The Impact of Direct Democracy on Society - Universität St.Gallen

– 175 –Table 6: Violent Crime and Sex Crime 1986–2001 Reduced Form(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)Homicide Assault Hate Crime Rape Sex CrimeSeverity 111, 122 - 123.combined severity, 187 0.000 0.001 0.001 -0.001 0.001(0.27) (0.39) (0.72) (1.07) (0.84)<strong>Direct</strong> democracy -0.057 0.237** 0.195*** -0.002 0.212**(0.92) (3.82) (3.44) (0.04) (3.19)Welfare transfers -0.017 0.499** 0.444*** 0.052 0.103(0.17) (5.45) (5.32) (0.61) (1.01)Income inequality 0.155 0.109 0.113 0.159 -0.102(1.23) (0.94) (1.07) (1.35) (0.74)National income 0.104 0.509 0.517(*) 0.066 0.756*(0.33) (1.64) (1.81) (0.22) (2.08)Unemployment rate -0.04 0.034 0.020 -0.021 -0.074(0.89) (0.78) (0.50) (0.49) (1.49)Closeness to border 0.235* -0.535** -0.468*** -0.201* -0.294**(2.27) (5.81) (5.58) (2.40) (2.88)Interaction b. cantons 0.015** 0.013** 0.015*** 0.015** 0.000(2.81) (3.02) (3.73) (3.84) (0.06)Urbanization 0.000 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.006(0.12) (1.38) (1.55) (1.60) (1.40)Cantonal population -0.296** -0.437** -0.478*** -0.272** 0.356**(2.60) (4.41) (5.07) (3.39) (3.66)Residents 0 – 14 0.039 -0.003 -0.005 0.035 -0.008(0.80) (0.09) (0.15) (0.91) (0.18)Residents 15 – 24 0.026 -0.094(*) -0.067 0.168** 0.089(0.42) (1.75) (1.35) (2.92) (1.29)Residents 25 – 29 0.125 0.115 0.109 0.255** -0.027(1.57) (1.55) (1.60) (3.60) (0.32)Residents over 60 0.076* 0.086** 0.094*** 0.175** 0.124**(2.05) (2.80) (3.28) (6.09) (3.57)Fiscal decentralization 0.008 -0.262 -0.200 0.402 0.371(0.03) (0.88) (0.74) (1.40) (1.08)Tax competition -0.558** -0.513** -0.487** -0.306* 0.319(*)(2.88) (2.95) (3.01) (2.00) (1.73)Federal transfers -0.13 -0.143 -0.123 0.009 -0.103(0.97) (1.04) (1.00) (0.07) (0.66)Constitutional constraint 0.034 0.355** 0.321*** 0.082* 0.110*(0.74) (7.24) (7.18) (1.98) (2.19)Conservative ideology -0.625* 0.197 0.182 -0.569* -0.202(2.46) (0.79) (0.80) (2.30) (0.68)Size <strong>of</strong> coalition -0.019 -0.078 0.182 0.028 -0.264**(0.34) (1.38) (1.58) (0.53) (4.13)Romance canton -0.511* 0.410(*) 0.379(*) -0.411(*) 0.504(*)(2.28) (1.90) (1.92) (1.87) (1.91)Constant 0.283 5.700(*) 5.728* -5.156(*) -5.909(*)(0.08) (1.90) (2.11) (1.88) (1.78)Observations 384 416 416 416 416Centered R 2 0.34 0.65 0.57 0.50 0.49Jarque-Bera χ-value 4.02 40.20*** 17.39*** 13.12** 39.00***See table 5.