Roles for Bengali Women in Love and Family Judith Walsh
Roles for Bengali Women in Love and Family Judith Walsh
Roles for Bengali Women in Love and Family Judith Walsh
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AbstractThis is a study ofa collection of 19 th Century <strong>Bengali</strong> "advice <strong>for</strong>women" texts whose purpose was the redef<strong>in</strong>ition ofwomen's roles <strong>in</strong>19 th Century Bengal <strong>and</strong> the adaptation ofthese roles to the changedcircumstances oflife <strong>in</strong> British-ruled India. These texts were "how todo it" books, guides to relations with<strong>in</strong> extended families, the rear<strong>in</strong>gofchildren, <strong>and</strong> the management ofhouseholds. Addressed to women,but written by men, they were often constructed <strong>in</strong> the <strong>for</strong>m ofadialogue between husb<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> wife <strong>in</strong> which the husb<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>structedthe wife on proper conduct. The paper surveys the general concerns<strong>and</strong> considerations <strong>in</strong> this collection oftexts, which represent a widerange ofviews on women's roles <strong>in</strong> society. It then turns to anexam<strong>in</strong>ation oftwo chapters ofone text, Grha Lakshrni (The Lakshmiofthe House) by Girijaprasann Raychaudhuri, <strong>and</strong> discusses theimplications <strong>for</strong> men <strong>and</strong> women's relationships <strong>in</strong> 19 th CenturyBengal ofthe contradictory roles <strong>for</strong> women <strong>in</strong> this text.About the Author<strong>Judith</strong> <strong>Walsh</strong> is an Associate Professor <strong>in</strong> Comparative Humanities atthe State University ofNew York/the College at Old Westbury. Shereceived her PhD degree <strong>in</strong> History from Columbia University <strong>and</strong> isthe author ofGrow<strong>in</strong>g Up <strong>in</strong> British India, published by Holmes <strong>and</strong>Meiers <strong>in</strong> 1983. Her current research on 19 th Century <strong>Bengali</strong> "advice<strong>for</strong> women" texts was begun <strong>in</strong> India <strong>in</strong> 1980 <strong>and</strong> aga<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> 1983 undergrants from the American Institute ofIndian Studies.Face to Face:<strong>Roles</strong> <strong>for</strong><strong>Bengali</strong> <strong>Women</strong><strong>in</strong> <strong>Love</strong><strong>and</strong> <strong>Family</strong>(A study based onGrha Lakshmi.a 19'h Century<strong>Bengali</strong> "advice<strong>for</strong>women" text)by<strong>Judith</strong> <strong>Walsh</strong>State UniversityofNew Yorldthe College atOld Westbury<strong>Women</strong> <strong>and</strong> International DevelopmentMichigan State University202 International Center, East Lans<strong>in</strong>g, MI 48824-1035Phone: 517/353-5040, Fax: 517/432·4845Email: wid@msu.edu, Web: http://www.isp.msu.edulwidWork<strong>in</strong>g Paper#200January 1990See back page <strong>for</strong> order<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><strong>for</strong>mation <strong>and</strong> call <strong>for</strong> papers
Copyright © 1990 MSU Board ofTrustees
FACE 'IO FACE:ROLES FOR BENGALI ~ IN IDVE AND FAMILYIn 1884 a twenty-two year old Indian man wrote the first of what wouldbecome two editions of a book on women's coOOuct. He published Grha I..akshmi("'Ihe virtuous Housewife" or literally "'Ihe I..akshmi of the House") <strong>in</strong> anedition of one ~ copies which sold <strong>for</strong> eight annas apiece (BengalLibrary 1884:175).Grha Iakshmi was one of almost twenty "advice <strong>for</strong> women" books written <strong>in</strong><strong>Bengali</strong> dur<strong>in</strong>g the 1880s <strong>and</strong> 1890s. 'Ihe authors of IOOSt of these texts weremen; their purpose <strong>in</strong> writ<strong>in</strong>g was the redef<strong>in</strong>ition of women's roles <strong>and</strong> theadaptation of these roles to the changed circumstances of life <strong>in</strong> Britishruledn<strong>in</strong>eteenth century Bengal. Be<strong>for</strong>e 1860, few similar texts existed. Butby 1884, as the education of wives <strong>and</strong> daughters ga<strong>in</strong>ed acceptance among urban<strong>and</strong> literate <strong>Bengali</strong> families, enough texts had been written <strong>for</strong> the author ofGrha Lakshmi to note: "'Ihere is no lack of books <strong>for</strong> women full of moral<strong>in</strong>structions" (Raychaudhuri 1887:1) .'lhe focus of this paper is these "advice <strong>for</strong> women" texts-<strong>and</strong>, <strong>in</strong>particular, two chapters of one text, Grha Iakshmi. Because their subject waswomen's =rxluct, all the texts tell us someth<strong>in</strong>g about the lives <strong>and</strong>activities of <strong>Bengali</strong> women <strong>in</strong> this period. s<strong>in</strong>ce all but one of theseauthors were men, they tell us even more about the ideas men had about howwomen's roles should be adapted to the new corrlitions of life of that time <strong>in</strong>British In:tia. 'lhrough the pages of these texts we watch <strong>Bengali</strong> men as theyattempt to redef<strong>in</strong>e the roles of women <strong>in</strong> their society; through a closeread<strong>in</strong>g of the two selected chapters of Gma Iakshmi we see the conflicts <strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>consistencies that accompany one author as he IroVes toward such aredef<strong>in</strong>ition.Traditional <strong>Roles</strong>A def<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g male perspective had always marked traditional def<strong>in</strong>itions ofwomen's roles <strong>in</strong> Irrlia. Traditional HiOOu law codes <strong>and</strong> legends def<strong>in</strong>ed awoman's purpose <strong>in</strong> life as the bear<strong>in</strong>g of children <strong>and</strong> emphasized the need <strong>for</strong>male control over her at all stages of her life (Manu 1958:233) . Legends <strong>and</strong>religious texts offered images of goddesses, such as both aspects of the majorgoddess Kali/D.1rga <strong>in</strong> Bengal, who were either seductive destroyers orcompliant wives <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>dulgent mothers.Traditional social structures also required that a married woman,especially when young, subord<strong>in</strong>ate her needs to the clemarrls of her husbarrl'sextended family. A young girl <strong>in</strong> Bengal (as <strong>in</strong> other parts of India) wasmarried at (or <strong>in</strong> SOIl'e cases a little be<strong>for</strong>e) puberty <strong>and</strong> upon her marriageleft her family home to grow <strong>in</strong>to adulthood <strong>in</strong> her <strong>in</strong>-laws' home. Manytraditions encouraged her to separate herself psychologically as she wasalready separated legally <strong>and</strong> physically from her childhood home <strong>and</strong> herfather's l<strong>in</strong>eage.. LUr<strong>in</strong>g the early years of a girl's married life, be<strong>for</strong>e thebirth of a first child, she was expected to be dutiful <strong>and</strong> obedient to herhusb<strong>and</strong>'s parents, to rise early <strong>and</strong> to work hard. Contact with her husb<strong>and</strong>was restricted; she could not speak to him <strong>in</strong> front of his parents <strong>and</strong> mightsee him alone only at night (Borthwick 1984:3-25; Olakraborty 1963:1-8;
-2-Jacobson 1977:65-66; Roy 1972:94-100; Kakar 1978:73-76; Urquhart 1983). Theearly years of marriage were potentially a period of such isolation <strong>and</strong> stress<strong>for</strong> young girls that accounts of suicides of young wives, where we fW them,usually attribute these deaths to bad conditions <strong>in</strong> their <strong>in</strong>-laws' houses(<strong>Walsh</strong> 1983:31).A major traditional source fran which girls could learn how to behave asyoung wives was the didactic stories of the Bratakathas. The bratas wererituals or V
-3-education <strong>in</strong> In:tia <strong>and</strong> Bengal. SChools us<strong>in</strong>;J Erxj'lish as a mediUIII <strong>and</strong> Easternsubjects as curriculUIII had appeare:i <strong>in</strong> calcutta early <strong>in</strong> the n<strong>in</strong>eteenthcentw:y. But by the middle of the n<strong>in</strong>eteenth centw:y this education was<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>;Jly the prerequisite <strong>for</strong> employIrel'lt <strong>in</strong> both the British govenunentservices <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> the western-style occupations (such as law, journalism,education, <strong>and</strong> medic<strong>in</strong>e) that were available <strong>in</strong> the cities of British IJrlia.After the Education Act of 1854 the greater numbers of these <strong>in</strong>stitutions <strong>and</strong>the cont<strong>in</strong>ued econamic benefits of their programs led many more families toenroll their sons (<strong>Walsh</strong> 1983).By the mid-n<strong>in</strong>eteenth centw:y allover Irrlia the oanb<strong>in</strong>ation of Britishrule <strong>and</strong> Erxj'lish language education had produced a small class of Irrlian menoftencalled "the Erxj'lish Educated Elite"--schooled <strong>in</strong> the ideas <strong>and</strong> values ofWestern culture <strong>and</strong> depen:ient <strong>for</strong> their livelihood on employment <strong>in</strong> thewestern-style occupations of the Raj. '!he numbers of this group were small.Even by the 1880s less than one half of one percent of Irrlia's totalpopulation had acquired enough education to sit <strong>for</strong> the college entranceexam<strong>in</strong>ation (McCully 1940:177). But by virtue of their contacts with theBritish rulers, knowledge of the Erxj'lish language, <strong>and</strong> economic power, theybecame an <strong>in</strong>fluential group.'!he last half of the n<strong>in</strong>eteenth centw:y was marked by the struggles of theWestern educated to adapt the Western ideas <strong>and</strong> life styles of their educationto <strong>in</strong>digenous customs <strong>and</strong>, as well, to ga<strong>in</strong> <strong>for</strong> themselves <strong>and</strong> their new wayof life both acceptance <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tegration <strong>in</strong>to IJrlian society (<strong>Walsh</strong> 1983:29) . 'Ihroughout Irrlia the Western educated became the fourders <strong>and</strong> leaders ofn<strong>in</strong>eteenth centw:y social refonn movements <strong>and</strong> of the twentieth centw:yNationalist movement. In Bengal they published journals <strong>and</strong> newspapers <strong>in</strong>both Erxj'lish <strong>and</strong> <strong>Bengali</strong>, <strong>and</strong> fonned debat<strong>in</strong>;J societies <strong>and</strong> political groups(<strong>Walsh</strong> 1983:35-36) • '!he Brahmo samaj, a society aimed at re<strong>for</strong>mi.rl:l' the H<strong>in</strong>dureligion <strong>and</strong> social customs, was fClUl'Xled <strong>and</strong> jo<strong>in</strong>ed primarily by the Westerneducated. It was also the Western educated who became the major actors <strong>in</strong> thestruggle to redef<strong>in</strong>e women's roles <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bengali</strong> society. '!he transfonnation ofmen's roles urxler the <strong>in</strong>'pact of British rule, then, led directly to thetransfonnation of women's roles, a process that oocupied the last fifty yearsof the n<strong>in</strong>eteenth centw:y.In part the ef<strong>for</strong>t <strong>for</strong> refonn proceeded from ideological concerns.N<strong>in</strong>eteenth centw:y British writers often focused their most severe =iticismsof H<strong>in</strong>du society on the role of women. Practices such as sati (the bury<strong>in</strong>;J orburn<strong>in</strong>;J of a widow with her dead husban:i, already illegal <strong>in</strong> 1829), of childmarriage, the practice of purdah (the restriction of women to the antahpur,the women's quarters of the house, not allow<strong>in</strong>;J their travel outside the he<strong>in</strong>e)<strong>and</strong> the traditional H<strong>in</strong>du ban on literacy <strong>for</strong> women--all these custanarypractices were used as evidence of the general decadence <strong>and</strong> backwardness oftraditional H<strong>in</strong>du society. Refonn m<strong>in</strong>ded Western educated H<strong>in</strong>dus-especiallythose <strong>in</strong> societies such as the Brahmo samaj--took these =iticisms to heart,<strong>and</strong> these issues became part of the social refonn agenda most passionatelydebated aIlDng those concerned with the refonn of women's role <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bengali</strong>society (Kepf 1979:14-15; 34-41).Similarily if less passionately debated was the traditional relationshipbetween husban:i <strong>and</strong> wife <strong>in</strong> H<strong>in</strong>du society. Erxj'lish commentators were oftenstruck by the restrictions on relations between husb<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> wives <strong>in</strong> extended
-4-families <strong>and</strong> the absence of an ideal of companionship <strong>and</strong> friendship anongyoong couples. 'lhe victorian ideal of the "companionate" marriage, <strong>in</strong> whichthe wife served as frietXl. <strong>and</strong> advisor to her husbarxi, was one often spoken ofby re<strong>for</strong>m-m<strong>in</strong>ded <strong>Bengali</strong> men (Borthwick 1984:114-124) .Concen1 <strong>for</strong> the re<strong>for</strong>m of women's roles, however, was not entirelyideological. Western education <strong>and</strong> errployment reshaped life <strong>for</strong> boys <strong>and</strong>yoong men <strong>in</strong> British Irrlia. Students often traveled away from heme to attetXl.school, <strong>and</strong> even after graduation, occupations such as law, education, orgovernment service frequently required long residence away from hare. Oftenwives (<strong>and</strong> children) aCCCJllq)anied their husbarxis to new hares; the <strong>in</strong>creasedfrequency of this travel contributed to a lessen<strong>in</strong>g of prudah restriction <strong>in</strong>the late n<strong>in</strong>eteenth century (Borthwick 1983:231). By the 1880s the questionof a woman leav<strong>in</strong>g the extetXl.ed family to live with her husbarxi wassufficiently def<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>for</strong> one text to <strong>in</strong>clude a chapter =iticiz<strong>in</strong>g thepractice (Raychaudhuri 1887:57-64).'Ihe new requirements of education <strong>and</strong> errployment <strong>in</strong> British Irrlia changedthe attitude with which Western educated boys approached marriage. Instead ofiJnag<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g a wife whose only obligation would be to fit Sll'DOthly <strong>in</strong>to thefunction<strong>in</strong>g of the extended family, the Western educated had other concerns.Men <strong>in</strong> government service, or those whose work brought them <strong>in</strong>to socialcontact with the British, fourxi that a wife who could be brought out of prudah<strong>for</strong> social oocasions could be a positive asset (Borthwick 1984:123-124).Increas<strong>in</strong>gly dur<strong>in</strong>g the last half of the n<strong>in</strong>eteenth century Western educatedboys resisted the idea of marriage to illiterate girls who knew noth<strong>in</strong>g of thewesternized world <strong>in</strong> which their husbarxis would live <strong>and</strong> work. Whileeducation <strong>in</strong> ErY:Jlish rema<strong>in</strong>ed rare even <strong>for</strong> girls of Western educatedfamilies, by the 1880s the acquisition of sane education had becare an asset<strong>in</strong> the marriage narket. stories circulated about visitors who might ask apotential bride <strong>for</strong> a demonstration of her skills (Bagal 1949:26; Borthwick1984:103). In calcutta literacy rates <strong>for</strong> women rose steadily between 1871<strong>and</strong> 1901 (Borthwick 1984:108).By the 1880s ideological <strong>and</strong> practical concerns had OCIllb<strong>in</strong>ed to focus theattention of Western educated <strong>Bengali</strong> men on the role of women <strong>in</strong> theirsociety. Writers seem allrost to have rediscovered the <strong>Bengali</strong> wanall.Innumerable works focused on her. Novels like Sibnath sastri's Me; Boll(''Middle Daughter-<strong>in</strong>-law," 1879), Gopalc<strong>and</strong>ra Datta's SUlochana ("'lheExerrq:>lary Wife," 1882), <strong>and</strong> Sitanath Narrli's Bangaqrtla ("'Ihe <strong>Bengali</strong> Hare,"1884) des=ibed her life <strong>in</strong> the hare, her responsibilities <strong>and</strong> obligations,<strong>and</strong> the manner <strong>in</strong> which she raised her children. Dramas like UInescan:llaMitra's 1879 Vidhavavivaha Nataka ("Drama of Widow Marriage") <strong>and</strong> farces likeMiss B<strong>in</strong>o Bibi B.A. (1898) portrayed her tril.llTPlS <strong>and</strong> failures with<strong>in</strong> theconstra<strong>in</strong>ts of tradition <strong>and</strong> her emancipation or degradation through exposureto the ideas of the West. 'lhese works added to a grow<strong>in</strong>g body of literatureon women <strong>in</strong> which novels were most rn.nnerous, but tracts, plays, <strong>and</strong> essayswere also present."Mvice <strong>for</strong> <strong>Women</strong>" TextsAm:mg this profusion of works on or about women were the "advice <strong>for</strong>women" texts. 'Ihese were "how to do it" books--guides to relations with<strong>in</strong>
-5-extended families, the rear<strong>in</strong>g of children, ani the manageJrel1t ofhouseholds. Addressed to WCIIIel1, but written by men, they were oftenconstructed <strong>in</strong> the <strong>for</strong>m of a dialogue between husb<strong>and</strong> ani wife <strong>in</strong> which thehusb<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>structed the wife on proper =nduct. 'Ihey had titles like "'!heJ3en3ali Wife," "A Husbarrl's Advice to His Wife," "Advice to <strong>Women</strong>,""CoIwersations with the Wife," ani "'!he Lakshmi of the House." Most concernedthemselves with issues of social ani moral =nduct. same texts (titled''Mother ani Son," "H<strong>in</strong>ts to Parents," ani "'!he Education of Children <strong>in</strong> the<strong>Family</strong>") conta<strong>in</strong>ed advice on child-rear<strong>in</strong>g ani the <strong>for</strong>mation of character.others were exclusiVely medical, enphasiz<strong>in</strong>g modeJ::n hygiene ani the treatmentof diseasP-s, as <strong>in</strong> the 1895 edition of the '!he Diseases of Childhood, whichadvertiZed that it had "special reference to Indian diseases" (Bardyopadhyaya1887).<strong>Bengali</strong> translations of En:Jlish books--such as the 1881 edition of "'!heParent's Frien1" or that of HeJ:Dert Spencer's more faIOClUS Education:Intellectual. Moral ani l'hvsical <strong>in</strong> 1888-irdicate that books <strong>in</strong> En:Jlish mayhave been the orig<strong>in</strong>al <strong>in</strong>spiration of this genre (Bengal Libra:ty 188/-1888).But these J3en3ali texts are not narrow imitations of <strong>for</strong>eign 1rIOrks. '!heirfocus, as we will see, is irdigenous; their concerns the issues of behaviorani responsibility faced by <strong>Bengali</strong> women <strong>in</strong> the chaNJ<strong>in</strong>g 1rIOrld of then<strong>in</strong>eteenth century.'!he larguage of these texts sets them somewhat apart fram the morepolemical tracts, essays, or dramas about wanen <strong>in</strong> this period. In 1880, <strong>for</strong><strong>in</strong>stance, sibnath Sastri, a faIOClUS Brahm:> leader, published a tract calledGrha Ularma ("Household Ularma") (Sastri 1885). Widely known ani quoted <strong>in</strong>the late n<strong>in</strong>eteenth century, Sastri's ideas on family obligations anirelationships contributed to the beliefs of many Western educated <strong>Bengali</strong>s.'!he larguage of his book is a highly sanskriticized BerxJali which wasfashionable at the time. CoIrplex, irdeed, often :<strong>in</strong>pmetrable, it was thoughtto be more advanced than the s<strong>in</strong>pler language of ord<strong>in</strong>ary speech. Books <strong>in</strong>this sanskritized style were almost certa<strong>in</strong>ly <strong>in</strong>ten1ed <strong>for</strong> men, ani <strong>in</strong>Sastri's ease, <strong>for</strong> men who could probably have read with equal ease <strong>in</strong>En:Jlish."Advice <strong>for</strong> women" texts, on the other ham, were written <strong>in</strong> Imlch s<strong>in</strong>pler,more relaxed, colloquial larguage. 'Ihese books were <strong>in</strong>ten1ed, not only <strong>for</strong>the En:Jlish educated men who were Bankim C<strong>and</strong>ra's or sibnath Sastri'sconteIrporaries, but also <strong>for</strong> their wives <strong>and</strong> daughters. Idioms are frequent<strong>and</strong> sanskrit ~ rare. In the open<strong>in</strong>g chapter of GrtJa Lakshmi, <strong>for</strong>E!XllITple, the fictional "husb<strong>and</strong>" beg<strong>in</strong>s read<strong>in</strong>g a l~ passage on maritalrelations from a current journal to his fictional ''wife.'' "'!hat big look youwere giv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> my direction," he f<strong>in</strong>ally says, <strong>in</strong>terrupt<strong>in</strong>g his read<strong>in</strong>g,"aren't you listen<strong>in</strong>g to what I'm read<strong>in</strong>g?" "certa<strong>in</strong>ly 1 'm listen<strong>in</strong>g," saysthe wife, "but I'm not understarrl<strong>in</strong>g anyth<strong>in</strong>g al all" (Raychaudhuri 1887:3).'!he remairder of the chapter is devoted to the husb<strong>and</strong> I s colloquial expositionof the mean<strong>in</strong>g of the passage.COlloquial larguage was adeliberate choice of the authors of texts <strong>for</strong>women, many of whom knew En:Jlish ani were well acqua<strong>in</strong>ted with Westernculture. six out of n<strong>in</strong>eteen authors, <strong>for</strong> E!XllITple, belon:Jed to one or anothersect of the re<strong>for</strong>mist religious society, the Brahm:> samaj. same, likeGirijaprasann Raychaudhuri, PratapcaOOra Majunrlar <strong>and</strong> Vipradas Mukhopadhyay,
-6-were graduates of English language schools(Raychaudhuri am Majundar fromPresidency College <strong>in</strong> calcutta; Vipradas Mukhopadhyay from sanskritCollege). (sengupta 1976:121; Kopf 1979:47-48). others like Ishan car:rlraBasu am ll1i.rerrlranath Pal published works <strong>in</strong> both English an ~i (Basu1887; Pal 1909; 1911). In yet other works the appearance of chapter titles orcaver pages <strong>in</strong> English or references to Westen! figures such as cather<strong>in</strong>e theGreat or sir Rlilip sidney demonstrate the authors' familiarity with theculture am language of the West (Gupta 1885).Educational Purpose of the Texts'Ihe <strong>in</strong>tention of these authors was to produce books that might be used <strong>in</strong>the grow<strong>in</strong>g II¥:lVement <strong>for</strong> wanen I s education <strong>in</strong> Bengal. In the 1860s oneobserver had noted that even families who sent their girls out to schoolrarely kept them <strong>in</strong> attendance past their tenth year am even as late as the1880s; purdah restrictions still left many families reluctant to serxi marriedgirls out of the home <strong>for</strong> education. An alternative was home study, thetutor<strong>in</strong>g of the girl by family members <strong>in</strong> the home; most of the "advice <strong>for</strong>women" texts seem to have been <strong>in</strong>ten:l.ed <strong>for</strong> this method of education(Borthwick 1984:68-80). "<strong>Bengali</strong> girls can not go to school after theirmarriage am can not be educated," wrote the author of Ramni Aisarya as lateas 1900:'!hey get early marriage... [am] their education rema<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong>complete<strong>in</strong> every respect. It goes without say<strong>in</strong>g that every husb<strong>and</strong> wantsto see his wife well educated; the wanen also have realized thenecessity of education. But there was not a s<strong>in</strong>gle book which theycould read am learn all that is required. ''Ra!rani Aisarya" hasfulfilled that dearth..•. (Pal1900:preface).Indeed, the frame story of many of the texts <strong>for</strong> wanen recreates thecon:litions of home study. A husbarxi am his young wife meet late at night;the husbarxi <strong>in</strong>structs her on proper con:iuct, social obligations, am the need<strong>for</strong> literacy. Both appear young-am relatively new to marriage. (Indeed itwould be difficult to <strong>in</strong>lag<strong>in</strong>e older wives as enthusiastic as the youngcharacters of these texts.) "Now sleep", says the husbarxi at the ern of onechapter of Grha Lakshmi, ''Much of the night has gone." And the wife replies,"I don't know, when I stay with you, I don't get [much] sleep. I wish only tohear you talk" (Raychaudhuri 1887:18).A canunon n<strong>in</strong>eteenth century idea, often repeated but not unique to thesetexts, was that husb<strong>and</strong>s ought to tutor their wives. (Garrlhi himself recordshis early ef<strong>for</strong>ts <strong>in</strong> this regard.) (G<strong>and</strong>hi 1957:11-14) "Frcm\ the time ofbirth up to marriage," writes one author, "the teacher is the IrOther; aftermarriage the giver of education is the husbarxi." In spite of some evidence tothe contrary the authors of these texts are optimistic about tutor<strong>in</strong>g: ''Ul1till1a.'l, II says one,The wanen of our country used to perfonn their duties the way womenof older generations did. They did not care much <strong>for</strong> the advice ofmen. N
-7-Prqler education, it was believed, would provide the foundation <strong>for</strong> thefuture happ<strong>in</strong>ess of both the =uple am the family. Husb<strong>and</strong>s, writesIhirentranath Pal, should beg<strong>in</strong> to educate their wives from the first clay ofmarriage:Even from that clay the husbarrl should keep an eye on the educationof the wife. We will show very slowly how the husbarrl should behaveam how he should educate [his] wife [so that] she, be<strong>in</strong>g welleducated, can make the husb<strong>and</strong> am family members happy (Pal1880:1).One conservative author suggests that only home education will keep the wifesafely UOOer the <strong>in</strong>fluence of the husb<strong>and</strong>. Where outside education wouldcreate friction between husb<strong>and</strong> am wife, home education guaranteesc:anpatibility. For if•••waren acquire education [while] rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g UOOer the subjugationof the husb<strong>and</strong>, then there can never be any difference of op<strong>in</strong>ionbetween them (Gupta 1885:9).N<strong>in</strong>eteenth centtu:y observers often =iticized home study as <strong>in</strong>practica1;girls who worked hard all clay were, they said, too E!ldlausted to absorbanyth<strong>in</strong>g at night (Borthwick 1984:69). Yet one twentieth centtu:y study of<strong>Bengali</strong> waren shows how attractive the <strong>in</strong>timacy am <strong>in</strong>tensity of theseimag<strong>in</strong>ed late-night conversations might be to unmarried or young just-married<strong>Bengali</strong> girls. As one women relates:I fell <strong>in</strong> love with [my husb<strong>and</strong>] so <strong>in</strong>tensely from the very night ofour wedd<strong>in</strong>g that my whole clay was spent dream<strong>in</strong>g about meet<strong>in</strong>g himat night. If he ever came home early or ran <strong>in</strong>to me alone on thever<strong>and</strong>a, I felt as though I were go<strong>in</strong>g through an electricshock••••If he even said a word to me alone, I was so elated. Ialways expected him to talk to me when I came to bed at night. Ihoped he would take a personal <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> me, that he Would ask howmy clays went, whether I needed anyth<strong>in</strong>g. I also missed my fatherwho discussed his office problems with me. I wondered why myhusb<strong>and</strong> had noth<strong>in</strong>g to talk about. I often asked him questionsabout his work, his colleagues, his friends. I tried to imag<strong>in</strong>e hislife outside home (Roy 1972:98).'!he texts of the 1880s am 1890s frequently proclaimed the need <strong>for</strong>"suitable" materials <strong>for</strong> women--am de=ied the quality of already exist<strong>in</strong>gbooks. '!he conser:vative author of Bangali Bou, <strong>for</strong> <strong>in</strong>stance, compla<strong>in</strong>ed thatmodern books were too salacious:...the books so far written are educat<strong>in</strong>g [women] about the loveaffairs of husb<strong>and</strong> am wife [he wrote]. In fact, there are hardlyany l<strong>in</strong>es <strong>in</strong> all those books that educate a woman so that she canget along <strong>in</strong> her family life (Gupta 1885:preface).others thought exist<strong>in</strong>g books were too dull. "If the books rema<strong>in</strong> ly<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>GLu:udas Babu I s bookstore, " wrote the author of GrtJa I.akshmi, ''we do notbelieve that any benefit will come to the women of Bengal" (Raychaudhuri1887:1) .
-8-sectarian DifferenceslUrrlerlyirg AgreementDisagreements CNer "suitability" usually masked deeper differences. 'Iberewere Il\lll\eXO\lS issues at stake <strong>in</strong> redef<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the roles of n<strong>in</strong>eteenth century<strong>Bengali</strong> women <strong>and</strong>, aIlK)ng the literate classes of Bengal, many disagreementsabout how these issues should be resolved. Age of ma=iage, remarriage ofwidows, the degree <strong>and</strong> k<strong>in</strong>:i of women's education, purdah restrictions, <strong>and</strong>even the k<strong>in</strong>:i of cloth<strong>in</strong>g women should wear if they were to venture outsidethe hame--all were bitterly debated am::>ng the Western educated. 6Even am::>ng re<strong>for</strong>m Hirrlus there were considerable differences of<strong>in</strong>terpretation on any <strong>and</strong> all of these issues <strong>and</strong> what was "suitable" <strong>in</strong> onere<strong>for</strong>m Hirrlu context was not considered so <strong>in</strong> another. with<strong>in</strong> the differentsects of the Brahmo Samaj, <strong>for</strong> exanple, the mean<strong>in</strong>g of the "emancipation" ofwomen was hotly debated between IIOre conservative Brahmos <strong>and</strong> the"progressive" sadharan samajists; a great sc<strong>and</strong>al erupted between the twogroups when, <strong>in</strong> the late 1870s, the Sadharan Samaj brought women out to attendthe Hirrlu Mahila Vidyalay (SChool <strong>for</strong> Hirrlu <strong>Women</strong>), allow<strong>in</strong>g them to wearwesternized clothes eat, at the table, <strong>and</strong> use spoons <strong>and</strong> <strong>for</strong>ks (Kepf1979:124; 40).'Ihe texts <strong>for</strong> women represent a relatively wide range of sectarianviewpo<strong>in</strong>ts. At the COJlSel:Vative end of the spectrum was the author of thetext Banqali I30u who saw the degrad<strong>in</strong>g effects of late ma=iage (which hedef<strong>in</strong>ed as after age ten) <strong>and</strong> higher education at work aIlK)ng modern women.One symptom of this degradation, he wrote, was the refusal of educated womento do their awn housework:we have seen with our awn eyes [that] very many waren of respectablearrl :important [families] often spend their days eat<strong>in</strong>g arrl th<strong>in</strong>gslike that, ly<strong>in</strong>g dawn on the bed, read<strong>in</strong>g the newspaper <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>steadof them a ma<strong>in</strong>-servant, a female cook or a Brahm<strong>in</strong> cook do thedomestic work (Gupta 1885:4).At the other end of the spectrum were the Brahmo authors, one of whom drewa direct l<strong>in</strong>e between literacy <strong>and</strong> membership <strong>in</strong> the Brahmo Samaj. "Do youknow my friend Iaverrler?" the wife <strong>in</strong> this text asks:She has learned to read <strong>and</strong> write very well. She writes letters toher husbarrl every day. Now she says she will go with her husbarrl tothe Brahmo Samaj."If you learn to read <strong>and</strong> write," rr-ys the husb<strong>and</strong>,that type of person" (Mitra 1884:4) ."you will also becameIn between these two extrerres, however, authors were IIOre circumspect:about their views. "Everyth<strong>in</strong>g of yours is the English style," claims thewife <strong>in</strong> the midst of one discussion <strong>in</strong> Grha Iaksmhi. "NO, no, no," repliesthe husb<strong>and</strong>, "'Ibis is [our] native country's op<strong>in</strong>ion" (Raychaudhuri1887:32) . 'Ibis text <strong>and</strong> the m:>st popular women I s text, Chirerrlranath Pal's"Conversations with the Wife," were both at same pa<strong>in</strong>s to obscure theirdifferences with tradition.
-9-But however bitterly authors opposed each other on ideological issues(such as age of marriage or education) JOOSt would have agreed withChi.rerrlranath Pal that "<strong>in</strong> the world [there is] one work <strong>for</strong> wcnnen, another<strong>for</strong> men" <strong>and</strong> thought that their books also should "shOlll hOlY the wife can bemade educated, religious <strong>and</strong> truly worthy to be called a wife" (Pal1880:1). ihere was considerable agreement on the topics appropriate <strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>q:x:>rtant <strong>for</strong> wcnnen.As a result, there was saneth<strong>in</strong>g of a stan:3ard "cu=iculum" to be found<strong>in</strong> these "advice <strong>for</strong> wcnnen" texts. Most texts <strong>in</strong>cluded chapters on read<strong>in</strong>g<strong>and</strong> writ<strong>in</strong>g, on the "duties" of wcnnen (social <strong>and</strong> religious), on therelationship between husbani <strong>and</strong> wife, on relations with <strong>in</strong>-laws, <strong>and</strong> on thecare <strong>and</strong> character develO];ll\E!l'lt of children. In regard to these topics, thetexts focused on what they saw as the central concerns of the married waman-her family relationships <strong>and</strong> obligations. In addition sane texts addeddiscussions of dress <strong>and</strong> ornamentation, sections on daily rsrn-p or, lessoften, chapters on the art of s<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g, pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>and</strong> poetry.A favorite subject of many texts was "bhalobasa" (love). By thisauthors generally meant romantic love, which n<strong>in</strong>eteenth century <strong>Bengali</strong>sJOOSt often saw as a <strong>for</strong>eign idea, <strong>in</strong>q:x:>rted from the West, <strong>and</strong> oneparticularly darB"erous to the needs <strong>and</strong> dem<strong>and</strong>s of the extended familyunit. Writers often emphasiZed the antisocial aspects of this k<strong>in</strong>d oflove. "It is obvious," says the author of Bangali Bou...that modern wcnnen are ignorant of their family duties; <strong>in</strong>steadthey on!y learn about love <strong>and</strong> act a=rd<strong>in</strong>g to their own wishes(Gupta 1885:preface).'!he "wife" <strong>in</strong> Grtla lakshmi would have agreed. "NOlIl because of this [lovebetween husbani <strong>and</strong> wife]," she says, "we can see after marriage a separationbeg<strong>in</strong>s. SO the mother <strong>for</strong> this reason will a1IOOSt quarrel, even with the son"(Raychauclhuri 1887:11) . Another tactic, one taken by the author of Song<strong>in</strong>iwas to redef<strong>in</strong>e "love" to <strong>in</strong>clude more socially sanctioned <strong>and</strong> family orientedfeel<strong>in</strong>gs (Pal 1884:10-13).On one issue alone all the texts were <strong>in</strong> agreement; the issue of literacy<strong>for</strong> wanen. Texts might disagree on what wcnnen should wear or at what age theyshould be married or educated, or even about the mode <strong>and</strong> substance of thateducation, but they were unanimous that women should learn to read.Opposition to the idea of literacy came from orthodox Hirrluism which<strong>for</strong>bade literacy <strong>for</strong> wcnnen threaten<strong>in</strong>g that women who learned to read wouldbecane widOlllS. Nevertheless by the late n<strong>in</strong>eteenth century, Western educated<strong>Bengali</strong> men-<strong>in</strong>cludi.n;J the authors of these texts-wanted wives who could read<strong>and</strong> write, at least <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bengali</strong> if not <strong>in</strong> English <strong>and</strong> they wo=ied (as didIrrlian men <strong>in</strong> general) about British criticisms that the conditions <strong>in</strong> whichIndian women existed were backward <strong>and</strong> barbaric. A1IOOSt every author <strong>in</strong>cludesa chapter on lekhapora (writ<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> read<strong>in</strong>g) or "education" <strong>in</strong> his book. Evena conservative text like Bangali Bou, which opposed "outside" or "higher"education, supported the idea that women should have sane k<strong>in</strong>d of education,<strong>and</strong> certa<strong>in</strong>ly that they should be literate (Gupta 1885).
-10-To the extent, then, that all authors a:rgued <strong>for</strong> the necessity of women'sliteracy, it would seem all were self-consciously camnitted to at least somechan:Je <strong>in</strong> the roles women played <strong>in</strong> BerxJali society. Disagreements mightexist am:mg authors on the extent arxi speed of these changes but not as towhether change itself was necessary. But as we nxJVe on to a more detailedexam<strong>in</strong>ation of two chapters of one of these texts, Grha I.akshrni, we will seethat the authors were not only <strong>in</strong> disagreement with each other about thenature arxi extent to which women's roles must change, but they were also-assum<strong>in</strong>g that this text is a representative guide--<strong>in</strong> considerabledisagreement with themselves a
-11-husbar¥:'Is away at college or work. '!hey should be able to keep householdaccounts arrl co.mt arrl add without error; then the husbarrl c::ani.n:J home after"the whole day sweat<strong>in</strong>g, do<strong>in</strong>g the work of the office" can be released fromthese tasks (Raychaudhuri 1887:14). They should be educated <strong>for</strong> the joy ofeducation, to learn about the world--''where, when, what is happen<strong>in</strong>g," thehusbarrl exclaims enthusiastically, "from the daily newspaper you can know thatwhile sitt<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> your own roam" (Raychaudhuri 1887:15). F<strong>in</strong>ally, women shouldknow how to read arrl write so they can pass this knowledge on to theirchildren. '!he husbarrl says,IDok•••you don't want to write arrl read from fear of your mother.later, aga<strong>in</strong>, perhaps your descen:lants won't want to write arrl readfrom fear of their mother....If the mother ga<strong>in</strong>s an education thedescendants can become educated <strong>in</strong> a way that they could not be [ifthey were educated] by a thousarrl gurus•.•• (Raychaudhuri 1887:16).Here we can see the <strong>in</strong>pact of newly arisen con:litions <strong>in</strong> the world ofBritish India. '!his was a world of office work, travel away from home,newspapers, arrl a a:mplex educational system <strong>in</strong> which one's children Wouldhave to be able to negotiate. Ambitious western educated boys expected tosperxl time at college or at work separated from the family home. '!hey wantedwives who could cope with arrl help them cope with these new conditions.But these argI.mlellts were addressed to women who only half lived <strong>in</strong> thisllIOdern world, arrl the more traditional context of their world made literacylargely irrelevant. Thus the wife is able <strong>in</strong> this text to reject each of herhusbarrl's arguments. She would learn to read arrl write, she says, but "auntiesays 'Girls do not read. If they read doesn't it happen that they becomewidows? "' (Raychaudhuri 1887:13) . In arr:t case, she cont<strong>in</strong>ues that womenalready keep the household accounts. The elder women of the household do it-doesn't her husbarrl th<strong>in</strong>k they do them properly? As <strong>for</strong> the need to writeletters-how long will they be separated, she asks, that she would need thisknowledge? Besides, writ<strong>in</strong>g arrl read<strong>in</strong>g are necessary only <strong>for</strong> those who workoutside the house. "Ah!" she says, ''will the wife, wear<strong>in</strong>g pantaloons arrl aloose robe [office cloth<strong>in</strong>g] go <strong>for</strong> one half day to the office?" (Rachaudhuri1887:14)'!he author of Grtla I.akshmi was not the only writer to have difficultyconstruct<strong>in</strong>g a conv<strong>in</strong>c<strong>in</strong>g argI.mlellt <strong>for</strong> literacy. Another text, strir PratiSyamir Upade$ (A Husb<strong>and</strong>'s lIdvice to His Wife), also illustrates thisproblem. "Suppose," says the husbarrl <strong>in</strong> that text, that one day ''Mother,younger brother's wife arrl elder brother's wife had gone to Tarakeshor <strong>in</strong> themorn<strong>in</strong>g arrl only you arrl I rema<strong>in</strong>ed at home." And he, the husbarrl says, has aterrible fever. .My younger brother Bip<strong>in</strong> writes a letter [from school] say<strong>in</strong>g "Elderbrother, I've come arrl <strong>for</strong>gotten my book. Please sen::l the bookquickly. On wednesday my exaJIIS will beg<strong>in</strong>." As I [plan to] sen::lthe book, I have wrapped it <strong>in</strong> paper, but so IllUCh fever strikes methat I am a:mpletely bedridden. I have stamps <strong>in</strong> a box, but you[the wife] not know<strong>in</strong>g how to write arrl read, couldn't write theaddress. Bip<strong>in</strong> doesn't get the book; his exam<strong>in</strong>ation isunsuccessful. '!he family is <strong>in</strong> great danger (Mitra 1884:1) .
-12-For llIel1 <strong>in</strong> the wealthier circumstances of extended family life, it was noteasy to f<strong>in</strong>d solid reasons <strong>for</strong> a wife to become literate. Large families amthe IOClre traditional circumstances of women's lives obviated, to same extent,the need <strong>for</strong> literacy. Only by send<strong>in</strong>g the elders out of the house ambecom<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>capacitated by fever could the protagonist make his po<strong>in</strong>t. Undernormal circumstances if one's husb<strong>and</strong> was away there was always someone, asthe GJ::ha Iakshmi wife po<strong>in</strong>ts out, who could be flattered <strong>in</strong>to writ<strong>in</strong>g orread<strong>in</strong>g a letter.In ''Writi.nJjRead<strong>in</strong>g'' it is only the husb<strong>and</strong>'s f<strong>in</strong>al argument, thateducation will make her a better lOClther, which overcomes the wife'sreluctance. Yet IOClre conv<strong>in</strong>c<strong>in</strong>g than the explicit arguments which lead to herconversion are the <strong>in</strong>plicit suggestions that have aCCOllQ;lffilied them. Forliteracy, the text <strong>in</strong>plies, will enable the wife to have a different, IOClre<strong>in</strong>timate, am IOClre romantic relationship with her husb<strong>and</strong>. Education willenable her to share his life IOClre fully. In fact, education is a wife's dutybecause "<strong>in</strong> the family," the husb<strong>and</strong> says, "...the wife is the husb<strong>and</strong>'sfriend <strong>in</strong> everyth<strong>in</strong>g....she is the one who gives the husb<strong>and</strong> help regard<strong>in</strong>gevery matter...." (Raychaudhuri 1887:14). Literacy will not only make thewife a better friend to her husb<strong>and</strong>, but it will also enable husb<strong>and</strong> am wifeto communicate <strong>in</strong> a IOClre <strong>in</strong>timate, direct manner. '!he wife who learns to readwill share, the text <strong>in</strong>plies, the secret thoughts of her husb<strong>and</strong>. '!he husb<strong>and</strong>says,Soroj, don't you see how much fault there is <strong>in</strong> not learn<strong>in</strong>g writ<strong>in</strong>gam read<strong>in</strong>g? I will write letters to you, but you can't read.certa<strong>in</strong> others will read the letters am <strong>for</strong> this reason I will notbe able to write all the thoughts <strong>in</strong> my m<strong>in</strong>d. Perhaps I will becomeuneasy <strong>for</strong> news of you. You, flatter<strong>in</strong>g same person [to writej-then if you can, on the last day of the IOClTIth you will give onelittle letter; that letter another will write; certa<strong>in</strong>ly I will notbe able to learn all thoughts through him (Raychaudhuri 1887:13) •All the th<strong>in</strong>gs he has told her on previous visits will become part of anexclusive bond between them. It is <strong>in</strong>plied that the illiterate wife may evenbe reject<strong>in</strong>g this bond. ''When I came I tell you so much," the husb<strong>and</strong> says,"You dont pay any heed" (Raychaudhuri 1887:13).F<strong>in</strong>ally <strong>in</strong> a long sequence at the end of the chapter the husb<strong>and</strong> "dreams"of what it will be like when his wife has learned to read am write:"You don't know," he tells her, "on the day that I get the firstletter written by your h<strong>and</strong>, how great my pleasure will be. Todayafter so many days you have said, 'I will learn writ<strong>in</strong>g amread<strong>in</strong>g.' How can I expla<strong>in</strong> what pleasure this has given me? Justnow, as if I am dream<strong>in</strong>g, you have sat down to write a letter tome. In writ<strong>in</strong>g the first letter how much shyness comes, how manyth<strong>in</strong>gs are suddenly tom up. In the end, a s<strong>in</strong>gle page hav<strong>in</strong>g beenwritten, you have it sent to me. I, as I read that page, one time,two times, how many times-read<strong>in</strong>g, no other wish exists to befulfilled.Aga<strong>in</strong>, as if I am dream<strong>in</strong>g, you sitt<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> front of me read<strong>in</strong>g veryslowly one part of Beta!. Your hair is fly<strong>in</strong>g, blow<strong>in</strong>g suddenly
-13-over your face. SlCMly, slCMly, your two lips are 1I1ClVirrq. with<strong>in</strong>satiable eyes I am look<strong>in</strong>;J at them, seeirrq them. '!he world, thefamily-to me all seem enpty, like the sky. All my senses enter myeyes to see <strong>and</strong> see aga<strong>in</strong> that unequaled sight; [It is] as if I amatta<strong>in</strong>irrq heavenly bliss. All Hal will such a day hawen?"(Raychaudhuri 1887:17)In the husb<strong>and</strong>'s "dream" he <strong>and</strong> the wife are alone <strong>in</strong> the world. '!hefocus of all his attention is the wife; she is the sole object of his"<strong>in</strong>satiable" eyes. Neither the world nor the family CCIlIIe between husb<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong>wife, <strong>and</strong> only his relationship with her has significance. '!he <strong>in</strong>tense,romantic relationship ilnag<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> this chapter was, one suspects, equallyattractive to the young girls <strong>for</strong> wham the text was i.nterrled <strong>and</strong> to thetwenty-two year old author who wrote the book.'!his exclusive <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tilnate bond takes on particular significance whencontrasted with the explicit message of the rest of the text. In otherchapters the author condenms just this romantic <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tilnate love relationshipwhich is .i.nplied <strong>in</strong> the context of a discussion of literacy, a relationshipalready explicitly rejected as selfish, foolish, <strong>and</strong> urrlesirable <strong>in</strong> theearlier chapter, "1iIlSbaM <strong>and</strong> Wife.""IDve" Versus <strong>Family</strong>In ''Husb<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Wife" (the first chapter of Grtla Lakshmi) the authordef<strong>in</strong>es the prilnary responsibility of both wife <strong>and</strong> husb<strong>and</strong> as their duty tothe family. It is true that husb<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> wife are <strong>in</strong>tilnately bourrl together.Each is considered half the J:x:x:1y of the other. B.lt this "householder" stageof their lives:...is not <strong>for</strong> the happ<strong>in</strong>ess of <strong>in</strong>:iividuals, it is not <strong>for</strong> theenjoyment of sensual pleasures; it is not <strong>for</strong> the glory of fame.'!he stage of the householder is <strong>for</strong> the observance of duty [dhanna],<strong>for</strong> doirrq good to others (Raydhaudhuri 1887:7).'!he wife only .i.nperfectly urrlerst<strong>and</strong>s the meani.nq of this. Asked todescribe the "duties" which husb<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> wife owe each other, she p.rts <strong>for</strong>warda description of romantic <strong>and</strong> exclusive love:"Both [she says] will love [bhalobasibe] each other; whateverthought is <strong>in</strong> one's Jn<strong>in</strong>j that he or she will tell to the other; <strong>in</strong>the happ<strong>in</strong>ess of one will be the happ<strong>in</strong>ess of the other. In theSOrrCM of one will be the SOrrCM of the other-mutually they willtry to <strong>in</strong>crease the happ<strong>in</strong>ess of each other-" (Raychaudhuri1887:7)."stop!" says the husb<strong>and</strong>, "I don't want to hear any rrore."An argLmle\'1t follCMS about the purpose of marriage <strong>and</strong> love <strong>in</strong> which thehusb<strong>and</strong> argues bitterly aga<strong>in</strong>st a romantic or <strong>in</strong> any way exclusive relationbetween husb<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> wife. IiIlSbaM <strong>and</strong> wife, says the husb<strong>and</strong>, have a mutualobligation to support each other's household duty <strong>and</strong> to restra<strong>in</strong> any bad<strong>in</strong>st<strong>in</strong>cts <strong>in</strong> each other.
-14-Wife: "Arrl what I said [about love], that's noth<strong>in</strong>g? Won't theylTdltually love each other?"Husbani:"certa<strong>in</strong>ly they will love."Wife: "certa<strong>in</strong>ly they will love! Was that such a little matter?What has happened to you today?"Husbani: ''Noth<strong>in</strong>g. calm down a little arrl listen. I can expla<strong>in</strong>everytll<strong>in</strong>]. Arrl <strong>in</strong> what I am say<strong>in</strong>g there is even someth<strong>in</strong>g aboutlove" (Raydhaudhuri 1887:8)."'Ihese days," the husban:i says with disapproval,"...girls have only one mania; day arrl night thi.nk<strong>in</strong>g only 'love,love' [bhalobasa] they are unstable! '!here is no big news aboutlove. It is only a trick with words. If you love, not talk<strong>in</strong>g alot about good 'love,' not mak<strong>in</strong>g childish dem<strong>and</strong>s, doesn't lovehappen anyway? Look at the people of ancient times. You who are so<strong>in</strong>patient, talk<strong>in</strong>g about 'love,' 'love'--if they carne here, theywouldn't be able to un:lerstarrl even [so IlIUch as] the purpose of thistalk. &It because of that did they love less or did they f<strong>in</strong>d lesslove?" (Raychaudhuri 1887:8-9).<strong>Love</strong>, like hUl'X]er or thirst, is an <strong>in</strong>st<strong>in</strong>ct nourished by good con:Iuct. Ifa husbarrl arrl wife help each other to accomplish the purpose of theirmarriage--if they became the helpers of each others' "duty arrl work"--thenlove occurs naturally. '!hen, "the husbar¥:l. has to love the wife; even if thisis not taught, it happens" (RaychaUdhuri 1887: 10) •&It the other k<strong>in</strong>d of love, says the husbar¥:l.,about, "there is a need to educate about that."the k<strong>in</strong>d currently talked.•.it is quite often seen that girls from childhood sit arrl beg<strong>in</strong> totalk about the aim of marriage. Repeat<strong>in</strong>g' love' 'love,' <strong>in</strong> the endlike a character <strong>in</strong> a novel some, pertlaps, go mad. '!heir m<strong>in</strong>ds are<strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> noth<strong>in</strong>g else. Only the love of a husb<strong>and</strong> becomessuddenly as if it were the aim of life. In this there is harm, bothto them arrl to the husbams. [If] the husb<strong>and</strong> th<strong>in</strong>ks the wife ishis all [<strong>and</strong>] the wife th<strong>in</strong>ks the husbar¥:l. is her all, [then]household duty goes all to hell. <strong>Family</strong> duty goes all to hell.Only two people, sitt<strong>in</strong>g face to face, night arrl day, pass theirtime (RaychaUdhuri 1887:11).Neither the husbar¥:l. nor the wife, then, may live only <strong>for</strong> their own lovearrl happ<strong>in</strong>ess. Where ''Writ<strong>in</strong>gjRead<strong>in</strong>g'' urges women to became literate arrl:i.rrplies that a new k<strong>in</strong>d of relationship with their hi.IsbaIrls awaits them whenthey do, "Husbani arrl Wife" <strong>for</strong>bids any couple to live only <strong>for</strong> each other.Bhalobasa (romantic, exclusive love) is COIrlernned as trivial arrl selfish.<strong>Family</strong>, household, arrl duty all take precedence over personal happ<strong>in</strong>ess,personal choice, or mere "love." otheJ:Wise,...if the husbar¥:l. arrl wife only IlIUtually love each other that wouldnot be enough; if they are only IlIUtually search<strong>in</strong>g <strong>for</strong> the happ<strong>in</strong>ess
-15-of each other, that would not be enough-the H<strong>in</strong>du wife has to bethe co-practiser-of-duty of the H<strong>in</strong>du husb<strong>and</strong>, the one who, with herhusb<strong>and</strong> practices virtue. otheJ::wise don't you talk about a k<strong>in</strong>i oflove <strong>in</strong> which the husb<strong>and</strong>'s duty becomes the loss of his work?Don't you talk about a k<strong>in</strong>i of search <strong>for</strong> happ<strong>in</strong>ess <strong>in</strong> which thehusb<strong>and</strong>'s future fruit becomes sorrow?"IDve is certa<strong>in</strong>ly a good th<strong>in</strong>g," the husb<strong>and</strong> says, =elud<strong>in</strong>g his restatementof an older, orthodox position. "'!he search <strong>for</strong> happ<strong>in</strong>ess is certa<strong>in</strong>ly a goodth<strong>in</strong>g. "&It you don't UIrlerst<strong>and</strong> these th<strong>in</strong>gs well. 'Ihat is why you have tobe given education <strong>in</strong> this way." (Raychaudhuri 1887:12)other chapters <strong>in</strong> GrtJa I.akshmi echo the same themes <strong>and</strong> show how isolatedthe irrplication of exlcusivity <strong>and</strong> romance <strong>in</strong> the chapter on literacy are. In"In-laws' House" a great emphasis is placed on the necessity of avoid<strong>in</strong>gquarrels with <strong>in</strong>-laws. It is the wife's responsibility to subord<strong>in</strong>atepersonal feel<strong>in</strong>gs to the greater demarxi of family tranquility.'lhere is no JrOre ill-fated husb<strong>and</strong> than the husb<strong>and</strong> of a maliciouswife. In the house where there is always envy. malice, competition,mutual bad-feel<strong>in</strong>gs, always quarrels, grombl<strong>in</strong>g--<strong>in</strong> that houseIDkkhi does not stay (Raychaudhuri 1887:34).In the chapter ''Husbarrl Go<strong>in</strong>g Abroad" the wife is discouraged from ask<strong>in</strong>g toaccompany her husb<strong>and</strong> when he goes away frOm hane to work or school. Herdeparture might disrupt <strong>and</strong> damage the family. Her obligation is not only tofulfill her own familial obligations but also to help the husb<strong>and</strong> to do thesame. "'!his then is the work of women," says the husb<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> conclusion:"It is necessary [that they] encourage the husb<strong>and</strong> [to do] his duty<strong>and</strong> work <strong>and</strong> to prevent [him from neglect<strong>in</strong>g] his duty. To cause[the husb<strong>and</strong>] to fall <strong>in</strong>to darger <strong>for</strong> her own happ<strong>in</strong>ess is the workof a bad woman (Raychaudhuri l887:Olap.6).Contradictory <strong>Roles</strong> <strong>for</strong> womenGrha I.akshmi offers its readers two contradictory roles <strong>for</strong> women: oneexplicit, one irrplicit. 'Ihe first, def<strong>in</strong>ed by the need to subord<strong>in</strong>atepersonal wishes <strong>and</strong> desires to family obligations, is consciously articulated<strong>and</strong> defended. '!he second, <strong>in</strong>spired by the fantasy of a romantic <strong>and</strong> exclusivelove relationship, is merely (not deliberately) irrplied. '!he two roles-thatof educated helIEl'lte <strong>and</strong> dutiful daughter-<strong>in</strong>-Iaw-are presented withoutacknowledg<strong>in</strong>g their contradictions, <strong>and</strong> to some extent the separate contextsout of which they arise helps the author to do this. In the chapters ontraditional subjects--<strong>in</strong> "Husb<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> wife" <strong>for</strong> example, or "In-laws' House"-the l::louOOaries with<strong>in</strong> which the author works are familiar to him. He is <strong>in</strong>the world of the "grtlo-Iokkhi," the traditional world of extended families,social duties, <strong>and</strong> the authority of elders. His ideas easily shape themselvesto fit a context set by older <strong>in</strong>digenous patterns.&It the context of the chapter on literacy is different. 'Ibis is asubject surrourrled by western criticisms of Indian society which were madenecessary, <strong>in</strong> fact, by the new conditions of life <strong>in</strong> British India. Even the
-16-arguments <strong>for</strong> literacy offered by the husbani (as we have seen) presuppose aworld chan::Jed by the westen! presence--just as the wife's answers assume moretraditional surroun:ii.n;Js. ihe context of the discussion of literacy, then, isfar fran traditional; <strong>in</strong> fact, it is western <strong>in</strong> orig<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> subtly shaped byWestern images <strong>and</strong> values. "Literacy" here st<strong>and</strong>s <strong>for</strong> more than the abilityto read <strong>and</strong> write a language. It represents an adaptation to the newercultural order, to the culturally mixed world of British In:lia. ihe subjectitself =ies these connotations <strong>and</strong>-whether the author consciouslyrecognizes this or not--the author adapts his view of husb<strong>and</strong>-<strong>and</strong>-wiferelations to fit this new context.Although Girijaprosonn Raychaudhuri identifies the desire <strong>for</strong> bhalobasa asa modern obsession (most n<strong>in</strong>eteenth century <strong>Bengali</strong>s would have agreed aswell), the ex>nflict between romantic love <strong>and</strong> family duty (dhanna) was notunique to the n<strong>in</strong>eteenth century. Even the H<strong>in</strong>du god RaIna had to ab<strong>and</strong>on hiswife sita when his love <strong>for</strong> her conflicted with his social <strong>and</strong> religiousobligations. Am Monisha Roy, <strong>in</strong> a modern study, notes the conflicti.n;Jdesires of <strong>Bengali</strong> women <strong>for</strong> a romantic lover, on the one h<strong>and</strong>, <strong>and</strong> aresponsible husb<strong>and</strong> on the other <strong>and</strong> suggests that these images hadtraditional =t:er.parts <strong>in</strong> the opposi.n;J characters of two major <strong>Bengali</strong>gods: Krishna, the romantic boy-Iover <strong>and</strong> Shiva, the devoted husbani <strong>and</strong>consummate ascetic (Roy 1972:41-42).still, the ambivalence of the Grha Iakshmi. text shows us two sides of theroles bei.n;J imag<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>for</strong> <strong>Bengali</strong> women by western educated men likeRaychudhuri. On the one h<strong>and</strong>, is the issue of the re<strong>for</strong>m of orthodoxcon::litions: all the authors of these texts wanted women to became literate.Although there CX>U1d be great differences <strong>in</strong> the ex>mitions umer which theyimag<strong>in</strong>ed literate women livi.n;J, all saw some k<strong>in</strong>:l. of education as a gex>dthi.n;J. Resporrl<strong>in</strong>g to the chan:Jes brought <strong>in</strong>to their own lives, by Britishrule, all could imag<strong>in</strong>e the need <strong>for</strong> wives who would also be prepared to adaptto these chan::Jes.Similarly, "advice <strong>for</strong> women" authors also seem eager to imag<strong>in</strong>ethemselves (as husb<strong>and</strong>s) com<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to more dyadic relations with their wivesor,at least, establishi.n;J a fi.nrer authority over wives with<strong>in</strong> the ex>nf<strong>in</strong>esof the exterrled family. Readi.n;J these women's advice books aga<strong>in</strong>st twentiethcentury anthropological aeex>unts, one is struck by the degree of fantasy <strong>in</strong>the authors' imag<strong>in</strong>ed relationship between husb<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> wives. Even <strong>in</strong> thetwentieth century evidence is =nv<strong>in</strong>ci.n;J that exterrled family rules <strong>and</strong>structures placed ex>nsiderable distance between young couples. Young husb<strong>and</strong>s<strong>and</strong> wives CX>U1d spend time together only at night; duri.n;J the day they wereobliged by custom to ignore each other's presence. Nevertheless authors of"advice to women" texts have little difficulty imag<strong>in</strong>i.rq themselves tutori.n;J,ex>ntrolli.n;J, <strong>and</strong> shapi.n;J the lives of their wives. The frame story of thesebooks presupposes a wife willi.n;J to listen while her husb<strong>and</strong> lectures her onproper behavior <strong>and</strong> ex>nduct, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> the prefaces these authors urge husb<strong>and</strong>sto beg<strong>in</strong> educati.n;J their wives from the "first day" of marriage (Pal 1880:1).ihe "story" of young westen! educated boys tutori.n;J (or faili.n;J to tutor)their wives is one that awears <strong>in</strong> many contexts <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> many regions <strong>in</strong> Imias<strong>in</strong>ce the n<strong>in</strong>eteenth century <strong>and</strong> cont<strong>in</strong>ues to modern times (Borthwick 1984:69 ;Carstairs 1967:296; G<strong>and</strong>hi 1957:13). This eagerness of men to imag<strong>in</strong>ethemselves "teachers" of their wives suggests that a significant motive <strong>in</strong> the
-17-struggle to redef<strong>in</strong>e women's roles <strong>in</strong> n<strong>in</strong>eteenth century Bengal was the desireof young Western educated husb<strong>and</strong>s to ally themselves with their wives aga<strong>in</strong>stthe power <strong>and</strong> =ntrol of older family members. O1ang<strong>in</strong>g roles <strong>for</strong> women <strong>in</strong>Bengal, then, meant new roles <strong>for</strong> men also. At least <strong>for</strong> young husb<strong>and</strong>s,these changes might mean more dyadic relations with wives <strong>and</strong> greater freedOlllwith<strong>in</strong> the traditional constra<strong>in</strong>ts of exterrled family relationships.And yet <strong>for</strong> the author of Grtla Lakshmi, the world of romantic love becomesbleak <strong>in</strong>deed when separated too far from that of the exterrled family. 'Iheterrible errpt<strong>in</strong>ess that awaits those who <strong>for</strong>sake family duties is captured <strong>in</strong>an early image <strong>in</strong> the text: <strong>Love</strong>! love! says the husb<strong>and</strong>, girls will go madif they =nt<strong>in</strong>aully talk about love--" [If] the husb<strong>and</strong> th<strong>in</strong>ks the wife is hisall [<strong>and</strong>] the wife th<strong>in</strong>ks the husb<strong>and</strong> is her all, [then] household duty goesall to hell. <strong>Family</strong> duty does all to hell. Only two people, sitt<strong>in</strong>g face toface, night <strong>and</strong> day, pass their t<strong>in</strong>e." (Raychaudhuri 1887:11) If the authorof Grha Lakshmi fails to re=ncile the demarrls of family duty with a fantasyof romantic love it may also be because he =u1d not imag<strong>in</strong>e life outside ofthe old family structures. Attracted <strong>in</strong> certa<strong>in</strong> =texts to Western-stylelove relationships, <strong>and</strong> liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a world which demarxied adaptation to a newcultural order, he <strong>and</strong> others like hiln =u1d still fear a future cutoff fromthe world of the extended family. One psychologist has suggested that it isfamily =nnectedness that lies at the very =re of the In::l.ian psyche (Rol<strong>and</strong>1988:89-127). In::l.ian men <strong>and</strong> women def<strong>in</strong>e themselves primarily <strong>in</strong> relation totheir families <strong>and</strong> this identification leaves them happiest when fulfill<strong>in</strong>gfamily obligations <strong>and</strong> most secure when identify<strong>in</strong>g with the strengths <strong>and</strong>successes of their family <strong>and</strong> its members. If this is true, we may un::l.erst<strong>and</strong>why loyalties to older family structures persist so strongly even <strong>in</strong> a textlike Grt1a Lakshmi which atterrpts to articulate guidel<strong>in</strong>es <strong>for</strong> social change.conclusionIt has often been said that the conservatism of H<strong>in</strong>du families comes fromthe women, <strong>and</strong> n<strong>in</strong>eteenth century re<strong>for</strong>mers often identified older women <strong>in</strong>families as their opponents <strong>in</strong> the ef<strong>for</strong>t to alter women's =n::iitions. Butone of the curiosities of the Gma Lakshmi text is the way <strong>in</strong> which, <strong>in</strong> allbut the chapter on literacy, husbarrl <strong>and</strong> wife switch roles-she argu<strong>in</strong>g <strong>for</strong>romantic love between husb<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> wife <strong>and</strong> he, as we have seen, <strong>for</strong> moreorthodoX relations.In fact, if we accept romantic love (bhalobasa) as a ''Western'' <strong>and</strong>"llIOdem" idea (as many n<strong>in</strong>eteenth century authors do), then it is the women <strong>in</strong>these texts who are the proponents of social change. <strong>Women</strong> are the advocatesof bhalobasa (romantic love)--absessed with it, as Raychaudhuri argues <strong>in</strong> GrhaLakshmi, us<strong>in</strong>g it as an excuse to follow their own wishes, as the author ofBangali Boll asserts (Raychaudhuri 1887:11; Gupta 1885:preface). Young wivesmay argue aga<strong>in</strong>st literacy <strong>for</strong> fear of social sanctions--"Auntie says 'girlsdo not read,;" says the Grha Lakshmi wife--but if this text is an accurateguide then young girls, young wives were the <strong>for</strong>ces urg<strong>in</strong>g more<strong>in</strong>dividualistic <strong>and</strong> exclusive relationships onto their husb<strong>and</strong>s (Raychaudhuri1887:13).If we accept this portrayal of women's =ncems as accurate, then it wouldseem that <strong>Bengali</strong> women also saw advantages <strong>in</strong> more dyadic relationships with
-18-their husJ::>arrls. '!he agency <strong>for</strong> the most obvious restrictions on women <strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>eteenth century society, after all, was not the young husbani, but theelders of the exteIrled family. Prohibitions aga<strong>in</strong>st literacy an:i restrictionson education an:i travel outside the horne most often came from elders. Irxieed,studies of this period show that young Western educated husJ::>arrls were oftenagents of the liberation of their wives an:i <strong>in</strong>sisted on education over familyabjections, arran::J<strong>in</strong>g <strong>for</strong> escapes from more rigid orthodox households (~id1983; Borthwick 1984). It is not surpris<strong>in</strong>g then that young girls, far fromidentify<strong>in</strong>g their husbarxls as q:pressors, saw them as allies; nor would it besurpris<strong>in</strong>g if young wives saw the possibility of more exclusive relations withtheir husJ::>arrls as an avenue <strong>for</strong> ga<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g same release from the controls offamily elders.'IWo recent studies of n<strong>in</strong>eteenth century <strong>Bengali</strong> women have presented acurious anomaly; the <strong>in</strong>dividual life stories of these women are full ofaCCXlll!lts of the bravery an:i tenacity with which women struggled to becameliterate, educated, an:i free of the restrictions of orthodox society (~id1983; Borthwick 1984). Yet both authors are uncom<strong>for</strong>table with an analysis(their own) which credits men with the "emancipation" of women <strong>in</strong> theirsociety; both are disappo<strong>in</strong>ted with the failure of women <strong>in</strong> this period toidentify an:i struggle aga<strong>in</strong>st a patriarchal society which assigned them to aseparate an:i subord<strong>in</strong>ate SIilere.Blt the conflict between "love" an:i family outl<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> Grha I.akshmisuggests that women did not identify their own needs aga<strong>in</strong>st those of theirhusbani's because they may have seen relations with those husJ::>arrls as crucialto escape another k<strong>in</strong>d of oppression. certa<strong>in</strong>ly as this analysis has shown,we do not need to be unst<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> our praise of the <strong>Bengali</strong> men who sought torefonn women's roles <strong>in</strong> this period. '!heir ef<strong>for</strong>ts were motivated by theirown needs an:i concerns, an:i their cammitment to the "emancipation" of thewomen of their society was, at best, ambivalent. Blt even as we read aCCXlll!ltsof same educated <strong>Bengali</strong> women dr<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g the water <strong>in</strong> which their husb<strong>and</strong>s'feet were washed (a traditionally enjo<strong>in</strong>ed practice), or of others declar<strong>in</strong>gthat they worshiped their husb<strong>and</strong>s as gods, we should consider these accountswith a clear urxierstarxi<strong>in</strong>g of the choices available to women <strong>in</strong> this period(Borthwick 1984:147).High caste <strong>Bengali</strong> Hirxiu society had with<strong>in</strong> it two hierarchies ofq:pression--one of gerxier an:i the other of age. YOUl'XJ men <strong>in</strong> exterxiedfamilies suffered from the age hierachy am sought to mitigate its effectsthrough. the creation of more exclusive relations with their wives. Youngwomen <strong>in</strong> Bengal, however, suffered urxier both hierarchies; but because thedegree of their q:pression with<strong>in</strong> the exteIrled family unit was so much greaterthan that of their husb<strong>and</strong>s, they were more eager to seek an escape from it.If the portrayal of women <strong>in</strong> these "advice <strong>for</strong> women" texts is accurate,dc:an<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g but more exclusive relations <strong>for</strong> young women <strong>in</strong> n<strong>in</strong>eteenth centuryBengal with their husb<strong>and</strong>s may have seemed an acceptable alternative to theboredom an:i drudgery of an illiterate life restricted to the women's quartersof their <strong>in</strong>-laws' homes.
-19-Notes1. I.akshmi is the Hi.rrlu goddess worshipped <strong>for</strong> wealth ana good <strong>for</strong>tune <strong>in</strong>India. She is especially worshipped by women to br<strong>in</strong>g prosperity to theirhusb<strong>and</strong>s' homes. "Eight annas" is about three quarters of a ruppee, orabout six cents at current values.2. AIthough the stories of the bratakathas may be traced to episodes <strong>in</strong>medieval l3er¥]ali literature, the pr<strong>in</strong>ted texts referred to <strong>in</strong> this paperappearErl only <strong>in</strong> the twentieth century.3. '!be earliest pr<strong>in</strong>ted oollections of the bratas listed <strong>in</strong> the l3er¥]alicatalogue of the National Library <strong>in</strong> calcutta were VipradasaMukhopadhyaya, NeveU Brata-I5otha, calcutta, 1906, ana TarakbhusanKothakcunmadi, Sosthvadi Kotha, Murshidabad, 1909. with<strong>in</strong> the twentiethcentury,a particular author's version of the stories could be reissuedaga<strong>in</strong> ana aga<strong>in</strong> with virtually no cha.n:Jes <strong>in</strong> the text; AsutosMukhopadhyay's Meveder Bratakatha was issued seven times between 1914 ana1931 (13er¥]al Library 1914:42-43; Mudkopadhyay 1931); the Irrlia OfficeLibrary's 1926 edition of Asutos Majurrdar's Meyder Bratakatha is identicalto the 1978 edition by the same author ana available on calcutta streetsten years ago (Majurrdar 1926; Majurrdar 1978).4. Meredith Borthwick suggests that the curricultml <strong>for</strong> women's education wasbroadly ilnitative of an English curricultml <strong>for</strong> girls. '!be major emphasisof the texts I have looked at is on the ma<strong>in</strong>tenance of traditional Indianstructures of family life (Borthwick 1984:80-86).5. '!be jow:nal is Barno Im'shan, foun:led by Bankim Cllarrlra Olatterjee. '!heauthor of Grtla I.akshmi. wrote three books on Bankim ClIan:ira' s novels anawas a well known =itic of that novelist. (sengupta 1976:121)6. In Grtla I.akshmi. when the wife asks the husb<strong>and</strong> <strong>for</strong> a piece of Englishcrepe (a popular n<strong>in</strong>eteenth century fabric) the husban:l explodes: "Chi!Chi! Wear<strong>in</strong>g that is like st<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g nude•••'!hose women who wear this cloth,fie on them! ana to that husb<strong>and</strong> who causes his wife to wear this kim ofcloth ana exposes her to everyone, truly, truly fie!" (Raychaudhuri1887:23-24)7. But then, even anong the Brahmos, authors oould be quite conservative.Isancarrlra Basu, author of stridiger Prati Upadesh, was a student ofRajnara<strong>in</strong> Bose, a writer <strong>for</strong> Tattvabodh<strong>in</strong>i Patrika ana a member of theJOOSt conservative of Brahmo sects, the lIdi Brahmo 8amaj (8en;jupta1976:56). His text shows an unusual precx::clJpation with "chastity." 'Ihreeseparate chapters are devoted to this subject-expla<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g it, giv<strong>in</strong>g the"signs" of it ana "preserv<strong>in</strong>g" it. A table <strong>in</strong> the apperxiix even lists thecharacteristics which separate the chaste woman from the unchasteprostitute (Basu 1884:70).Review<strong>in</strong>g this text <strong>for</strong> the 1884 catalogue ofPr<strong>in</strong>ted Books, an editor noted that the author "<strong>in</strong>cl<strong>in</strong>es towards theorthodox views" on the subjects of women's character, social ana domesticobligations, education, ana child marriage (Bengal Library 1884:28-29).8. Most texts were arranged topically, but there were other possibilities.One author divided his work acoord<strong>in</strong>g to the different tasks of a girl's
-20-life cycle with chapters like "Girl," "Housewife," <strong>and</strong> ''Mother'' (Pal1900). Another used the various emotions <strong>and</strong> had chapters on "Desire,""Devotion," <strong>and</strong> "Envy of others" (Dasi 1883). A third proceeded a=rd<strong>in</strong>gto liv.<strong>in</strong>] space: "House,II '1'Bedroom, II I'Kitchen, " "Read<strong>in</strong>g Roan, II"Cowshed," <strong>and</strong> "Iatr<strong>in</strong>e" (Mitra 1890). Texts by Brahmo authors hadchapters enq;lhasiz<strong>in</strong>g the particular refonn issues <strong>and</strong> concerns of thosesects. satyacharan Mitra, a member of Keshub sen's Brahmo sect, had achapter on widow marriage <strong>in</strong> his text <strong>and</strong> SE!lTeral on superstitions: "Whatis a ghost?" "About sneez<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> lizards," <strong>and</strong> ''What is a wanan-
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WOMEN AND INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITYISSN# 0888-5354The WID Program at Michigan State University began its <strong>Women</strong> <strong>in</strong> International Development Publication Series<strong>in</strong> late 1981 <strong>in</strong> response to the need to dissem<strong>in</strong>ate the rapidly grow<strong>in</strong>g body ofwork that addressed the lives ofwomen <strong>in</strong> Third World countries undergo<strong>in</strong>g change. The series cross-cuts discipl<strong>in</strong>es <strong>and</strong> br<strong>in</strong>gs together research,critical analyses <strong>and</strong> proposals <strong>for</strong> change. Its goals are: (I) to highlight women <strong>in</strong> development (WID) as animportant area ofresearch; (2) to contribute to the development ofthe field as a scholarly endeavor; <strong>and</strong> (3) toenconrage new approaches to development policy <strong>and</strong> programm<strong>in</strong>g.The Work<strong>in</strong>g Papers on <strong>Women</strong> <strong>in</strong> International Development series features journal-length articles based onorig<strong>in</strong>al research or analytical summaries ofrelevant research, theoretical analyses} <strong>and</strong> evaluations of developmentprogranun<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> policy.The WID Forum series features short reports that describe research projects <strong>and</strong> development programs, <strong>and</strong> reviewscurrent policy issues.EDITOR:MANAGING EDITORIAL ASSISTANTS:DISTRIBUTION & PRODUCTION MANAGER:Anne FergusonPam GalbraithBarry CrasswellerEDITORIAL BOARD: Margaret Aguwa, <strong>Family</strong> Medic<strong>in</strong>e; Marilyn Aronoff, Sociology; James B<strong>in</strong>gen, ResourceDevelopment; Ada F<strong>in</strong>ifter, Political Science; L<strong>in</strong>da Cooke Johnson, History; Assefa Mehretu, Geography; AnneMeyer<strong>in</strong>g, History; Ann Millard, Anthropology; Julia R. Miller, College ofHuman Ecology; Lynn Pa<strong>in</strong>e, TeacherEducation; Paul Strassmann; Economics; David Wiley, African Studies Center; Jack Williams, Asian StudiesCenter; Kim A. Wilson, Institute ofInternational Agriculture; Khalida Zaki, Department ofSociology.NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS: To provide an opportunity <strong>for</strong> the work ofthose concerned with developmentissues affect<strong>in</strong>g women to be critiqued <strong>and</strong> refmed, all manuscripts submitted to the series are peer reviewed. Thereview process averages three months <strong>and</strong> accepted manuscripts are published with<strong>in</strong> ten-to-twelve weeks. Authorsreceive ten free copies, reta<strong>in</strong> copyrights to their works, <strong>and</strong> are encouraged to submit them to the journal oftheirchoice.Manuscripts submitted should be double-spaced, sent <strong>in</strong> duplicate, on disk or emailed (to wid@pilot.msu.edu) <strong>in</strong>WordPerfect compatible <strong>for</strong>mat <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>clude the follow<strong>in</strong>g: (I) title page bear<strong>in</strong>g the name, address <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>stitutionalaffiliation ofthe author; (2) one-paragraph abstract; (3) text; (4) notes; (5) references cited; <strong>and</strong> (6) tables <strong>and</strong>figures. The <strong>for</strong>mat ofthe article must follow the <strong>for</strong>mat as depicted <strong>in</strong> our "Style sheet". Submit manuscripts toAnne Ferguson, Editor, WID Publication Series, <strong>Women</strong> <strong>and</strong> International Development Program, 202 InternationalCenter, Michigan State University, East Lans<strong>in</strong>g, MI 48824-1035, USA. Style sheets are available upon request.TO ORDER PUBLICATIONS: Publications are available at a nom<strong>in</strong>al cost <strong>and</strong> cost-equivalent exchangerelationships are encouraged. To order publications or receive a list<strong>in</strong>g ofthem, you may write to the WIDProgram, 202 International Center, Michigan State University, East Lans<strong>in</strong>g, MI 48824-1035, USA or check out ourWeb site (http://www.isp.msu.edu/wid/) which also has all the order<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><strong>for</strong>mation <strong>and</strong> an order <strong>for</strong>m. Orders canalso be sent to uS via email at (wid@pilot.msu.edu).MSU is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution