti<strong>on</strong>ed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> its importance emphasisedfor lowl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> areas. The policy states that “livestock water supply is an integral part <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> overallwater sector” (MoWR, 1999: 22), while irrigati<strong>on</strong> is meant to improve food security through <strong>the</strong>implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> small, medium <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> large scale interventi<strong>on</strong>s.27 This approach to participati<strong>on</strong> is not specific to pastoral areas but applies more broadly.44
Water supplyGovernance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> capacityThe policy outlines that efficient <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sustainable management <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water supply requires managementthat combines federal level guidance with regi<strong>on</strong>al level implementati<strong>on</strong> - with str<strong>on</strong>g verticallinkages. Management should be at <strong>the</strong> lowest level <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> instituti<strong>on</strong>al setup, allowing for userparticipati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> effective decisi<strong>on</strong> making. Within this c<strong>on</strong>text, stakeholder roles <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>resp<strong>on</strong>sibilities need clear definiti<strong>on</strong>, including those <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> government actors at federal, regi<strong>on</strong>al, z<strong>on</strong>al,woreda, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> kebele levels, as well as those <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> external actors such as NGOs, developmentorganizati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> d<strong>on</strong>ors. The policy also explicitly recognizes <strong>the</strong> need for building <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>streng<strong>the</strong>ning water management capacity at both federal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> regi<strong>on</strong>al level, highlighting specificareas <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> focus including instituti<strong>on</strong>s, manpower, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> legislati<strong>on</strong>.Water user involvementEmphasis is given to promoting participati<strong>on</strong> from <strong>the</strong> grassroots. This includes <strong>the</strong> need to identify<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> involve local stakeholders at <strong>the</strong> outset <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> any water development, provide a legal basis formeaningful participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> stakeholders (including water users’ associati<strong>on</strong>s), support traditi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>localized water harvesting techniques, build <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> improve existing traditi<strong>on</strong>al water sources toimprove rural water supply, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> promote community involvement in management, operati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>maintenance with a clear underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> realities <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> ground.Coordinati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> linkagesLinkages <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> partnerships between different actors are explicitly encouraged. The policy recognizes<strong>the</strong> need to develop a framework for partnership <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> collaborati<strong>on</strong> between community,government, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> external agents (NGOs etc.) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> need for dialogue between <strong>the</strong>m through <strong>the</strong>establishment <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> fora for discussi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>sultati<strong>on</strong>.Irrigati<strong>on</strong>Two main strategies for irrigati<strong>on</strong> development are outlined in <strong>the</strong> policy, <strong>the</strong> development <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>medium <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> large scale irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects to address food security at nati<strong>on</strong>al level, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> small <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>medium scale irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects to address household level food security based <strong>on</strong> userparticipati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> management. The policy explicitly calls for <strong>the</strong> support <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> enhancement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>traditi<strong>on</strong>al irrigati<strong>on</strong> practices, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> promoti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> meaningful participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> all stakeholders inall phases <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> planning, studies, implementati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> operati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> schemes <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> all sizes.Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, it calls for <strong>the</strong> need to “provide for <strong>the</strong> harm<strong>on</strong>ious co-existence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> indigenouspeoples <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects” (MoWR, 1999).Ministry <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Federal Affairs Draft Policy Statement for <strong>the</strong> Sustainable Development <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>Pastoral <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Agro Pastoral Areas <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ethiopia (MoFA, 2008)Page 2 <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> this document states that:“…in <strong>the</strong> short term, this policy envisages that <strong>the</strong> needs <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoralists <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> agro pastoralists will bereflected in all nati<strong>on</strong>al policy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> planning frameworks, that <strong>the</strong> vulnerability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> poor people to climaticshocks, particularly droughts <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> floods, will be reduced <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> capacities streng<strong>the</strong>ned to resp<strong>on</strong>d toclimate change, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, that <strong>the</strong> inhabitants benefit from systems <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> good local governance. In <strong>the</strong> l<strong>on</strong>gterm,<strong>the</strong> government envisi<strong>on</strong>s a stable pastoral <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> agro pastoral community through <strong>the</strong> facilitati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>gradual <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> voluntary transiti<strong>on</strong> towards permanent settlement especially al<strong>on</strong>g <strong>the</strong> perennial riverbanks. In additi<strong>on</strong>, <strong>the</strong> Government will provide support for <strong>the</strong> expansi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> through waterharvesting at household levels <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> streng<strong>the</strong>n <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> multi-purpose dams to support45
irrigati<strong>on</strong> which ultimately enable pastoral <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> agro pastoral people pursue sedentary life with diversified<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sustainable income.”The implicati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> this policy are inevitably <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tinued <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>certed focus <strong>on</strong> agriculturaldevelopment in pastoral regi<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> provisi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> sedentary services. In additi<strong>on</strong>, it may also leadto a shift away from a livestock-based ec<strong>on</strong>omy. The ec<strong>on</strong>omic significance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> such a shift bearsc<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> especially given that livestock producti<strong>on</strong> is <strong>the</strong> sec<strong>on</strong>d largest foreign exchangeearner for <strong>the</strong> country. The pastoral system is valued at an estimated 1.68 billi<strong>on</strong> dollars per year,which is a c<strong>on</strong>servative estimate. This besides <strong>the</strong> value <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> mobile pastoralism as a means <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>sustainably managing <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> maintaining grazing l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>.3.1.2.2. Regi<strong>on</strong>al level actors <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> policiesRegi<strong>on</strong>al governments have <strong>the</strong> aut<strong>on</strong>omy to adapt nati<strong>on</strong>al plans <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> policies to suit regi<strong>on</strong>alc<strong>on</strong>texts. Strategic plans touching <strong>on</strong> water are prepared by <strong>the</strong> different bureaus resp<strong>on</strong>sible forwater, agriculture, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoral development. However, regi<strong>on</strong>al plans <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> policies <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten do notdiffer substantially from nati<strong>on</strong>al plans <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> policies, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>tinue to emphasize agriculture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>sedentary livelihoods. Policies related to l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tenure, which affects all l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> users in <strong>the</strong> lowl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, arealso prepared at regi<strong>on</strong>al level <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> are <strong>the</strong> m<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ate <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> agricultural <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rural development bureaus.In Afar regi<strong>on</strong>, <strong>the</strong> Bureau <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Water Resources Development <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> Bureau <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Agricultural <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>Rural Development are both involved in planning <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> implementing water development forproductive use (both water supply – which is also used by livestock – <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> small to medium-scaleirrigati<strong>on</strong>). In Somali regi<strong>on</strong>, <strong>the</strong> Water, Mines <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Energy Bureau plans, implements <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> manageswater supply schemes, while <strong>the</strong> Bureau <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Livestock, Crop <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Natural Resources is engaged indeveloping medium-scale irrigati<strong>on</strong>. Policies, plans <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> strategies do recognize that livestock are part<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> parcel <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoral l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>scapes, yet water supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects are primarily designed toserve people. In <strong>the</strong> past 5 years, however, <strong>the</strong> fact that in many pastoral areas water for peoplecannot be disaggregated from that for livestock has promoted <strong>the</strong> adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Multiple Use WaterServices (MUS) 28 principles, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> livestock troughs are being c<strong>on</strong>structed around water pointsdesigned for human supply). This is logical for <strong>the</strong> dryl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> is currently menti<strong>on</strong>ed in <strong>the</strong>PASDEP <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> in <strong>the</strong> Universal Access Programme (UAP).Issues specific to pastoral livelihoods, where water development is <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten a dominant feature, areh<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>led by specialized bureaus dedicated to pastoral development in regi<strong>on</strong>s where pastoralistsrepresent <strong>on</strong>ly a porti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> total populati<strong>on</strong>. This is <strong>the</strong> case in Oromia <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> SNNPR. In Oromia,<strong>the</strong> Oromia Pastoral Development Commissi<strong>on</strong> (OPDC) is <strong>the</strong> resp<strong>on</strong>sible instituti<strong>on</strong>, while <strong>the</strong>Pastoral Affairs Bureau is <strong>the</strong> resp<strong>on</strong>sible entity in SNNPR. These commissi<strong>on</strong>s/bureaus are meant toensure development appropriate to <strong>the</strong> pastoral c<strong>on</strong>text. In regi<strong>on</strong>s c<strong>on</strong>sidered entirely pastoral,agricultural <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rural development bureaus assume this resp<strong>on</strong>sibility. In Afar, <strong>the</strong> resp<strong>on</strong>sibleinstituti<strong>on</strong> is <strong>the</strong> Agriculture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rural Development Bureau, while in Somali regi<strong>on</strong> it is <strong>the</strong> NaturalResources, Livestock, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Crop Bureau.Regi<strong>on</strong>al policies related to l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tenurePastoral tenure rights in <strong>the</strong> regi<strong>on</strong>s remain uncertain even though <strong>the</strong>re has been some headwaymade in SNNPR <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> in Afar (see below). Uncertain pastoral tenure rights makes communal l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>28 MUS is water service delivery designed to meet water dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> for both domestic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> productive uses (Faalet al, 2009), introducing an integrated approach to a sector dominated by primarily single use service delivery.46
vulnerable to c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> for o<strong>the</strong>r l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> uses perceived as more suitable. Abdulahi <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Adenew(2007) highlight some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> regi<strong>on</strong>al level policies related to l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tenure in pastoral regi<strong>on</strong>s.• SNNPR: The SNNPR Rural L<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Administrati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Utilizati<strong>on</strong> Proclamati<strong>on</strong> No.110/2007recognizes <strong>the</strong> existence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> communal l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> specifies how it should be registered (<strong>the</strong> 2007SNNPR Rural L<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Law), with some provisi<strong>on</strong>s to protect pastoralists.• Oromia: The Oromia Rural L<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Use <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Administrati<strong>on</strong> Proclamati<strong>on</strong> No.130/2007 largelyexcludes pastoralists <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> does not recognize communal ownership. The term ‘possessi<strong>on</strong>’ isused in such a way as to focus <strong>on</strong> individual ownership.• Afar: The Afar Regi<strong>on</strong>al State’s draft Rural L<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Administrati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Use Proclamati<strong>on</strong> (No. ---/2009) recognizes, as per <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong>, that pastoralists have <strong>the</strong> right to <strong>the</strong> use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> grazingl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>. It fur<strong>the</strong>r menti<strong>on</strong>s that traditi<strong>on</strong>ally communal grazing l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cannot be privatized. Thisseems to extend exclusive rights to pastoralists over <strong>the</strong> use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> communal rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s.However, <strong>the</strong> proclamati<strong>on</strong> also menti<strong>on</strong>s that l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> is ultimately owned by <strong>the</strong> state <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> thatcommunal l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, provided <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>sensus <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> local communities, can be privatized <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>/or givento investors when c<strong>on</strong>sidered appropriate.• Somali: The regi<strong>on</strong>al government is currently in <strong>the</strong> process <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> drafting <strong>the</strong> regi<strong>on</strong>’s new L<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>Use Proclamati<strong>on</strong>.3.1.2.3. Major Government Programs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ProjectsA large number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> projects <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> programs are in place across Ethiopia’s pastoral regi<strong>on</strong>s, someaddressing water specifically <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> o<strong>the</strong>rs coupling water development with broader pastoraldevelopment (rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rehabilitati<strong>on</strong>, improved veterinary services, etc.). Following is a selecti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>current approaches used by government (<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> in later secti<strong>on</strong>s by developmentorganizati<strong>on</strong>s/NGOs). Ins<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ar as <strong>the</strong>se examples do not capture <strong>the</strong> full range <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> experiences in <strong>the</strong>field, <strong>the</strong>y illustrate examples al<strong>on</strong>g a c<strong>on</strong>tinuum from a technocratic approach with generic methods<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> promoting participati<strong>on</strong> (which are <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten <strong>on</strong>ly symbolic) to highly participatory approaches whichare specific to particular localities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> socio-political settings.St<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ard practice in pastoral areas is for communities to express dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> for water from <strong>the</strong> localauthority. Local government (or NGOs) resp<strong>on</strong>d to this dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> type <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water point to bec<strong>on</strong>structed is <strong>the</strong>n selected from a menu <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> opti<strong>on</strong>s (shallow wells, deep wells, p<strong>on</strong>ds, birkado,spring capping, etc.) based <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> hydrogeological c<strong>on</strong>text <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> area. Placement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> water pointis also primarily based <strong>on</strong> hydrogeological c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>s. Sometimes, decisi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> water pointc<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> are guided not by need but by local government’s ethnic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> socio-political affiliati<strong>on</strong>s.More water points can be observed in areas which are home to <strong>the</strong> majority <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> local administrativestaff, as observed in Jijiga woreda in Somali regi<strong>on</strong>.Notable departures from this ‘generic’ approach have been observed in <strong>the</strong> last 10 years. Thefollowing projects provide a range <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> examples, some which follow <strong>the</strong> st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ard approach but whichattempt to better integrate participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> o<strong>the</strong>r key issues (addressing o<strong>the</strong>r development needs,c<strong>on</strong>text specific planning, etc.), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> o<strong>the</strong>rs which focus <strong>on</strong> grassroots participati<strong>on</strong> as a centralfeature <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong>ir strategy. However, each <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> following endeavours applies its own approach towhat c<strong>on</strong>stitutes appropriate water development in <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, which suggests that ministries aswell as regi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>fices work independently <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e ano<strong>the</strong>r with little coordinati<strong>on</strong> around waterdevelopment issues <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> limited sharing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> best practice. Incoherence in approach to waterdevelopment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> weak linkages between stakeholders creates an envir<strong>on</strong>ment where it is easy forinappropriate water development to go unchecked.The Pastoral Community Development Project (PCDP) (2001-2015)47
Launched in 2001, MoFA’s $60m PCDP project pursues l<strong>on</strong>g term development in <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>swhich addresses “pastoral communities’ priority needs, improves <strong>the</strong>ir livelihoods <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> reduces <strong>the</strong>irvulnerability…through community driven development interventi<strong>on</strong>s” 29 . The PCDP was developed inresp<strong>on</strong>se to <strong>the</strong> failed top-down development interventi<strong>on</strong>s in pastoral areas in <strong>the</strong> past, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> is a 15year program, currently in its sec<strong>on</strong>d 5-year phase from 2008-2013 (PCDP I was implemented from2003-2008). It is jointly funded by <strong>the</strong> Ethiopian government, <strong>the</strong> World Bank <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> IFAD.All PCDP activities are meant to be community30 driven, using <strong>the</strong> Community Driven Developmentapproach (CDD 31 ). Participati<strong>on</strong> is meant to be promoted through tools such as Participatory RuralAppraisal (PRA) 32 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Participatory Learning <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Acti<strong>on</strong> (PLA) (Assaye Legesse 33 , pers<strong>on</strong>alcommunicati<strong>on</strong>).Local communities are resp<strong>on</strong>sible for project design, implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> management <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> receivetechnical training to do so. Mobile Support Teams (MSTs) are supposed to work closely withcommunities to assess <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> address capacity gaps for people to be able to implement <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> manageproject activities <strong>the</strong>mselves. They are also meant to act as facilitators between sectoral experts atregi<strong>on</strong>al/woreda level <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> community. MSTs are trained in how to use participatory tools (PRA<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> PLA), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> PCDP has benefited from input from development organizati<strong>on</strong>s who havec<strong>on</strong>siderable experience applying <strong>the</strong>se tools, such as Farm Africa (Assaye Legesse, pers<strong>on</strong>alcommunicati<strong>on</strong>). To ensure appropriate community buy-in/commitment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> sustainability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>interventi<strong>on</strong>s, communities are expected to make a 15% c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong>, at least 5% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> which should bein cash <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> remainder in kind.Water development under PCDPWater is almost always cited as a priority issue by communities, regardless <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong>y aremobile, sedentary or semi-sedentary (e.g. pastoralists or agro-pastoralists), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> it is especially apriority am<strong>on</strong>g women (Assaye Legesse, pers<strong>on</strong>al communicati<strong>on</strong>). In terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> disaggregateddem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> for water, <strong>the</strong> following trends were observed (Ibid):• Pastoralists’ main c<strong>on</strong>cern is usually water <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pasture, ranked equally in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>importance.29 www.pcdp.org.et/30 PCDP recognizes that ‘community’ “differs from regi<strong>on</strong> to regi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> also within regi<strong>on</strong>s, requiring aflexible approach to identifying social groupings with which <strong>the</strong> Project can work…<strong>the</strong>refore, all communitybased interventi<strong>on</strong>s will be informed by a participatory analysis <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> local socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic structures… [<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>] acoaliti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> community groups, including traditi<strong>on</strong>al organizati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> groups representing specific interestswill work toge<strong>the</strong>r to set community development priorities.” (World Bank PCDP Project AppraisalDocument, 2008: 18).31 The World Bank broadly defines CDD as an approach which gives community groups <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> local governmentc<strong>on</strong>trol over planning <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> investment decisi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> operates <strong>on</strong> “<strong>the</strong> principles <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> local empowerment,participatory governance, dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>siveness, administrative aut<strong>on</strong>omy, greater downward accountability,<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> enhanced local capacity.” It also states that “given clear rules <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> game, access to informati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>appropriate capacity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> financial support, poor men <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> women can effectively organize in order to identifycommunity priorities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> address local problems” by working toge<strong>the</strong>r with local government <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> o<strong>the</strong>rinstituti<strong>on</strong>s (web.worldbank.org).32 Distinguished by “<strong>the</strong> use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> local graphic representati<strong>on</strong>s created by <strong>the</strong> community that legitimize localknowledge <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> promote empowerment” (www.iisd.org). There are some associated risks: a) when <strong>the</strong> PRAagenda is externally driven to create legitimacy for projects or instituti<strong>on</strong>s, b) when PRA is c<strong>on</strong>ducted byteams working to tight project deadlines showing up abruptly <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> hurrying <strong>the</strong> process, rendering <strong>the</strong> exercise‘exploitative’, c) when expectati<strong>on</strong>s are raised <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> nothing tangible emerges, leading to communitydisappointment (www.iisd.org).33 Senior Agricultural Ec<strong>on</strong>omist, Rural Development, World Bank48
• Agro-pastoralists’ priorities are 1) Health posts, 2) Schools, 3) Water. Water ranks lowerbecause <strong>the</strong>se communities are usually already settled <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> have existing water sources.• Dropouts’ priorities are opportunities for income diversificati<strong>on</strong>.Communities express dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> for water. However, <strong>the</strong> type <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water point selected is a technicaldecisi<strong>on</strong> in <strong>the</strong> woreda water bureau, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> decisi<strong>on</strong> depends <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> water resources available, <strong>the</strong>agro-ecological c<strong>on</strong>text, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> funds available. Interventi<strong>on</strong>s are also meant to be checked againstWorld Bank Envir<strong>on</strong>mental <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Social Screening Lists to make sure that envir<strong>on</strong>mental <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> socialimpacts are c<strong>on</strong>sidered. This, however, rarely occurs.The main types <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water points c<strong>on</strong>structed under PCDP I were p<strong>on</strong>ds, shallow wells, deep wells,spring development, micro-dams <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> river diversi<strong>on</strong>, to serve both humans <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> livestock (WorldBank Implementati<strong>on</strong> Completi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Results Report, 2009). It was also noted that for wet seas<strong>on</strong>grazing areas, smaller water catchments were more suitable – large enough to hold water for alimited period but small enough so as not to encourage settlement – whereas in dry seas<strong>on</strong> grazingareas, focus was <strong>on</strong> rehabilitating existing water points <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> enabling community access to rivers(Assaye Legesse, pers<strong>on</strong>al communicati<strong>on</strong>).For PCDP I, some challenges encountered include:• A scarcity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> skilled human resources <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> high turnover <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> staff at woreda level.oooThe CDD approach had a “positive impact <strong>on</strong> local stakeholders’ (sector <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>fice experts,etc.) attitude to communities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong>ir ability to initiate, implement effectively <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ensure <strong>the</strong> development sustainability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> community-based projects” (BeneficiaryAssessment, May 2007, p.19 in World Bank Implementati<strong>on</strong> Completi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ResultsReport, 2009). However, “training [<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>] resp<strong>on</strong>siveness to community needs identifiedduring implementati<strong>on</strong>, was not sufficiently addressed, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> as a result <strong>the</strong> introducti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>CDD processes fell short <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> high expectati<strong>on</strong>s set” (World Bank Implementati<strong>on</strong>Completi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Results Report, 2009: 6). During implementati<strong>on</strong>, it was also observedthat project stakeholders sometimes ignored <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> bypassed communities’ advice <strong>on</strong>water point development. This was put down to high turnover <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> staff at woreda level,<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> associated lag-time in training <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> orientati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> CDD approach (Ibid).Mobile Support Teams were stretched bey<strong>on</strong>d <strong>the</strong>ir capacity, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> teams were<strong>the</strong>refore not spending sufficient time <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> ground c<strong>on</strong>sulting with <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> trainingpastoralists, resulting in dissatisfacti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> insufficient involvement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> communities indriving development efforts (Ibid).The number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> projects implemented far exceeded <strong>the</strong> manpower available forsupervisi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> follow up. Implementati<strong>on</strong> thus <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten deviated from <strong>the</strong> planned course<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> acti<strong>on</strong> (Ibid).• Envir<strong>on</strong>mental <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Social Screening Lists were not used in most cases, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a budget was notmade available for mitigating envir<strong>on</strong>mental <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social impacts. It was observed during fieldassessments that birkado are c<strong>on</strong>taminated <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> poorly maintained, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> poor envir<strong>on</strong>mentalc<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s were observed at a number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water points (Participatory Assessment Report, MoFA,2007 in World Bank Implementati<strong>on</strong> Completi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Results Report, 2009).• Performance indicators emphasized delivering targets ra<strong>the</strong>r than clear measureable outcomes<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> capacity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> livelihood improvement. Focus <strong>on</strong> delivery overshadowed <strong>the</strong> quality <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>community development processes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> sustainability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> outcomes (World BankImplementati<strong>on</strong> Completi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Results Report, 2009).Under PCDP II <strong>the</strong> World Bank Project Appraisal Document (2008) emphasizes:49
• Improving underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> social dynamics in pastoral areas <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> streng<strong>the</strong>ning communityparticipati<strong>on</strong>.• Financing small water schemes such as h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dug wells, shallow wells fitted with h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pumps,p<strong>on</strong>ds, birkado <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> hafir dams, because <strong>the</strong> negative aspects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> large-capacity waterdevelopments have been identified (including a tendency towards settlement <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pasturedegradati<strong>on</strong>).• Awareness that management <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ownership c<strong>on</strong>cerns include <strong>the</strong> risk <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>trol by <strong>on</strong>ecommunity over a large source <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water, leading to exclusi<strong>on</strong> or inequity within communities<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> increased potential for c<strong>on</strong>flict.• Awareness that technical c<strong>on</strong>cerns include <strong>the</strong> lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> financial <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> technical capacity atcommunity level to operate <strong>the</strong>se schemes, requiring more focus <strong>on</strong> training <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> capacitybuilding.• Increased focus <strong>on</strong> measuring social impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> impacts <strong>on</strong> livelihoods.• Establishing a Regi<strong>on</strong>al Steering Committee which will ensure complementarity between <strong>the</strong>PCDP <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> government’s Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP). Even though <strong>the</strong>re aremany synergies between <strong>the</strong> two programs, some issues are still outst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ing. For example,PSNP provides cash for work, whereas PCDP insists <strong>on</strong> m<strong>on</strong>etary c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong>s fromcommunities. This is especially an issue in <strong>the</strong> 9 woredas where PCDP <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> PSNP overlap(Belayhun Hailu, pers<strong>on</strong>al communicati<strong>on</strong>).• Increasing focus <strong>on</strong> community driven, acti<strong>on</strong>-oriented <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> participatory research which maylook at indigenous knowledge, local innovati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> promising technologies, to <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>fset <strong>the</strong>dominant top-down approach to research in pastoral areas.The Water Sector Development Program (WSDP)In 2002, <strong>the</strong> MoWR launched <strong>the</strong> 15 yearWSDP, which c<strong>on</strong>sists <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> programs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> projectscovering subsectors including water supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>irrigati<strong>on</strong>. The main objectives under <strong>the</strong> WSDPare in line with <strong>the</strong> nati<strong>on</strong>al water policy, in thatpriority is given to making clean water availablefor people, including <strong>the</strong>ir livestock, in nomadic<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> o<strong>the</strong>r special areas. Priority is also given toexp<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ing l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use for irrigated agriculture(WSDP, 2002). Targets under <strong>the</strong> WSDP havebeen updated in 2009 to align <strong>the</strong>m with laterpolicy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> strategy documents such as <strong>the</strong>PASDEP <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> UAP (Universal AccessProgramme) (Box 5). These targets are nowmuch more ambitious than those originally set.Box 5: New water development targetsThe water development targets under <strong>the</strong> revised 15-year WSDP have increased for water supply fromensuring water provisi<strong>on</strong> for 60% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> populati<strong>on</strong> by2015 to providing water for 98% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> populati<strong>on</strong> by2012, in line with <strong>the</strong> UAP (discussed below). Thetarget for irrigati<strong>on</strong> development has increased fromdeveloping 270,000 additi<strong>on</strong>al ha by 2015 (roughly half<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> which were to be federal-led large scale schemes<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> half regi<strong>on</strong>al small <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> medium scale schemes) todeveloping 430,000 additi<strong>on</strong>al ha by 2010, in line with<strong>the</strong> PASDEP. In 2006, irrigated l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> stood at anestimated 197,250ha. This area covers ‘modern’irrigati<strong>on</strong> schemes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> does not include <strong>the</strong> areacovered by traditi<strong>on</strong>al small-holder irrigati<strong>on</strong> (Atnafu,2007).Very ambitious targets for water supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>irrigati<strong>on</strong> expansi<strong>on</strong> are likely to see a c<strong>on</strong>tinued focus <strong>on</strong> hardware c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> at <strong>the</strong> expense <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>the</strong> ‘s<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>t’ comp<strong>on</strong>ent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> interventi<strong>on</strong>s, even though participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> building local capacity areexplicitly menti<strong>on</strong>ed in <strong>the</strong> overall program. Poor focus <strong>on</strong> s<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>tware decreases <strong>the</strong> likelihood <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>scheme suitability <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sustainability. Pressure to deliver <strong>on</strong> targets increases <strong>the</strong> chance that ensuringparticipati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> buy-in from <strong>the</strong> grassroots <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> embedding local capacity to operate, manage, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>maintain developed water schemes may fall by <strong>the</strong> wayside unless actively prioritized.50
Although <strong>the</strong> WSDP principles are set nati<strong>on</strong>ally, targets in <strong>the</strong> Water Supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sanitati<strong>on</strong> subsectorare developed regi<strong>on</strong>ally, largely based <strong>on</strong> populati<strong>on</strong> projecti<strong>on</strong>s.Pastoralists (termed nomadic people in <strong>the</strong> document) are menti<strong>on</strong>ed occasi<strong>on</strong>ally. Althoughpastoralists are menti<strong>on</strong>ed, <strong>the</strong> WSDP goes into little detail regarding <strong>the</strong>ir particular needs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how<strong>the</strong>se should be addressed. The provisi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water for livestock in nomadic areas is listed as <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>six priorities, although this is not elaborated up<strong>on</strong>. However, issues <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> participati<strong>on</strong> are explicitlymenti<strong>on</strong>ed (Box 6).Box 6: Participati<strong>on</strong> under WSDP, 2002WSDP 2002 recognizes that public sector-led approach to water development “is usually carried out without <strong>the</strong>involvement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> people for whom services <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> facilities are being provided or c<strong>on</strong>structed. This unfortunately meansthat <strong>the</strong> people least c<strong>on</strong>cerned address <strong>the</strong> sustainability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> provided services…<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> does not allow communities toadjust <strong>the</strong> blueprints developed by <strong>the</strong> public sector instituti<strong>on</strong>s to reflect <strong>the</strong>ir needs”. It also recognizes that <strong>the</strong>representative approach, driven by <strong>the</strong> political agenda <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> elected <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ficials is also not ideal. Elected representatives“cannot plan <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> implement day-to-day ec<strong>on</strong>omic activities <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> communities” <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that <strong>the</strong>ir approach is <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten politicalra<strong>the</strong>r than c<strong>on</strong>sensual, whereas “c<strong>on</strong>sensus must be a pre-requisite <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> development at community level”. Therefore a‘participatory approach’ is encouraged through <strong>the</strong> involvement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> community organizati<strong>on</strong>s so that systems <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> localgovernance, development administrati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> resource mobilizati<strong>on</strong> should work effectively.The Water Supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sanitati<strong>on</strong> Development Program (WSSDP)As part <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> WSDP, <strong>the</strong> WSSDP promotes stakeholder participati<strong>on</strong> in <strong>the</strong> planning, design,implementati<strong>on</strong>, rehabilitati<strong>on</strong>, operati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> maintenance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water supply schemes. Majorstakeholders include federal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> regi<strong>on</strong>al government, local communities, <strong>the</strong> private sector, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>NGOs.Separate arrangements are made for domestic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> livestock needs in <strong>the</strong> pastoral lowl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s. Use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>domestic water for livestock is not encouraged, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>ly when no natural sources are availablenearby (springs, rivers, lakes, p<strong>on</strong>ds) <strong>the</strong>n cattle troughs are c<strong>on</strong>structed at domestic water sources.O<strong>the</strong>rwise, specialized c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>s such as p<strong>on</strong>ds are planned.Different water developments are planned for different regi<strong>on</strong>s mostly focused <strong>on</strong> hardwarec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>. Types <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water points selected for human water supply mainly rely <strong>on</strong> groundwaterresources; including deep wells, h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dug wells, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> spring development for Afar, Oromiya, SNNPR,<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Somali, with additi<strong>on</strong>al interventi<strong>on</strong>s like river-based water schemes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dams cited for Somali.For livestock, planned interventi<strong>on</strong>s include birkad <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> p<strong>on</strong>ds as well as shallow wells, h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dugwells, spring development <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> deep wells for SNNPR.The Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Development Program (IDP)Irrigati<strong>on</strong> schemes in Ethiopia fall under 4 broad categories: 1) Traditi<strong>on</strong>al small scale schemes <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> upto 100 ha established <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> operated by farmers with government support. These tend to be managedby community water users’ associati<strong>on</strong>s h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ling c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>, water allocati<strong>on</strong>, operati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>maintenance; 2) Modern communal schemes <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> up to 200 ha established by government with farmerparticipati<strong>on</strong>, meant to support livelihoods through <strong>the</strong> producti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> market oriented crops,irrigated via simple river <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> stream diversi<strong>on</strong> techniques, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> managed by water users’ associati<strong>on</strong>swith technical support in some regi<strong>on</strong>s from z<strong>on</strong>al departments <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> agriculture, water <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong>;3) Modern private schemes <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> up 2000 ha owned <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> operated by private investors (e.g. irrigati<strong>on</strong>projects in <strong>the</strong> Upper Awash established in <strong>the</strong> 50s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 60s), located primarily in Oromia, SNNPR<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Afar regi<strong>on</strong>s; <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 4) large scale public schemes <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> over 3000 ha owned <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> operated by <strong>the</strong>state, most <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> which are c<strong>on</strong>centrated in Afar regi<strong>on</strong>, followed by Oromia, SNNPR <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Somaliregi<strong>on</strong>s respectively. Small-scale community driven agriculture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> large scale state led enterprisesdominate <strong>the</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong> sector in Ethiopia, followed by modern small to medium size schemes. 83%51
<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> total regi<strong>on</strong>al investment target 4 regi<strong>on</strong>s. These 4 regi<strong>on</strong>s include SNNPR <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Oromia, whichhost pastoral populati<strong>on</strong>s (WSDP 2002).The main implementati<strong>on</strong> strategy outlined calls for capitalizing <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> building <strong>on</strong> existing instituti<strong>on</strong>alstructures, promoting decentralized management involving communities in local water governance,bridging technical capacity gaps, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> promoting partnerships at all levels. However, for both watersupply <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong>, <strong>the</strong> WSDP recognizes that low community participati<strong>on</strong> in projectidentificati<strong>on</strong>, c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>, operati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> maintenance is an overarching c<strong>on</strong>straint to <strong>the</strong>implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> program, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> special emphasis is put <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> establishment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> involvement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>Water Users’ Associati<strong>on</strong>s (WUAs). It also recognizes o<strong>the</strong>r major c<strong>on</strong>straints, such as <strong>the</strong> shortage<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> skilled manpower at all administrative levels <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> insufficient capacity to implement.The WSDP also notes <strong>the</strong> potential impacts <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> program <strong>on</strong> communities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong>ir instituti<strong>on</strong>s.Special attenti<strong>on</strong> is to be given to how community instituti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> local government interact. It alsorecognizes that program activities could affect <strong>the</strong> livelihoods <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> vulnerable <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> marginalized socialgroups, specifically menti<strong>on</strong>ing pastoralists <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> agro-pastoralists in <strong>the</strong> lowl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that carefulc<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> is required for <strong>the</strong>se issues in program implementati<strong>on</strong>.The Water Supply, Sanitati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Hygiene Program (WSSP)In 2004, <strong>the</strong> MoWR launched <strong>the</strong> Water Supply, Sanitati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Hygiene Program (WSSP) whichoutlines plans to c<strong>on</strong>struct about 5,500 community-managed rural water supply schemes. Pastoralcommunities in Afar, Somali, Oromia <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> SNNPR Regi<strong>on</strong>s are major beneficiaries (MoWR, 2009). In2006, it was realized that implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> WSSP in pastoral regi<strong>on</strong>s could not be achievedwithout special c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> for <strong>the</strong> needs <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> lowl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> areas. This resulted in <strong>the</strong> development <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>Specific Implementati<strong>on</strong> Guidelines for Pastoralist Areas which take into c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> “<strong>the</strong>envir<strong>on</strong>mental, social, technological, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> o<strong>the</strong>r peculiarities <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoral communities.” Box 7discusses <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> highlights some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> central <strong>the</strong>mes menti<strong>on</strong>ed in <strong>the</strong> guidelines.Box 7: Central <strong>the</strong>mes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> highlights <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> WSSP for Pastoral Areas (based <strong>on</strong> Giovannetti2006)• Water point selecti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> placement: The way in which <strong>the</strong> guidelines are presented suggests that waterpoint selecti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> placement is guided more by technical <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cost c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>s ra<strong>the</strong>r than how <strong>the</strong>water point will impact <strong>on</strong> local people/livestock/l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>scape interacti<strong>on</strong>s.• Mobility: Explicitly recognized in <strong>the</strong> document. The guidelines promote c<strong>on</strong>text specific planning, statingthat “a case-by-case basis <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> actual movements <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a given community is paramount to approachingproperly its water supply issues.” Also recognizes that sedentarizati<strong>on</strong> threatens <strong>the</strong> balance betweenlivestock, pasture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> water.• Settlement: The guidelines recognize different settlement patterns in pastoral areas. For Afar <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Somali, 4different settlement patterns are identified: 1) permanent sedentary settlements without pastoralists, 2)permanent sedentary settlements where pastoralists are present for several m<strong>on</strong>ths with <strong>the</strong>ir livestock,3) permanent sedentary settlements where pastoralists spend a few days to a few weeks with <strong>the</strong>irlivestock, 4) n<strong>on</strong> permanent settlements <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoralists with significant but temporary presence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>livestock.• Participati<strong>on</strong>: The guidelines recommend that defining who <strong>the</strong> ‘community’ is should be d<strong>on</strong>e <strong>on</strong> a case bycase basis. Participati<strong>on</strong> is envisi<strong>on</strong>ed as expressing dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> for water supply, participating physically <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>/orfinancially in c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> taking care <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> operati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> maintenance. A user elected CommunityWater, Sanitati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Hygiene Committees should represent <strong>the</strong> community in planning <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> management<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water facilities.• Highl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> influence: The guidelines recognize that due to low technical capacity in pastoral regi<strong>on</strong>s,pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>essi<strong>on</strong>als from highl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> regi<strong>on</strong>s are usually brought in to fill gaps bringing with <strong>the</strong>m highl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>approaches which are different to those appropriate in <strong>the</strong> lowl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s.• Impact: The document acknowledges that large capacity water points could attract too many livestock fora given area. It recommends that water points not exceed a size that waters a maximum <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 4,500 head <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>cattle a day <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that <strong>the</strong>y are spaced about 20km apart to avoid overgrazing.• Community C<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong>: The guidelines recommend that <strong>the</strong> community should c<strong>on</strong>tribute 5% in cash <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>5% in kind to c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>. However, it also menti<strong>on</strong>s that requiring a cash c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> could excludemost communities from <strong>the</strong> benefit <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> WSSP.52
The Universal Access ProgramThe Universal Access Program (UAP), adopted by <strong>the</strong> Ethiopian government in 2005, is meant toprovide access to safe water for 98% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> rural populati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> country by 2012, focusing <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong>use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> low cost technologies at <strong>the</strong> community level. To meet UAP/PASDEP targets, <strong>the</strong> currentgrowth rate in water point development <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> access coverage needs to double. Accordingly, 110,460new rural water supply schemes, 82% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> which are low cost technologies, are planned for <strong>the</strong> period2009-2012 to meet this target (MoWR, 2009). The rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> existing schemes is also planned,with a target <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> reducing malfuncti<strong>on</strong>ing schemes from 30% to 10% by 2010 (MoWR, 2009). Box 8discusses some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> main <strong>the</strong>mes <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> UAP.Box 8: Comments <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> UAP (revised in 2009)• The program plans to c<strong>on</strong>struct an additi<strong>on</strong>al 110,460 water supply schemes in <strong>the</strong> period 2009-2012. Thissuggests a major focus <strong>on</strong> hardware c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> in <strong>the</strong> coming years.• No menti<strong>on</strong> is made <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoral areas, where communities are both mobile <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sedentary, each with differentneeds. There is also little menti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> livestock.• Planning, design, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> placement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> schemes is primarily tasked to technical staff at z<strong>on</strong>al, woreda, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> kebelelevels. Beneficiary involvement in planning <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> implementati<strong>on</strong> will be through Water, Sanitati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> HygieneCommittees, which are user elected committees set up based <strong>on</strong> generic selecti<strong>on</strong> criteria imported from <strong>the</strong>highl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s.• Water use for livestock, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> o<strong>the</strong>r multiple uses, is <strong>on</strong>ly briefly menti<strong>on</strong>ed in <strong>the</strong> recommendati<strong>on</strong>s, with littleelaborati<strong>on</strong>.OpportunitiesA need to c<strong>on</strong>sider local c<strong>on</strong>texts <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s in pastoralist regi<strong>on</strong>s is evident. Two opportunities present<strong>the</strong>mselves:• Guidelines for UAP planning <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> implementati<strong>on</strong> management are currently being drafted.• The Plan recommends developing “community mobilizati<strong>on</strong>, planning <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> management <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> technologyguidelines” with opportunities to tap into this process.Food Security Program <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> Productive Safety Net Program – Pastoral Areas Pilot (PSNP PAP)Under <strong>the</strong> MoARD, this program was designed to focus <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> development <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>on</strong>g term soluti<strong>on</strong>sto food security issues as an alternative to crisis resp<strong>on</strong>se based solely <strong>on</strong> food aid appeals, whichwere found to do little to protect livelihoods, preserve or generate community assets. The FoodSecurity Program is meant to complement <strong>the</strong> emergency resp<strong>on</strong>se system, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> focuses <strong>on</strong> a)providing a safety net for chr<strong>on</strong>ically food insecure people, b) supporting household <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> communityasset building, c) resettlement (World Bank, 2009: Productive Safety Net APL III).Originally launched in 2005 as part <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> Food Security Program, <strong>the</strong> PSNP aimed to protect <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>build household assets <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> increase resilience to shock am<strong>on</strong>g <strong>the</strong> country’s chr<strong>on</strong>ically foodinsecure, by injecting food or cash into communities in exchange for c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong>s to <strong>the</strong>c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> public works. Multiple d<strong>on</strong>ors c<strong>on</strong>tribute to funding <strong>the</strong> program, including USAID,<strong>the</strong> World Bank, DFID, <strong>the</strong> EU <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Irish Aid.Pastoral areas were not included in <strong>the</strong> early phases <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> PSNP due to capacity c<strong>on</strong>straints <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> arecognized need for a different approach in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> program design <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> implementati<strong>on</strong> in <strong>the</strong>pastoral c<strong>on</strong>text. C<strong>on</strong>sequently a pilot programme for pastoral areas was designed, <strong>the</strong> outcomes <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>which should provide clear guidelines for full-scale implementati<strong>on</strong> (The Productive Safety NetProgramme in Pastoral Areas: Pilot Design, PTF Versi<strong>on</strong> 4, 2007). Piloting <strong>on</strong> a small scale allowslearning by doing, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> aims to minimize large scale negative impacts. Proposed pilot areas includenine woredas in Somali, six in Afar, three in Oromia, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> three in SNNPR.53
Major elements <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> PSNP PAP include:• Timing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> projects adjusted to <strong>the</strong> seas<strong>on</strong>ality <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> livelihoods in <strong>the</strong> lowl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s;• Pilot woredas implement opti<strong>on</strong>s suitable to local circumstances;• Projects identified with participati<strong>on</strong> from different livelihood groups <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>d to communityneeds - backstopped by technical expertise;• Public works developed in <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>text <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> livelihood <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>scape z<strong>on</strong>es so as not to interferewith mobility systems <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> instigate competiti<strong>on</strong> between different groups;• Social <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> envir<strong>on</strong>mental impacts c<strong>on</strong>sidered;• Clans <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> communities c<strong>on</strong>sulted to ensure that access <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use rights are not encroached up<strong>on</strong>,<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that ownership/management structures are discussed which should “follow traditi<strong>on</strong>alcommunal management structures, toge<strong>the</strong>r with traditi<strong>on</strong>al user rights” (Ministry <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Agriculture<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rural Development Food Security Programme 2010-2014, 2009: p.57). Range management<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> range ecology experts at woreda <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> regi<strong>on</strong>al level also c<strong>on</strong>sulted to ensure thatdevelopment does not lead to range overuse <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> degradati<strong>on</strong>;• Partnerships between woredas <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> NGOs piloted to address capacity shortages at woreda level;• A Pastoral Taskforce, c<strong>on</strong>stituting Government, d<strong>on</strong>ors <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> o<strong>the</strong>r stakeholders, set up tocoordinate planning <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> implementati<strong>on</strong>;• Mobility <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> access to critical natural resources supported to increase resilience to drought. TheMoARD led Nati<strong>on</strong>al Livestock Policy Forum is currently drafting four drought protocols forpastoral areas to clearly define modalities <strong>on</strong> how to achieve this;• Applied studies <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> range <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> water management carried out in <strong>on</strong>e or two woredas to provideguidelines for approaching district level water <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> range management planning, to serve as amodel for scaling up;• Natural resource <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic mapping <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> analysis used.Types <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> projects to be implemented should be disaggregated based <strong>on</strong> settlement patterns indifferent areas. In pastoral areas with high mobility <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> irregular use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> services, projects shouldfocus <strong>on</strong> envir<strong>on</strong>mental rehabilitati<strong>on</strong>, natural resource mapping <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> community acti<strong>on</strong> planning (Box9), improved access to water sources, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> improved water management, possibly includingreducti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> some poorly sited water sources. For agro-pastoralists <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> o<strong>the</strong>rs who are semisettled,interventi<strong>on</strong>s should include <strong>the</strong> development <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> service infrastructure (schools, clinics, etc.),water supplies for human c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> water development for irrigati<strong>on</strong>.Applying a livelihood z<strong>on</strong>e approach ra<strong>the</strong>r than a kebele based approach to public works planningshould be c<strong>on</strong>sidered <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> guidelines developed accordingly specific to <strong>the</strong> pastoral c<strong>on</strong>text. Thisapproach involves “c<strong>on</strong>sidering migrati<strong>on</strong> patterns <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> grazing l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>/water point usage ra<strong>the</strong>r thansimply administrative boundaries.” (Ministry <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Agriculture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rural Development Food SecurityProgramme 2010-2014, 2009: p.57). The preparati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Community Acti<strong>on</strong> Plans 34 around livelihoodz<strong>on</strong>es could be a promising practice, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> involving whole affected communities at z<strong>on</strong>al or interworedalevel (not just kebele residents) in site selecti<strong>on</strong> is critical to avoid development inducedc<strong>on</strong>flict. Z<strong>on</strong>al level administrati<strong>on</strong> can play an important coordinati<strong>on</strong> role, especially as livelihoodz<strong>on</strong>es, clans <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> customary instituti<strong>on</strong>s cross district borders.Traditi<strong>on</strong>al instituti<strong>on</strong>s are also explicitly menti<strong>on</strong>ed. The Gada system in Oromia, <strong>the</strong> Guurti <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> clanelders in Somali, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> Medaa in Afar are recognized to play an important role in communities, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>the</strong>ir role in <strong>the</strong> PSNP is envisi<strong>on</strong>ed as:• Helping, where needed, in identifying beneficiaries;• Helping ensure that public works implemented in <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s or in close proximity to water,are compatible with extensive livestock producti<strong>on</strong>;34 Where communities identify <strong>the</strong>ir own development needs.54
• Help ensure that public works do not encroach <strong>on</strong> customary rights <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> access or use;• Support <strong>the</strong> resoluti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> issues regarding l<strong>on</strong>g-term ownership or management.Box 9: Use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Natural Resource <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Socio Ec<strong>on</strong>omic Mapping <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Analysis in PSNP (from DraftGuidelines for <strong>the</strong> Implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> Productive Safety Net Program Pastoral Areas Pilot,Versi<strong>on</strong> 2, 2007: 52)A Development Agent (DA) will use simple mapping kits to bring <strong>on</strong> board local knowledge as brought to <strong>the</strong>table by <strong>the</strong> planning team - comprised <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> community leader at kebele level, four male headed householdsrepresenting different social groups, four female headed households representing different social groups, <strong>on</strong>eyouth representative, <strong>on</strong>e religious representative, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> o<strong>the</strong>rs as required by <strong>the</strong> community.The process involves:• Marking obvious features <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> ground, which could be <strong>the</strong> pastoral unit boundaries, roads, hill tops,rivers, settlements, etc.• Adding more detail to <strong>the</strong> map which includes <strong>the</strong> locati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> different natural resources such as pasture,water sources, agricultural l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, forest, etc. <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> any areas where degradati<strong>on</strong> is observed. At this stage,features <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> traditi<strong>on</strong>al natural resource management should be marked, including customary l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> divisi<strong>on</strong>sfor grazing management, customary water management arrangements, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> patterns <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> mobility (<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> bothlocal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> visiting communities).• Identify <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> discuss any problems which exist in relati<strong>on</strong> to mapped items, including natural resources,traditi<strong>on</strong>al systems, mobility, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flict. Different maps can be produced to capture different aspects, forexample a map for natural resources, <strong>on</strong>e for social services <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e for mobility.• Jointly prioritize issues to be addressed, identify potential soluti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> identify community/external (publicworks) acti<strong>on</strong>s which can rectify <strong>the</strong> problem.•Prioritized public works as identified through <strong>the</strong> above planning process should <strong>the</strong>n be presented, discussed,amended <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> approved in a general assembly representing <strong>the</strong> wider community. Agreed up<strong>on</strong> public worksshould <strong>the</strong>n be included in <strong>the</strong> kebele plan which is submitted to woreda level for approval. The kebele planshould include a short technical descripti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> proposed projects, a list <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> intended activities, <strong>the</strong> number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>participants in <strong>the</strong> implementati<strong>on</strong> process <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong>ir levels <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> effort, requirements for technical <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>administrative input, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a maintenance plan for new infrastructure.The PSNP PAP Progress Report, published in 2008, identified some weaknesses in pilotimplementati<strong>on</strong>, which include:• Overall delayed implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> weak recruitment <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> necessary staff;• Training <strong>on</strong> implementati<strong>on</strong> guidelines was incomplete;• Even though NGOs are <strong>on</strong> board <strong>the</strong>re is need for better coordinati<strong>on</strong>;• Program activities were not sufficiently explained to communities in pilot woredas;• No informati<strong>on</strong> available whe<strong>the</strong>r regi<strong>on</strong>al government <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> NGOs have held appropriatediscussi<strong>on</strong>s with target communities to generate informati<strong>on</strong> regarding situati<strong>on</strong> assessments in<strong>the</strong> pilot woredas, or to decide <strong>on</strong> pilot opti<strong>on</strong>s to suit local c<strong>on</strong>texts.• Many <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> planning activities had not yet been implemented <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> little informati<strong>on</strong> provided <strong>on</strong>progress with regards to identifying beneficiaries or deciding which public works to carry out.• A change <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> PSNP staff occurred in Somali regi<strong>on</strong> with limited awareness <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>pilot objectives.• No <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ficial reports had been submitted ei<strong>the</strong>r by government or by NGOs related to progress<strong>on</strong> training implemented <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pilot opti<strong>on</strong>s.• Weak coordinati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> informati<strong>on</strong> sharing between regi<strong>on</strong>al government <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> NGOs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> nocoordinati<strong>on</strong> mechanisms in place in pastoral regi<strong>on</strong>s.A final assessment <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> pilot phase is currently being undertaken. However, <strong>the</strong>re is pressure toimplement <strong>the</strong> next phase <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> PSNP (current phase ended in 2009), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Government plans to rollout <strong>the</strong> PSNP PAP in 2010. In turn <strong>the</strong>re is a risk that less<strong>on</strong>s from <strong>the</strong> final assessment may not befully integrated into <strong>the</strong> planning <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> roll-out <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> full PSNP for pastoral areas. Therefore less<strong>on</strong>55
sharing <strong>on</strong> water development best practice is critical to inform ways forward, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> debate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>dialogue <strong>on</strong> current practice is needed.Oromia Growth Corridors Plan 35The 5 year Oromia Growth Corridors Plan was prepared in 2006 by Oromia regi<strong>on</strong>al governmentin resp<strong>on</strong>se to what was seen as a failure <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> previous development efforts to bring sustainablesoluti<strong>on</strong>s to existing challenges in <strong>the</strong> lowl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s. It was c<strong>on</strong>cluded that piecemeal development effortscould not bring about sustainable development or food security, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a holistic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>certedregi<strong>on</strong>al development effort was needed to achieve this objective, by using water as an entry point.The plan foresees that c<strong>on</strong>structing deep wells tapping into ‘permanent’ groundwater, supported bysurface water harvesting, will make possible multiple l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> uses including livestock producti<strong>on</strong> as wellas irrigati<strong>on</strong>. Detailed l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use planning - a tool used for <strong>the</strong> first time at government level to informdevelopment in <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s - will inform types <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> uses suitable for different areas. Accordingto <strong>the</strong> Oromia Water Works Design <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Supervisi<strong>on</strong> Enterprise, “with <strong>the</strong> perspective <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> PRSPtowards achieving <strong>the</strong> MDGs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ensuring fur<strong>the</strong>r ec<strong>on</strong>omic growth, investing in waterinfrastructure is not a matter <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> fashi<strong>on</strong> or opti<strong>on</strong> but essential <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> inescapable.”The trigger for <strong>the</strong> Plan was to explore resettlement potential in <strong>the</strong> lowl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s to alleviate pressure<strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> degraded <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dwindling l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> resources <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> highl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s. The visi<strong>on</strong> for <strong>the</strong> Growth CorridorsPlan is that food insecure areas in <strong>the</strong> lowl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s could be transformed into development centreswhich will relieve pressure <strong>on</strong> degraded resources in <strong>the</strong> highl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s. Three ‘development corridors,’including South East Oromia Development Corridor, Central Oromia Development Corridor(which c<strong>on</strong>sists <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> Rift Valley <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> central Oromia highl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> Western OromiaDevelopment Corridor are targeted. The Plan would ensure “equity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> balanced development”(The Oromia Development Corridors Approach Strategic Plan, 2008 36 : 2) in <strong>the</strong>se regi<strong>on</strong>s.The Plan focuses <strong>on</strong> integrated development in <strong>the</strong> regi<strong>on</strong>, to include: 1) good governance, 2)effective <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sustainable l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> management systems, 3) human <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> livestock health, 3)infrastructure development (roads, power, communicati<strong>on</strong>, health <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> access to markets), 4)improved productivity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> livestock <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dryl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> farming, 5) streng<strong>the</strong>ned implementati<strong>on</strong> capacity atlocal level (Ibid: 6).The multi-sectoral approachL<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use plans are prepared in an integrated manner “incorporating all essential aspects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>development” (Taye Alemayahu, pers<strong>on</strong>al communicati<strong>on</strong>, 2009) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> with input from all sectors.Because it is multi-sectoral, implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> plan is bey<strong>on</strong>d <strong>the</strong> scope or capabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> any <strong>on</strong>eregi<strong>on</strong>al bureau. Thus <strong>the</strong> Oromia L<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Administrati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Envir<strong>on</strong>mental Protecti<strong>on</strong> Bureau wasestablished to guide <strong>the</strong> implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> plan <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to draft regulati<strong>on</strong>s regarding l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use - withbackstopping from <strong>the</strong> Oromia Water Works Design <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Supervisi<strong>on</strong> Enterprise.The Deputy General Manager <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> Oromia Water Works Design <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Supervisi<strong>on</strong> Enterprise, TayeAlemayehu, believes that <strong>the</strong> multi-sectoral approach is what sets this program apart from earlyrangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> development projects such as <strong>the</strong> RDP. The premise is that covering <strong>the</strong> multipledevelopment needs in <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s (including human <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> livestock health, infrastructure, etc.) mustgo h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> in h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> with availing water. He also notes that different l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use needs in <strong>the</strong> regi<strong>on</strong> arerecognized <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>sidered, made possible through detailed l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use planning, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that communityparticipati<strong>on</strong> plays a much more central role.35 This initiative is <strong>the</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly excepti<strong>on</strong> to <strong>the</strong> federal level projects highlighted so far, as it has been planned <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>is being implemented at regi<strong>on</strong>al level in Oromia regi<strong>on</strong>al state <strong>on</strong>ly (so far).36 This document is <strong>the</strong> master strategic plan guiding <strong>the</strong> initiative. All o<strong>the</strong>r documents cited in <strong>the</strong>descripti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> this initiative fall under <strong>the</strong> umbrella <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> this master strategic plan.56
However, <strong>the</strong> development model for <strong>the</strong> Growth Corridors Plan still aims for <strong>the</strong> ‘voluntary’settlement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoralists in <strong>the</strong> l<strong>on</strong>g term. As pastoralists are increasingly observed to settle,development in pastoral regi<strong>on</strong>s is planned with a view towards providing livelihood diversificati<strong>on</strong>opportunities with an agricultural emphasis, especially for youth. For livestock producti<strong>on</strong>, a moresettled model is envisi<strong>on</strong>ed as it is c<strong>on</strong>cluded that current pressures faced by pastoral communitiesare not c<strong>on</strong>ducive for mobility, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> recurrent heavy losses <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> livestock have made pastoralists moreopen to settling (Taye Alemayehu, pers<strong>on</strong>al communicati<strong>on</strong>. 2009). Even though settled forms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>livestock producti<strong>on</strong> failed in previous rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> development approaches it is believed that <strong>the</strong>semodels will work in today’s c<strong>on</strong>text because <strong>the</strong> project also provides o<strong>the</strong>r necessary developmentneeds such as roads, communicati<strong>on</strong>, access to market informati<strong>on</strong>, schools, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> health services,besides just water (Ibid).Water Development – <strong>the</strong> entry pointIn Hararge, nineteen deep wells have been drilled in <strong>the</strong> lowl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> which sixteen are observed tobe highly productive. Water quality in most wells is deemed suitable for domestic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> agriculturaluse. In East <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> West Hararge, eight water supply schemes targeting existing <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> new settlementareas in five food insecure districts are currently under c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>, including more than 496km <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>pipeline, 320 distributi<strong>on</strong> points <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 164 cattle troughs (The Oromia Development CorridorsApproach Strategic Plan, 2008).In Borana, eight food insecure districts are targeted for <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water supply schemes,primarily centred <strong>on</strong> deep wells. So far fourteen deep wells have been drilled with ‘sufficient water<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> acceptable quality’ (Taye Alemayehu, pers<strong>on</strong>al communicati<strong>on</strong>. 2009). The c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> morethan 2000km <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pipeline has <strong>the</strong>refore begun in three localities, guided by <strong>the</strong> proposed l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use plan(Ibid).L<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use planningIntegrated l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use planning was introduced under this project as a tool to guide decisi<strong>on</strong>-making <strong>on</strong>best uses <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>. It was c<strong>on</strong>cluded that a serious impediment to appropriate development is adearth <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> knowledge about available resources <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong>ir potential uses, which has resulted inunsuitable l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use leading to deforestati<strong>on</strong>, l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> degradati<strong>on</strong>, decreased productivity, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> increasedvulnerability to food insecurity (The Oromia Development Corridors Approach Strategic Plan,2008).The outputs <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use plans include semi-detailed soil maps at district level, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> initialidentificati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> suitable areas for cash food crops <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> animal feed producti<strong>on</strong> (ei<strong>the</strong>r rain fed orirrigated, but with more focus <strong>on</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong>), areas for agro-industrial development, areas forlivestock producti<strong>on</strong>, areas for resettlement, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> areas for tourism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> market development.Technical l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use manuals have been developed to guide sustainable l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a draft l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> useproclamati<strong>on</strong> for pastoral areas will be produced.AgricultureAgriculture is identified as a key development focus to achieve sustainable growth <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> food securityin Oromia (Oromia L<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Use Guided Valley Development Program, 2009), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong> is seen as<strong>the</strong> “<strong>on</strong>ly strategy to exercise sustainable agriculture.”The regi<strong>on</strong> is believed to possess about 1.7m ha <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> potentially irrigable l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> using surface water, <strong>on</strong>lya fracti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> which is used for this purpose (Ibid). The Fentale I <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> II irrigati<strong>on</strong> schemes were thusestablished to exp<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrigati<strong>on</strong>. About 28,000ha have been set aside for irrigati<strong>on</strong> developmentunder Fentale I, <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> which 900ha have already been developed. For Fentale II, 8000ha have been setaside. The objective is to provide livelihoods for Kerrayu <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Itu pastoralists by shifting <strong>the</strong>irlivelihood strategies away from total dependence <strong>on</strong> ‘unsustainable’ pastoral producti<strong>on</strong> toagricultural producti<strong>on</strong> (Taye Alemayehu, pers<strong>on</strong>al communicati<strong>on</strong>, 2009).57
Irrigati<strong>on</strong> potential may be higher than <strong>the</strong> figure stated if groundwater resources are explored <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>tapped. A recent presentati<strong>on</strong> made by <strong>the</strong> Oromia Water Works Design <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Supervisi<strong>on</strong>Enterprise states that “extensive l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> resources are suitable for different agricultural activities ifproblems related to water <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> moisture deficits are addressed” in lowl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> areas. “Water resourceevaluati<strong>on</strong> works undertaken in three areas <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> regi<strong>on</strong> have proved <strong>the</strong> presence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> large regi<strong>on</strong>alaquifers that can be used to irrigate milli<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> hectares <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>” (Taye Alemayehu, pers<strong>on</strong>alcommunicati<strong>on</strong>. 2009).Pastoral rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> developmentSocio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic studies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use plans (final drafts <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> which have been completed) will inform<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> guide <strong>the</strong> implementati<strong>on</strong> process. Community c<strong>on</strong>sultati<strong>on</strong>s will be held to introduce <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>discuss l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use plans (completed in Borana <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Hararge). Based <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong>se c<strong>on</strong>sultati<strong>on</strong>s, area baseddevelopment programs will be drafted, which represent more focused c<strong>on</strong>text-specific developmentplanning. These area based development plans will be “based <strong>on</strong> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use study findings, communityneeds, stakeholder c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> o<strong>the</strong>r country experiences.”L<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use plans have been completed for 10 sub-basins across Borana, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> East <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> West HarargeZ<strong>on</strong>e. For <strong>the</strong> pastoral lowl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s in Borana, l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use planning revealed that 2 <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> 3 basins includedin <strong>the</strong> Plan are most suited for livestock producti<strong>on</strong> 37 , where it is recognized that dry seas<strong>on</strong> grazingareas are vital for pastoral livelihoods (Taye Alemayehu, pers<strong>on</strong>al communicati<strong>on</strong>, 2009).A major necessity identified for developing pastoral areas is <strong>the</strong> revisi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoral l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> holdingsystems. Because l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use plans <strong>on</strong>ce finalized will result in <strong>the</strong> gazetting <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> areas for particular l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>uses, ‘fuzzy’ communal ownership must be replaced by defined individual or communal ownership.The planned multiple uses <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> lowl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s will also be bey<strong>on</strong>d <strong>the</strong> capacity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> traditi<strong>on</strong>al pastoralinstituti<strong>on</strong>s to manage (Taye Alemayehu, pers<strong>on</strong>al communicati<strong>on</strong>, 2009).According to <strong>the</strong> Pilot Phase L<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Use Implementati<strong>on</strong> Plan Document (2009), rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>development will focus <strong>on</strong>:• Improving rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> productivity, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> in turn livestock producti<strong>on</strong>. Rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> carrying capacitiesare to be identified <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a more settled form <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> livestock producti<strong>on</strong> envisi<strong>on</strong>ed in <strong>the</strong> l<strong>on</strong>g term;• Enhancing research <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> studies <strong>on</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> livestock resource productivity;• Introducing <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> testing improved range management technologies. Rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> management willbuild <strong>on</strong> current best practice in this field (including <strong>the</strong> Pastoral Livelihood Initiative’s (PLI)successful c<strong>on</strong>trolled burning interventi<strong>on</strong>s to combat bush encroachment) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> will incorporateless<strong>on</strong>s from <strong>the</strong> PCDP (Taye Alemayehu, pers<strong>on</strong>al communicati<strong>on</strong>, 2009). There is also a planto formalize <strong>the</strong> involvement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Gada instituti<strong>on</strong>s in rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> management, but how this will bed<strong>on</strong>e has not yet been established (Ibid).• Improving water supply schemes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ensuring even distributi<strong>on</strong> as per rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s.Two pilot areas are selected for <strong>the</strong> implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> management approach(pending funding), <strong>on</strong>e in Yabello, in Ade Gelchat, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r in Magado, in Dire District (Figure4). Implementati<strong>on</strong> begins when water development has been completed. So far, 32% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> watersupply scheme has been completed for <strong>the</strong> pilot areas in Borana Z<strong>on</strong>e. Less<strong>on</strong>s from <strong>the</strong> pilot willset norms <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ards for full implementati<strong>on</strong>.37 This is possibly <strong>the</strong> first time that a government program recognizes that livestock producti<strong>on</strong> is moresuitable than crop producti<strong>on</strong> in certain areas.58
Figure 4: Proposed pilot l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use plan implementati<strong>on</strong> areas in Borana Z<strong>on</strong>e 38Overall planning is c<strong>on</strong>ducted at expert level within government. However, it is noted thatcommunity participati<strong>on</strong> is necessary to ensure <strong>the</strong> sustainability <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> development endeavour. TheL<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Use Guided Valley Development Program (2009) indicates that “community has to participatein implementati<strong>on</strong>, m<strong>on</strong>itoring <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> evaluati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> projects to be implemented under <strong>the</strong> programstarting from project identificati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> preparati<strong>on</strong>. Since <strong>the</strong> community at <strong>the</strong> grass root is <strong>the</strong>primary beneficiaries <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> program/projects <strong>the</strong>y need to make <strong>the</strong>ir c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong>s toimplementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> projects in labour <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>/or cash as per <strong>the</strong>ir current background.” To helpcoordinate community participati<strong>on</strong>, a Community Coordinati<strong>on</strong> Committee is planned, comprisingall social groups am<strong>on</strong>g beneficiary communities, to include elders, women, youth <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> variousvillage structures.It is assumed that communities will c<strong>on</strong>tribute to program implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> display a “readinessto benefit from <strong>the</strong> development interventi<strong>on</strong>s undertaken.” Risks associated with <strong>the</strong> programinclude a lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> full community participati<strong>on</strong>, c<strong>on</strong>flict <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> interest in <strong>the</strong> proposed project areas, lack<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> support by stakeholders, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> weak implementati<strong>on</strong> capacity (L<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Use Guided ValleyDevelopment Program, 2009).For <strong>the</strong> Pilot Phase <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> L<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Use Implementati<strong>on</strong> Plan (2009), a basic assumpti<strong>on</strong> is thatpastoralists can be persuaded to accept <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>cept <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> “modern rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> management”. It isrecognized here that potential disagreement could arise over <strong>the</strong> plan to promote <strong>the</strong> privatizati<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s to accommodate <strong>the</strong> intended gazetting <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> different areas as per <strong>the</strong>ir assigned l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>uses, <strong>the</strong>refore intensive “awareness raising” is planned prior to implementati<strong>on</strong>.Tragedy <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> comm<strong>on</strong>s thinking is also clearly still in evidence, where a risk highlighted for planimplementati<strong>on</strong> is that “<strong>the</strong> tragedy <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> comm<strong>on</strong>s could occur in course <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>the</strong> plan, especially <strong>on</strong> herd management vis-à-vis <strong>the</strong> carrying capacity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> pasturel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>.”38 Provided by <strong>the</strong> Oromia Water Works Design <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Supervisi<strong>on</strong> Enterprise59
O<strong>the</strong>r regi<strong>on</strong>sThe Oromia Growth Corridors model is currently being imported by Somali <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Amhara regi<strong>on</strong>s.SNNPR regi<strong>on</strong>al administrati<strong>on</strong> has also expressed interest in adopting a similar model (KaidakiGezahegn 39 , pers<strong>on</strong>al communicati<strong>on</strong>).Box 10: Comments <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> Oromia Growth Corridors PlanEven though this regi<strong>on</strong>al initiative focuses <strong>on</strong> integrated development in <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, providing services <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>infrastructure which are sorely lacking, it clearly intends to settle pastoralists by promoting settled forms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>livestock producti<strong>on</strong> (i.e. ranching) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> promotes <strong>the</strong> privatizati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>. For decades it has been noted thatsettled forms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> livestock producti<strong>on</strong> have not been successful in <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that communal l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>holding is anecessity for pastoralists to effectively practice <strong>the</strong>ir livelihoods. Despite menti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>sultati<strong>on</strong>sat <strong>the</strong> grassroots, it remains unclear how project interventi<strong>on</strong>s can enhance pastoral livelihood resilience given thatmobility <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> communal l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>holding have been central to helping pastoralists effectively resp<strong>on</strong>d <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> adapt to <strong>the</strong>challenging lowl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> envir<strong>on</strong>ment. Am<strong>on</strong>g <strong>the</strong> many benefits <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> mobile pastoralism, it mainly prevents l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>/soilexhausti<strong>on</strong>, protecting <strong>the</strong> integrity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> avoids <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>centrati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> livestock, which wouldo<strong>the</strong>rwise increase <strong>the</strong> incidence <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> spread <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> disease.3.1.3 NGOs/Development organizati<strong>on</strong>sFigure 5: NGOs/development organizati<strong>on</strong>s working <strong>on</strong> water39 Bureau Head, Pastoral Affairs Bureau60
Many internati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> local NGOs as well asinternati<strong>on</strong>al development organizati<strong>on</strong>s areengaged in water development in pastoralregi<strong>on</strong>s mainly in <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water points, <strong>the</strong> development<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> small scale irrigati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> provisi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>capacity building <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> training.There is no uniform approach to <strong>the</strong> way thatNGOs or development organizati<strong>on</strong>s engage inpastoral areas. Individual organizati<strong>on</strong>s usuallywork in isolati<strong>on</strong> from government <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> from<strong>on</strong>e ano<strong>the</strong>r, meaning that just as forgovernment, NGO approaches run <strong>the</strong> gamutfrom c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al technocratic methods tothose which are highly participatory <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>locati<strong>on</strong>-specific. As noted previously forgovernment interventi<strong>on</strong>s, incoherence inapproach to water development <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> weaklinkages between practiti<strong>on</strong>ers creates anenvir<strong>on</strong>ment where it is easy for inappropriate<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> poor quality water development to gounchecked.Box 11: Water User Associati<strong>on</strong>s in Ethiopia <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>relevance in <strong>the</strong> pastoral c<strong>on</strong>textIn <strong>the</strong> last 10 years, government <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> NGOs haveintroduced Water User Associati<strong>on</strong>s (WUA) as ameans for communities to take <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> operati<strong>on</strong>,management, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> maintenance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water points instead<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>, or <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten al<strong>on</strong>gside, government. These associati<strong>on</strong>sare generally made up <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> about 7 members meant torepresent a cross-secti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water users in a givenlocality. Training is provided for <strong>the</strong>se members toenable <strong>the</strong>m to perform <strong>the</strong>ir duties, yet <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten, moreattenti<strong>on</strong> is given to physically establishing <strong>the</strong>seassociati<strong>on</strong>s ra<strong>the</strong>r than ensuring that <strong>the</strong>y operateeffectively. Projects are still more c<strong>on</strong>cerned withmeeting targets as outlined in proposals ra<strong>the</strong>r thanmeasuring effectiveness. WUAs <strong>the</strong>refore suffer fromweak management, operati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> maintenancecapacity. Very <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten water points are managed bygovernment even though <strong>the</strong>y are meant to be h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>edover to WUAs to manage. In <strong>the</strong> pastoral c<strong>on</strong>text,WUAs could benefit <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> learn from existing customarywater management systems, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> avenues should beexplored to meld <strong>the</strong> two management arrangementsto make <strong>the</strong> most <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> what each has to <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>fer.In terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> engagement <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> ground, <strong>the</strong>re are two ways in which NGOs/developmentorganizati<strong>on</strong>s engage with pastoralists. The first method is to approach <strong>the</strong> woreda <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>fice whichidentifies PAs or kebeles where <strong>the</strong>re is need for water. Once areas are identified, <strong>the</strong> PA authorityorganizes a community meeting where priorities are identified by a committee meant to represent<strong>the</strong> community. NGOs/development organizati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>the</strong>n plan interventi<strong>on</strong>s, submit proposals atregi<strong>on</strong>al level for approval, implement <strong>the</strong> project, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> over new infrastructure to ei<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong>administrative authority or to Water User Associati<strong>on</strong>s (WUAs). The sec<strong>on</strong>d method <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>engagement is for NGOs to approach communities directly who <strong>the</strong>mselves identify developmentpriorities without relying <strong>on</strong> local administrati<strong>on</strong> to facilitate <strong>the</strong> process. This is comm<strong>on</strong> am<strong>on</strong>gNGOs who have previous experience in an area or with a particular community, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> avoidspotential administrative biases. Development needs are discussed directly with communities, localbaselines sometimes carried out, interventi<strong>on</strong>s planned, proposals submitted for approval at regi<strong>on</strong>allevel, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> infrastructure h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed over to local government or WUAs. Whe<strong>the</strong>r organizati<strong>on</strong>s engagewith communities directly or through <strong>the</strong> kebele, in both cases proposals must be submitted toei<strong>the</strong>r regi<strong>on</strong>al pastoral bureaus/commissi<strong>on</strong>s if <strong>the</strong> project is related to pastoral development or to<strong>the</strong> water bureau if <strong>the</strong> interventi<strong>on</strong> is purely water related. If projects in pastoral areas areimplemented by c<strong>on</strong>sortia, each organizati<strong>on</strong> must independently clear proposed activities with <strong>the</strong>relevant authority.Setting up WUAs is now increasingly encouraged to improve downward accountability by bothNGOs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> government, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to enable communities to manage <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> operate local water points,ra<strong>the</strong>r than <strong>the</strong> resp<strong>on</strong>sibility lying solely with government or with customary instituti<strong>on</strong>s whichpreviously managed water resources. These Associati<strong>on</strong>s are meant to reflect a cross-secti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong>community (Box 11). To date, however, WUAs <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten lack <strong>the</strong> capacity to manage <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> operatecomplex schemes – unlike customary systems.61
3.1.3.1. Highlighted projects, actors, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> activitiesEngaging with customary instituti<strong>on</strong>s to better inform planning <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water schemesis emphasized by some NGOs, especially those working <strong>on</strong> l<strong>on</strong>ger term pastoral development. Inadditi<strong>on</strong>, introducing a more l<strong>on</strong>g-term development emphasis to improve emergency reliefinterventi<strong>on</strong>s is also observed am<strong>on</strong>g some d<strong>on</strong>ors, as well as promoting partnerships betweenpractiti<strong>on</strong>ers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> enhancing coherence in approach. Below are a few examples.The Pastoral Livelihoods Initiative (PLI) 40The PLI, begun in 2005, is implemented by a c<strong>on</strong>sortium <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> internati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> local NGOs 41 , in Afar,Somali <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Oromia (Borana) regi<strong>on</strong>s, funded by USAID 42 . It focuses <strong>on</strong> ‘supporting pastoralists toimprove household livelihood security <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> maintain assets during drought cycles,’ <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> reflectsUSAID’s new emphasis <strong>on</strong> taking a livelihoods-based approach to emergency interventi<strong>on</strong>s. Waterdevelopment under this project is undertaken within a broader l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>scape c<strong>on</strong>text, recognizing <strong>the</strong>intricate relati<strong>on</strong>ship between water, pasture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoral mobility. Planning for water developmentinvolves attempting to underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> quality <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> local rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> resources, users <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong>seresources, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> patterns <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> use. To do this, participatory natural resource mapping is used to benefitfrom pastoralists’ detailed knowledge <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, to improve community participati<strong>on</strong> in <strong>the</strong>planning process <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to reduce <strong>the</strong> risk <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water related envir<strong>on</strong>mental degradati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flict(Box 12).Box 12: Participatory natural resource mapping – Save <strong>the</strong> Children USAIn 2005, Save <strong>the</strong> Children USA began to use participatory resource mapping to inform its development interventi<strong>on</strong>s inpastoral areas in Oromia <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Somali regi<strong>on</strong>s. This tool identifies water <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pasture at <strong>the</strong> level <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> madda* (a Boranaterritorial unit which roughly c<strong>on</strong>forms to <strong>the</strong> boundaries <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> lowest administrative unit, <strong>the</strong> PA). Through thisprocess, customary instituti<strong>on</strong>s involved in local natural resource management are identified. Maps <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastureare produced based <strong>on</strong> community knowledge <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> natural resource base, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mobility patterns overlaid based <strong>on</strong>community feedback. Following this exercise, communities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> PA <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ficials identify <strong>the</strong> problems related to <strong>the</strong> differentnatural resources, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a community acti<strong>on</strong> plan is prepared. For example, if <strong>the</strong>re a problem has been identified with anexisting traditi<strong>on</strong>al water point, a plan is put in place to rehabilitate <strong>the</strong> point (like fortifying cattle troughs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> wellladders). The entire process closely involves local government, who receive training <strong>on</strong> how to apply <strong>the</strong> tool. In Libendistrict, for example, local <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ficials are now in a positi<strong>on</strong> to undertake participatory natural resource mapping withoutexternal support. The use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> this tool has also been promoted am<strong>on</strong>g all PLI c<strong>on</strong>sortium members, broadening itsapplicati<strong>on</strong>.* Participatory resource mapping is currently being explored for <strong>the</strong> dheedha level, which is <strong>the</strong> largest Boranaterritorial unit crossing <strong>the</strong> boundaries <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> several PAs. This is to better underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> broader mobility patterns which canaffect <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> be affected by water development interventi<strong>on</strong>s.The PLI c<strong>on</strong>structs water points, but major focus is also put <strong>on</strong> rehabilitating existing <strong>on</strong>es to build<strong>on</strong> what is already <strong>the</strong>re, as well as training <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>tracting local mas<strong>on</strong>s in water pointrehabilitati<strong>on</strong>. Making <strong>the</strong> most <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> what is already in place is a cost effective means <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> improvingwater supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> allows partners to avoid <strong>the</strong> risks associated with new infrastructure. Training localmas<strong>on</strong>s embeds a local cadre <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> expertise <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong>reby reduces dependence <strong>on</strong> external assistance.40 This project is currently in its sec<strong>on</strong>d phase, PLI II, which runs from 2009-2013.41 This includes two <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> partners who supported <strong>the</strong> producti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> this review.42 NGO partners in Phase I included Save <strong>the</strong> Children USA, Save <strong>the</strong> Children UK, <strong>the</strong> Internati<strong>on</strong>al RescueCommittee (IRC), <strong>the</strong> Agricultural Cooperative Development Internati<strong>on</strong>al/Volunteers in OverseasCooperative Assistance (ACDI/VOCA), <strong>the</strong> Global Livestock Collaborative Research Support Program under<strong>the</strong> Pastoral Risk Management project (GL-CRSP PARIMA), Tufts University, CARE Internati<strong>on</strong>al, <strong>the</strong> UnitedStates Forest Service (USFS), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Acti<strong>on</strong> for Development (AFD) as well as o<strong>the</strong>rs.62
Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, attenti<strong>on</strong> is given to scheme management to ensure equitable access <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>representati<strong>on</strong>. The PLI also focuses <strong>on</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r development needs in <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, includingveterinary health <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> access to markets.A review <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> PLI found that “future USAID-funded water development programs should c<strong>on</strong>siderrequiring communities to make cash c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong>s for water point c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>/rehabilitati<strong>on</strong>. Thiswould encourage <strong>the</strong> growth <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> private sector c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> businesses in pastoral regi<strong>on</strong>s.”Since this recommendati<strong>on</strong> was made, Save <strong>the</strong> Children USA’s pastoral programs have requiredcommunity c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong>s to water development. For example, in <strong>the</strong> case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> de-silting p<strong>on</strong>ds, aminimum <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 40 per cent community c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> is required. The organizati<strong>on</strong> has learned that costrecovery is much more possible where customary instituti<strong>on</strong>s prioritize <strong>the</strong> interventi<strong>on</strong>, organize<strong>the</strong> labour <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> carry out <strong>the</strong> work. Importantly, <strong>the</strong>y also take resp<strong>on</strong>sibility for maintenance, aswater points in pastoral areas – wells particularly – are invariably managed by customary instituti<strong>on</strong>s.The PLI is <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> first initiatives to build partnerships between different NGOs in an attempt toharm<strong>on</strong>ize approaches to development <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> community engagement. It also emphasizes coordinati<strong>on</strong>between NGOs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> government 43 . Project staff works closely with Woreda Water ResourceDevelopment Offices to identify water points in need <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rehabilitati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> organizes workshops tobring toge<strong>the</strong>r NGOs, grassroots community groups <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> local government. Additi<strong>on</strong>ally, TuftsUniversity organizes regi<strong>on</strong>al technical coordinati<strong>on</strong> meetings in Afar <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Oromia as a forum forc<strong>on</strong>sortium members to inform local government <strong>on</strong> project progress, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to harm<strong>on</strong>ize practice<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> approach between government initiatives <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> PLI (PLI/ENABLE Afar Regi<strong>on</strong> TerminalReport, 2008). Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, close linkages with <strong>the</strong> Livestock Policy Forum under <strong>the</strong> MoARD hasshown to be a highly effective way for <strong>the</strong> project to communicate less<strong>on</strong>s learned in <strong>the</strong> field <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tobring to <strong>the</strong> table approaches which have been shown to work in <strong>the</strong> pastoral c<strong>on</strong>text for <strong>the</strong>benefit <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a wide audience.A fur<strong>the</strong>r crucial value provided by <strong>the</strong> PLI experience is <strong>the</strong> use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> impact assessments, pi<strong>on</strong>eeredby Tufts University, to gauge <strong>the</strong> impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> interventi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> livelihoods. The PLI is <strong>the</strong> first project in<strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s to do this.Regi<strong>on</strong>al Drought Preparedness ProgramBegun in 2007 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> funded by <strong>the</strong> European Commissi<strong>on</strong>’s humanitarian aid organisati<strong>on</strong> (ECHO), <strong>the</strong>Regi<strong>on</strong>al Drought Preparedness Program, under <strong>the</strong> Regi<strong>on</strong>al Drought Decisi<strong>on</strong> (RDD), is ano<strong>the</strong>rexample <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> emergency interventi<strong>on</strong>s with a livelihoods based emphasis in <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s. It alsoillustrates a fur<strong>the</strong>r case <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> bringing disparate actors toge<strong>the</strong>r to work towards a comm<strong>on</strong> goal. TheFood <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Agriculture Organizati<strong>on</strong> (FAO) coordinates <strong>the</strong> Regi<strong>on</strong>al Drought Preparedness program,with access to water for humans <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> livestock a prominent <strong>the</strong>me. Priority is given to traditi<strong>on</strong>al,affordable technologies familiar at <strong>the</strong> local level (Schimann <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Philpott, 2007). ECHO partnersinclude DanChurchAid (DCA), SC-UK, Acti<strong>on</strong> C<strong>on</strong>tre La Faime (ACF), Vétérinaires Sans Fr<strong>on</strong>tières(VSF), FARM AFRICA, Cooperazi<strong>on</strong>e Italiana (COOPI), Caritas/HCS, CordAid, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Oxfam GB.The program emphasizes strategic distributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water points to open up existing pasture, asopposed to rehabilitating heavily degraded areas, which requires more time than <strong>the</strong> 18 m<strong>on</strong>thsavailable for <strong>the</strong> project. In order to correctly distance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> place water points, focus is placed <strong>on</strong>mapping existing water infrastructure as well as <strong>the</strong> physical attributes <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> an area. Mapping waterpoints is meant to improve planning <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> “facilitate <strong>the</strong> strategic spatial distributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water points,settling resources-linked c<strong>on</strong>flicts <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rehabilitating rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> potential” to improve productivity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>livelihoods (Schimann <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Philpott, 2007: 8).43 The PLI project helped inform rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> management planning for <strong>the</strong> Oromia Growth Corridors Initiative,where PLI guidelines for <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>trolled burning <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s were used.63
The mid-term evaluati<strong>on</strong> for <strong>the</strong> project highlights that 44 :• Opening up pasture by strategically c<strong>on</strong>structing water points carries <strong>the</strong> risk <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> permanentsettlement <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s for farming purposes, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong>refore must be verycarefully planned.• Very little can be said to date about <strong>the</strong> direct <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> indirect impacts <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water developments <strong>on</strong>livelihoods, as impacts <strong>on</strong> livelihoods are not m<strong>on</strong>itored. More attenti<strong>on</strong> is needed <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong>management <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> quality <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s.• A large number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water points are n<strong>on</strong>-functi<strong>on</strong>al. For example 60% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Somali regi<strong>on</strong>’s birkadoare damaged <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> unused, calling into questi<strong>on</strong> whe<strong>the</strong>r building new birkado is justifiable versusrehabilitating existing structures 45 .• C<strong>on</strong>structing water pans by mechanical means to collect surface water is costly <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> when notd<strong>on</strong>e properly leads to structural damage. However, alternatives to machine dug pans have notbeen c<strong>on</strong>sidered.• Water User Associati<strong>on</strong>s, which require cash c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong>s especially for motorized systems,are very <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten unsustainable. “The management by associati<strong>on</strong>s in rural areas has failed almosteverywhere,” <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong>refore <strong>the</strong> organizati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water point management should be decided bycommunities <strong>the</strong>mselves if management is to be sustainable (Schimann <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Philpott, 2007: 10).• External support should be limited to technical input <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> providing financial facilities to covercosts exceeding <strong>the</strong> immediate capacity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> community (Schimann <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Philpott, 2007: 10).• Observed water point designs were <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten inappropriate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> poor quality, suggesting a lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>technical skill. Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ard technical designs were rarely adapted or adjusted to suit<strong>the</strong> local c<strong>on</strong>text (Schimann <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Philpott, 2007:11).The Global Water Initiative (GWI)Some projects focus specifically <strong>on</strong> water development as a means <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> improving livelihoods. TheGlobal Water Initiative (GWI) 46 , initiated in 2007 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> funded by <strong>the</strong> Howard G. Buffet Foundati<strong>on</strong>, is<strong>on</strong>e such example. CARE Internati<strong>on</strong>al, a partner supporting <strong>the</strong> producti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> this review, is leading<strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>sortium for GWI implementati<strong>on</strong> in Ethiopia, which is being implemented in <strong>the</strong> Borana z<strong>on</strong>e<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Oromia regi<strong>on</strong> 47 . Al<strong>on</strong>gside <strong>the</strong> PLI <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> ECHO program, it is ano<strong>the</strong>r example <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> bringingtoge<strong>the</strong>r NGOs to harm<strong>on</strong>ize approaches <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> increase effectiveness. The main objective under thisproject is to ensure that vulnerable populati<strong>on</strong>s have reliable access to clean water withoutcompromising dignity, rights, culture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> natural envir<strong>on</strong>ment (GWI interim report, 2008). Italso aims to empower local people to manage water <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong>refore emphasizes capacity building <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>the</strong> ‘s<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>tware’ aspects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water schemes, as well as promotes water for multiple uses (for humanc<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong>, livestock <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> small scale irrigati<strong>on</strong>). In its first phase <strong>the</strong> project c<strong>on</strong>centrated <strong>on</strong>rehabilitating existing water points (wells, p<strong>on</strong>ds, boreholes, etc.) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> up to 2011 it will alsoc<strong>on</strong>struct water schemes.44 From Schimann <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Philpott (2007)45 This hinges <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> quality <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> original water point.46 Implemented by a c<strong>on</strong>sortium comprised <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> CARE Internati<strong>on</strong>al, Oxfam US <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Catholic Relief Services(CRS) al<strong>on</strong>g with local NGOs in Ethiopia.47 Also in <strong>the</strong> Rift Valley, but this is not a pastoral area <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong>refore outside <strong>the</strong> scope <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> this report.64
CARE Internati<strong>on</strong>al, under <strong>the</strong> GWI, has also developed guidelines to ensure c<strong>on</strong>flict sensitiveplanning. This is a how-to guide for practiti<strong>on</strong>ers to recognize <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> avoid water-triggered c<strong>on</strong>flict(Demeke, 2008).An Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) strategy has been developed under <strong>the</strong>initiative, which highlights key areas <strong>on</strong> which to focus. Key points <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> extent to which <strong>the</strong>strategy has influenced practice are highlighted in <strong>the</strong> table below:Table 5: CARE’s IWRM Strategy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> degree to which <strong>the</strong> strategy has influenced practice.CARE’s Integrated Water ResourceManagement Strategy 48• Water interventi<strong>on</strong>s must bec<strong>on</strong>textualized within <strong>the</strong>broader l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>scape so as to leadto sustainable pasture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>use. A z<strong>on</strong>al or higher levelcustomary body should beidentified which can advise <strong>on</strong>water <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pasture interventi<strong>on</strong>s.In <strong>the</strong> absence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> such a body, orwhere capacity still needs to bestreng<strong>the</strong>ned, practiti<strong>on</strong>ersmust underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> local levelcustomary ways <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> doing things,including how rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s aretraditi<strong>on</strong>ally managed, beforeany interventi<strong>on</strong>s take place.• The right scale <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> interventi<strong>on</strong>needs to be identified (clan area,woreda unit, kebele unit, z<strong>on</strong>alunit, etc.) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> who should beinvolved in planning, negotiating<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> managing resources at thatscale.• The initiative should workthrough a local woreda levelmulti-stakeholder forum. Thisforum, which should involvecommunity, local government<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> NGOs, needs to beestablished <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> should besupported by CARE. The forumshould assume resp<strong>on</strong>sibility forimplementati<strong>on</strong>, m<strong>on</strong>itoring <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>follow up <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> interventi<strong>on</strong>s under<strong>the</strong> initiative. GIS mapping <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>water points <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> local physicalfeatures should be supported by<strong>the</strong> forum to aid in <strong>the</strong> planningprocess, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> findings shared with<strong>the</strong> customary body identifiedabove.Some examples <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> extent to which <strong>the</strong> strategy hasinfluenced practice• CARE facilitates <strong>the</strong> identificati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> selecti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> sites forwater development as well as target beneficiaries throughparticipatory planning, which involves representatives <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>leaders <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> customary instituti<strong>on</strong>s, local government sector<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>fices, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> women from <strong>the</strong> community.• CARE <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> program partners have established <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> aresupporting <strong>the</strong> Woreda development coordinati<strong>on</strong>committee, a community based participatory m<strong>on</strong>itoringgroup, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a Woreda learning alliance group. The Woredadevelopment coordinati<strong>on</strong> committee was establishedto ensure <strong>the</strong> active involvement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> communities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> localgovernment in planning <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> m<strong>on</strong>itoring <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> interventi<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>includes community representatives (includingrepresentatives <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> customary instituti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> women),representatives from local government sector <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>fices <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>NGOs working locally. To date, <strong>the</strong> committee has activelyparticipated in <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> facilitated participatory m<strong>on</strong>itoringsessi<strong>on</strong>s during <strong>the</strong> pilot phase <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> GWI to reviewimplementati<strong>on</strong> progress <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> pilot. This committee hasalso facilitated <strong>the</strong> identificati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> prioritizati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>interventi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> target groups for <strong>the</strong> l<strong>on</strong>ger term porti<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> GWI initiative. The community basedparticipatory m<strong>on</strong>itoring group was established toensure representative participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> all social groups withina community. This group is expected to lead in planning <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>m<strong>on</strong>itoring, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> comprises local leaders, leaders <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>customary pastoral instituti<strong>on</strong>s, elders <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> women. Thisgroup has helped identify <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> select interventi<strong>on</strong> sites <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>target groups for <strong>the</strong> l<strong>on</strong>ger term porti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> GWI, incollaborati<strong>on</strong> with local government sector representatives.A Woreda learning alliance was established to promote<strong>the</strong> sharing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> experience <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> best practice am<strong>on</strong>g projectpartners. This, in turn, is meant to promote a harm<strong>on</strong>izedapproach to development by <strong>the</strong> different actors. EngagingNGOs, community groups, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> local government, CARE hascoordinated <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> facilitated three woreda learning alliancefora aiming to review <strong>the</strong> experiences <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> stakeholders inplanning, managing <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> m<strong>on</strong>itoring implementati<strong>on</strong> relevantto <strong>the</strong> IWRM strategy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> WASH program. Through<strong>the</strong>se fora, partners were able to systematize <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> harm<strong>on</strong>izeprogram implementati<strong>on</strong> approaches <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> have identifiedremaining gaps to be addressed, including <strong>the</strong> need for wider48 Adapted from Pankhurst (2009)65
• The initiative’s Learning Alliance– set up to enable sharing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>CARE’s field experience <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>less<strong>on</strong>s learned, should behoused under <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> promotedthrough <strong>the</strong> above forum.• Linkages <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> synergies between<strong>the</strong> GWI <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> o<strong>the</strong>r initiatives in<strong>the</strong> area should be identified <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>promoted to enhance learning<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> harm<strong>on</strong>izati<strong>on</strong>.• N<strong>on</strong>-c<strong>on</strong>troversial interventi<strong>on</strong>sshould be prioritized such aswater point rehabilitati<strong>on</strong>,analyzing transparency in equity<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> access to water, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>supporting women’s c<strong>on</strong>cerns<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> needs in <strong>the</strong> sector.• It should be kept in mind whenplanning new water points thatpermanent or deep wells, as wellas large capacity water points,are c<strong>on</strong>troversial as <strong>the</strong>y affectmobility in areas outsidesettlements.• The initiative must build <strong>on</strong>existing customary knowledge<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> find avenues <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> mergingmodern methods withtraditi<strong>on</strong>al methods in wayswhich empower communities.• Linkages should be promotedbetween customary <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>administrative structures toenhance harm<strong>on</strong>izati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>avoid c<strong>on</strong>flict, ra<strong>the</strong>r thanworking with <strong>on</strong>e over <strong>the</strong>o<strong>the</strong>r.• The s<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>tware comp<strong>on</strong>ent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> anyinterventi<strong>on</strong> should be given dueattenti<strong>on</strong>.• Evidence should be generated toinfluence policy throughsystematic attenti<strong>on</strong> toappropriate m<strong>on</strong>itoring <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>evaluati<strong>on</strong>, as well asdocumentati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>disseminati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> findings.coordinati<strong>on</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g stakeholders in <strong>the</strong> program area.• CARE focuses mainly <strong>on</strong> upgrading or rehabilitating existingpermanent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> temporary water supply sources, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> decisi<strong>on</strong>s<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>structing new water points duly c<strong>on</strong>sider effects <strong>on</strong>mobility <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> sustainable management <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> grazing areas. Theprogram generally works to improve water quality <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ease <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>access, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to reduce <strong>the</strong> time <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> labour required to collectwater from source.• In practice, focus is primarily <strong>on</strong>:• Rehabilitati<strong>on</strong>/ upgrading <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> traditi<strong>on</strong>al wells (3 have beenrehabilitated during <strong>the</strong> pilot phase – CARE also doesnot alter traditi<strong>on</strong>al wells but works to increase wateravailability, efficiency <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ease <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> access, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to protect itfrom damage)• Rehabilitati<strong>on</strong>s/upgrading malfuncti<strong>on</strong>ing motorizedwater supply sources (4 systems rehabilitated <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>upgraded during <strong>the</strong> l<strong>on</strong>g term programme)• Rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> upgrading <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> p<strong>on</strong>ds/earth dams (3p<strong>on</strong>ds have been rehabilitated during pilot phase, with 2more added during l<strong>on</strong>g term programme)• Expansi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> already established system to facilitateaccess by additi<strong>on</strong>al users (two groundwater supplysystems exp<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed during l<strong>on</strong>g term programme)• New developments (deep wells <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>/or surface waterharvesting systems) in areas where <strong>the</strong>re is nopermanent water sources within a short distances(developed two h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dug shallow water wells <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>erock catchment for rainwater harvesting during pilotphase; <strong>on</strong>e new deep well planned <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> informed by indepthtechnical <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>s toidentify <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mitigate impacts <strong>on</strong> mobility <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> livelihoods)• Supplementary water supply technologies such asrainwater harvesting in schools (c<strong>on</strong>structed 7 rainwaterharvesting systems in 5 schools, with an additi<strong>on</strong>al 3added during <strong>the</strong> l<strong>on</strong>g term programme).• Specifically in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> women’s involvement, CARE hasdeveloped a seas<strong>on</strong>al calendar through a participatoryprocess which identifies basic informati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> trade, divisi<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> labour, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> access to resources by different gender groupsdisaggregated by age <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sex. This is seen as a key planningtool to analyse <strong>the</strong> role <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> involvement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> entirecommunity in <strong>the</strong> implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> program <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to helpidentify entry points to enhance women’s involvement in <strong>the</strong>program.• Water points <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> specific locati<strong>on</strong>s for proposed waterresource development selected based <strong>on</strong> traditi<strong>on</strong>alknowledge in relati<strong>on</strong> to managing <strong>the</strong> natural resources <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>challenges faced due to water development <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> access in <strong>the</strong>past.• Team improves <strong>the</strong> efficiency <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> accessibility <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> existingcustomary water points based <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> decisi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> customarywater resource management groups.• CARE supported <strong>the</strong> establishment <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> community basedgroups to manage developed water supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sanitati<strong>on</strong>facilities with a special focus <strong>on</strong> building <strong>on</strong> existingcustomary knowledge <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> finding avenues <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> merging modern66
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> traditi<strong>on</strong>al methods in ways which empowercommunities as well as ensure <strong>the</strong> enhanced involvement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>women. The established management groups receivedtraining <strong>on</strong> improved water <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sanitati<strong>on</strong> practices <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>operati<strong>on</strong>, management <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> maintenance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> systemsdeveloped.• Initiatives do not alter traditi<strong>on</strong>al well (ella) managementsystems, but ra<strong>the</strong>r try to streng<strong>the</strong>n <strong>the</strong> customary systemin place by promoting improved participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> women <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>the</strong> inclusi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> o<strong>the</strong>r social groups in <strong>the</strong> managementmodality. The initiative plans to streng<strong>the</strong>n this approach inlater phases.Innovative approaches by local NGOsPastoralist C<strong>on</strong>cern Associati<strong>on</strong> Ethiopia’s (PCAE) introduced <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>cept <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Local DevelopmentCommittees (LDCs) in Somali regi<strong>on</strong> a decade ago, which are based <strong>on</strong> traditi<strong>on</strong>al instituti<strong>on</strong>alstructures, but also bring in local government. LDCs bring toge<strong>the</strong>r traditi<strong>on</strong>al leaders <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> localgovernment for <strong>the</strong> purpose <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> dialogue <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>sensus building, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> are chaired by local elders. Inhomogenous areas like Filtu where <strong>the</strong>re is <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong>e clan, <strong>the</strong> LDC is made up <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> all <strong>the</strong> heads <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>sub-clans, al<strong>on</strong>g with representatives <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> local administrati<strong>on</strong> at <strong>the</strong> district level <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> also members <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>PCAE. In areas like Dollo where <strong>the</strong>re is more than <strong>on</strong>e clan, heads <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> clans sit <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> committeera<strong>the</strong>r than those <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> sub-clans. Once <strong>the</strong> LDC is formed, a mapping exercise takes place whichidentifies areas with water potential, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> criteria set for water point site selecti<strong>on</strong>. However, <strong>the</strong>reare challenges to this approach, as sometimes community decisi<strong>on</strong>s are at odds with <strong>the</strong> wishes <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>local administrati<strong>on</strong> (Abdida'ad Ibrahim 49 , pers<strong>on</strong>al communicati<strong>on</strong>).MappingSome NGOs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> development organizati<strong>on</strong>s have recognized <strong>the</strong> need to better underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> whatphysical resources exist <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> where (water resources, water points, including types <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> functi<strong>on</strong>ality,pasture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> o<strong>the</strong>r l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, settlements/towns, infrastructure such as roads, schools, clinics) in areaswhere <strong>the</strong>y plan to or are already engaged. This is to improve planning <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> decisi<strong>on</strong> making, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> isan approach pi<strong>on</strong>eered am<strong>on</strong>g development organizati<strong>on</strong>s by GTZ <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> SOS Sahel in Ethiopia.Am<strong>on</strong>g development organizati<strong>on</strong>s, <strong>the</strong> Lay Volunteers Internati<strong>on</strong>al Associati<strong>on</strong> (LVIA) has puttoge<strong>the</strong>r a comprehensive GIS based atlas for parts <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Borana in Oromia regi<strong>on</strong>, which identifiesexisting water resources, water points <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pasture, am<strong>on</strong>g o<strong>the</strong>r features. The Food <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> AgricultureOrganizati<strong>on</strong> (FAO) has also produced maps <strong>on</strong> behalf <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> ECHO-RDD c<strong>on</strong>sortium, whichidentify different l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> uses, surface <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> groundwater resources, different types <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water points,towns, roads, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> o<strong>the</strong>r features. The Internati<strong>on</strong>al Rescue Commissi<strong>on</strong> (IRC) c<strong>on</strong>ductscomprehensive surveys <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> all water developments (<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> functi<strong>on</strong>ality) in its areas <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> work, like inMieso, Daro Lebu <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Boke woredas in Oromia regi<strong>on</strong>.Some government actors have begun to do <strong>the</strong> same. The Oromia regi<strong>on</strong>al government has recentlyproduced l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use maps to guide development decisi<strong>on</strong> making for <strong>the</strong> regi<strong>on</strong>. Regi<strong>on</strong>al governmentin Somali regi<strong>on</strong> has also recently put toge<strong>the</strong>r a comprehensive assessment <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> all existing waterinfrastructure in <strong>the</strong> regi<strong>on</strong>.49 Executive Director, PCAE.67
Secti<strong>on</strong> 4. Less<strong>on</strong>s learned <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ways forward4.1 Less<strong>on</strong>s learnedTable 6 presents ‘good’ <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ‘poor’ practice as identified by practiti<strong>on</strong>ers interviewed in Addis Ababa<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> in <strong>the</strong> regi<strong>on</strong>s (SNNPR, Somali <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Afar). This table highlights comm<strong>on</strong> resp<strong>on</strong>ses from over 40interviews with water development practiti<strong>on</strong>ers including government, NGOs/developmentorganizati<strong>on</strong>s, as well as d<strong>on</strong>ors, researchers, experts in pastoral development <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoralassociati<strong>on</strong>s. Poor practice generally refers to practices/approaches seen to be problematic, whilegood practice refers to those observed to work within <strong>the</strong> pastoral c<strong>on</strong>text. Having said this, verylittle has been d<strong>on</strong>e in <strong>the</strong> way <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> assessing <strong>the</strong> impacts <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water development <strong>on</strong> livelihoods. Theseassessments would better help practiti<strong>on</strong>ers make informed choices regarding ‘best’ approaches todeveloping water in <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s vis-à-vis poverty reducti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> increasing livelihood resilience 50 .Table 6: ‘Good’ <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ‘bad’ practice as identified by <strong>the</strong> water development community <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> practice inEthiopiaGood practice• Underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> broader natural resourcebase <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> grazing patterns before planning<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>structing water points - i.e. makingwater development part <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> parcel <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>natural resource management recognizingthat water affects <strong>the</strong> way broader naturalresources are used <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> managed.• Underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> local c<strong>on</strong>texts <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dynamics,including social, political <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> culturalaspects in a given locati<strong>on</strong>.• Identify existing water points <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> exploreopti<strong>on</strong>s for rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> (improve <strong>on</strong>what is already <strong>the</strong>re).• Couple water development with o<strong>the</strong>rpastoral development interventi<strong>on</strong>s (e.g.access to markets, veterinary health,rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rehabilitati<strong>on</strong>)Poor practice• Establishing water points withoutunderst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ing <strong>the</strong> local c<strong>on</strong>text (social,political, cultural, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ec<strong>on</strong>omic)• C<strong>on</strong>structing water points with littleknowledge <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> o<strong>the</strong>r natural resources in<strong>the</strong> area <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how people use <strong>the</strong>seresources; i.e. without c<strong>on</strong>textualizingwater within <strong>the</strong> broader l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>scape.• Heavy emphasis <strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> withinsufficient attenti<strong>on</strong> to planning,management, operati<strong>on</strong>, maintenance.Implementati<strong>on</strong> by external agents withlittle <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> ground c<strong>on</strong>sultati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>involvement.• Promote meaningful engagement withwater users in <strong>the</strong> planning <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>implementati<strong>on</strong> phase <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> any interventi<strong>on</strong>s<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> promote <strong>the</strong> use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>participatory/c<strong>on</strong>sultative methods.50 Most projects currently focus <strong>on</strong> reporting outputs at <strong>the</strong> expense <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> quality or effectiveness. For example,a report which states that ’10 wells were improved’ does not say anything about accessibility, availability,affordability, quality <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> acceptance – <strong>the</strong> five st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ard indicators <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> service provisi<strong>on</strong> (Ministry <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Agriculture<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rural Development, 2008: 14)51 The government’s PCDP for example requires community c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 15 per cent, 5 per cent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> whichis expected in cash.52 This fits with <strong>the</strong> government’s short-term strategy <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> supporting mobile pastoral livelihoods.69
• Underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> existing traditi<strong>on</strong>al watermanagement systems <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> streng<strong>the</strong>ncustomary instituti<strong>on</strong>s as well as build <strong>on</strong><strong>the</strong>ir know-how for water schememanagement.• Streng<strong>the</strong>n <strong>the</strong> management, operati<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> maintenance capacity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water users<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> select technologies for whichc<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> materials <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> spare parts arelocally available.• Promote user buy-in <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> commitment byrequiring a labour/cash c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> toc<strong>on</strong>struct water points51• In rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, select technologies which d<strong>on</strong>ot encourage settlement 52 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> adequatelyspace points to alleviate pressure <strong>on</strong> anysingle water point.At <strong>the</strong> same time it is clear that this thinking is translated into acti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly a small scale(highlighted in some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> examples given in Secti<strong>on</strong> 3). Much that occurs in <strong>the</strong> water developmentsector (in pastoral areas as well as elsewhere) c<strong>on</strong>tinues to follow business as usual based <strong>on</strong> atechnocratic model, with little community participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> little emphasis <strong>on</strong> issues bey<strong>on</strong>d puttingin place physical infrastructure. Ethiopia is still littered with n<strong>on</strong>-functi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> disused water points,<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flict, settlement <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> envir<strong>on</strong>mental degradati<strong>on</strong> are still evident around <strong>the</strong>m. In SNNPR, forexample, management <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water schemes remains a challenge, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> as rapidly as <strong>the</strong> number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> waterpoints is increasing, <strong>the</strong> number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> n<strong>on</strong>-functi<strong>on</strong>al points is increasing with it (SNNPR Water Bureau,pers<strong>on</strong>al communicati<strong>on</strong>, 2009). This trend is not <strong>on</strong>ly limited to SNNPR but is observed across <strong>the</strong>regi<strong>on</strong>s. For example 60% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Somali regi<strong>on</strong>’s birkado are damaged <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> unused (Schimann <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>Philpott, 2007). In Oromia, a recent survey c<strong>on</strong>ducted by <strong>the</strong> Internati<strong>on</strong>al Rescue Committee (IRC)has shown that <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> 14 boreholes present in Daro Lebu woreda in 2005, 12 were functi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2n<strong>on</strong>-functi<strong>on</strong>al. Of <strong>the</strong> additi<strong>on</strong>al 15 boreholes c<strong>on</strong>structed in <strong>the</strong> same woreda since 2005, 7 aren<strong>on</strong>-functi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 8 are functi<strong>on</strong>al (Figure 6).70
Figure 6: Functi<strong>on</strong>ality <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> boreholes in Daro Lebu woreda, Oromia regi<strong>on</strong> as per in-house surveyc<strong>on</strong>ducted by <strong>the</strong> IRC in 2009The following secti<strong>on</strong> discusses some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong>se issues in order to present a clearer picture <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> howthings st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> where things may be going in <strong>the</strong> near future.71
4.2 Key observati<strong>on</strong>s in <strong>the</strong> water development sectorExamples highlighted in Secti<strong>on</strong> 3 indicate that positive changes are observed in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> howpractiti<strong>on</strong>ers develop water in <strong>the</strong> dryl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s. Yet <strong>the</strong>se projects <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> programs by no means reflectoverall practice <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> more is needed to ensure that water points enhance ra<strong>the</strong>r than hinder pastorallivelihoods in <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s.Extremely ambitious water development targets for water supply, as outlined by <strong>the</strong> UAP, <strong>the</strong>PASDEP <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> WSDP (Secti<strong>on</strong> 3.2.2.4; p. 31), which are based in part <strong>on</strong> meeting MDG targets,are likely to see c<strong>on</strong>tinued heavy emphasis <strong>on</strong> infrastructure development at <strong>the</strong> expense <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>sustainability <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> appropriateness. Prioritizing buy-in as well as effective <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> representativeparticipati<strong>on</strong> by communities during planning would help implementers properly size <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> site waterpoints. Embedding <strong>the</strong> capacity to operate, manage <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> maintain water points locally would promotesustainability. Unless <strong>the</strong>se aspects are actively prioritized, <strong>the</strong> proliferati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> unsustainable <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>inappropriate water points is likely to c<strong>on</strong>tinue.Nati<strong>on</strong>al policies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> strategies c<strong>on</strong>tinue to prioritize irrigati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> expansi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> agriculture in<strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s as well as encourage <strong>the</strong> settlement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoralists in <strong>the</strong> l<strong>on</strong>g term. This posesc<strong>on</strong>siderable challenges to <strong>the</strong> resilience <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> livestock-based pastoral livelihoods <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a new program isunderway to encourage a fairer, more balanced treatment <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoralism as an importantc<strong>on</strong>tributor to development <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to <strong>the</strong> ec<strong>on</strong>omy 53 . If government policy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> strategy objectivesremain as <strong>the</strong>y are, l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> available for grazing is likely to be reduced (especially key dry seas<strong>on</strong> grazingareas), pastoral access to rivers is likely to become fur<strong>the</strong>r obstructed exacerbating water problems,<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mobility - an essential strategy used by pastoralists to avoid risk – will be fur<strong>the</strong>r undermined.Finding comm<strong>on</strong> ground between nati<strong>on</strong>al, regi<strong>on</strong>al, sub-regi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> local priorities will be essentialto ensure that nati<strong>on</strong>al ec<strong>on</strong>omic growth can occur unimpeded but without compromisingsustainable development that resp<strong>on</strong>ds to local needs.4.2.1 Impacts <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water developmentWater point development critically alleviates <strong>the</strong> stresses <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> serious water shortages <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> physicalaccess c<strong>on</strong>straints in Ethiopia’s arid areas. It allows access to important groundwater resourceswhere rainfall is too variable or poor to provide reliable surface water, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> simple technologies likeh<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dug wells al<strong>on</strong>g rivers provide communities with much-needed clean water.However, water development can trigger a slew <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> negative c<strong>on</strong>sequences if local needs, l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> usepatterns <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ecological functi<strong>on</strong>s are not sufficiently c<strong>on</strong>sidered. The ir<strong>on</strong>y is that as much as watercan alleviate immediate pressures in <strong>the</strong> short term, it can potentially bring with it lasting <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> seriousnegative impacts in <strong>the</strong> l<strong>on</strong>g term. This can undermine ra<strong>the</strong>r than promote development <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>sustainable livelihoods.To date, very little has been d<strong>on</strong>e to systematically track impacts <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water development <strong>on</strong>livelihoods. Despite this, trial <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> error over many years in <strong>the</strong> field has created more awarenessam<strong>on</strong>g actors about <strong>the</strong> negative impacts <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> poorly planned water interventi<strong>on</strong>s, especially related tolarge capacity or permanent water points.Gomes (2007) captures well some c<strong>on</strong>sequences <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> impacts <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> such water interventi<strong>on</strong>s in nor<strong>the</strong>asternEthiopia, which include: settlement around water points, appearance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> competing l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> usessuch as agriculture in rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> areas, o<strong>the</strong>r forms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> privatizati<strong>on</strong> such as fencing porti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong>rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s for private use (seen by some as an attempt to buffer <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s against c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong>for crop producti<strong>on</strong>), overc<strong>on</strong>centrati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> livestock around water points <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> range degradati<strong>on</strong>,53 Led by <strong>the</strong> Feinstein Internati<strong>on</strong>al Center (Tufts University) in partnership with <strong>the</strong> Internati<strong>on</strong>al Institutefor Envir<strong>on</strong>ment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Development (IIED) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> targeting government partners <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> civil society up to 2011.72
excessive <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> unc<strong>on</strong>trolled use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water infrastructure leading to breakage <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> water shortages,deforestati<strong>on</strong> for charcoal producti<strong>on</strong>, reducti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> available palatable perennial grass, overabstracti<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> lowering <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> water table, salinizati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> salt-water intrusi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flict over<strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>trol <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water points.In Ethiopia negative c<strong>on</strong>sequences related to size <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> capacity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water points have been identifiedby researchers since <strong>the</strong> 1980s, most notably since <strong>the</strong> Rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Development Project <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> late1970s. However, this body <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> work is rarely used to inform development <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> relief projectprogramming. There are some notable <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> significant excepti<strong>on</strong>s however am<strong>on</strong>g government,d<strong>on</strong>ors <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> NGOs, who have recognized that large capacity or permanent water points encouragesettlements with associated reducti<strong>on</strong>s in mobility <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> quality. The GWI’s (Secti<strong>on</strong> 3.1.3.1;p. 47) recently developed Integrated Water Resource Management strategy for Borana z<strong>on</strong>ementi<strong>on</strong>s that permanent water points c<strong>on</strong>structed in <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s are likely to affect mobility(such as deep wells <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> permanent p<strong>on</strong>ds 54 ) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> are more c<strong>on</strong>tentious than those which extendwater availability for a few m<strong>on</strong>ths. It also menti<strong>on</strong>s that smaller capacity systems are less likely to beproblematic (Pankhurst, 2009; see table 5 in previous secti<strong>on</strong>s for fur<strong>the</strong>r informati<strong>on</strong>).Government programs also recognize <strong>the</strong> potential implicati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> large or permanent water points.Highlights include:• The MoFA’s PCDP (Secti<strong>on</strong> 3.1.2.3: p.28), which highlights that smaller temporary watercatchments are more suitable in wet seas<strong>on</strong> grazing areas to avoid settlement <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> its associatedproblems. It also emphasizes <strong>the</strong> rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> existing water points <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> enabling pastoralaccess to rivers in dry seas<strong>on</strong> grazing areas. This is to make <strong>the</strong> most <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> what is already <strong>the</strong>re<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to sidestep altoge<strong>the</strong>r, where possible, any c<strong>on</strong>tentious issues that may arise from <strong>the</strong>c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> new water points.• The MoWR’s WSSP (Secti<strong>on</strong> 3.1.2.3: p.33), which recognizes <strong>the</strong> negative impacts associatedwith large capacity water points in <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s. It recommends that points not exceed a sizewhich waters a maximum <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 4,500 cattle a day, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that points should be spaced about 20kmapart.• The government’s PSNP for pastoral areas (Secti<strong>on</strong> 3.1.2.3: p.39), which plans to c<strong>on</strong>structpublic works in <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s in ways which do not interfere with mobility systems by ensuringclose collaborati<strong>on</strong> with pastoralists at <strong>the</strong> local level <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>textualizing developments withinlivelihood <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>scape z<strong>on</strong>es.A lesser acknowledged issue is that associated with birkado, especially in Somali regi<strong>on</strong>. Originallyintended as temporary water catchments, <strong>the</strong>se structures now tend to functi<strong>on</strong> as year-roundwater sources thanks to refilling via water tankering. Associated with this trend is <strong>the</strong> establishment<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> permanent settlements, which has seen some <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> previously menti<strong>on</strong>ed impacts manifestedacross <strong>the</strong> regi<strong>on</strong>. Even though a lot <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> birkado c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> was (<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> is) instigated by pastoralists,pastoralists <strong>the</strong>mselves have become more aware <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> negative impacts <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> this type <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> waterdevelopment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> also vocal about ways to mitigate <strong>the</strong>m. Gomes (2007) notes that traditi<strong>on</strong>al xeeragreements 55 have emerged in parts <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Somali regi<strong>on</strong> to limit <strong>the</strong> establishment <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> new watersources around existing settlements as well as in wet seas<strong>on</strong> grazing areas. These agreements54 Recently birkado have been added to this list, as <strong>the</strong>y functi<strong>on</strong> as year round water sources thanks toc<strong>on</strong>tinuous refilling via water trucking, especially prevalent in Somali regi<strong>on</strong> (Beruk Yemane, Oxfam GBPastoral Program Coordinator <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ced Hesse, IIED Principal Researcher, Climate Change Group, pers<strong>on</strong>alcommunicati<strong>on</strong>s)55 Traditi<strong>on</strong>al agreements between elders <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> structurally distant groups <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> ethnic Somali genealogicalcharter (Gomes, 2007).73
epresent a firm attempt to preserve grazing l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to mitigate <strong>the</strong> use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water points as a means<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> territorial encroachment between clans.Despite <strong>the</strong>se positive developments, c<strong>on</strong>sidering <strong>the</strong> impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water points <strong>on</strong> mobility <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> health/c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> is by no means <strong>the</strong> norm. Activities likely to promote <strong>the</strong> sedentarizati<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoralists through water development c<strong>on</strong>tinue to be observed in Ethiopia. In Oromia regi<strong>on</strong>, inDaro Lebu woreda al<strong>on</strong>e, 15 additi<strong>on</strong>al boreholes (generally associated with promoting settlement)have been c<strong>on</strong>structed since 2005 from an existing 14; over a <strong>on</strong>e hundred per cent increase (based<strong>on</strong> a comprehensive survey c<strong>on</strong>ducted by <strong>the</strong> Internati<strong>on</strong>al Rescue Committee) (Figure 7).Figure 7: Boreholes c<strong>on</strong>structed in Daro Lebu woreda since 2005, provided by <strong>the</strong> Internati<strong>on</strong>alRescue Committee based <strong>on</strong> an in-house 2009 surveyBut nowhere is this currently more evident than in <strong>the</strong> Borana z<strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Oromia Regi<strong>on</strong>. The Oromiaregi<strong>on</strong>al government, as part <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> its Growth Corridors Plan, (The Oromia Development CorridorsApproach Strategic Plan, 2008: 12) is c<strong>on</strong>structing 2000km <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pipeline to transport water from deepboreholes to support multiple l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> uses (pastoral, agricultural, etc.) across <strong>the</strong> z<strong>on</strong>e. Theprogramme’s L<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Use Plans delineate different livelihood z<strong>on</strong>es in <strong>the</strong> regi<strong>on</strong>, setting aside z<strong>on</strong>esfor livestock producti<strong>on</strong>, irrigati<strong>on</strong> development <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> settlement. Private l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tenure will bepromoted (l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> is to be held by ei<strong>the</strong>r individuals or groups) in line with <strong>the</strong> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> uses identified in<strong>the</strong> program’s L<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Use Plans.The water pipeline <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> eventual hardened boundaries between l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use areas, in t<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>em with <strong>the</strong>encouragement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> private l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>holding, will certainly c<strong>on</strong>tribute to curtailed mobility. The regi<strong>on</strong>algovernment’s rati<strong>on</strong>ale is that <strong>the</strong> extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> poverty am<strong>on</strong>g pastoralists <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> increasing difficulties<strong>the</strong>y face in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> being able to practice <strong>the</strong>ir mobile livelihoods has rendered sedentarizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong><strong>on</strong>ly feasible development opti<strong>on</strong> in <strong>the</strong> l<strong>on</strong>g term. It also argues that tapping into groundwatersupply is <strong>the</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly sustainable means <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> effectively addressing water shortage issues. However, it isforeseen that sedentarizati<strong>on</strong> may represent a potential sticking point in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> acceptance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>buy-in at community level indicating that <strong>the</strong> noti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> settlement as <strong>the</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly soluti<strong>on</strong> to challengesfacing pastoralists may not be shared by all. The Deputy General Manager <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> Oromia WaterWorks Design <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Supervisi<strong>on</strong> Enterprise anticipates potential resistance at ground level toprivatizing l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tenure in <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, requiring “extensive awareness raising”. Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, <strong>the</strong>L<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Use Guided Valley Development Program document (2009) recognizes that <strong>the</strong> risks74
associated with <strong>the</strong> program include a lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> full community participati<strong>on</strong>, c<strong>on</strong>flict <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> interest in <strong>the</strong>proposed project areas, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> support by stakeholders.At <strong>the</strong> same time, <strong>the</strong> Oromia Growth Corridors Plan is also <strong>the</strong> first purely government ledprogram which openly states that most l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> in Borana z<strong>on</strong>e should be maintained as rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>should not be c<strong>on</strong>verted for agricultural producti<strong>on</strong>. It also recognizes that an integrateddevelopment approach which addresses o<strong>the</strong>r crucial development needs such as access to markets<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> health facilities, am<strong>on</strong>g o<strong>the</strong>r services, are indispensable if livelihoods are to be protected <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>improved.4.2.2 Approaches to water development <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> community engagementAs highlighted in Secti<strong>on</strong> 3, different actors employindependent approaches to water development <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>community engagement, with little interacti<strong>on</strong> orharm<strong>on</strong>izati<strong>on</strong> between <strong>the</strong>m. Approaches rangefrom technocratic, with generic methods <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>promoting participati<strong>on</strong> (<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten symbolic), to highlyparticipatory approaches specific to particularlocalities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> socio-political settings. There is morefocus am<strong>on</strong>g d<strong>on</strong>ors, development organizati<strong>on</strong>s<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> some government programs such as <strong>the</strong> PCDPto rehabilitate existing water points as a costeffective means <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> availing water, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> also as a wayto avoid disrupting mobility patterns <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>disagreement over new water points. However, <strong>the</strong>majority <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> practiti<strong>on</strong>ers remain focused <strong>on</strong> puttingin place physical infrastructure with little attenti<strong>on</strong>to planning, effective management, operati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>sustainability, partially pushed by c<strong>on</strong>siderablepressure to meet targets. This lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> coherence inapproach is recognized by all actors as animpediment to sustainable development in <strong>the</strong>rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s. Highlighted is an example related tocommunity c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong>s (Box 13).Box 13: Same locati<strong>on</strong>, differentapproachesEven though <strong>the</strong>re are synergies between <strong>the</strong>government’s PCDP <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> PSNP programs (whichoverlap in 9 woredas across <strong>the</strong> regi<strong>on</strong>s), <strong>the</strong>reremain fundamental differences in approach tocommunity engagement. The PSNP pays cash forwork <strong>on</strong> public works c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> while <strong>the</strong>PCDP insists <strong>on</strong> a m<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>atory 5% cashc<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> from communities for allinfrastructure developments.Am<strong>on</strong>g NGOs, it has been observed thatcompetiti<strong>on</strong> over d<strong>on</strong>or funds, competiti<strong>on</strong> overcommunity attenti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> limited number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>available technical government experts in areaspopulated by multiple NGOs, in additi<strong>on</strong> to weakgovernment oversight all pose a challenge tost<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ardizing what <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how much communitiesc<strong>on</strong>tribute to water interventi<strong>on</strong>s. Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore,it is difficult to dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> community c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong>sbey<strong>on</strong>d <strong>the</strong> maximum expected by establishedprograms (Behnke et al, 2008). Thus in areaswhere cash for work is <strong>the</strong> comm<strong>on</strong> practice,expecting communities to c<strong>on</strong>tribute m<strong>on</strong>etarilybecomes extremely challenging.However, partnerships <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dialogue betweendifferent stakeholders are beginning to emerge, indicating cross-fertilizati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> ideas <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> approachesbetween actors. In SNNPR, <strong>the</strong> head <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> water bureau menti<strong>on</strong>ed that positive resp<strong>on</strong>ses to <strong>the</strong>PCDP’s participatory approach have been observed at grassroots level, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mainstream technicalexperts in government are beginning to learn from <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> adopt elements <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> this approach. It is alsoeasy for <strong>the</strong> water bureau to access <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> learn from <strong>the</strong> PCDP, as PCDP project pers<strong>on</strong>nel atregi<strong>on</strong>al level are housed in <strong>the</strong> same complex as <strong>the</strong> water bureau. The PCDP itself, with fundsfrom <strong>the</strong> Japan Development Fund, is now working with eleven NGOs to roll out its approach <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>activities (Belayhun Hailu 56 , pers<strong>on</strong>al communicati<strong>on</strong>).The PSNP is also actively promoting partnerships with NGOs to address capacity shortages withingovernment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> promote knowledge sharing. There is also dialogue between <strong>the</strong> PSNP <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> PCDPto ir<strong>on</strong> out differences in approaches to community c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong>s (Belayhun Hailu, pers<strong>on</strong>alcommunicati<strong>on</strong>). Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore at regi<strong>on</strong>al level, <strong>the</strong> Oromia Growth Corridors Plan invites NGOs<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> d<strong>on</strong>ors to participate in <strong>the</strong> implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> initiative, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> regi<strong>on</strong>al implementers are56 Senior Officer - <str<strong>on</strong>g>Knowledge</str<strong>on</strong>g> Management <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Participatory Learning, PCDP.75
learning from NGO experiences in Borana, such as <strong>the</strong> PLI’s experience with c<strong>on</strong>trolled burning <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s.On <strong>the</strong> humanitarian fr<strong>on</strong>t, dialogue between major humanitarian d<strong>on</strong>ors such as <strong>the</strong> HumanitarianResp<strong>on</strong>se Fund (HRF) under UN-OCHA <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> Office <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> U.S. Foreign Disaster Assistance (OFDA)under USAID is occurring for <strong>the</strong> first time, acknowledging <strong>the</strong> need for better coordinati<strong>on</strong>. Thereis also interest am<strong>on</strong>g humanitarian d<strong>on</strong>ors to improve <strong>the</strong> effectiveness <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> emergency interventi<strong>on</strong>sby tapping into <strong>the</strong> experience <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> development programs. For example UN-OCHA’s HumanitarianRelief Fund is looking into collaborating with Tufts University to produce impact assessments forHRF’s emergency interventi<strong>on</strong>s, such as those produced under USAID’s PLI program, to help gauge<strong>the</strong> impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> emergency relief <strong>on</strong> livelihoods, identify weaknesses <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> improve practice.Water development guidelinesComm<strong>on</strong>, agreed up<strong>on</strong> guidelines for water development in pastoral areas do not exist in Ethiopia.This frustrates moves towards streamlining practice in <strong>the</strong> water development arena. However,<strong>the</strong>re are a number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> existing guidelines <strong>on</strong> water, participatory mapping <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flict sensitiveplanning. These may prove useful as a foundati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> which to build a broadly applicable set <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>guidelines for water development for productive use, which are versatile enough to allow c<strong>on</strong>textspecific planning in pastoral rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s. These include:• Implementati<strong>on</strong> guidelines for water supply, sanitati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> hygiene projects in pastoral areas(Giovannetti, 2006). Developed by <strong>the</strong> MoWR, <strong>the</strong>se guidelines are meant to guide <strong>the</strong> PCDP’s<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> WSSP’s water interventi<strong>on</strong>s for domestic use, but provisi<strong>on</strong>s are also made for livestockwatering.• Nati<strong>on</strong>al guidelines for livestock relief interventi<strong>on</strong>s in pastoralist areas <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ethiopia (MoARD,2008). Developed by <strong>the</strong> MoARD, this set <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> guidelines includes a subsecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> emergencyprovisi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water to livestock as well as guidelines <strong>on</strong> participatory natural resource mapping.• The Livestock Emergency Guidelines <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> St<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ards (LEGS). This internati<strong>on</strong>al set <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> guidelines,developed in 2009, includes a subsecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> minimum st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ards for <strong>the</strong> provisi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water(Thorne, 2009).• The internati<strong>on</strong>al humanitarian Sphere guidelines 57 , which include a secti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> water, sanitati<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> hygiene.• Guidelines for <strong>the</strong> development <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> small-scale rural water supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sanitati<strong>on</strong> projects in EastAfrica. This set <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> guidelines was funded by USAID <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> produced by Catholic Relief Services(Warner <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Abate, 2005).• Introductory volume <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> guidelines <strong>on</strong> participatory rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> management, lead by SC-US <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>the</strong> ELSE/ELMT Technical Working Group. These documents present a process <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> participatoryrangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> management built up<strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> success <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> participatory forest management, so providing aframework for community-led l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use planning <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> resource management in pastoral areas(Flintan <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Cullis, forthcoming 2010; Irwin, Cullis <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Flintan, forthcoming 2010).• Guidelines <strong>on</strong> participatory resource mapping, developed independently by <strong>the</strong> government’sPSNP <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> also by USAID’s PLI program. These can be used to help plan water developmentinterventi<strong>on</strong>s in a manner which is highly c<strong>on</strong>text specific. A published versi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong>se guidelinesis being produced by SC-US as part <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a series <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> guidelines for practiti<strong>on</strong>ers focussing <strong>on</strong>aspects <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> participatory rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> management.57 Sphere Humanitarian Charter <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Minimum St<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ards in Disaster Resp<strong>on</strong>se, seehttp://www.sphereproject.org/c<strong>on</strong>tect/view/27/84/lang,English/.76
• Guidelines for c<strong>on</strong>flict sensitive programming, developed by CARE Ethiopia for pastoral areas inBorana z<strong>on</strong>e, Oromia regi<strong>on</strong> under <strong>the</strong> GWI programme (Demeke, 2008). This set <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> guidelineshas relevance in multiple pastoral settings <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> can help inform water development planning.• Still under development are guidelines for <strong>the</strong> planning <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> UAP. The factthat <strong>the</strong>se guidelines are still being drafted presents an opportunity to incorporaterecommendati<strong>on</strong>s specific to pastoral areas.Resp<strong>on</strong>sibility for waterResp<strong>on</strong>sibility for water is fragmented between different ministries <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> bureaus at federal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>regi<strong>on</strong>al levels, depending <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> intended use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> supplied water. For example water supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>large scale irrigati<strong>on</strong> are <strong>the</strong> resp<strong>on</strong>sibility <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> MoWR, while water for livestock <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> agriculture isunder <strong>the</strong> MoARD. At <strong>the</strong> same time, projects under <strong>the</strong> MoFA also deal with water development,as seen under <strong>the</strong> PCDP.At regi<strong>on</strong>al level, resp<strong>on</strong>sibility for water is also fragmented between different bureaus. Waterdevelopment is <strong>the</strong> resp<strong>on</strong>sibility <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water bureaus <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong>ir associated <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>fices/desks at loweradministrative scales. Pastoral development more broadly (i.e. anything related to livelihoods, naturalresource management etc., which <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten entails water development as well) is <strong>the</strong> resp<strong>on</strong>sibility <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>dedicated pastoral commissi<strong>on</strong>s/bureaus <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong>ir associated <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>fices at lower administrative levels.Fragmented resp<strong>on</strong>sibility entrenches sectorally driven water interventi<strong>on</strong>s (water points for humansupply, water for agriculture, etc.) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> it is not difficult to see that it poses a challenge to streamlined<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> coherent approaches to water development. In Oromia regi<strong>on</strong>, steps are being taken to addressthis sectoral disc<strong>on</strong>nect (Box 14).Sectorally driven water development means that water points are developed for specific purposes;ei<strong>the</strong>r for domestic c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong>, livestock use, or for agriculture. However, pastoralists use waterfor multiple purposes, regardless <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> intended purpose <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> water point. This is beginning to berecognized by many practiti<strong>on</strong>ers who now <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten c<strong>on</strong>struct troughs intended for livestock wateringattached to water points intended for domestic use. Multiple use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water is also beginning to berecognized in federal plans <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> policies. The PASDEP menti<strong>on</strong>s water for multiple uses <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> UAPmakes brief menti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> it albeit with little elaborati<strong>on</strong>.Box 14: Platform for integrated water development, Oromia regi<strong>on</strong>The Oromia Pastoral Development Commissi<strong>on</strong> (OPDC) implements projects focused <strong>on</strong> pastoral livelihoods, <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenwith water delivery comp<strong>on</strong>ents. The water <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> agriculture sectoral bureaus plan <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> implement water supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>irrigati<strong>on</strong> projects in both pastoral <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> highl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> regi<strong>on</strong>s. In 2009, a structural amendment was made at regi<strong>on</strong>al level toallow for better coordinati<strong>on</strong> between <strong>the</strong> OPDC <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> sectoral bureaus. A new board was created at <strong>the</strong> behest <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>the</strong> regi<strong>on</strong>al president <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cabinet, to be hosted by <strong>the</strong> OPDC <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to ensure that <strong>the</strong> strategies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> interventi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>sectoral bureaus are better suited to <strong>the</strong> pastoral c<strong>on</strong>text. Sectoral bureau representatives must present <strong>the</strong>ir intendeddevelopment plans for pastoral areas during board meetings <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> task <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> OPDC is to ensure that <strong>the</strong>y c<strong>on</strong>siderrealities in <strong>the</strong> regi<strong>on</strong>’s lowl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s (Abebe Wolde, OPDC deputy commissi<strong>on</strong>er, pers<strong>on</strong>al communicati<strong>on</strong>).Coordinati<strong>on</strong>The importance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> coordinati<strong>on</strong> is not lost <strong>on</strong> government <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> various development <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>humanitarian assistance actors in Ethiopia. Many coordinati<strong>on</strong> groups, fora, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>sortia have beenestablished to promote communicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> comm<strong>on</strong> approaches <strong>on</strong> a wide array <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> issues (Box 15).77
However, <strong>the</strong>re are currently no specific coordinati<strong>on</strong> efforts <strong>on</strong> water for productive use orcomm<strong>on</strong> guidelines for water development in pastoral regi<strong>on</strong>s. Water issues are fragmentedbetween different coordinati<strong>on</strong> groups, which are ei<strong>the</strong>r project specific or related to particular<strong>the</strong>mes such as emergency relief, livestock, agriculture/food security, natural resource management,<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> access to safe drinking water, all led by different agencies. The sheer number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> coordinati<strong>on</strong>groups <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> fora suggests that <strong>the</strong>re is much coordinati<strong>on</strong> but little harm<strong>on</strong>izati<strong>on</strong>. Many <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong>existing coordinati<strong>on</strong> efforts touch <strong>on</strong> overlapping <strong>the</strong>mes, are led by different agencies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> run inparallel. Discussi<strong>on</strong> around water, as a cross-cutting <strong>the</strong>me, is splintered <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> diluted across <strong>the</strong>different groups, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> where it is a central topic <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> discussi<strong>on</strong> (such as in coordinati<strong>on</strong> fora <strong>on</strong> accessto safe drinking water), discussi<strong>on</strong>s c<strong>on</strong>centrate <strong>on</strong> water for human use ra<strong>the</strong>r than for livestock oragriculture.Box 15: Selecti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> coordinati<strong>on</strong> efforts relevant to water <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoral development in Ethiopia(based <strong>on</strong> Gijs Van’t Klooster, FAO, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Fi<strong>on</strong>a Flintan, ELSE/ELMT Program <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> NRM Technical Working Group,pers<strong>on</strong>al communicati<strong>on</strong>, 2009)Emergency relief:• Overall coordinati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> emergency interventi<strong>on</strong>s led by UN-OCHA.• Coordinati<strong>on</strong> forum for all PLI-USAID projects (led by Tufts University)*• Coordinati<strong>on</strong> forum for all ECHO RDD projects (led by FAO)*Development:• Coordinati<strong>on</strong> group for <strong>the</strong> Agricultural Growth Programme under <strong>the</strong> Rural Ec<strong>on</strong>omic Development <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> FoodSecurity subgroup <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> D<strong>on</strong>or Assistance Group, led by <strong>the</strong> World Bank. Under this programme, alivestock/pastoral working subgroup has been formed by <strong>the</strong> MoARD, USAID, FAO, Tufts University, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong>European Commissi<strong>on</strong> to promote livestock producti<strong>on</strong> as a vehicle for agricultural growth.• The livestock policy forum (as discussed previously in Secti<strong>on</strong> 3.2.2.1)• Coordinati<strong>on</strong> group for <strong>the</strong> PCDP, led by <strong>the</strong> World Bank• Coordinati<strong>on</strong> group for <strong>the</strong> PSNP, led by <strong>the</strong> World Bank with a taskforce for pastoral areas.Natural Resource Management:• Initially supported under <strong>the</strong> ELSE/ELMT program, <strong>the</strong> NRM Technical Working Group (TWG) currently housedin Save <strong>the</strong> Children/US is made up <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> members from NGOs, government (federal, regi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> local), d<strong>on</strong>ors<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> development agencies. It provides a forum for informati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> experience exchange including, potentially, <strong>on</strong>water. Currently, NRM sub-groups are being established at a regi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>/or z<strong>on</strong>al levels.Regi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> z<strong>on</strong>es:• Multiple <strong>the</strong>me- based coordinati<strong>on</strong> groups, led by regi<strong>on</strong>al or z<strong>on</strong>al government.*These two have now joined, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> joint coordinati<strong>on</strong> group is now led by regi<strong>on</strong>al agricultural bureaus.As indicated, guidelines do exist which could serve as a str<strong>on</strong>g foundati<strong>on</strong> for developing a broaderset <strong>on</strong> water for productive use in pastoral regi<strong>on</strong>s. The existence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> multiple coordinati<strong>on</strong> groupsc<strong>on</strong>cerned with development <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> development-oriented emergency relief in pastoral areas serves asa good opportunity to <strong>the</strong>n mainstream developed guidelines into practice.4.2.3 Water development in <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>text <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> broader natural resourcemanagementWater in pastoral regi<strong>on</strong>s is part <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> parcel <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> broader natural resource base, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> decisi<strong>on</strong>srelated to water am<strong>on</strong>g pastoralists are de facto decisi<strong>on</strong>s related to pasture. Therefore watercannot be seen as a st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>-al<strong>on</strong>e issue <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> water point development for people (<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> livestock) mustalso c<strong>on</strong>sider broader natural resource management if envir<strong>on</strong>mental degradati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flict are tobe minimized.78
However, water development in Ethiopia is still largely worked <strong>on</strong> as a st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>al<strong>on</strong>e issue divorcedfrom broader natural resource management <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> from broader development. This suggests poorlinkages between water provisi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> improving livelihood resilience.Some actors have begun to address this disc<strong>on</strong>nect. The government’s PSNP aims to underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>customary natural resource use, <strong>the</strong> type <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> different natural resources in specific areasincluding degraded l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>scapes, as well as existing customary resource management systems. It doesso through <strong>the</strong> use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> participatory natural resource mapping, which allows practiti<strong>on</strong>ers to get a feelfor local needs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>cerns. USAID’s PLI uses a similar approach, where Save <strong>the</strong> Children USleads <strong>on</strong> working with <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> streng<strong>the</strong>ning customary instituti<strong>on</strong>s to properly underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> localphysical, social, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural c<strong>on</strong>texts. Some NGOs are doing <strong>the</strong> same. LVIA, as part <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong>ELSE/ELMT program, has put toge<strong>the</strong>r a comprehensive GIS based atlas for parts <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Borana inOromia regi<strong>on</strong>, which identifies existing water resources, water points <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pasture, am<strong>on</strong>g o<strong>the</strong>rfeatures, to help inform planning. In additi<strong>on</strong>, Oromia regi<strong>on</strong>’s approach to development, through itsOromia Growth Corridors Plan, is to underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> existing natural resources <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> uses through acomprehensive l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use mapping <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> planning exercise.4.2.4 Development versus emergency reliefDevelopment projects have begun to put more effort into <strong>the</strong> s<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>tware aspect <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> developmentinterventi<strong>on</strong>s, including working closely with communities to appropriately plan interventi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>building local capacity to operate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> manage schemes. However, development projects <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>programs are dwarfed by much more widespread short-term emergency relief projects. The shortterm nature <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> emergency relief, where projects are typically up to 6 m<strong>on</strong>ths in durati<strong>on</strong> (notexceeding 12 m<strong>on</strong>ths in rare cases), puts inordinate amounts <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pressure <strong>on</strong> implementing agenciesto address water shortages <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> meet targets at <strong>the</strong> expense <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> appropriate planning <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ensuringsustainability, which requires much more time 58 . It is not hard to see how <strong>the</strong>se parallel modes <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>operati<strong>on</strong> can undermine l<strong>on</strong>g-term development efforts in <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s.A nascent trend observed is <strong>the</strong> introducti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a l<strong>on</strong>ger term livelihoods approach to humanitarianinterventi<strong>on</strong>s as seen under USAID’s PLI <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ECHO’s RDD programs (see Secti<strong>on</strong> 3), which focus<strong>on</strong> rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> simple water infrastructure in areas outside settlements. To avoid c<strong>on</strong>tentiousissues related to establishing new water points, such projects increasingly promote rehabilitatingexisting water infrastructure (especially <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> more complex schemes).There are also a number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cases <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> NGOs using <strong>the</strong>ir experience with communities in ahumanitarian relief c<strong>on</strong>text as an entry point for l<strong>on</strong>ger term development. For example, OxfamUSA has managed to secure funds for a l<strong>on</strong>g-term development project in pastoral areas focused <strong>on</strong>small-scale irrigati<strong>on</strong>, as a direct follow <strong>on</strong> project building <strong>on</strong> emergency relief activities. Givenincreased funding available for pastoral programs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> projects, this has meant that <strong>the</strong>re is morelikelihood for follow up projects to take place in pastoral areas, providing some c<strong>on</strong>tinuity (Fi<strong>on</strong>aFlintan 59 , pers<strong>on</strong>al communicati<strong>on</strong>, 2009).Given <strong>the</strong> need for immediate resp<strong>on</strong>se in an emergency c<strong>on</strong>text, it is unlikely that emergency reliefproject cycles will be extended to accommodate <strong>the</strong> time needed to incorporate effective planning<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> o<strong>the</strong>r s<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>tware interventi<strong>on</strong>s which would help improve water point sustainability. In light <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>this, synergies should be promoted between development <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> emergency relief practiti<strong>on</strong>ers to helpmitigate <strong>the</strong> potential for humanitarian interventi<strong>on</strong>s to undermine l<strong>on</strong>g term development.58 It is recommended that planning prior to any new physical interventi<strong>on</strong>s should take about 6 m<strong>on</strong>ths if it isto be d<strong>on</strong>e properly (Warner <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Abate, 2005).59 Regi<strong>on</strong>al NRM Technical Advisory, ELSE/ELMT Program <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> coordinator NRM Technical Working Group,Addis Ababa79
4.3 C<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>, ways forward <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> recommendati<strong>on</strong>sThis report provides an overview <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water development in Ethiopia’s rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s in order to inform<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> improve <strong>the</strong> partners’ work <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> encourage dialogue <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> debate around water developmentissues specific to pastoral regi<strong>on</strong>s. It provides an examinati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> discussi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> current actors,practice <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> policies in <strong>the</strong> water development arena, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> also puts forward poor <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> bad practiceas identified by major stakeholders.Findings indicate that to improve water development, local c<strong>on</strong>texts need to be understood <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>c<strong>on</strong>sidered, l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> users involved to guide <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> inform what is <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> isn’t appropriate, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> existingcustomary l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> management strategies built up<strong>on</strong> (see table 7). The government’s WSDP highlightsthat “<strong>the</strong> most important policy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> regulatory interventi<strong>on</strong>s in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong>ir negative impacts <strong>on</strong><strong>the</strong> envir<strong>on</strong>ment were those impositi<strong>on</strong>s which increasingly <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cumulatively eroded <strong>the</strong> rights <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>individuals <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> communities to use <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> manage <strong>the</strong>ir own resources” (MoWR, 2002: 122).Grassroots participati<strong>on</strong> is clearly enshrined in Ethiopia’s C<strong>on</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> in order to effectivelyaddress inappropriate water development in <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, it is sensible to take <strong>the</strong> best that <strong>the</strong>technical <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> scientific community has to <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>fer <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> combine this with customary knowledge systems.Table 7: Reflecti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> participati<strong>on</strong>Changes1991sinceWhere observed Challenges* Recommendati<strong>on</strong>sMore emphasis <strong>on</strong>participati<strong>on</strong>Water policies, strategies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>programs emphasise communityparticipati<strong>on</strong> in waterdevelopment.i. The term community is <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenill-defined or not defined at all.This makes selectingcommunity members who aretruly representative <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong>wider set <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> stakeholders achallenge.a. Define 'community',underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> social,ec<strong>on</strong>omic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> politicalfactors at play locally, selectrepresentative communitymembers, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> select <strong>the</strong>scale <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> interventi<strong>on</strong>commensurate with <strong>the</strong>appropriate livelihood z<strong>on</strong>e.Community membersengaged should represent<strong>the</strong> different social,livelihood, wealth, age,religious <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> gender groups.ii. No comm<strong>on</strong> underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ing<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> term participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>no comm<strong>on</strong> approach topromoting it. Ambiguity inwhat is meant by <strong>the</strong> term seesmultiple approaches toensuring participati<strong>on</strong> in <strong>the</strong>rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, running <strong>the</strong> gamutfrom token to effectiveparticipati<strong>on</strong>.b. Define 'participati<strong>on</strong>' <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>how 'community' (above)will be involved. Alsopromote dialogue betweenpractiti<strong>on</strong>ers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>pastoralists to shareexperience <strong>on</strong> what does<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> doesn't work indifferent pastoral c<strong>on</strong>texts.iii. Weak focus <strong>on</strong> buildingcapacity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> communities(Water User Associati<strong>on</strong>s oro<strong>the</strong>r committees/groupsacting <strong>on</strong> behalf <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong>community) to plan, manage,operate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> maintain waterpoints. This weakens <strong>the</strong>capacity to participate in aswell as 'own' projects.c. Increase focus <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong>'s<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>tware' comp<strong>on</strong>ent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>projects <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> put in placeindicators at <strong>the</strong> outset <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>interventi<strong>on</strong>s which wouldhelp measure capacity built<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> livelihoods improved,not just physicalinterventi<strong>on</strong>s completed.80
iv. More emphasis <strong>on</strong> involvingcommunities in management<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> maintenance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> less inplanning. This may compromisebuy-in to schemes if planned inisolati<strong>on</strong> from community. Thisalso makes practiti<strong>on</strong>ersvulnerable to establishing waterpoints that may disrupt social<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ecological patterns.d. Ensure participati<strong>on</strong> in allstages <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> waterdevelopment, whichimportantly includesplanning.* There are also notable overarching challenges including an unfavourable pastoral policy envir<strong>on</strong>ment, extremely ambitiousnati<strong>on</strong>al water development targets which may undermine quality in favour <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> quantity, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a dearth <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> skilled manpower inpastoral regi<strong>on</strong>s.Currently in Ethiopia, approaches to water development <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> community participati<strong>on</strong> are disjointedbetween different projects <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> programs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> also between different actors <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sectors. In general,approaches range from highly technocratic, with generic methods <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> promoting participati<strong>on</strong> (<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>tentokenistic), to highly participatory approaches which are c<strong>on</strong>fined to specific spatial <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sociopoliticalsettings. There is little coordinati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> knowledge sharing between different groups <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>actors. No comm<strong>on</strong> guidelines exist for <strong>the</strong> development <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water for productive use in <strong>the</strong> pastoralc<strong>on</strong>text, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong>re is also a need to streng<strong>the</strong>n linkages <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> improve complementarities betweenhumanitarian <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> development approaches <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> activities. Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, most water developmentoccurs in isolati<strong>on</strong> from broader natural resource management, even though water is recognized asa key resource. Water is also <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten developed without due attenti<strong>on</strong> to o<strong>the</strong>r critical developmentneeds such as access to markets, health services for people <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> livestock, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong>.Fur<strong>the</strong>r complicating matters is <strong>the</strong> dichotomy in macro-level thinking. On <strong>the</strong> <strong>on</strong>e h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <strong>the</strong> policyenvir<strong>on</strong>ment in Ethiopia favours <strong>the</strong> settlement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastoralists in <strong>the</strong> l<strong>on</strong>g term <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> promoti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>irrigati<strong>on</strong> expansi<strong>on</strong>, seen by government as <strong>the</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly practical resp<strong>on</strong>ses to <strong>the</strong> challenges facingpastoralists in <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, d<strong>on</strong>ors, some government programmes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a fewdevelopment organizati<strong>on</strong>s favour supporting mobility as an essential pastoral coping strategy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>promote <strong>the</strong> livelihood as a vehicle for ec<strong>on</strong>omic growth <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> development.Some shifts in water development thinking have been observed. Practiti<strong>on</strong>ers increasingly recognizethat:• Disjointed approaches to water development are an impediment to sustainable development in<strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s;• The lowl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s require a different approach to water development than <strong>the</strong> country’s agriculturalareas where rainfall is less spatially <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> temporally variable;• Mobility is an important means for pastoralists to resp<strong>on</strong>d <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> adapt to variable envir<strong>on</strong>ments;• Pastoral livelihoods are influenced by social, cultural <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> political aspects which differ within <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>between regi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> must be properly understood;• Water points functi<strong>on</strong> within <strong>the</strong> broader l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>scape <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> can alter patterns <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> resource use,underscoring <strong>the</strong> importance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ing <strong>the</strong> existing natural resources in a locati<strong>on</strong> (water<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pasture) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> way people use <strong>the</strong>se resources;• The s<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>tware comp<strong>on</strong>ent <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water development requires much more focus if waterdevelopments are to be appropriate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sustainable, which means improving effectiveparticipati<strong>on</strong> in planning <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> embedding <strong>the</strong> capacity at <strong>the</strong> local level tooperate, manage <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> maintain water points81
In sum, pastoralism as a livelihood is a highly evolved ec<strong>on</strong>omic, social, cultural, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> politicalresp<strong>on</strong>se to a l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>scape where natural resources are highly variable in space <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> time. Insufficientattenti<strong>on</strong> to how pastoralists use <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> manage natural resources within this broader livelihoodc<strong>on</strong>text, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a coherent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> streamlined approach to water development, <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten results inwater interventi<strong>on</strong>s which c<strong>on</strong>tribute to <strong>the</strong> disrupti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> elaborate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> highly developed naturalresource management systems, <strong>the</strong> promoti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> unsustainable l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> heightened potentialfor c<strong>on</strong>flict, which serves to damage a very productive part <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ethiopia’s ec<strong>on</strong>omy. The ir<strong>on</strong>y <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>developing water to satisfy dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> is that as much as it can alleviate immediate pressures in <strong>the</strong>short term, it can potentially bring with it lasting <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> serious negative impacts in <strong>the</strong> l<strong>on</strong>g term. Thisoccurs when local needs, l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use patterns <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ecological functi<strong>on</strong>s are not sufficiently c<strong>on</strong>sidered.In turn, water development can potentially undermine ra<strong>the</strong>r than promote development <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>sustainable livelihoods.Ways forwardThe type, size <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> placement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water points requires a solid underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1) water needs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>c<strong>on</strong>cerns in a given area, 2) <strong>the</strong> natural resource base which might be affected - as water points“functi<strong>on</strong> within <strong>the</strong> natural envir<strong>on</strong>ment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> can potentially have significant harmful effects <strong>on</strong> it <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> welfare <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> people depending <strong>on</strong> it” (Warner <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Abate, 2005: 13), 3) <strong>the</strong> social as well aspolitical dynamics in areas <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> interventi<strong>on</strong>, 4) capacity at <strong>the</strong> local level to manage, operate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>maintain water points, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 5) existing traditi<strong>on</strong>al water management systems already in place.Underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ing <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> building <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong>se key elements is fundamental to help ensure that water schemeswill satisfy dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, remain functi<strong>on</strong>al, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> minimize envir<strong>on</strong>mental degradati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flict. Thisnecessitates bringing communities <strong>on</strong> board at <strong>the</strong> outset <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> any planned interventi<strong>on</strong>.Following is an amalgamati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> three sets <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> guidelines 60 which could serve as a starting point toaddress <strong>the</strong> above issues. This example could also serve as a starting point to discuss <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> build <strong>on</strong> inorder to develop a comm<strong>on</strong> set <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water development guidelines suited to <strong>the</strong> pastoral c<strong>on</strong>text 61 .1) Planning:Local needs, opportunities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> existing water management systems need to be understood during<strong>the</strong> planning stage <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> any water interventi<strong>on</strong>. The planning stage is critical <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten requiresc<strong>on</strong>siderable time <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> effort (6-12 m<strong>on</strong>ths for l<strong>on</strong>g-term development planning) to make sure that<strong>the</strong> interventi<strong>on</strong> is appropriate, will satisfy dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> will be sustainable in <strong>the</strong> l<strong>on</strong>g-term.Stakeholder mapping• Perform a comprehensive stakeholder analysis at local level to underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> who <strong>the</strong> differentpotential resource users are (<strong>the</strong> ‘community’ who will benefit) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> also who may st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to gainor lose from water interventi<strong>on</strong>s (for example upstream <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> downstream users al<strong>on</strong>g rivers).Also explore current access patterns to water to identify whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong>re are social (or o<strong>the</strong>r)c<strong>on</strong>straints limiting access <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> some groups to water.oIdentify local customary instituti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> representatives <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> existing watermanagement strategies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> relati<strong>on</strong>ships between groups. Engaging with communityleaders in an area is important to avoid c<strong>on</strong>flict over water points.60 See Warner, D. <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Abate, C. (2005); Thorne, P. (2009); Ministry <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Agriculture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rural Development(2008).61 This set <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> guidelines serves <strong>on</strong>ly as an example to kick-start dialogue <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> is by no means a representati<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> full set <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> existing guidelines previously presented.82
oIdentify local n<strong>on</strong>-pastoral groups <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> those not represented by customary instituti<strong>on</strong>s(e.g. immigrants, Internally Displaced Pers<strong>on</strong>s, refugees).Community involvement <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> participati<strong>on</strong>• Involve communities in <strong>the</strong> planning process. Using participatory methods <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> communityengagement, 62 planners should identify local c<strong>on</strong>cerns <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> needs.Planners should engage with local groups which are representative <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> different resource users in<strong>the</strong> area, to include representatives <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> customary instituti<strong>on</strong>s. The group should also reflect <strong>the</strong>different wealth strata within <strong>the</strong> community <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> include women to ensure that vulnerable groupsare represented. To begin to discuss needs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>cerns, as well as <strong>the</strong> particulars <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>placing/sizing/choosing water points, a useful starting point would be to use appropriate participatorytools. An example is participatory natural resource mapping, which is useful to underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong>extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> quality <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> existing pasture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> water <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> different l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use patterns in an area. Thisallows planners <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> community representatives to discuss c<strong>on</strong>cerns <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> needs regarding waterwithin a broader l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>scape/natural resource management c<strong>on</strong>text. A sound assessment <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>for water should also be based <strong>on</strong> human <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> livestock populati<strong>on</strong> estimates (if available) as well aslocal authority records, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> should accommodate future dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> both human <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> livestockpopulati<strong>on</strong>s.Project DesignRemoval <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water points• In agreement with local water users, explore <strong>the</strong> opti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> removing existing inappropriate 63water sources.Rehabilitati<strong>on</strong>• Identify existing water points <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> explore opti<strong>on</strong>s to rehabilitate n<strong>on</strong>-functi<strong>on</strong>al or poorlyperforming points. This is to ensure that water projects build <strong>on</strong> existing infrastructure. At <strong>the</strong>same time, carefully evaluate <strong>the</strong> potential for c<strong>on</strong>flict between existing <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> potential new usersattracted to <strong>the</strong> increased water supply. Increased attenti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> should be givenespecially in <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>text <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> emergency interventi<strong>on</strong>s where <strong>the</strong> project lifecycle is limited.New water points• Evaluate <strong>the</strong> need for <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> potential impacts <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> introducing new water points, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> identifyremedial measures to tackle negative impacts.• Choice <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> technology should be based <strong>on</strong> both technical <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cost c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>s, as well as <strong>on</strong><strong>the</strong> expressed needs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> capacities <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> community. Planners should explain <strong>the</strong> availabletechnological opti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> help communities, through a process <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> dialogue <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> knowledgesharing, to select <strong>the</strong> most suitable technology that will satisfy local needs. The placement <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>capacity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water points should also be thoroughly discussed with stakeholders.62 Participatory methods allow planners to underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> benefit from local knowledge systems, allowdialogue <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> negotiati<strong>on</strong> between planners <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> communities <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> most suitable type/placement/size <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> waterpoints, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> enhance buy-in <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> commitment at <strong>the</strong> local level.63 Water points may be inappropriate for a number <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> reas<strong>on</strong>s. They may be technologically inappropriate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>bey<strong>on</strong>d <strong>the</strong> financial or technical capacity <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> local people to use, leading to habitual breakage <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> disuse. Theymay also be c<strong>on</strong>tentious in terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> placement <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> potentially disused for this reas<strong>on</strong>.83
• Water interventi<strong>on</strong>s selected should ideally be familiar to local communities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> within <strong>the</strong>irunderst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ing. If designed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>structed bey<strong>on</strong>d <strong>the</strong> underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ing <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> users, <strong>the</strong>y are notlikely to be sustainable.• Promote <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> cash <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>/or labour to <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> or rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> waterpoints. This is to enhance community commitment to maintaining <strong>the</strong> water point <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ensuringthat it is sustainable bey<strong>on</strong>d <strong>the</strong> lifetime <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> project.Management• Establish clear <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> equitable management systems for water points. Unless this point is tackledfrom <strong>the</strong> outset <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> project, it is likely that <strong>the</strong> water point will be vulnerable to breakage ormisuse.• Assist communities to establish water management committees (or variati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>the</strong>re<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>),representative <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> all groups with a stake in <strong>the</strong> development. This should include women, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<strong>on</strong>-pastoral groups (e.g. immigrants, Internally Displaced Pers<strong>on</strong>s, refugees). Committeesshould help define <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> manage water interventi<strong>on</strong>s. Management includes operati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>maintenance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> members should receive adequate training to perform <strong>the</strong>se tasks.• Build <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> streng<strong>the</strong>n existing customary resource management systems. These systems <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenprovide a tried <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tested c<strong>on</strong>text <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> culture appropriate approach to water management,which helps diffuse/avoid c<strong>on</strong>flict over water. Practiti<strong>on</strong>ers should build <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong>se benefits ra<strong>the</strong>rthan import new systems external to <strong>the</strong> pastoral c<strong>on</strong>text. Therefore, ensuring that customaryinstituti<strong>on</strong>s are represented <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> above committees 64 (especially for new water points) isimportant to make sure that all needs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>cerns are taken <strong>on</strong> board <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to maximize benefitfrom indigenous knowledge.• To avoid misuse <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> water point it is imperative that <strong>the</strong> water management committeeshould be seen by <strong>the</strong> wider community as a credible entity which represents all user groups,including pastoralists <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> n<strong>on</strong>-pastoralists as well as vulnerable groups <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> women. Thiscommittee should also be expected to report <strong>on</strong> progress to <strong>the</strong> wider community <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to localgovernment.2) Implementati<strong>on</strong>• Encourage <strong>the</strong> use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> traditi<strong>on</strong>al systems designs for which local materials <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>know-how are available.• Take into c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> technical capacity required to operate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> maintain water points, aswell as spare part availability when choosing technologies. Especially in remote areas, access toexternal technical assistance, c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> materials <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> spare parts may be limited.Training• Involve <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> train local community members (e.g. water management committee members <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>local artisans) in c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>, management <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> maintenance to embed capacity at <strong>the</strong> locallevel.3) Sustainability64 A combinati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> formal management committees <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> customary instituti<strong>on</strong>s is recommended, as <strong>the</strong> latter<strong>on</strong> its own may not reflect <strong>the</strong> full c<strong>on</strong>stituency in an area <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> may not be representative <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> n<strong>on</strong>-pastoralgroups (Muir, 2007),84
• C<strong>on</strong>tinue to assist communities to operate schemes for some time after project completi<strong>on</strong> ifneeded.• Help communities prepare a plan outlining routine maintenance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> repairs which should beaccepted <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> followed.• The water management committee should report to <strong>the</strong> community <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> possibly to localgovernment technical bureaus.• Promote <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> enhance linkages between communities, local government <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> private sectorso that potential challenges related to water point operati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> maintenance can be overcome.Preferably facilitate agreements with technical bureaus <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> private sector to assist shouldmajor interventi<strong>on</strong>s (maintenance, etc.) be needed in <strong>the</strong> future.• C<strong>on</strong>duct external evaluati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> projects to track progress <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> m<strong>on</strong>itor impacts.Recommendati<strong>on</strong>sComm<strong>on</strong> PracticeDevelop water points based <strong>on</strong> technological <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> geomorphological c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>s to meetimmediate water shortages <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>.Potential OutcomesDem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> for water met, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> human lives <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>livelihoods protected.Unforeseen negative c<strong>on</strong>sequences despitewell-intenti<strong>on</strong>ed development includingrangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> degradati<strong>on</strong>, c<strong>on</strong>flict, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>increased vulnerability (for example,increased incidence <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> disease due to highc<strong>on</strong>centrati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> livestock for protractedperiods <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> time).Recommendati<strong>on</strong>s • As ‘good’ <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> poor’ practice in relati<strong>on</strong> to impact <strong>on</strong> livelihoods is hardly measured ordocumented, promote <strong>the</strong> use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> impact assessments such as those used underUSAID’s PLI program to measure <strong>the</strong> impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water developments <strong>on</strong> livelihoods<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> learn from documented ‘good’ <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ‘poor’ experiences. This is currently a majorgap in practice <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> applies across <strong>the</strong> board from development <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> humanitarianagencies to local NGOs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> government.• Thoroughly underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> local social, envir<strong>on</strong>mental, ec<strong>on</strong>omic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> political c<strong>on</strong>textto inform planning.• Ensure that water is developed as part <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a participatory rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> developmentsystem/process, with a prerequisite in-depth analysis <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> broader political, instituti<strong>on</strong>al<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> funding priorities to inform this process.• Develop comm<strong>on</strong> guidelines for water development in <strong>the</strong> pastoral c<strong>on</strong>text, flexibleenough to allow for c<strong>on</strong>text specific planning. Streamline <strong>the</strong> use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong>se guidelinesthrough existing coordinati<strong>on</strong> fora dealing with development <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> emergencyinterventi<strong>on</strong>s in pastoral regi<strong>on</strong>s.85
• Promote effective participati<strong>on</strong> through <strong>the</strong> involvement <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> recognized instituti<strong>on</strong>s orgroups representative <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> local communities. These groups or instituti<strong>on</strong>s may exist(customary instituti<strong>on</strong>s, water user associati<strong>on</strong>s, pastoral associati<strong>on</strong>s) or may stillneed to be established. For example, customary instituti<strong>on</strong>s may not represent alllivelihood groups in a given area (Muir, 2007), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten do not represent <strong>the</strong> needs<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> views <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> women, while water user associati<strong>on</strong>s may not sufficiently representpastoral needs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>cerns <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> generally do not incorporate or build up<strong>on</strong> existingnatural resource management strategies. Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, existing instituti<strong>on</strong>s haveevolved with time, including traditi<strong>on</strong>al pastoral instituti<strong>on</strong>s. This change must beacknowledged <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> nature <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>the</strong> change carefully documented to help identifyinstituti<strong>on</strong>al strengths <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> weaknesses, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to establish modalities <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> engagement with<strong>the</strong>se instituti<strong>on</strong>s. To date, <strong>the</strong> role <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> customary instituti<strong>on</strong>s is poorly researched inEthiopia <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> development practiti<strong>on</strong>ers <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>ten view <strong>the</strong>se instituti<strong>on</strong>s as fossilizedentities retaining a set <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> characteristics described in historical texts. This is no l<strong>on</strong>ger<strong>the</strong> case, as pastoral customary instituti<strong>on</strong>s have changed with time in resp<strong>on</strong>se tochanging circumstances. Establishing new groups or adjusting <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>figurati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>existing groups may thus become necessary.• Simultaneously address o<strong>the</strong>r development needs in <strong>the</strong> rangel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s besides <strong>the</strong> needfor water (e.g. human <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> livestock health <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> access to markets) to effectivelyaddress vulnerability <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> poverty l<strong>on</strong>g-term.• Make better use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> existing research to inform water development planning <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>implementati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> promote knowledge sharing between practiti<strong>on</strong>ers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> projects.This can be d<strong>on</strong>e through establishing learning <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> practice alliances.• Create an enabling envir<strong>on</strong>ment where local groups representative <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> water users in agiven area have <strong>the</strong> capacity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> authority to c<strong>on</strong>struct, operate, manage, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> maintainwater points, effectively making <strong>the</strong>m implementers ra<strong>the</strong>r than merely recipients <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>development.• Promote <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>sortium approach to water development am<strong>on</strong>g development <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>humanitarian practiti<strong>on</strong>ers. This approach can help harm<strong>on</strong>ize activities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> has beenviewed favourably by agencies in <strong>the</strong> water development sector in Ethiopia.Alternatively, link development <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> humanitarian practiti<strong>on</strong>ers to existing (orpotential) technical working groups that h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>le water issues, such as <strong>the</strong> NaturalResources Management Technical Working Group.86
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