Annotated Bibliography of Aboriginal Women's Health and Healing ...

An Annotated Compilation and Overviewof Research on Aboriginal Women, Health, and HealingTable of ContentsOverview p.4Search Strategies and Parameters p.4Analysis of Material p.5Overview of Major Thematic Areas p.5Introduction p.71. Colonization, Racism and Unequal Treatmentof Aboriginal Women p.7Bibliography of Resources p.122. Access, Delivery and Perspectives RegardingHealth and Well-Being p.40Health Policies, Legal and Key Issues Respectingthe Health of Aboriginal Women p.40Perspectives, Needs and Decisions RegardingHealth p.42Storytelling and Aboriginal Perspectives onHealth p.43Encounters with the Health Care Profession p.44Perceptions from the Medical Profession p.44Health Promoting Behaviours p.44Bibliography of Resources p.453. Birthing, Infants, Children and Motherhoodp.69Midwifery and Evacuation of Pregnant NorthernWomen p.69Breastfeeding p.70Birth Outcomes for Mothers with Diabetes p.70Adolescent Mothers and Pregnancy p.71Child Birth and Gynecological and ObstetricsCare for Pregnant Aboriginal Mothersp.71Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder and Drug Useduring Pregnancy p.73Sudden Infant Death Syndrome p.74Bibliography of Resources p.754. Physical Aspects of Illness p.106Cervical and Breast Cancer p.106Bone Fractures and Osteoporosis p.106Cardiovascular Diseases p.107Tuberculosis p.108International Research on Cancer p.109Cancer Survival p.109Bibliography of Resources p.1105. Mental Health Needs p.123Depression and Suicide p.127Stress p.127Trauma p.128Substance Misuse p.129Bibliography of Resources p.1306. Sexual and Physical Violence againstWomen p.146Domestic Violence p.146Childhood Sexual Abuse and Sexual Violencep.147HIV/AIDS and Sexually Transmitted Diseasesp.149Sexuality, Sex Education and Prevention againstSTDs p.150Violence by Aboriginal Women p.150Bibliography of Resources p.1517. Diabetes p.189Bibliography of Resources p.1928. Body Image and Diet p.205Dietary Intake in Northern Communities p.205Body Image, Obesity and Exercise amongAboriginal Women p.206Food Security/Procurement p.208Bibliography of Resources p.2099. Environmental Factors Impacting OnWomen’s Health p.219Bibliography of Resources p.22210. Health of Specific Groups of AboriginalWomen p.230Urban Aboriginal Women p.230Elderly Women p.230First Nations Women p.232Métis Women p.233Inuit and Other Northern Aboriginal Womenp.233Aboriginal Women in Prison p.234Two-Spirited Women p.235Aboriginal Women in Quebec p.235Aboriginal Women and Disabilities p.235Bibliography of Resources p.23711. Social, Educational and EconomicDeterminants of Health p.263All Encompassing p.263Poverty and Marginalization p.263Single Mothers p.264Health and Social Services Development p.265Income and Economic Factors p.266The Impact of Child Welfare on the lives ofAboriginal Women p.267Social Relationships among Aboriginal Groupsp.268Housing Issues p.269Homeless Aboriginal Women p.269Educational Perspectives p.269Indigenous Knowledge and Doing Researchwith Aboriginal Women p.270Appropriation of Aboriginal Culture, Knowledgeand Medicine p.271Bibliography of Resources p.27112. Self-Determination and Self-Governmentp.292Bibliography of Resources p.29413. Identity, Culture, Spirituality and Healingp.301Healing p.301Restorative Justice p.302Cultural Traditions, Teachings and Geographyp.302Spirituality and Holistic Well-Being p.303Identity, Strength and Contemporary Roles forAboriginal Women as Keepers of Culturep.303Bibliography of Resources p.305Conclusion p.335Table of Contents

An Annotated Compilation and Overview ofResearch on Aboriginal Women, Health, and HealingAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and HealingOverviewThis compilation of material providesan interdisciplinary overview ofthe Canadian research literatureon issues respecting Aboriginalwomen, health and healing. Inparticular, the aim was also to identifygaps between existing research andcommunity concerns as expressed byAboriginal women. It covers a widearray of disciplines and fields of study,including social work, nursing, education,law, history, psychology, sociology,and political science, as well as ethnic,Aboriginal/Native and women studies.This comprehensive overview is based onan analysis of all materials that could beretrieved via on-line periodical indexes,library catalogues, and website searches.These items include journal articles,books, reports, theses, and governmentaldocuments as well as unpublishedmanuscripts. Particular effort was alsomade to include graduate level workand, where possible, project reportsfrom completed research initiatives.International research was incorporatedonly if it included a focus on Canada;otherwise the emphasis is clearly on theCanadian literature.Search Strategies andParametersA number of different search strategieswere used to ensure inclusion of a widerange of materials across the variousdisciplines. On-line search services wereused to locate academic journal articles,while books, theses, reports, videos andgovernmental documents were foundvia major university library catalogues.In addition, various website searchesfacilitated the retrieval of relevant researchproject reports, conference papers andother unpublished documents. In all cases,the particular keywords used were tailoredto the particular search service or strategyemployed in order to ensure the optimalretrieval of relevant materials. Care wasalso taken that the search terms usedreflected topic areas and terminologicalusage within each of the variousdisciplines covered in this literature review.The time frame covered in the literaturesearch was limited only by the searchservices themselves. All searches are asup-to-date as possible and include themost recently published books and journalarticles in addition to some older sources.Journal articles and conference paperswere located via such on-line services asSociological Abstracts, Humanities Index,PsychInfo, Psychlit, Medline, DissertationAbstracts, Arctic Science and TechnologyInformation System (ASTIS Database),Microlog (Canadian GovernmentDocuments) and Social Sciences Abstracts(Social Sciences Index). A search ofCurrent Contents—an interdisciplinarysearch service—was also undertakento ensure that even the most recentlypublished materials were included,namely those not yet catalogued bythe various search services. Books,theses, reports, videos, and governmentdocuments were located via the on-linecatalogues of the Library of Congress,York University Libraries and the Universityof Manitoba Libraries. Research reports,workshop papers and unpublisheddocuments were found via websitesearches of Native Women’s Associationof Canada, Pauktuutit Inuit Women’sAssociation, Canadian Heritage, Statusof Women Canada, The Prairie Women’sHealth Centre of Excellence, NationalAboriginal Health Organization (NAHO),Health Canada, The Canadian Women’sHealth Network, or else provided by theauthor’s personal collection of relevant4

materials. These searching techniqueswere refined and expanded to includesynonyms or variation of the words:Aboriginal, First Nations, Indian, Métis, Inuit,Native, Indigenous, and Native AmericanIndian women. An annotated listing ofliterature searched appears at the end ofeach section.Approximately 100+ items were retrievedvia on-line services and library cataloguesusing these search strategies. In addition,more than 250 documents were scannedvia website searches for possiblerelevance. Over 1,000 items which wereretrieved using a wide range of searchterms relevant to Aboriginal women’shealth and healing, were then retainedafter a second cut by the author. Theoverall retention ratio was thus close toone in five items.Each item relevant to this literaturereview was then added to a databasecreated with Reference Manager, version11. Reference Manager is a referencedatabase program – it specializes instoring, managing and searching forbibliographic references in a personalreference database (Thomson ISIResearchSoft, 2004). When and wherepossible, each item was annotated orthe material abstract was relied upon toassist the researcher with organizing andassessing the content of the material forthis review.Analysis of MaterialEach of the 900+ reference items retainedin this comprehensive literature searchwas then analyzed to determine theparticular themes that began to emergefrom the sources retained. This entaileda complete review, analysis and codingof both the considered and retaineditems by the author in order to distill majortopic areas, themes, and issues (twice).The goal of this “content analysis” wasa) to determine what research has beenundertaken in Canada to date on issuesrelated to Aboriginal women’s healthand healing, in order to understand b)the gaps in knowledge about Aboriginalwomen’s health and healing anddetermine areas requiring future attention.Given the volume and diverse range ofmaterials located via this interdisciplinaryliterature search, this literature reviewis limited to an analytic overview ofresearch undertaken rather than an indepthsynthesis of all research findings.An annotated bibliography of sourcesgathered as part of this review can befound in the Appendices attached to thisreport. The material gathered together forthis review represents approximately 1,057references, 2,020 authors, 243 keywords,299 periodicals and 35 publication years.Overview of Major ThematicAreasThe analysis of the compiled materialsoriginally revealed 28 smaller distinctthematic areas. Analyzing the breadthof research in these 28 areas provedto be a difficult, daunting and timeconsumingtask, so a second review ofthe topic areas was conducted and thematerial collapsed into smaller divisionsof information. The second thematicreview of the literature produced 13 themeareas with distinctive interrelated subcategories.Readers must bear in mindthat these categories and/or themes arenot mutually exclusive of one another. Inmany cases these resources can fit intomore than one of the research themesidentified in this paper. Each sectioncontains a brief overview of what theliterature contains about Aboriginalwomen’s health. The overview isfollowed then by an alphabetical listing/bibliography of all the literature referred tounder that thematic area. In most cases,the majority of resources referred to havebeen annotated; however, there weremany that remain unannotated becausethe resource could not be found. Asummary of these 13 larger thematic areasand key subheadings appears in the tableon the following page.Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing5

Research ThemesAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing1. COLONIZATION,RACISM ANDUNEQUALTREATMENT UNDERCANADIAN LAWS2. ACCESS, DELIVERYAND PERSPEC-TIVES ON HEALTHSERVICES3. BIRTHING, INFANTSAND MOTHER-HOOD4. PHYSICAL ASPECTSOF ILLNESS5. MENTAL HEALTHNEEDS6. VIOLENCEAGAINST WOMENBroadly, the literature focuses on issues related to justice, jurisdictional confusion re funding of healthservices, human rights violations, discrimination, and the restoration of justice for Aboriginal women.Unequal treatment also involves the interrelated issue of racism against Aboriginal women. The historyof colonization, treaty issues, residential schools and the traditional roles of women are also discussed.The impact of colonization and racism as highlighted in this section is also weaved into many of thethematic areas discussed below;The research in this area centers on key health issues, the status of health care, perceptions,participation, decision making and attitudes and behaviours of Aboriginal women toward the healthprofession. The discussion centers on the increased need for assessments, screening and researchthat highlights specific and existing barriers in Aboriginal women’s ability to access health services;The heart of the research under this area considers mothers, pregnancy, newborns, midwifery, teenpregnancy and adolescent mothers, sterilization, gynecological issues, infant mortality, breastfeeding,SIDS and mothers’ involvement in children’s health care. Discussions include aspect of FASD;The literature under this heading includes research on breast and cervical cancer among Aboriginalwomen. It also includes a review of research looking at bone fractures and other physical maladiesexperienced by Aboriginal women;This research area includes resources that highlight the health issues regarding stress, depression, selfharm,suicide, death as well as psychological and intergenerational impacts of the residential schoolexperience on female survivors. The issue of addiction and use of drugs and alcohol as a copingstrategy will also be integrated;This broad area encompasses family and domestic violence including sexual violence against womensuch as sexual abuse (incest), sexual exploitation and prostitution. Understanding the sexuality andsexual health of Aboriginal women would also be a focus of this area. The sexual health of Aboriginalwomen also includes a review of research comprised of literature regarding sexually transmitteddiseases, HIV/AIDS and prevention and protection against STDs;7. DIABETES This area looks primarily at the impact of diabetes on women in the Aboriginal population;8. BODY IMAGE ANDDIET9. ENVIRONMENTALISSUES10. THE HEALTH OFSPECIFIC GROUPSOF ABORIGINALWOMEN11. SOCIAL,EDUCATIONALAND ECONOMICDETERMINANTS OFHEALTH12. SELF-DETERMINATIONAND SELF-GOVERNMENT13. IDENTITY, CULTURE,SPIRITUALITY ANDHEALINGThe research in this area includes research touching upon issues of obesity, weight gain, and lackof exercise as well as body and weight perspectives, eating disorders and food procurement byAboriginal women;Focus of the research in this area includes issues of healthy and polluted environments, primarily in thecontext of northern and Inuit women. It includes research that has looked at the link between dietand pregnancy in Aboriginal women;This area will focus on the health experiences of women in prison, women living within an urbancontext, and the physical, cognitive and learning disabilities of Aboriginal women who havedisabilities. Issues for older Aboriginal women, such as menopause, will also be a factor examined inthis section. It includes health issues for lesbian women involved in same-sex relationships. Researchexamining the distinct health needs of First Nation, Métis, and Inuit women is also reviewed. In additionresearch looking at a wide variety of health factors for other Indigenous women from the UnitedStates, Australia and other countries is also reviewed;The role of poverty, housing, income, homelessness, , single parent families and current family trendsincluding the role of child welfare in relation to Aboriginal mothers are the central points of debatein this section; It also includes a focus on Indigenous knowledge respecting spirituality, medicinesand the importance of women’s involvement in the health and education field. Aboriginal researchmethods and methodologies most conducive to women in health research are also examined;The research centers on issues regarding membership, citizenship and the political expressions ofleadership by Aboriginal women including issues surrounding adequate power in the governmentstructures of Aboriginal governments;Discussion in this area includes an array of research that has focused on empowerment, resilience,positive gender and ethnic identity, as well as self-esteem factors for Aboriginal women. The roleof traditional culture and medicine as well as the importance of cultural teachings, storytelling andwomen’s responsibility as keepers of the culture will be the main focus of this section. Restorativejustice measures are included in this part of the review. Lastly, the issue of healing and Aboriginalwomen’s approaches to healing for selves, family and community is also considered.6

IntroductionMadeleine Dion Stout stated thataddressing the health needs of Aboriginalwomen is important to understandingthe contextual framework of Aboriginalwomen’s needs. Dion Stout (1996) furtherelaborated by stating that Aboriginalwomen’s relatively poor health status canonly be understood in the context of arange of health determinants, includingsocioeconomic status, education andemployment conditions, social supportnetworks, physical environment, healthychild development and access to healthservices. The population health approachrecognizes that health is influenced by anumber of factors, or determinants. Onedeterminant is gender; others includeincome and social status, social supportnetworks, education, employment andworking conditions, social environments,physical environment, biologicaland genetic factors, personal healthpractices and coping skills, healthy childdevelopment, healthier services andculture (Health Canada, as quoted at p.2by Deiter & Otway, 2001).This review starts by looking at the historyof colonization and racism and how thishas impacted Aboriginal women’s healthacross and within all the thematic areascategorized in this review. This discussionsets the background for understandinghow Aboriginal women have beensubsequently treated unequally withinCanadian society. Issues regarding accessto and delivery of services, Aboriginalwomen’s conceptions and ideologiesabout the health system follow fromthere. As these are interdependent areas,the first three sections set the stage forvisualizing how Aboriginal women havebeen impacted in many areas, not just thehealth system. The analysis of these keythemes includes a general overview ofsome of the literature that focuses on theresiliency of Aboriginal women including alook at the role of culture and spirituality inhelping to empower and heal Aboriginalwomen and their efforts to assist in thehealing process, not just for themselves,but for their families and communitiesalso. Gaps in the research are addressedat the end of this report in the body ofthe conclusion. A summation of the gapsaddressed in each separate section is alsowoven into a separate section along withthe conclusion of this overview. Becauseof the breadth of research available, it wasnot possible to provide an in-depth analysisof all the material found in each of theseareas. As such, readers are encouragedto review the annotated bibliographicmaterial gathered for each section of thisreport.1. Colonization, Racismand Unequal Treatment ofAboriginal WomenBroadly, the literature under this headingfocuses on issues related to justice,jurisdictional confusion re funding ofhealth services, human rights violations,and discrimination against Aboriginalwomen. Unequal treatment alsoinvolves the interrelated issue of racismagainst Aboriginal women. The historyof colonization, treaty issues, residentialschools and the traditional roles ofwomen are also discussed. The impact ofcolonization and racism as highlighted inthis section are also evident in many of thethematic areas demarcated below.In traditional Aboriginal cultures, womenwere considered to be the givers oflife. Traditionally this role in the familyand within the community was highlyrespected (Anderson, 2000a, 2000b; andKulchyski, McCaskill & Newhouse, 1999).Womanhood in earlier Aboriginal cultures,Anderson (2000a) noted, was considereda sacred identity which existed within acomplex system of relations in societiesbased on balance between men andwomen (p.57). Early accounts written byexplorers describe First Nations societiesthat were egalitarian in structure (Brodribb,1984; and Rude & Deiter, 2004). Anderson(2000b) in particular, and other authorssuch as Baskin (1982), Armstrong (1996)Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing7

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing8and Annett (2001) have written extensivelyabout the balanced political powers onceenjoyed by Aboriginal women in theirrelationships with men in their communities.Today Aboriginal women do not enjoythe same stature or political powers asthey once did (Moore, 1992; Anderson,2000a; and Redbird, 1998). It was primarilythrough direct attacks on Aboriginalwomen’s powers and their core role withinfamily systems that the disempowermentof First Nations peoples was achieved(Armstrong, 1996). The prominenceand respect once accorded Aboriginalwomanhood has been significantlyreduced and has been systematicallyeradicated throughout the long historyand process of colonization (Brodribb,1984; Monture-Angus, 1995; Redbird, 1998;and Moffitt, 2004) as well as through theimposition of foreign laws (Monture-Angus,1995). Webster’s Dictionary (1993) definescolonization as “the act of bringing intosubjection or subjugation by colonialism,”and colonialism is defined as “theaggregate of various economic, politicaland social policies by which an imperialpower maintains or extends its control overareas or people.” Power and control playdominant roles in colonialism creatinghierarchy, which puts considerable stresson the health of people (Evans, Barer,& Marmor, 1994). Colonialization hasalso been considered as a stressor thatcaused social trauma or a “soul wound”to Aboriginal people (Walters & Simoni,2002). Colonialization has far-reachingeffects into the very essence of a person’sbeing, producing wounds of great intensityand depth (Moffat, 2004). Colonialismhas had a profoundly negative effecton Aboriginal communities in Canadaas a whole, affecting not only Aboriginalwomen’s relations with Aboriginal men,but has pushed many Aboriginal womento the margins of their own culturesand Canadian society as a whole(Jacobs, 2002). Colonialization resultedin stigmatization, marginalization, loss ofcultural identity, and a health status thatfalls below that of mainstream Canadians(Health Canada, 2002). Aboriginal womenin particular face greater risks of complexhealth issues in a variety of areas thanwomen generally do within the Canadianpopulation (Health Canada, 1998). Thisincreased risk is partly attributable toAboriginal women’s marginalized positionin society and due to rapid changes withintheir cultures because of early patriarchalcolonizing forces (Brodribb, 1984; Moffit,2004).A large body of literature now exists whichnoted that with the change of traditionallifestyle and living, the Aboriginal peoplelost their cultural identity and becamedependent on Western society (Berger,1988; and RCAP, 1996). Loss of culturalidentity has contributed to the poor healthof the Aboriginal people and madeway for substance abuse, sedentarylifestyles, and family violence that wasnot a part of the traditional life of theAboriginal person (RCAP, 1996). Residentialschooling silenced native ceremonyand practices, contributing to the loss ofAboriginal cultural identity (RCAP, 1996;Fournier & Crey, 1997; Bennett, 2003).The estrangement of children from theirfamilies, coupled with indoctrination by thechurch, was instrumental in dividing andfragmenting the culture. Children wereseparated from their families, forced todress in foreign clothes, and forbidden tospeak their language. Girls were forced tocut their hair and treat menstruation as anaffliction rather than as a natural, honoredoccurrence. Children raised in boardingschools grew up to become parents withinstitutional or in some cases non-existentparenting skills (Fournier & Crey, 1997; LawCommission of Canada, 2000). Someauthors (Annett, 2001 and Kimmelman,1982 for example) have referred to thisevidence as a history of genocide againstAboriginal peoples in Canada. Annett(2001), in summarizing a vast array oftestimony, documents and other evidence,establishes that churches, corporations,and the Canadian governments wereguilty of genocide, a charge, Arnettconcludes, that violates the United NationsConventions on Genocide, which Canada

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing10elected to Indian Act Chiefs and Councils. Itis mainly the Indian Act that has ensured thatproperty on reserves is held by men and notby women. Clearly the Indian Act, as a lawof the federal government, is discriminatoryagainst Indian women and requires changesthrough legislation or litigation.The long history of gender-baseddiscrimination in the Indian Act hashad severe and negative impactson First Nations women. Because ofthis, protection against gender-baseddiscrimination in any Indian Act reforminitiatives must continue to be secured,say First Nations women’s organizations(Nahanee, 1995; and Jacobs, 2002). Amore thorough review of key research ongender discrimination within Canadianlegislation with respect to Aboriginalwomen can be found in a vast arrayof research conducted in this area bycolleagues Cornet, 2001; McIvor, 1999,1996, 1995a, 1995b, and 1994; Monture-Angus, 1995a and 1995b; Moss, 1997;Nahanee, 1997, 1996, 1993 and 1992;Turpel-Lafond, 1997; and Canadian HumanRights, 1994; to name but a few.In fact, First Nations women mayfind themselves in many legal andsocial situations in which they may bediscriminated against on a combinationof grounds. Cornet (2001), for example,notes that the equality interests of FirstNations women, can, and often do,intersect and overlap in many situations.This means First Nations women can besubjected to stereotypes applied to FirstNations peoples generally, plus stereotypesapplied to women or stereotypes appliedto First Nations women in particular, andmany others such as stereotypes aboutwomen who are lone parents. Anotherexcellent example of where this is so is inRazack’s (1994) brilliant analysis aboutthe combined effects of racism, sexismand violence experienced by Aboriginalwomen when they report being sexuallyassaulted by Aboriginal men. In many suchcases before Canadian courts, Razacknotes that the violence, racism and sexismexperienced by Aboriginal women oftentake a backseat to discussions on culture(as if culture is the reason that Aboriginalmen rape). Razack indicates that genderbasedconcerns as expressed by Aboriginalwomen are not even considered for themost part because many of the judgmentsregarding sexual violence againstAboriginal women are gender biased withtoo much emphasis on culture and theinterpretation of culture’s role in acts ofviolence against racialized women such asAboriginal women.In 2000, Razack published anotherwonderful article on the combinedeffects of discrimination experiencedby Aboriginal women when she wroteabout the murder of Pamela George,an Aboriginal woman and a 28-year-oldmother of two, who was beaten to death.She often moonlighted as a prostitute tomake ends meet for her family. The judge,Razack notes, sparked a furor when heinstructed the jury that they could bear inmind, as part of their deliberations, thatPamela George was a prostitute. The issueof consent was important in determiningwhether the young men should beconvicted of manslaughter rather thanfirst-degree murder. The judge also statedthat “it would be dangerous to convictthe men on the murder charge.” One ofthe men hid in the trunk of the car whenthey picked Pamela George up, so thatshe would not know that there were twoof them. George never agreed to be withboth men. She struggled to get away fromthem but they forced her to perform oralsex on them. When she refused and foughtback with them, she was beaten so badlythat her family could not open the casketfor her funeral (Jacobs, 2002). The factthat she was a prostitute was a mitigatingfactor that justified and diminished theculpability of the two men in her death.The two men in that case were convictedof manslaughter and sentenced to sixand a half years in prison. The Aboriginalcommunity believed that at the veryleast the two men should have receivedsecond-degree murder and the fact thatshe was a prostitute should have hadno bearing on the decision. Both men

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing12uncommon. Rather it was far too commonto have women disappear and be killedwithout any investigation by the policein numerous jurisdictions across Canada(Jacob, 2002; Amnesty International, 2004).Other areas of unequal treatment ofAboriginal women addressed within theexisting literature include the experiencesof Aboriginal women in the prison system(Monture-Angus, 1992, 1999; Nahanee,1995; and Sangster, 1999); anthropological/feminist perceptions by non-Aboriginalwomen (Moreton-Robinson, 1998); sexualharassment and adjudication of suchincidents in the workplace (Nelson, 1991);the normalization of violence againstAboriginal mothers and the creation ofadditional obstacles for women wantingchild custody and access rights to theirchildren (Nipshank, 2005); and within theCanadian child welfare systems (Kline,1992, 1993; Fiske 1993). An Indigenousperspective on gender oppression withinAboriginal societies was also exploredby Ouellette (2002) in The Fourth World:An Indigenous Perspective on Feminismand Aboriginal Women’s Activism. Acontemporary examination of Aboriginalwomen’s attempts to reconstruct theiridentity and reclaim their womanhoodwas addressed in A Recognition of Being:Reconstructing Native Womanhood by KimAnderson (2000). Anderson joined forceswith Lawrence in 2003 and produced anexcellent array of articles that focus onthe strength of women and women’s rolein ensuring cultural integrity and survivaltoday.While the literature relied upon in thissection has highlighted primarily theexperience of First Nations women, thisdoes not mean that other Aboriginalwomen have not suffered the same fate.In fact, Inuit and Métis women also have allat one time enjoyed a balanced existencewithin their own communities and culturesof origin. The violence perpetrated againstother Aboriginal women by their own men,communities and Canadian society atlarge cannot or cares not to distinguishor recognize the differences betweendifferent Aboriginal groups within Canada.Monture-Angus aptly put this issue thisway in her examination of feminism andAboriginal women:To begin, the term “Aboriginal” refers tothree distinct post-contact groups: Indian,Inuit and Métis. Each has its own identity,history and gender-specific realities, forboth women and men. Given the diversitybetween communities and nations,defining a single Aboriginal women’sfeminist perspective is neither possible norproductive. To suggest there is a singlewomen’s movement is ludicrous. Similarly,there is not a single Aboriginal women’sperspective or movement. Aboriginalwomen are women of many differentnations and many different experiences(Monture-Angus 1995, p.169).It is important to acknowledge thatthere is a diversity of experiences amongAboriginal women and peoples acrossNorth America (Rude & Deiter, 2004). Amore complete examination of violenceagainst all Aboriginal women is discussed inPart 7 later on in this report.A numerical and alphabetical list ofadditional resources under this thematictopic can be found in the followingsection, which includes annotations in mostcases.Bibliography of Resources1. Abbott, K. E. (2003). Urban AboriginalWomen in British Columbia and the Impacts ofthe Matrimonial Real Property Regime. Ottawa,ON: Indian and Northern Affairs Canada.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/British Columbia/Canada/womenAbstract: This report was commissionedby Indian and Northern Affairs Canada inDecember 2001. The primary objective ofthis research was to qualitatively documentthe contextual experiences and outcomesfor Aboriginal women and their children whohad to leave their reserve homes upon maritalbreakdown. A second and equally importantaspect of this research was to suggest a newparadigm shift away from one that now focuseson the associated legal risks of changing thecurrent matrimonial real property regime.(Adapted from the Executive Summary)

2. Absolon, K., Herbert, E., & MacDonald,K. (1996). Aboriginal Women and TreatiesProject. Victoria: Ministry of Women’s Equality.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Treaties3. Accoose, J. (1995). Iskwewak: Kah’KiYaw Ni Wahkomakanak: Neither Indian PrincessNor Easy Squaw. Toronto, ON: Woman’s Press.Keywords: Racism/Sexism/Aboriginal Women/ImagesAbstract: The extent to which non-Aboriginalliterature pervades Canadian life is discussedwithin the contexts of racism and sexism. Inparticular, stereotypical images of Indigenouswomen are deconstructed and readersare called upon to question their ownepistemologies. The powerful relationshipbetween text and reader is highlighted througha social history of Western-assigned images ofAboriginal women. The connection betweenlanguage and memory, feeling and beingis made evident and both Aboriginal andnon-Indigenous readers are encouraged tochallenge the inequalities offered by Euro-Canadian literature and society. The criticalreading strategies employed by Acoose canusefully be applied to a discursive analysis ofpolicy.4. Amnesty International (2004).Stolen Sisters: A Human Rights Response toDiscrimination and Violence against IndigenousWomen in Canada. Ottawa, ON: AmnestyInternational.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Human Rights/Social Justice and Equity/Violence AgainstWomenAbstract: Looks at the factors that havecontributed to a heightened risk of violenceagainst Indigenous women in Canadiancities, including the social and economicmarginalization of Aboriginal women, Examinesthe role of discrimination in acts of violencecarried out against Indigenous women inCanadian towns and cities (CWHN Abstract).5. Anderson, K. (1991). Chain Her by OneFoot: The Subjugation of Native Women inSeventeenth-Century New France. New York:Routledge Inc.Keywords: History/Native women/womenAbstract: History of Wyandot women, marriage,sex roles, and Christianity in the 17th Century.6. Anderson, K. (1985). CommodityExchange and Subordination: Montagnais-Naskapi and Huron Women. Journal of Womenin Culture and Society, 11, 48-62.Keywords: Huron Women/Economics7. Anderson, K. (2000). A Recognition ofBeing: Reconstructing Native Womanhood.Toronto: Sumach Press.Keywords: Native women/IdentityAbstract: Is there a special role for Nativewomen? Author Kim Anderson, herself a Cree-Métis woman, asserts that Native womanhood“is not about simply playing certain roles, oradopting a preset identity; rather... it is anongoing exercise” in finding the balancebetween one’s individuality, place in a family,the broader community and nation, and thespiritual world. Anderson explores how theNative female identity has been dismantledover the years through colonization, abuse anddisrespect, both within and outside the Nativecommunity. She shows how Native women arereclaiming their cultural traditions and creatingpositive images of themselves true to theirheritage.8. Anderson, K. (2000). The Powerful Historyof Native Women. Herizons, 14, 15-29.Keywords: History/Native WomenAbstract: Not available9. Anderson, K. (1997). A Recognition ofBeing: Exploring Native Female Identity. Thesis(M.A.) -- University of Toronto.Keywords: Gender/Gender Equity/NativeWomen/WorkAbstract: This thesis explores the subject ofNative female identity through interviews withtwelve Native women in the Toronto area. Theintent is to present a positive vision of Nativewomanhood in response to all the negativeimages that have plagued Native femaleidentity since contact with the Europeans.To build this vision, the author sought outexemplary Native women and explored thefollowing questions with them: How haveNative women resisted negative definitions ofidentity? How have they constructed positivealternatives? What is the understanding ofNative womanhood that emerges? How doesthis influence the conduct of Native womenin their communities? Traditions of genderequity in Native societies, and strategies ofresistance to racist and sexist definitions ofNative womanhood are presented as part ofa literature review. The author approachesthe work from a personal standpoint; that of aNative woman seeking information about heridentity (Author Abstract).10. Angmarlik Pauloosie et al. (1999). In theWords of Elders: Aboriginal Cultures in Transition.Toronto: University of Toronto Press.Keywords: Canada/Culture/Education/FirstNations/Health/History/Justice/Medicine/SocialConditions/WorkAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing13

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing14Abstract: In the Words of Elders: AboriginalCultures in Transition is a collection of interviewswith 16 Elders and traditional teachers. TheNative Studies Department at Trent Universityresponded to the need for a text that providedan overview of First Nations teachings fromthe perspective of the Elders. Traditionalteachers representing a variety of traditions andculture areas of Canada were selected andinterviewed. The result is a compelling collectionof first person narratives that address a range oftopics. The text contains a wealth of knowledgefrom a generation of respected Elders andtraditional teachers. While each life story andexperience is different, the collection allowsthe reader to glimpse and compare the worldview and traditions of the Passamaquoddy,Micmac, Seneca, Mohawk, Odawa, Ojibwe,Innu, Mushkegowuk Cree, Inuit, Dakota Sioux,Saulteaux, Slavey, Dogrib, Shayshas, andMusqueam. The interviewers spent severaldays during 1993-1997 interviewing variousElders at home. Topics covered include: lifehistory, creation stories, important aspects ofNative culture, using traditions today, traditionaldwellings, Elders, humour, work, grieving,ceremonies, time, relation between languageand culture, traditional medicines and foods,education, life on the land, traditional justice,attaining balance, relations with non-Natives,dreams and prophecies. This exceptionalcollection proves that collaboration betweenacademics and Elders is possible and the resultcan benefit all people.11. Annett, R. K. D. (2001). Hidden fromHistory: The Canadian Holocaust -- The UntoldStory of the Genocide of Aboriginal Peoples byChurch and State in Canada. A Summary of anOngoing, Independent Inquiry into CanadianNative “Residential Schools” and their Legacy.Port Alberni, BC: The Truth Commission intoGenocide in Canada.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/AboriginalWomen/Canada/Government/History/womenAbstract: This report is the child of a six-yearindependent investigation into the hiddenhistory of genocide against Aboriginal peoplesin Canada. It summarizes the testimonies,documents and other evidence that provesthat Canadian churches, corporations, andthe government are guilty of intentionalgenocide, in violation of the United NationsConvention on Genocide, which Canadaratified in 1952, and under which it is bound byinternational law. This report is a collaborativeeffort of nearly thirty people. And yet some of itsauthors must remain anonymous, particularly itsAboriginal contributors, whose lives have beenthreatened and who have been assaulted,denied jobs and evicted from their homes onIndian reserves because of their involvementin this investigation. Among its rich discussion, itdiscusses the treatment of Aboriginal women,sterilization and abortions.12. Armstrong, J. (1996). Invocation: TheReal Power of Aboriginal Women. In C. Miller& P. Chuchryk (Eds.), Women of First Nations:Power, Wisdom, and Strength. Winnipeg, MB:University of Manitoba Press.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Culture/FirstNationsAbstract: What is not as well known is that theinfluences of a patriarchal and imperialisticculture upon a people whose systems werefundamentally co-operative units has been notonly devastating, but also dehumanizing to adegree that is unimaginable. It was through theattack on the power of Aboriginal woman thatthe disempowerment of First Nations peopleswas achieved, in a dehumanizing process thatis one of the cruelest on the face of this earth.In the attack on the core family system and onthe role of Aboriginal woman, the disintegrationof First Nations peoples towards genocide wasachieved.13. Arnott, J. (1995). Breasting the Waves:On Writing and Healing. Vancouver, BC: PressGang Publishers.Keywords: Healing/Métis Women/ Racism/Social Conditions/Spirituality and A Sense ofPurposeAbstract: Tapping her creative energy asmother, writer, workshop facilitator; theauthor writes about celebrating friendshipas a potent path to healing; acknowledgingthe ‘bodymind’ pain of racism and societaldenial of racism; and finding the sacred withinourselves by reclaiming women’s rituals.14. Arruda, A. F. (2005). Rural Youth inTransition: Growing up in Williams Lake, BritishColumbia, 1945-1975. Thesis (Ph.D.) -- Universityof British Columbia, 2000.Keywords: British Columbia/ Canada/ Culture/Ethnicity/Gender/History/Work/YouthAbstract: Histories of childhood and youth havegenerally focused upon social policy towardyoung people. This dissertation chroniclesthe actual experiences of youth growing upin and around Williams Lake in the Cariboo-Chilcotin region of British Columbia, a “western”community surrounded by open spaces,ranches, and Aboriginal reservations. WilliamsLake underwent economic, demographic,spatial as well as social transformation in thefirst three decades following the SecondWorld War. Forty-three oral interviews with twosets of subjects who were adolescents in thestudy area furnished the bulk of the primaryevidence. Most of the first “generation” wereborn in the Great Depression and were teenssometime between 1945 and 1955. The secondgenerations are “baby-boomers” born between1947 and 1962 who were teens between 1965and 1975. These joint narrative details select

aspects of their lives at school, at paid andunpaid labour, with friends, and at leisure.It suggests changes and continuities in theexperience of local youth between 1945 and1975. First generation non-Aboriginal subjectsgrew up with a somewhat coherent peer groupalbeit with relatively little physical and socialcontact with Aboriginal youth. Gendereddomestic labour around home and propertyhoned work skills and dispositions from an earlyage. The emergence of local sawmills greatlyexpanded work options for males but notfemales. Males also enjoyed comparativelymore spatial and temporal freedom throughouttheir youth. Second generation subjects grewup in a context of greater urbanization andaccess to mass culture. The merger of regionalyouth in the high school along with naturalpopulation growth, demographic changeincluding the enrollment of first Aboriginaland then Indo-Canadian youth encouragedfactions as well as cultural gulfs among youthin the school and community. Their leisurewas comparatively less divided, at least onthe basis of gender, as many non-Aboriginalparents eased traditional restrictions upondaughters. With notable exceptions thisgeneration contributed less labour to theirhousehold and directed part- and full-timeearnings into satisfying their own personalinterests. The author suggests the pattern ofyouths’ recreational use of hinterlands duringthe period reflects common practice in manyCanadian communities located in similar ruraland isolated settings. He illustrates how factorssuch as family affluence and circumstances,gender, “race” and ethnicity continued tomediate the experience of growing up in thispost-war period. He concludes many morelocal accounts of the experiences of youthare needed before any attempt is made at aninclusive national historical synthesis of growingup in Canada after the Second World War(Author Abstract).15. Barman, J. (1998). Taming AboriginalSexuality: Gender, Power, and Race in BritishColumbia, 1850 - 1900. BC Studies: The BritishColumbia Quarterly, 115/116.Keywords: British Columbia/ Gender/ Sexuality/Aboriginal Women/Aboriginal Men16. Bear, N. A. (1994). Colonialism and theStruggle for Liberation: The Experience of theMaliseet Women. University of New BrunswickLaw Journal, 43, 223-239.Keywords: Colonization/Aboriginal Women17. Berry, D. S. (1998). ContextualizingInternational Women’s Rights: CanadianFeminism, Race and Culture. In Mcglynn (Ed.),Legal Feminisms: Feminisms: Theory and Practice(pp. 119-134). Aldershot: Dartmouth PublishingCo. Ltd. & Ashgate Publishing Ltd.Culture/Human Rights/Native women/ womenAbstract: One problem highlighted by feministsis that of clashes between cultures andinternational human rights, or more specifically,traditional cultures and international women’srights. This article examines this issue by lookingat the conflicts between the rights of Aboriginalwomen, Aboriginal communities and the widerCanadian state. The first part of this articlehighlights some of the basic problems involvedin using international law for feminist strategies.The second part sets out three potential feministremedies to these problems, and the thirdpart illustrates these issues by examining theLovelace and Native Women’s Association ofCanada (NWAC) cases. In the final part, aninternational feminist analysis is applied to thesecases and their underlying conflicts, whereit is argued that there are several potentialbridges between what appear to be twoincommensurable divides.18. Bourgeault, R. (1989). Race, Class andGender: Colonial Domination of Indian Women.In Race, Class, Gender: Bonds and Barriers.Toronto, ON: Between the Lines.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Gender/ Race/Class19. Boyd, L. (1996). Spirit Moves: The Storyof Six Generations of Native Women. Novato,California: New World Library.Keywords: History/Métis Women/SocialConditionsAbstract: In this autobiographical memoir,Boyd, a Cree/Blackfoot Métis American whoworks in the development and production ofprogramming for television and film, comesto terms with her childhood by portraying sixgenerations of her family. Her evocative storiesabout the lives of her great-grandmother,Margaret; her grandmother, Anne; and hermother, Silversong, are poetic and thoughtprovoking.“It would not be an overstatementto say I was often in awe of them,” the authorwrites, “when I considered the courage,determination, and spirit that not only enabledthem to survive . . . but to go that one stepfurther.” Boyd tells about prejudice againstNative Americans, physical abuse, and thecultural destruction of her people. Whileresearching this work, she discovered that bothher grandmother and mother had sworn vowsof silence to protect her. Her stories about theendurance of these women give readers astrong model of a family determined to survive(Copyright 1996 Reed Business Information, Inc.).20. Boyd, S. B. (1997). Challenging thePublic/Private Divide: Feminism, Law, and PublicPolicy. Toronto; Buffalo and London: University ofToronto Press.Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and HealingKeywords: Aboriginal Women/Canada/Keywords: Aboriginal Women/British Columbia/15

women’s descriptions of “invalidating” and“affirming” encounters. These narrativesrevealed that women’s encounters wereshaped by racism, discrimination, and structuralinequities that continue to marginalize anddisadvantage First Nations women. Thewomen’s health care experiences havehistorical, political, and economic significanceand are reflective of wider postcolonial relationsthat shape their everyday lives.25. Brunen, L. (2000). Aboriginal Womenwith Addictions: A Discussion Paper on TripleMarginalization in the Health Care System.Prince George, B.C.: Northern Secretariat of theBC Centre of Excellence for Women’s Health.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequateIncome and Sustainable Economies/BritishColumbia/Canada/First Nations/ Health/ HealthCare/Racism/Safety and Security/ Women’sHealth/Women with AddictionsAbstract: This paper is based on the author’spracticum placement at the NorthernSecretariat of the BC Centre of Excellence forWomen’s Health. Under the supervision of theNorthern Secretariat Coordinator, the author(1) defined and developed a viable researchquestion in women’s health; (2) identifiedand assessed the relevant literature; and (3)provided recommendations for further research.The author synthesized the material to exploreracism in health care with a primary focus onthe ways in which First Nations women whomisuse substances are triply marginalized inthe health care system and the implications forthese women.26. Buchan, S. & Johnson, I. (1998).Culture, Gender, Power: ‘Revisioning’ NorthernEducation. Canadian Woman Studies, 17, 47.Keywords: Culture/Education/GenderAbstract: Historically, the exercise of power bythe dominant group has meant the exclusionof First Nations people from participation inpublic schools and segregation into residentialinstitutions. The purpose of these institutions wasto force the assimilation of First Nations childreninto non-Native culture and society. WhileAboriginal cultures persisted in spite of suchpractices, their negative impact in the Northand elsewhere has been well documented(King; Bull). Many students who attendedresidential schools “... suffered serious crises intheir personal and cultural identities as a resultof their residential school experience” (Kingquoted in [Chambers] 50). While separateinstitutions are no longer the norm, exclusionand segregation have continued throughprivileging western, print-based knowledgeover the oral traditions which are central toFirst Nations cultures, and the exclusion ormarginalization of First Nations culture fromacademic content and process. TraditionalFirst Nations teachers, most often the Elderswho are carriers of knowledge, are usuallynot viewed as “qualified” because they donot hold recognized academic degrees. Aswell, attempts to create a more “inclusive”environment have generally resulted inteaching about the culture, rather thanteaching from within the culture (Kawagley andBarnhardt). This has filled some of the “gaps andsilences” ([Kevin Keefe]), but has not addressedpower imbalances in educational institutions.It is important to acknowledge that there aresignificant differences between the experiencesof women and First Nations people (as groups)in their encounters with educational institutions.However, there are significant parallels. Inboth cases, the educational settings reflect adominant culture that is, in some sense, “alien”to both women and First Nations people. Whatis taught and how it is taught reflect dominantparadigms, which have generally failed totake the different perceptions, knowledge,and learning styles of women and First Nationspeople into account (Journal Abstract).27. Buchan, S. (1999). Counting Us In: AStatistical Profile of Yukon Women. Yukon: YukonWomen’s Directorate.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Critical LearningOpportunities/Health Profiles/ Racism/YouthAbstract: Profiles women in the Yukon as well asprovides comparative information on the statusof Aboriginal women within the Yukon.28. Canada & Employment andImmigration Canada (Commission) (1981).Native Women - Labour Force Development.Ottawa: Employment and Immigration.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/EmploymentAbstract: This is the first report to the Ministerof Employment and Immigration from thejoint Canada Employment and ImmigrationCommission/Native Women’s Association ofCanada Working Group on Native Women’sEmployment. In January 1981, the NativeWomen’s Association of Canada ... invitedthe Minister of Employment and Immigrationto meet with their Board of Directors to discussNative women’s employment needs andconcerns about the Canada Employment andImmigration Commission’s delivery of programsand services. As a result of that meeting, theMinister proposed, and NWAC agreed to, thestriking of a joint NWAC/CEIC Working Groupto further investigate the specific employmentissues affecting Native women and to proposepossible solutions to be pursued by both theCommission and the Association. ... the WorkingGroup remained aware that the employmentcircumstances of Native women will requirenot only immediate remedial efforts but alsoa longer term investment of support servicesand intensified programming if significantprogress is to be made in reducing the socialand economic inequalities which exist forAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing17

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing18this group. This first report, therefore, sets outonly an initial slate of short- and longer termrecommendations which can assist in theachievement of this objective.29. Canada West Foundation (2000).Crossroads 2000. A Women’s Sharing Circle:Exploring Opportunities and Challenges FacingUrban Aboriginal Youth. A Background Paper.Calgary, AB: The Canada West Foundation.Keywords: Canada/Culture/History/YouthAbstract: This report was compiled by a reviewof available literature, statistics and researchstudies. This background report aims to providethe reader with a broad overview of: (1) Thehistorical relationship between Aboriginal andnon-Aboriginal peoples; (2) Aboriginal culture inCanada; (3) Past and present policies relatingto Aboriginal populations; and (4) Presentdayrealities, with particular attention to issuesthat challenge urban Aboriginal people. Dueto its brevity, the discussion serves primarily tohighlight key themes in Canadian Aboriginalhistory and policy. While this paper focuses onAboriginal people, it does not attempt to coverthe specific history or lives of Métis people.30. Canadian Feminist Alliance forInternational Action (2003). Canada’s Failure toAct: Women’s Inequality Deepens. Ottawa, ON:The Feminist Alliance for International Action.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequatePower/Canada/Canadian Women/ Education/Health/Health Care/ Poverty/ Social Justice andEquity/women/WorkAbstract: This report was a collaborative effortbetween The Feminist Alliance for InternationalAction (FAFIA) and many other organizationsand individuals who support the work of theFAFIA and believe in the full development andadvancement of Canadian women. The reportfocuses on Canada’s compliance with theUnited Nations Convention on the Eliminationof All Forms of Discrimination against Women.FAFIA’s Submission to the United NationsCommittee on the Elimination of DiscriminationAgainst Women on the Occasion of theCommittee’s Review of Canada’s 5th Reporton January 23, 2003. The report focuses onvarious aspects of Convention articles and looksspecifically at equality for Aboriginal women ina number of different areas (poverty, violence,education, participation in political and publiclife, employment access to health care andequality before the law, in marriage and familylaw).31. Canadian Human Rights Commission(1994). Annual Report 1993. Ottawa, ON:Canadian Human Rights Commission.Keywords: Bill C-31/Women’s RightsAbstract: In its annual report, the Commissiondiscusses discrimination against Aboriginalwomen in the context of Bill C-31. In short,while CHRC applauds the objectives of C-31,it deplores the fact that some women haveencountered such deep-seated resistance totheir reintegration into their home communities.This in turn leads the Commission to highlight theimportance of ensuring adequate protectionof equality rights within the context of selfgovernmentnegotiations (Dion Stout, 1997).32. Carter, S. (1997). In Sharp Relief:Representations of Aboriginal Women inthe Colonial Imagination. In S. Carter (Ed.),Capturing Women: The Manipulation of CulturalImagery in Canada’s Prairie West (pp. 158-193).Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Canada/ Images33. Cassidy, B., Lord, R., & Mandell, N.(1995). Silenced and Forgotten Women: Race,Poverty and Disability. In N. Mandell (Ed.),Feminist Issues: Race, Class, and Sexuality (pp.26-64). Scarborough, ON: Prentice Hall CanadaInc.Keywords: Canada/Disabilities/Poverty/FirstNations WomenAbstract: In this chapter the authors discussthe social patterns and processes by whichdifferently located women are marginalizedwithin feminism. A focus is provided on FirstNations women, African-Canadian women,immigrant women, women with disabilities, andpoor women.34. Chapman, C. (1991). Teaching andTransformation: A Native Family ViolenceTraining Program. Canadian Women Studies, 12,92-94.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Family Violence/Canadian Women/ Education/ History/HealingAbstract: The Vancouver Native EducationCentre offered a one-year Native Family andCommunity Counselling Program which trainedAboriginal adults to be entry-level familyviolence workers. The course was designedto balance skill development and personalgrowth and transformation. The article describesthe program, discusses the areas of growthand describes the Talking Circle, one of themajor tools of transformation. The programwas developed largely because many of thestudents were having difficulty completing theprogram because of their personal historiesor current situations of abuse. The importantcultural value of this program was its holisticapproach to dealing with one’s healing.35. Clatworthy, S. J., Canada, & Task Forceon Labour Market Development (1981). IssuesConcerning the Role of Native Women in theWinnipeg Labour Market. Ottawa: Supply andServices.

Keywords: Canada/Winnipeg/Research/NativeWomenAbstract: In ... earlier reports, the authorinvestigated several dimensions of thedemographic structure, employment patternsand labour force activity of Winnipeg’sNative population ... Among other things, thisprior research found employment problemsto be most acute among Native women,suggesting that this sub-group in particular besingled out as a priority special need groupfor the purpose of employment programmingdevelopment. The present study seeks toprovide some additional information related tothe development of employment strategies forNative women by: i) reviewing and synthesizingthe results of ... earlier research as they relateto the present and potential role of Nativewomen in the labour market; and ii) outliningbriefly some of the major constraints or barrierswhich presently retard the participation andperformance of Native women in the labourmarket. ... A brief summary and implicationsof the study’s findings for policy and programdevelopment conclude the report.36. Culhane, D. (2003). Their Spirits Livewithin Us. American Indian Quarterly, 27, 593-608.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequatePower/British Columbia/ Canada/Culture/Social Justice and EquityAbstract: This article describes the constructionof the invisibility of Aboriginal people inCanadian culture, and the 2001 Valentine’sDay Women’s Memorial March that symbolizedthe resistance of Aboriginal women to theacts of invisibility. Scenes at Main and Hastingsstreets in Downtown Eastside in Vancouver,British Columbia during the 2001 Valentine’sDay Women’s Memorial March; Factors whichinfluenced the struggle of Aboriginal womenfor visibility and for self-representation in publicculture; Issues faced by Aboriginal women inDowntown Eastside.37. Desjarlais, C. (2002). From the Past(1876) to the Present (2000): An Analysis ofBand Membership among the Plains Cree ofSaskatchewan. Thesis (M.A.) -- University ofRegina, 2001.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/Bill C-31/IdentityAbstract: For Plains Cree people, bandmembership has undergone many changesfrom pre-treaty days to the present. Prior to theIndian Act of 1876, Plains Cree determined theirown band membership. The Indian Act placedthe authority to decide band membership inthe hands of the Superintendent General ofIndian Affairs. Since the Amendment to theIndian Act in 1985 known as Bill C-31, PlainsCree people once again have the opportunityto determine their own band membership andhave regained a degree of freedom. This studyexamines traditional aspects of membershipamong Plains Indians in Saskatchewan,including organization of band societies,traditional criteria for band membership,and the influence of political leadership andconflict in membership. It then examines bandmembership under the Indian Act and theinfluence of recent amendments to the IndianAct regarding reinstatement of Indian statusand band membership. Four band membershipcodes in Saskatchewan are examined.Interviews with reinstated status Indians wereconducted to determine their experiences inthe application of membership codes in theirreserve communities (Author Abstract).38. Desmarais, D. A. (1998). The NativeWomen’s Association of Canada’s Struggleto Secure Gender Equality Rights within theCanadian Constitution. Thesis (M.A.) -- TheUniversity of Regina, 1998.Keywords: Canada/ Gender/Government/Native WomenAbstract: This thesis examines the evolution ofthe Native Women’s Association of Canadaas they embraced the challenge to secureAboriginal rights for all First Nations women inCanada’s Constitution. Between 1978 and 1995,the Native Women’s Association vigorouslypursued what they believed was their right toparticipate in constitutional negotiations asequal partners. They did not acknowledgepresent- day First Nations political organizationsas being true First Nations governing bodies.Thousands of Canadian First Nations womenhave been denied their rights as Aboriginalpersons due to the Indian Act and aconsequence of that legislation has meant thatFirst Nations women have been marginalizedin Canadian society. Present- day First Nationspolitical governing bodies are a product of thatlegislation and many political leaders soughtto legitimize denial of Aboriginal rights to FirstNations women citing that true self-governmentmeant the right to determine membership.The Native Women’s Association of Canadachose to challenge that premise using the verypolitical tools which denied their right to nowreassert them. This thesis explores that struggleby examining the approach and position takenby both the national political organizations andthe Native Women’s Association of Canada,concluding that true self-government doesmean determination of membership but thatthe women’s rights to equality was of primaryimportance.39. Deveaux, M. (2000). ConflictingEqualities? Cultural Group Rights and SexEquality. Political Studies, 48, 522-539.Keywords: Adequate Human Services andSocial Safety Net/Life-Sustaining Values, Moralsand EthicsAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing19

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing20Abstract: This article explores the tensions withinmulti-culturalist theory between the aspirationto promote cultural recognition and the needto promote and protect women’s concernwith issues of sex and gender inequality. Thearticle assesses the three main approaches tothe reconciliation of sexual equality and grouprights; according priority to the traditional valuesand practices of cultural groups; acceptingcollective and cultural rights but within aframework of international human rights; andfinally, the acceptance of group rights subjectto respect for individual rights and freedoms.By focusing on the experience of Aboriginalwomen activists in Canadian politics and theirstruggle to preserve constitutional sex equality,this article argues that only the third approachprovides adequate safeguards for women intheir public and private roles.40. Doxtator, D. (2005). What Happenedto the Iroquois Clans?: A Study of Clans inThree Nineteenth Century RotinonhsyonniCommunities. Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University ofWestern Ontario, 1997.Keywords: Canada/Government/womenAbstract: The 19thcentury reserve systemwhich limited Rotinonhsyonni (Iroquois) accessto land had a great impact on land-basedRotinonhsyonni social institutions such as clans.Using the Rotinonhsyonni metaphor of twocomplementary sides, this dissertation discussestwo different types of consolidation which tookplace within 19th century communities: theconsolidation of the traditional “forest-” and“clearing-” based economies and leaderships;and the associated consolidation of clan landswithin each reserve. I examine three differentcase studies: in Ontario, Tyendinaga, a smallsingle-nation loyalist Mohawk community thatadopted an elected council, and Six Nations,a multinational community that adapted theConfederacy council to local government,and in New York State, Tonawanda, a smallconservative Seneca community that adaptedits clan village council to the reserve system. Thecomparative discussion focuses on changes inland administration, community government,community membership and the impact ofclan changes on women. Each communityreacted to the loss of land in the 19th centuryin a different way depending upon culturalpredispositions, religious affiliations, historicalexperience, the differing pressures of theexternal Euro-North American political context,and the Indigenous/loyalist relationship to theirlands. This dissertation provides an explanationfor the changes in 19th century clans thatfocuses on the paramount importance ofspace, place, accumulative change and thecomplementarity and balance of the “twosides” in Rotinonhsyonni thought. Accessingsources ranging from written and oral records,traditional narratives and anthropologicalaccounts and Indian Affairs documents, Iargue that spatial and ecological changesin land, and in particular the consolidationof the forest and clearing land bases alongwith their separate leaderships are essential tounderstanding “what happened to the clans” inthe 19th century (Author Abstract).41. Emberley, J. V. (2001). The BourgeoisFamily, Aboriginal Women, and ColonialGovernance in Canada: A Study in FeministHistorical and Cultural Materialism. Signs: Journalof Women in Culture and Society, 27, 59-88.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequatePower/Canada/CultureAbstract: This article focuses on the roleof English bourgeois family in the colonialgovernance in Canada. Concept ofaboriginality. In addition, details on the feministtheory of historic cultural materialism anddisentitlement of Aboriginal women frompolitical decision making practices are alsodiscussed in detail.42. Farrell Racette, S. (2001). Sex, Fear,Women, Travel and Work: Five Triggers ofEurocentric Negativity. In J. Oakes, R. Riewe,B. Chisholm, & M. Bennett (Eds.), Pushing theMargins: Native and Northern Studies (pp. 144-159). Winnipeg, MB: Native Studies Press.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Children/FetalAlcohol Syndrome/Effects/First Nations/Pregnancy/WorkAbstract: Consistent throughout colonialnarratives is an unquestioning acceptance ofthe inherent superiority of the writer and the“rightness” and inevitability of colonization.The purpose of this article is to apply thepostcolonial critique of such discourse as itdescribes the Métis, Saulteaux and other groupswhose everyday lives intersected with theauthors’ colonial experiences.43. Fast, P. A. (1998). Gwich’in women,Gwich’in Healing: Responses of NorthernAthabascans to Postcolonial Hegemonies. Thesis(Ph.D.) - Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.,1998.Keywords: Native Americans/ Children/ Work/Government/Healing/Men/WomenAbstract: This study is about Alaskan Gwich’inAthabascans, Native Americans who grow up,make a living, and raise children in an addictivesociety. The work analyzes three interrelatedissues: (1) positioning of women in Gwich’insociety, (2) Gwich’in decision making withrespect toward adaptation under 20th centurycomplex constraints, and (3) local economy,sharing semiotics in context of economicand bureaucratic reproduction of addictiveprocesses. The first explores some of thestruggles and strategies of women in Gwich’in

territory with respect to addiction and physicalexploitation. Their situations are compoundedby inexplicit barriers between women andpositions of leadership, as well as by women’sroles in parenting. The second part exploresGwich’in habits of what they term consensusin conflict with and in support of Gwich’innotions of individualist behavior. Tensionscaused by this paradox are accentuated inleadership roles which laud simultaneously thetraditions of Gwich’in warriors and traditionalGwich’in concepts of humility: two disparatemodes which work together, but at greatpersonal cost to Gwich’in leaders. The thirdcentral issue identifies economic domination ofGwich’in society through many subtle forms ofbureaucratic and addictive abuse, including itsrepercussions within local economy in the formof local businesses and institutional programssponsored by the government which nurtureor demand furthering of addictions. ManyGwich’in leaders are prey to these addictiveprocesses, although they are also advocates ofchange. Healing is an integral metaphor usedby both Gwich’in men and women to expressa common goal: escape from dependencyof all sorts, from economic exploitation tophysical addiction. Working across and withinthe healing trope is a pervasive sense of socialand economic perseverance which to someemerges as closure and to others as consensus.Throughout Gwich’in country rhetoric aboutsocial pathologies and social healing occursin financial reports, political campaigns, andwomen’s public and domestic discourse.44. Fiske, J.-A. (1993). Child of the State,Mother of the Nation: Aboriginal Women andthe Ideology of Motherhood. (12 ed.) (vol. 1).Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Culture/ women45. Flaherty, M. (1994). Inuit Women:Equality and Leadership (Excerpts from MarthaFlaherty’s Speech at Pauktuutit’s 1994 AnnualGeneral Meeting). Canadian Woman Studies,14, 6.Keywords: Culture/Inuit Women/WorkAbstract: The traditional clothing producedby Inuit women is unique in the world. It isa visible statement of the creativity andpracticality of Inuit women. Women haveclothed their families for centuries, not onlykeeping their loved ones warm but doingso with skill and beauty. Today, Inuit womencontinue to produce beautiful clothing. Thisis an economic activity which women canundertake from their homes, providing goodsfor their family or selling the products of theirlabour for money. We are proud of the skills ofInuit women clothing producers, artists, andcraftswomen, and we believe that their workshould be included in definitions of communityeconomic development. We sometimes hearcomplaints that the solutions we advocate aretoo southern, too Qallunaat [non-Inuit]-oriented,or that they undermine Inuit culture. Culturallybased solutions are important and the facilitiesand services we need to address the problemsfacing Inuit communities must be rooted inour culture and traditions. Equally importantis the need to develop solutions which work.When we support day care, we are not justadvocating the creation of southern-type childcare facilities; we are talking about the creationof a northern child care system. The world ischanging, and our culture and lifestyles havechanged in order to meet the challenges theworld presents us with. More and more Inuitmothers are working outside the home so thereis a real need for safe, reliable, affordable childcare. We have examples of day care centresin the North which reflect the best of Inuit andsouthern life, which operate in both Inuktitutand English, and provide children with thecare they need while their parents are at work.Finally, I would like to speak about leadership.Two years ago, in Kuujjuuak, delegates toPauktuutit’s 1992 annual meeting passed aresolution directing us to develop a “code ofconduct” for Inuit leaders. Following the annualgeneral meeting, we sent the resolution toall Inuit organizations asking for informationand input into the development of this code.A code of conduct for Inuit leaders, oncepassed by an organization, sets the standardsof leadership that members of the organizationwish to uphold. It sends a clear messageregarding the expectations placed on Inuitleaders. In effect, a code of conduct describesour collective vision of what a leader should be.It also sets limits by describing conduct we wishour leaders to avoid.46. Fournier, S. & Crey, E. (1997). Stolen fromour Embrace: The Abduction of First NationsChildren and the Restoration of AboriginalCommunities. Vancouver: Douglas andMcIntyre, Ltd.Keywords: Canada/Children/Culture/Education/First Nations/Government/ Healing/RacismAbstract: This book is a hard-hitting,compassionate look at the experience ofAboriginal children in Canada, from firstcontact through residential schools and theSixties Scoop to the inspiring recovery of manyFirst Nations today. Stolen from Our Embraceis the story about the treatment of Aboriginalchildren in Canada, surveying experiencesat early residential schools, the ‘Sixties Scoop’and the current recovery of many First Nations’communities. It includes engaging anecdotesand interviews, along with detailed informationon government policies that led to the mufflingof a vibrant culture. Suzanne Fournier and ErnieCrey also look at the current state of affairs,noting the hope and renewed spirit in a returnto traditional healing methods and initiatives ineducation and social services.47. Gill, S. D. (2000). The UnspeakabilityAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing21

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing22of Racism: Mapping Law’s Complicity inManitoba’s Racialized Spaces. CanadianJournal of Law and Society, 15, 131-162.Keywords: Adequate Power/Manitoba/ RacismAbstract: Unavailable48. Grace, S. (2002). Aboriginal Women. InD. E. Stewart, A. M. Cheung, L. E. Ferris, I. Hyman,M. M. Cohen, & J. I. Williams (Eds.), OntarioWomen’s Health Status Report (pp. 359-373).Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/AboriginalWomen/Canada/Cervical Cancer/Children/Culture/Diabetes/Disabilities/Family Violence/Health/Men/Suicide/women/Women’s HealthAbstract: In traditional Aboriginal cultures,women are considered to be the givers oflife, and traditionally this role in the family washighly respected. However, many Aboriginalwomen face greater risks of complex healthissues in a variety of areas than women in thegeneral population (Statistics Canada, 1998),and this increased risk is partly attributableto their marginalized position in society andrapid change within their cultures (Indian andNorthern Affairs Canada, 2000). For example,the life expectancy of Aboriginal women issignificantly shorter than that of non-Aboriginalwomen (Statistics Canada, 1998). The suiciderate for Aboriginal adolescent girls is eighttimes the national average. The diabetes rateamong Aboriginal peoples is ten times theCanadian rate, and is generally higher forwomen than men (Young, Reading, Elias, &O’Neil, 2000). Rates of cardiovascular (Anand& Tookenay, 2001) and respiratory diseases(Young, 1998), disability, infections, andmental health problems are all higher amongAboriginal women than in women in general.Aboriginal women suffer higher rates of cervicalcancer (Marrett, 1998), sexually transmitteddisease (Health Canada, 1999c), and cirrhosisof the liver than do their non-Aboriginalcounterparts. A number of Aboriginal womenand children are driven to relocate owingto domestic violence and lack of support,particularly in remote and isolated communitiesacross the country (National Clearinghouseon Family Violence, 1997). The marginalizedsocioeconomic status of many Aboriginalwomen results in detrimental lifestyles, unsafeenvironments, and overcrowded housing. Theseconditions have an impact on the life chancesand health status of many Aboriginal girls andwomen (Indian and Northern Affairs Canada,2000) (From Overview).49. Graig, S. D. (1987). Qui Prend MariPrend Pays? A Study of Women’s Roles in EthnicBoundary in a Native Community in Quebec.Thesis (M.A.) - Laval University, Sainte-Foy,Quιbec, 1987.Keywords: Ethnicity/History/Men/Native women/Quebec/Abstract: An observed ethnic cleavagebetween two groups of people -- the ‘pures’and the ‘Métis’ - on an Indian reservation wasinvestigated from the viewpoint of women.Having examined some situations of ethnicboundary between Indigenous peoples and thedominant society of which they are a part andproposed women’s role in ethnicity, the positionof Native women in Canadian society and thehistory of their liaisons with European men will beoutlined. Reasons for the origin and persistenceof the cleavage at Pointe-Bleue are suggestedwith the presentation of its history andcontemporary situation. Boundary markers andtheir importance to the social order are elicitedthrough women’s discourse and experience.50. Grant, A. (2004). Finding My Talk: HowFourteen Native Women Reclaimed Their Livesafter Residential School. Calgary, AB: FifthHouse.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/Adequate Power/Culture/Abstract: When residential schools opened inthe 1830s, First Nations envisioned their childrenlearning in a nurturing environment, staffed withtheir own teachers, ministers, and interpreters.Instead, students were taught by outsiders,regularly forced to renounce their culturesand languages, and some were subjectedto degradations and abuses that left severeemotional scars for generations. In Finding MyTalk, fourteen Aboriginal women who attendedresidential schools, or whose lives were affectedby the schools, reflect on their experiences. Theydescribe their years in residential schools acrossCanada and how they overcame tremendousobstacles to become strong and independentmembers of Aboriginal cultures. Dr. AgnesGrant’s painstaking research and interviewmethods ensure that it is the women’s voices wehear in Finding My Talk, and that these womenare viewed as members of today’s globalsociety, not only as victims of their past.51. Green, J. (2001). Canaries in the Minesof Citizenship: Indian Women in Canada.Canadian Journal of Political Science/RevueCanadienne de Science Politique, 34, 715-738.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/AboriginalWomen/Adequate Power/Canada/FirstNations/Human Rights/RacismAbstract: This article explores the conceptof citizenship in relation to certain Aboriginalwomen, whose membership in First Nations issubject to Canadian federal legislation andFirst Nations constitutions and membershipcodes. In the struggle for decolonization,Aboriginal peoples use the language ofrights - rights to self-determination, andclaims of fundamental human rights. Thestate has injected its limited policy of‘’self-government’’ into this conversation,

characterized by the federal government’spreference for delegating administrativepowers to Indian Act bands. Since the 1985Indian Act revisions, bands have been ableto control their membership. Where prior to1985 the federal government implementedsexist, racist legislation determining bandmembership, now some bands have racist,sexist membership codes. In both cases, thefull citizenship capacity of affected Aboriginalwomen, in either the colonial state or in FirstNations, is impaired. The bands in question resistcriticism by invoking rights claims and traditionalpractices; the federal government washesits hands in deference to self-government.The rights claims of affected women arescarcely acknowledged, much less addressed.Meanwhile, their citizenship in both dominantand Aboriginal communities is negotiated withthe realities of colonialism, racism and sexism.Their experience demonstrates the limitations ofcitizenship theory and of Canadian citizenshipguarantees (Journal Abstract).52. Green, J. (1993). Sexual Equality andIndian Government: An Analysis of Bill C-31Amendments to the Indian Act. Native StudiesReview, 1, 81-95.Keywords: Government/Bill C-31.53. Green, Joyce (2004). Missing Women.Canadian Dimension, 38.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Canada/Racism/Social Justice and EquityAbstract: This article reports that over 500Aboriginal women have gone missing inCanada in the past 20 to 30 years, accordingto journalist Audrey Huntley. Yet, few of thesecases are vigorously investigated by police,and the media pay them little attention. Someactivists believe that a combination of racismand sexism in Canadian institutions frames thesewomen as worthless. Huntley is embarking on aroad trip across Canada to speak with friends,acquaintances and relatives of these women.In addition, CBC Television will air “Traces ofMissing Women,” a memorial project designedto remember and honour these women.54. Green, J. A. (2005). Exploring Identityand Citizenship: Aboriginal Women, Bill C-31and the Sawridge Case. Thesis (Ph.D.) --University of Alberta, 1997.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Canada/Culture/Government/History/RacismAbstract: This dissertation examines the problemof contemporary citizenship as the way inwhich people understand themselves to becitizens, not simply as autonomous rightsbearingindividuals in relation to the modernstate but also, and perhaps especially, asmembers of communities, of societies. I beginby locating Aboriginal nations in the colonialstate and investigating the assumptions thatare encoded in law, politics and culture. Next, Ireview the development of the Indian Acts andespecially their impact on women. I turn to theparticular arguments about the constitutionalityof the Indian Act advanced in the Sawridgecase. Then, I review the liberal democraticpicture of universal citizenship and examinehow citizenship is differentially constructedand experienced. I consider the claims ofIndigenous nations to control citizenship in acontext of decolonization, while continuing toendure the superordinate structure of the state.I interrogate questions of racism and sexismon the part of both colonial and Aboriginalgovernments, and consider the legitimacyof rights discourse and its applicability acrosscultures and in opposition to traditions. FinallyI examine in detail the problems facing asegment of the Canadian population whosecitizenship has been constrained: Indianwomen who have, by colonial history, coloniallegislation, and by both colonial and Indigenouspatriarchy, been involuntarily exiled from theircommunities of origin, and how this reality andtheir resistance to it raises questions about whatcitizenship is relative to Indian government inCanada, and relative to Indigenous people asCanadians (Author Abstract).55. Greschner, D. (1992). AboriginalWomen, the Constitution and Criminal Justice.University of British Columbia Law ReviewSpecial Edition, 338-366.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/JusticeAbstract: Unavailable56. Hancock, L. (1996). Aboriginality andLawyering: Problems of Justice for AboriginalDefendants - Focus on Partner Homicide.Keywords: Justice/Violence Against Women/women/GenderAbstract: Abused wives; battered womansyndrome [legal argument]; conjugalhomicide; court cases; criminal justice system;cultural factors; domestic violence; judicialbias; lawyers’ attitudes; legal constructionof domestic violence; legal construction ofgender; native Australian women; provocation[legal argument]; racial factors; reasonablewoman standard [legal argument]; self-defense[legal argument]; sex discrimination in criminaljustice; women murderers.57. Holmes, J. (1987). Bill C-31: Equality orDisparity: The Effects of the New Indian Acton Native Women. Ottawa, ON: CanadianAdvisory Council on the Status of Women.Keywords: Bill C-31/Native women/womenAbstract: This background paper wascommissioned by the Canadian AdvisoryCouncil on the Status of Women to gaugeAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing23

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing24the impact of Bill C-31 on Indian women. Itclearly explains sections of the Indian Act thatdiscriminated against Indian women.58. Hynds, S. J. (1996). ‘In a CircleEverybody Is Equal’: Aboriginal Women andSelf-Government in Canada, 1869-1995. Thesis --(M.A.) Trent University 1996, Peterborough, ON.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Canada/Government/History/ResearchAbstract: This thesis explores the evolving role ofAboriginal women within the self-governmentmovement in Canada. By studying the history ofthe Aboriginal women’s movement, the effectof women’s participation in the self-governmentdebate can be analyzed. Research involves theanalysis of government and legal documentsrelating to amendments to section 12(1) (b)of the Indian Act, archival material from theNative Women’s Association of Canada, andpersonal interviews with Aboriginal women.The results of this research show that there is awell-defined Aboriginal women’s movementthat focuses on the question of equal rightswithin self-government. However, althoughthis women’s movement contains elements ofmodern Western-European feminism, there is astrong connection with precolonial Indigenoustraditions. The importance of cultural identityand the traditional role of women in Aboriginalself-governance have served to redefine thedebate over collective versus individual rights.The question now becomes how to include theindividual within the collective.59. Jaccoud, M. (2005). The Marginalizationof Aboriginal Women in Montreal. In D.Newhouse & E. Peters (Eds.), Not Strangers inThese Parts: Urban Aboriginal Peoples (pp. 131-145).Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/AboriginalWomen/Diabetes/First Nations/Health/ MontrealAbstract: This article is based on a case studyof ten Aboriginal women living in Montreal(eight were First Nations and two were Inuit)under conditions that fall within a theoreticalframework of exclusion and marginalization.The primary focus of the article is on the processof exclusion and marginalization experiencedby these women who had temporarily orpermanently migrated to Montreal, using a lifenarratives methodology. The living conditionsof the women at the time of the study revealedthat they had children placed in care, werereceiving income security payments, weredependent on drugs and alcohol at some pointin their lives and three indicated that they hadhealth problems such as diabetes, anemiaand HIV. The article discusses the migrationpatterns and the lure of Montreal on the livesof these women and the resulting processes ofmarginalization faced by each one.60. Jamieson, K. (1978). Indian Women andthe Law in Canada: Citizens Minus. Ottawa:Minister of Supply and Services.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Canada/ Statusof WomenAbstract: An examination of the discriminatoryaspects of the Indian Act with respect toAboriginal women. The book explores thehistorical roots of this discrimination and situationup to the late 1970s. The book includes detailedinformation on Canada’s Indian Act, the caseof Jeannette Lavell, and the consequences ofthe discriminatory clauses of the Indian Act.61. Janzen, B. L. (1998). Women, Genderand Health: A Review of the Recent Literature.Saskatoon, SK: Prairie Women’s Health Centre ofExcellence.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Gender/ Health/Older Women/Social Support/ Women’s Health/Work/Research/MenAbstract: This study presents a broad overviewand synthesis of the recent research literatureon the major psychosocial influences onwomen’s health. Part 1 reviews the variabilityof health among women, with a particularemphasis on diversities in health accordingto women’s major social roles of partner,parent and worker. The context within whichsocial roles are carried out, particularly thesocioeconomic context, is identified as a criticalfactor. While research examining women’shealth within the context of both social rolesand material circumstances have producedcomplex findings, the research reviewed in thisstudy clearly suggests that to appropriatelydocument and understand the variabilityof health among women, attention to theparticular circumstances of women’s livesis required. This point is further highlighted insections describing the health issues of olderwomen, Aboriginal women, and immigrant andrefugee women. Part 2 begins with a reviewof the research on differences between menand women on various indicators of health andill health. Frequently mentioned throughoutthe literature is the apparent paradox inwomen’s and men’s health: men’s higherrate of mortality and women’s higher rate ofmorbidity. Recent evidence demonstrating thecomplexity and variability of gender differencesin health is reviewed, suggesting that broadgeneralizations about health-related genderdifferences are inappropriate. As a means ofclarifying more fully the significance of genderas a determinant of health, gender is examinedas it interacts with other social characteristicsassociated with health and disease, such associoeconomic status, paid and unpaid work,exposure to stressors, and social support. Theresearch that attempts to explain genderrelated differences in health also is examined,among which social role explanationsdominate. Possible reasons for the diminishinglongevity advantage of women over men

in recent years also are discussed. While thenumber of studies concerning women’s healthhas multiplied in recent years, this review of theliterature identified a number of general gapsin knowledge, particularly with respect to theCanadian context (Adapted from the ExecutiveSummary).62. Jasen, P. (1997). Race, Culture, and theColonization of Childbirth in Northern Canada.Social History of Medicine, 10, 383-400.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequatePower/Canada/Cultural Integrity and Identity/Culture/Health/Strong Families and HealthyChild DevelopmentAbstract: This paper traces the history, innorthern Canada, of what childbirth hasbeen made to stand for in the relationshipbetween Aboriginal women and the agentsof colonization. During the early centuries ofcontact, European impressions of Aboriginalwomen were dominated by associationswith animal nature and the myth of painlesschildbirth, with the result that the culture ofchildbirth and the role of the midwife wereoverlooked. During the 19th century, theemphasis upon racial difference was reinforcedby evolutionary theory, and the myth of the‘savage’ woman’s ‘parturition without pain’was put to rhetorical use by health reformers,physicians, and feminists in Europe and NorthAmerica. Meanwhile, the realities surroundingchildbirth in Aboriginal communities receivedlittle attention from colonial authorities untilhigh infant and maternal death rates began toarouse official concern in the early 20th century,when they were blamed on Aboriginal women’signorance of healthy child-bearing practices.As part of its ‘civilizing mission’, the Canadiangovernment adopted an interventionist policywhich led, in recent decades, to the practiceof evacuating pregnant women to distanthospitals. This policy has had serious socialconsequences, and resistance on the partof Aboriginal women includes the attemptto legitimize a traditional culture of childbirthdisregarded throughout the colonizationprocess (Journal Abstract).63. Kahenrakwas Goodleaf, D. (1997).Under Military Occupation: Indigenous Women,State Violence and Community Resistance. InL. Carty (Ed.), And Still We Rise: Feminist PoliticalMobilizing in Contemporary Canada. Toronto:Women’s Press.Keywords: Canada/Native Women/Sacred :amds/ResistanceAbstract: In 1990, Kanienkehaka women ledtheir nation’s resistance to the appropriation ofsacred lands at Oka. Donna Goodleaf sharesher holistic view of resistance by telling her storyof involvement at Oka in conjunction with agendered analysis of state violence. She locatesher nation’s resistance in a holistic analysisof historical colonialism, present-day Eurosexistimperialist attitudes and “left” resistancestrategies. She calls upon social movementsto “go beyond the human to a vision rootedin a spiritually and politically based worldviewof Indigenous people that encompasses thefour-legged, the waters, the air, the earth....”Her vision calls for new policies and governanceformed within a holistic understanding of theearth’s ecosystem.64. Kambel, E.-R. (2004). A Guide toIndigenous Women’s Rights under theInternational Convention on the Eliminationof all Forms of Discrimination against Women.Moreton-in-Marsh, UK: Forest PeoplesProgramme.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequatePower/Community Solidarity and SocialSupport/Human Rights/RacismAbstract: Explores the procedures by whichIndigenous women can use the Conventionon the Elimination of All forms of Discriminationagainst Women (CEDAW) to hold statesaccountable for human rights violations (CWHNAbstract).65. Kelly, J. G. (2003). ‘Analyze if You Wish,but Listen’: Aboriginal Women’s Lifestorytellingin Canada and Australia and the Politics ofGender, Nation, Aboriginality, and Anti-racism.PhD -- University of Calgary.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Australia/Canada/Culture/Gender/HistoryAbstract: This study examines how Aboriginalwomen’s lifestorytelling in Canada and Australiaengages in the processes of decolonizationand how its potential for transformation canbe realized through anti-racist feminist criticismand pedagogy. Chapters One through Threelocate Aboriginal women’s lifestorytellingpractices within the processes of whitenation building. I explore the marginalizationof Aboriginal women’s lifestorytelling inpostcolonial and Australian-Canadian literarystudies as an effect of an unexaminedinvestment in nationalism. I analyze how theoperations of race and nation inflect upon thecategories of “Aboriginality,” gender, class,and autobiography (particularly in terms of“truth” and referentiality) and influence howAboriginal women’s lifestories are producedand enter visibility, in popular readerships anduniversity practices. While Aboriginal women’slifestorytelling can productively be read aspedagogical in a politics of decolonization, itdoes not teach or transform material relationsby itself. In Chapter Four I analyze how theoperations of white nationalism are reproducedin the university classroom and, drawing on myexperiences of teaching a university course inAboriginal Literatures, I explore how an antiracistpedagogy can transform the universityclassroom and whiteness. This is followed byAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing25

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing26detailed analyses of five Aboriginal women’slifestories: Australian Monica Clare’s Karobran:The Story of an Aboriginal Girl (1978), Mi’kmaqRita Joe’s Song of Rita Joe: Autobiography ofa Mi’kmaq Poet (1996), Lardil Elsie Roughsey’s(Labumore’s) An Aboriginal Mother Tells of theOld and the New (1984), Cree Emma Minde’skwayask κ-ki-pκ-kiskinowβpahtihicik: TheirExample Showed Me the Way, A Cree Woman’sLife Shaped by Two Cultures, as told to FredaAhenakew (1997), and Aboriginal AustralianRita Huggins’s and daughter Jackie Huggins’scollaborative Auntie Rita (1994). My readingshighlight how these life stories articulate theprocesses of white nationalism in producing agendered, racialized, dispossessed labouringclass and how, in mapping personal andcollective histories, they theorize and imaginealternative discourses of history, place, nation,gender, and Aboriginality. And as theselifestorytellers imagine a different Canadaand Australia, they also imagine a differentwhite national subjectivity - an invitation anda challenge to white feminist/postcolonialcritics to reexamine and transform our ownsubjectivities, locations, and practices.66. Kelm, M.-E. (1998). A ‘ScandalousProcession’: Residential Schooling and theReformation of Aboriginal Bodies. In ColonizingBodies: Aboriginal Health and Healing in BritishColumbia (pp. 57-82). Vancouver: University ofBritish Columbia Press.Keywords: British Columbia/Healing/Health67. Klem, M.-E. (1998). Colonizing BodiesAboriginal Health and Healing in BritishColumbia, 1900-50. Vancouver, BC: UBC PressKeywords: Health/First Nations/Well-being/Government/British Columbia/Children/Indigenous Healing/Healing/Medicine/ History/Criminalization of CultureAbstract: Historical analysis of colonization ofAboriginal peoples in British Columbia. Theauthor explores the ways in which Aboriginalbodies were materially affected by CanadianIndian policy, which placed restrictions onfishing and hunting, allocated inadequatereserves, forced children into unhealthyresidential schools, and criminalized indigenoushealing and traditional medicine. This detailedbut highly readable ethno-history draws onarchival sources, archeological findings,fieldwork, and oral history interviews with FirstNations Elders from across British Columbia.Kelm’s cross-disciplinary approach results inan important and accessible book that willbe of interest not only to academic historiansand medical anthropologists but also to thoseconcerned with Aboriginal health and healingtoday.68. LaFromboise, T. D., Heyle, A. M., &Ozer, E. J. (1999). Changing and Diverse Rolesof Women in American Indian Cultures. In L. A.Peplau & S. Chapman Debro (Eds.), Gender,Culture and Ethnicity: Current Research aboutWomen and Men (pp. 48-61). Mountain View,CA: Mayfield Publishing Co.Keywords: Culture/Ethnicity/GenderAbstract: This article is an exploration of thetraditional gender roles of Indian men andwomen. The researchers examine the roles ofNative American women prior to Europeancontact, concluding that achieving wellnessand balance highlight the spiritual source oftheir strength.69. Lahey, K. A. (2002). Métis Womenand Aboriginal Self-Governance: EntrenchingInequality Through the Devolution ofDiscrimination. Jurisfemme, 21, 8-9.Keywords: Government/Métis Women/ Poverty/Status of Women/womenAbstract: Includes a discussion on: Aboriginalself-governance; Canadian law; maledominance; Métis women; self- government;sex discrimination; sexism; status of women;unemployment; women living in poverty.70. Laing, M. J. (2000). 20th CenturyWomen: Redefining Equality, Justice andFreedom. Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University of Alberta,1999.Keywords: Canada/Canadian Women/ Justice/Poverty/WorkAbstract: This work delineates 20th centuryCanadian women’s struggles for recognition oftheir political and social claims as citizens andas persons. Three case studies highlight differentaspects of their struggle against a patriarchaland paternalistic heritage and hegemony.These case studies demonstrate that all womenmay have their claims, as citizens and aspersons, denied due to the marginalizationof women and the consequent silencing orinvisibility of their experiences, interests andaspirations. The first case study focuses on thestruggle of one of Canada’s most marginalizedwomen, a young, pregnant, Aboriginal womanliving in conditions of violence and poverty,and suffering addiction to glue, against thestate, which would have incarcerated her in atreatment centre and, thereby, deprived of hercitizenship rights as guaranteed by the Charterof Rights and Freedoms. The second case study,which focuses on issues raised in presentationsto a Senate-Commons Special Joint Committeeon Custody and Access, demonstrates that allwomen are at risk of having their interests andrelationships of care rendered inconsequentialor invisible by patriarchal institutions anddiscourse. In the final case study the lives ofthree women, who overcame internal andexternal barriers to seek high political office,are examined. The philosophical, political andsocial context of each case is presented andexamined to explicate the varied forces that

maintain the patriarchal order, including itsreligious, scientific, educational, and politicalinstitutions. In the conclusion, the humanconstruction of society, of social reality and“truth,” and of individual consciousnessis examined and recommendations aremade to alter and transform present humanconstructions and institutions to includewomen’s experiences, interests and aspirationsin the definition of the human condition and thenature of equality, and in the determination ofjustice (Author Abstract).71. Lash, J. (2000). Case Comment: R.V.Gladue. Canadian Woman Studies, 20, 85-87.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Canada/ SocialJustice and EquityAbstract: This article examines the Canadianjustice system’s treatment of Aboriginal women,focusing on a Supreme Court case that dealswith an abused woman accused of murderingher spouse. The author argues that the court’srefusal to consider the Aboriginal woman’sbackground and history of abuse constitutesjudicial bias.72. Law Commission of Canada (2000).Restoring Dignity: Responding to Child Abusein Canadian Institutions. Ottawa, ON: LawCommission of Canada.Keywords: Canada/Children/Government/Justice/Legal Issues/Research/Sexual AbuseAbstract: In November 1997, the Minister ofJustice asked the Law Commission of Canadato assess processes for redressing the harm ofphysical and sexual abuse inflicted on childrenwho lived in institutions that were run or fundedby government. This report draws together theresearch and consultations conducted by theLaw Commission in response to that request.The Commission has attempted to analyze thesocial and legal issues involved in institutionalchild abuse and to evaluate a variety ofapproaches to redress. It has also made severalspecific recommendations for action. The LawCommission hopes that this Report will providegovernments with a framework of analysis anda blueprint for actions that must be taken tomeet the needs of those whose childhoodwas destroyed by physical and sexual abuse.Although this Report was written for the Ministerof Justice, it is addressed to a broader publicaudience, not just to governments.73. Lawrence, B. (2000). Real Indians andOthers: Mixed-Race Urban Native People, theIndian Act, and the Rebuilding of IndigenousNations. Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University of Toronto,1999.Keywords: Canada/Culture/Government/History/ResearchAbstract: Native identity, for urban mixed-raceNative people, is shaped on the one handby colonial regulation under the ‘Indian Act’,and on the other by Native heritage andconnections to the land. This research engageswith how the identities of the participants ofthis study (as well as the author herself) havebeen defined and molded by their families’lived experiences of cultural genocide, howthe participants have, in resistance, activelyexplored their Native heritage, and howhegemonic images and definitions of Indiannesshave influenced these processes. The researchis based on interviews with thirty individualsof mixed Native and non-Native heritageliving in the Toronto region, on the subject ofurban Native identity. The first part of the thesisengages with the methodological concernswhich must be taken into consideration whenNative peoples’ identities are the subjects ofacademic investigation, the highly distinctcircumstances which are raised by theregulation of Native identity in Canada underthe ‘ Indian Act’, and the images of Indiannesswhich exist within the dominant culture, whichevery urban mixed-race Native person mustcontend with in forming their own identity asa Native person. The second part of the thesisengages directly with the participants’ familyhistories, their opinions about Native identity,and the roles which they are playing in creatingand maintaining an urban Native community.The common thread running through thenarratives is the devastating affect which loss ofcommunity as a result of genocidal governmentpolicies has had on the participants’ families.The research clearly demonstrates the extent towhich government regulation of Native identity,through racist and sexist restrictions within the‘Indian Act’, has contributed to the alienationof individuals from their communities and hasfragmented Native peoples’ identities, dividingthem into categories such as “status Indians,”“Métis,” “Bill C-31 Indians,” “reserve Indians”and “urban Indians.” In a preliminary manner,it explores the forms of nation building whichmight enable Native people to overcomethe divisive effects of a history of governmentregulation of identity (Author Abstract).74. LeMoine, G. (2005). Woman of theHouse: Gender, Architecture and Ideology inDorset Prehistory. Arctic Anthropology, 40, 121-138.Keywords: Gender/Culture/Inuit WomenAbstract: The role of women in Paleoeskimohouseholds has rarely been examined. Carefulapplication of analogies to Inuit culture revealsthat there are both similarities and differencesin how Late Dorset and Inuit gender rolesare expressed in household organization.On an ideological level, Late Dorset womenprobably had a similar role to that of womenin Inuit society, as the soul of the house andan important intermediary between huntersand the souls of the animals they hunted.Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing27

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing28On a day-to-day basis, however, Late Dorsetwomen seem to have shared more of theirlabor as members of dual family householdsthan did Inuit women, as members of nuclearfamily units. The increased importance of small,trapped game such as foxes and rabbits duringLate Dorset times (Darwent 2001) may havecontributed to the need for shared labor. Finally,women, in their role as keepers of the hearth,were important in maintaining community tiesat seasonal aggregation sites dominated bylonghouses and external hearth rows.75. Malloy, J. (2003). Between CollidingWorlds: The Ambiguous Existence ofGovernment Agencies for Aboriginal andWomen’s Policy. Toronto, ON: University ofToronto Press.Keywords: Adequate Power/Canada/WorkAbstract: Jonathan Malloy’s Between CollidingWorlds provides a comparative analysisof Australian and Canadian policy unitsdedicated to Aboriginal and women’s issues.Malloy examines these units - or ‘special policyagencies’- as they navigate between twodifferent worlds: public administration andsocial movements. Drawing on a wide rangeof sources, including in-depth interviews withpublic servants and activists, Malloy presentsstrong evidence that the inherent ambiguity ofspecial policy agencies allows them to createa forum for social movements and the state toeffectively work out their differences.76. Mann, B. A. (2000). Iroquoian Women:The Gantowisas.Keywords: Culture/Economics/First NationsWomen/Government/History/ResearchAbstract: This book takes a look at the social,political, economic, and religious roles ofwomen among the Iroquois, explaining their fitwith the larger culture. ‘Iroquoian Women’ isthe first book-length study to regard Iroquoianwomen as central and indispensable toIroquoian studies.77. Maracle, L. (1993). Racism, Sexism andPatriarchy. In H. Bannerji (Ed.), Returning theGaze: Essays on Racism, Feminism and Politics(pp. 148-158). Toronto, ON: Sister Vision, BlackWomen and Women of Colour Press.Keywords: Racism/Sexism/Patriarchy/ AboriginalWomen78. McIvor, S. & Johnson, E. C. (2003).Detailed Position of the Native Women’sAssociation of Canada on the ComplaintRegarding the Discriminatory Treatmentof Federally Sentenced Women by theGovernment of Canada filed by the CanadianAssociation of Elizabeth Fry Societies on May 05,2003. Ottawa, ON: Native Women’s Associationof Canada.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/British Columbia/Canada/Healing/Health/Human Rights/Prevention/RacismAbstract: This document summarizes the NativeWomen’s Association of Canada’s concernsfor federally incarcerated Aboriginal women.Concerns evolved around: 1. Decarcerationof Aboriginal women in the federal prisonsystem. Because of rampant racism within thecriminal justice system at all levels leading to theincrease in the numbers of Aboriginal womenincarcerated federally from 15% in 1984 to 23%today, NWAC is asking for the decarceration ofAboriginal women within Canada’s penitentiarysystem. NWAC would like to explore with CSCand other interested parties alternatives toincarceration including the use of section 81 toestablish community-based healing facilities forall Aboriginal women prisoners including thoseclassified as “maximum security”; 2. Capacitybuildingin Aboriginal communities to facilitatereintegration of Aboriginal women prisonersback into Aboriginal society. If Aboriginalwomen prisoners within the Canadianpenitentiary system are to be decarceratedbeginning in the near future and over a periodof years - the shorter the better - Canada needsto invest financial resources at the Aboriginalcommunity level to build the capacities ofthose communities to reintegrate Aboriginalwomen prisoners with their communities andfamilies. Such capacity building can usefederal dollars already targeted for Aboriginalcommunity use including job creation, training,employment, economic development, socialservices, health, and so on. Crime preventiondollars and Department of Justice grants andcontributions have also been made availableto community projects. NWAC requests thatsome of these funds, and a new special fundaimed at Aboriginal female reintegrationand community capacity building, beaimed at Aboriginal women’s representativeorganizations to facilitate this process; 3.Facilitation and implementation of ss. 81and 84 of the Corrections and ConditionalRelease Act [the “CCRA”] for the benefitof Aboriginal women prisoners. NWAC hasworked with CSC to implement section 81and section 84 of the CCRA unsuccessfully.NWAC proposes the establishment of a joint“NWAC-CSC Planning Committee on Sections81 and 84” to set target dates for a plan ofaction to implement these sections of CCRAaimed at bringing Aboriginal women prisonersunder Aboriginal jurisdiction for healing andreintegration back to their community roots. 4.Compensation for Aboriginal women prisonersfor CSC’s breach of fiduciary obligations owingto them. NWAC proposes the establishmentof an office headed by an Aboriginal womanlawyer/judge/criminologist, supported by CSCstaff and Aboriginal professionals to remedy thebreach by CSC of its fiduciary duty to Aboriginalwomen prisoners with a final report to theMinister, the Solicitor General and the CanadianHuman Rights Commission for implementation;

5. Standardization of the treatment of federalAboriginal women prisoners in British Columbia.The incarceration of federal Aboriginalwomen prisoners in B.C. facilities needs to bestandardized with the treatment of federalwomen prisoners elsewhere within the federalsystem to ensure they receive adequateand meaningful programming and humanetreatment without discrimination based onfederal or Aboriginal status. Although this isnot yet happening elsewhere in Canada, asevidenced by this human rights complaint, thereturn of federal women prisoners in B.C. tothe jurisdiction of CSC and the planned movefrom BCCW to Sumas Centre provides a uniqueopportunity in B.C. to remedy the situationand provide an improved implementationmodel for the rest of the country. Those wereNWAC’s preliminary submissions. What followsis an elaboration on the NWAC proposals andposition with respect to the Elizabeth Fry HumanRights Complaint.79. McIvor, S. D. (1995). AboriginalWomen’s Rights as “Existing Rights.” CanadianWoman Studies, 15, 34-38.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/CanadianWomen/Status of Women/Canada/Government/Native AmericansAbstract: Discussion covers: Canadian Charterof Rights and Freedoms; Constitution Act[Canada. 1982]; court decisions; Indian Act[Canada]; legal status; Native Canadianwomen; Native rights;R. v. Sparrow [1990]; sexdiscrimination; status of women; Supreme Court[Canada]; women’s rights | Constitution Act[Canada]; Canada Act [1982]; constitutions;Canada Act; Canada-society; Canadian laws;R. v. Sparrow; Canadian government; NativeAmericans [Canada]; Aborigines [Canada];Indians [North American]80. McIvor, S. D. (2004). Aboriginal WomenUnmasked: Using Equality Litigation to AdvanceWomen’s Rights. Canadian Journal of Women &the Law, Vol. 16.Keywords: Aboriginal WomenAbstract: Unavailable81. Miskimmin, S. E. (1997). NobodyTook the Indian Blood Out of Me: An Analysisof Algonquian and Iroquoian DiscourseConcerning Bill C-31. Thesis (M.A.) -- University ofWestern Ontario, 1997.Keywords: Canada/First Nations/Gender/Government/ResearchAbstract: This thesis examines the Englishdiscourses of Algonquian and Iroquoian peopleof southwestern Ontario in which they discussthe impact of Bill C-31, an amendment to theIndian Act passed in 1985 with the goal to endgender discrimination. My research focusesboth on the narratives of those women who(re)gained their status following the Bill, and onthe narratives of community members reactingto the attempts of reinstated women, and theirfamilies, to return to the reserve. In examiningthe narratives of First Nations people, I haveillustrated the complexity of the issue andshown that both the women’s life experiencesand the reactions of community members tothese women are related to key factors. Themost important of these, for both Algonquianand Iroquoian peoples, is the maintenance ofties to the community; this has more relevanceto people’s day-to-day lives than does legalstatus conferred by the government of Canada(Author Abstract).82. Mitchell, M. & Franklin, A. (2005). WhenYou Don’t Know The Language, Listen To TheSilence: An Historical Overview of Native IndianWomen in BC.Keywords: women/History/British Columbia/Native women/ChildrenAbstract: In order to describe and understandthe history of Native Indian women in BritishColumbia, the hiding places of the history mustfirst be discovered. There was a time, beforethe European conquest of North America,when the voices of Native women were strongand clear. As they raised their children, taughttheir daughters the traditional roles and skills forliving, shared daily events with their sisters andhusbands, and captivated their grandchildrenwith tales of mythical heroines -- Native womenof this province spoke and were listened to.83. Mitchinson, W. (2000). Colonizing Bodies(Book Review). Canadian Historical Review, 81,486-488.Keywords: British Columbia/Healing/HealthAbstract: The author reviews the book‘Colonizing Bodies: Aboriginal Health andHealing in British Columbia, 1900-1950’ writtenby Mary-Ellen Kelm.84. Moffitt, P. M. (2004). Colonialization:A Health Determinant for Pregnant DogribWomen. Journal of Transcultural Nursing, 15,323-330.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequatePower/Canada/Cultural Integrity and Identity/HealthAbstract: Childbirth for many Aboriginal womenliving in remote communities of the NorthwestTerritories, Canada, includes separation fromtheir family and community for weeks at a time.This colonialization of childbirth, enforced fordecades, is true for Dogrib Dene. Colonializationproduces serious social consequences onthe everyday lives of pregnant AboriginalAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing29

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing30women, which results in lower healthoutcomes. This article provides a literaturereview of colonialization in Canada’s far north,establishing the position that colonialization isa determinant of health. The purpose of thisarticle is to generate knowledge that will informhealth professionals and ultimately reducehealth disparities as experienced and evidentamong Dogrib women. By highlighting theconcept of colonialization and establishing thisconcept as a determinant of health, nursesand midwives will identify disparities createdthrough stressors of power and control. Fromthere, culturally meaningful health promotionstrategies will be developed and implementedwithin their nursing practice. (PsycINFODatabase Record (c) 2004 APA).85. Monture-Angus, P. (1995). OrganizingAgainst Oppression: Aboriginal Women andthe Canadian State for First Nations Women. InP. Monture-Angus (Ed.), Thunder in My Soul: AMohawk Woman Speaks. Halifax: FernwoodPublishing.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/First Nations/FirstNations Women Abstract: This book isabout the author’s reflections on her struggle tofind a place within Canadian society. Monture-Angus explores issues of oppression, successand change among Aboriginal communities,women’s issues, education, politics and law.86. Monture-Angus, P. (1995). Thunder inMy Soul: A Mohawk Woman Speaks. Halifax:Fernwood Publishing.Keywords: Canada/Education/History/ Justice/Racism/WorkAbstract: This collection of works thatdeveloped over time is aimed atcommunicating the Aboriginal experiencewithin Canada. The history of oppression,racism and colonialism are presented in theMohawk traditional methodology of storytelling.Issues of society, such as law, politics, justiceand change, are included. The author’s own“intellectual evolution” is shared through theinclusion of personal and academic writings.Aboriginal experiences with education, racism,the criminal justice system and feminismare discussed and traditional knowledge ispresented as essential to Aboriginal survival ashuman beings.87. Monture-Angus, P. (1999). JourneyingForward: Dreaming First Nations’ Independence.Halifax: Fernwood Publishing.Keywords: History/Human Rights/WorkAbstract: Through an examination of her ownexperiences of colonialism, Monture-Angusoffers the perspective of independence inplace of Aboriginal self-government as a wayto offset oppression. Canadian law is identifiedas a mechanism that allows colonialism toflow rather than a source of answers. Writtenin the context of family, sharing, creativity,history and hope, “Aboriginal pathways awayfrom oppression” are presented in the form ofhuman rights, which are linked to land rightsand the right to be responsible. Primarily writtenfor a Native audience, this work speaks to allCanadians alike.88. Monture-Angus, P. (1999). Womenand Risk: Aboriginal Women, Colonialism, andCorrectional Practice. Canadian WomenStudies, 19, 24-20.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/women/Canada/First Nations/Justice/AboriginalPeoples/Work/GenderAbstract: The author notes that as a result ofthe colonial legacy of Canada, Aboriginalnations are not represented as nations in theway our political organizations have beenstructured. Rather, these Aboriginal nations areorganized around the classifications which ariseout of the Indian Act regime either because ofregistration as an “Indian” or the lack of such alegal recognition. She states that this must beseen as a demonstration of the degree to whichcolonial policy and practice has fragmentedand restructured Aboriginal governingstructures.89. Monture-Okanee, P. A. (1992). TheRoles and Responsibilities of Aboriginal Women:Reclaiming Justice. Saskatchewan Law Review,56, 237-266.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequatePower/JusticeAbstract: The author looks at Aboriginaljustice from a woman’s perspective and howAboriginal women can encourage structuralchange within the justice system.90. Monture-Okanee, P. A. (1993).Reclaiming Justice: Aboriginal Women andJustice Initiatives in the 1990s. In AboriginalPeoples and the Justice System (pp. 105-132).Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/AboriginalWomen/Adequate Human Services and SocialSafety Net/Adequate Power/ Culture/FirstNations/Well-beingAbstract: This author of this paper is a Mohawkwoman, mother and wife. She is a strongbeliever in the traditional Aboriginal ways,both spiritually and through justice. Theauthor expresses concern for the well-beingof Aboriginal people who suffer under themainstream justice system. The author believesthat justice requires humanity. That there has tobe a true understanding of the culture, traditionand spirituality of Aboriginal peoples beforethere can be real justice. She notes that FirstNations peoples have celebrated 500 years

of resistance to colonial oppression and thatthis resistance is rooted in the culture in whichFirst Nations peoples have survived. Monture-Okanee also notes that Aboriginal womenhave been subjected to discrimination becausecolonialism changed the views of Aboriginalmen and made them oppressors. Monture-Okanee is a strong believer that feministthought can inform Aboriginal women’s reality.91. Monture, P. A. (2005). LocatingAboriginal Peoples in Canadian Law: OneAboriginal Woman’s Journey through Case Lawand the Canadian Constitution. Thesis (L.L.M.)-- York University, 1998.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Canada/Gender/Justice/Constitutional LawsAbstract: This thesis has three principal goals.The first goal is the most onerous. It is to examinethe degree to which Aboriginal peoples’experience, knowledge systems, traditions andways of being can be held within the existingboundaries of Canadian law. This first goal isnarrowed and shaped by the second, which isto examine the way gender impacts on the firstquestion. Women’s roles and responsibilities, aswell as the exclusion of women’s experience,is a theme which is woven throughout theentire thesis. The third goal is methodologicallybased. This thesis offers up one example ofthe way in which Aboriginal practices andtraditions can be united with conventionalCanadian legal practices. This last goal requiresthat this thesis be written in plain languagethat is accessible to people without access totechnical and sometimes complicated “lawtalk.” This thesis is a journey of one Mohawkwoman through Canadian legal relationships.The journey is an idea that is common amongmany Aboriginal traditions and ways. Thisconcept, as well as the practice of storytelling,is used to trace the author’s progress fromlaw student to law teacher as the vehiclethrough which the above goals are met. Itis, as well, an examination of legal conceptssuch as discrimination, rights (both individualand collective) and equality. This specificexamination is complemented by discussionsof oppression and colonization. The conclusion,which examines what Aboriginal justice is, isoffered to provide one opportunity to begin toconsider how Aboriginal laws can be balancedwith Canadian law (Author Abstract).92. Moore, C. (1992). Our Land, Too:Women of Canada and the Northwest, 1860-1914. Whitehorse: Yukon Territory. Dept. ofEducation.Keywords: Canada/Culture/Education/FirstNations/First Nations Women/Health/ History/Immigrant Women/Social ConditionsAbstract: The social roles and expectationsof women have differed since history wasfirst recorded. We are able to understandCanadian history better when we knowsomething about First Nations women andimmigrant women. This document looks atthe social roles and expectations of womenin Canadian history. It examines the followingpoints: living the traditional life; leaving the oldlife behind; day-to-day life; opportunities andnew roles; sexuality, health and reproduction;family and community; women and education;and, women and the law.93. Moreton-Robinson, A. (1998). Talkin’ Upto the White Woman: Aboriginal Women andFeminism. St. Lucia, Queensland, AUS: Universityof Queensland Press.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Australia/Research/WorkAbstract: Ethnographic constructions andWhite-feminist images of Aboriginal womenare set in contrast to Indigenous women’s selfpresentations.Perception and anthropological/feminist knowledge are discussed in termsof social standing, where White-feministknowledge is presented as partial despiteits position of power and dominance. Intersubjectivity,or the importance of seeingthrough Indigenous eyes, is offered as a solutionto the biases created from within feminist writingand for developing less partial knowledge.This work offers an integrated view of researchgrounded in Indigenous thought that draws onglobal issues and research strategies amongIndigenous women.94. Nahanee, T. A. (1993). Dancing witha Gorilla: Aboriginal Women, Justice and theCharter. Ottawa, ON: Royal Commission onAboriginal Peoples.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/AboriginalWomen/Adequate Income and SustainableEconomies/Adequate Power/Canada/ HumanRights/YouthAbstract: The purpose of this paper was twofold:to examine, from the perspective of Aboriginalwomen, the jurisdiction and structure of aparallel system and the application of the basicprinciples and legal rights found under theCanadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Theauthor notes that there cannot be a fair paralleljustice system without the input of Aboriginalwomen, youth and Elders. Nahanee believesthat of all those oppressed, these groups are theones to have suffered the most. While Nahaneedoes not speak directly about child welfare,she does speak specifically about the selfgovernmentaspirations of Aboriginal peoplesin Canada. She notes that many Aboriginalwomen both fear and oppose self-governmentbecause the women do not want to liveunder brown patriarchs who abuse power.Furthermore, the women are calling for a returnto matriarchies where women had real politicalpower and enjoyed individual human rights.Some discussion does revolve around violenceAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing31

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing32against Aboriginal women and children, andthat this should be repaired before Aboriginalpeople jump into self-government. She notesthat one of the most important struggles tobe faced by Aboriginal women will be theirresistance to the establishment of parallel justicesystems that do not involve them equally inthe planning, designing and delivery of suchsystems.95. Nahanee, T. A. (1997). Indian Women,Sex Equality and the Charter. In C. Andrew & S.Rodgers (Eds.), Women and the Canadian State(pp. 89-103). Montréal, QC: McGill-Queen’sUniversity Press.Keywords: Adequate Power/Safety andSecurity/Social Justice and Equity/CanadianCharter96. Nahanee, T. A. (1995). Gorilla in ourMidst: Aboriginal Women and the Inhumanityof the Canadian Criminal Justice System. Thesis(LL.M.) -- Queen’s University at Kingston, 1995,Kingston, ON.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Canada/Criminal Justice SystemAbstract: This thesis explores the inhumanityof the Canadian criminal justice system as itengages with Aboriginal women as victimsand perpetrators of crime. I argue, along withrepresentatives of Aboriginal women, thatthe administration of criminal justice needs anAboriginal female sensitivity. The Aboriginalfemale voices of reason which are cryingout in the wilderness need to be brought intothe boardrooms of government. Aboriginalwomen must be given a meaningful role inredefining the everyday impact of criminaljustice reforms in Aboriginal communities. Theprimarily patriarchal system of criminal andconstitutional laws does not benefit Aboriginalwomen, and, in fact, harms them as it is appliedin the daily lives of Aboriginal women. I arguethere is a constitutional place for Aboriginalwomen to be involved, namely throughAboriginal self-government, whose jurisdictionmay include criminal justice administration. Onlywhen Aboriginal women exercise their rights toparticipate in shaping the future of Aboriginalcriminal justice administration will the violenceagainst them within and outside the systemstop.97. Napoleon, V. (2001). Extinction byNumber: Colonialism Made Easy. CanadianJournal of Law and Society, 16.Keywords: Adequate Human Services andSocial Safety Net/Cultural Integrity and Identity/Colonization/Culture/Ethnicity/First Nations/HistoryAbstract: Nationhood can be defined eitherpositively, which will lead to a civic modelof citizenship, or negatively, from which anethnic model of citizenship will ensue. Eachapproach has a direct, formative effect ona nation’s political power and on its nationaland international relations. The ethnic modelof defining First Nations, advanced by colonialgovernments via legislation and modern-daytreaties and adopted by First Nations, diffusesFirst Nations’ political power and distorts FirstNations’ national issues by reframing them asprimarily social and economic disadvantages.Conversely, an inclusive civic model ofnationhood will enable First Nations to rebuildand maintain their political strength andintegrity by moving far beyond establishingtheir boundaries and internal identity on bloodand ethnicity. Current-day political and legaldiscourse on self-government, Aboriginal rightsand title, and treaties is largely founded onwestern constructs of nationhood that arisefrom European history and cultures. First Nationsconstructs of nationhood remain unarticulatedor obscured, or are discarded at the selfgovernmentand treaty negotiation tables tothe detriment of First Nations. The consequenceof this approach is to further entrenchCanadian structural power imbalances ratherthan create positive political, economic, andsocial change for First Nations. A differentapproach is necessary. First Nations and westernconstructs of nationhood and citizenship mustbe critically examined and compared, andFirst Nations must begin rebuilding inclusive,viable, civic societies based on nations, not onineffective Indian Act bands (Journal Abstract).98. Native Women’s Association ofCanada (1992). Aboriginal Women and theConstitutional Debates. Canadian WomanStudies, 12, 14.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/CanadianConstitution99. Nelson, S. (1991). Canada Fires OjibwayWoman for Harassment Protest. Off Our Backs,21, 4.Keywords: Canada/Government/HumanRights/Racism/WorkAbstract: On the same day in 1986 that BrianMulroney signed an international Proclamationto Combat Racism and Racial Discrimination,his government fired Mary Pitawanakwat froma government office in Regina, Saskatchewan.After an investigation in 1988 and 1989, theHuman Rights Commission confirmed manyof the incidents, including discriminatoryremarks against Aboriginal people, touchingof her buttocks, and sexual innuendos inoffice memos, all creating a poisoned workenvironment. The government asked afederal court judge to bar the parties in thesuit from carrying the case forward. In April1991, the court ruled against the government,but threw out sexual harassment charges ona technicality, making Pitawanakwat refilethem separately. Her case has won support

from labor, women’s rights organizations, andAboriginal groups.100. Nichol, R. A. (2000). Factors Contributingto Resilience in Aboriginal Persons WhoAttended Residential Schools. Thesis (M.S.W.)-- University of Manitoba, Fall 2000.Keywords: Education/First Nations/ManitobaAbstract: Thesis examines factors that promotedresilience in Aboriginal people who attendedresidential schools. A small sample of fourwomen and two men from First Nations groupsin Alberta and Saskatchewan were studied.The research identifies factors that helpedthese people endure the residential schoolexperience such as: long-term marriages, alifelong interest in education, high intelligence,and cooperative coping strategies. A happyand nurturing childhood and a strong beliefin their traditional Aboriginal religion are alsopointed out as resiliency factors.101. Nipshank, M. (2005). Aboriginal Women:No Rights to Land or Children. Toronto, ON:Education Wife Assault.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequatePower/Social Justice and Equity/ViolenceAgainst WomenAbstract: Claims that the destruction of thematriarchal system has led to the normalizationof violence against women and the creation ofadditional obstacles for women who want childcustody and access rights.102. Ouellette, G. J. M. W. (2002). The FourthWorld: An Indigenous Perspective on Feminismand Aboriginal Women’s Activism. Halifax, NS:Fernwood Publishing.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequatePower/Gender/Racism/Social Justice andEquityAbstract: The Fourth World examines fourquestions: To what extent do Aboriginal womenunderstand experience and articulate theiroppression? To what extent do colonizedwomen perceive racism as the source of theiroppression? To what extent do Aboriginalwomen view male domination within theirown Aboriginal societies as the as the sourceof the oppression? How do Aboriginal womenarticulate racism and gender oppression?103. Peers, L. (1996). Subsistence, SecondaryLiterature and Gender Bias: The Saulteaux. InC. Miller & P. Chuchryk (Eds.), Women of theFirst Nations: Power, Wisdom and Strength. (pp.39-50). Winnipeg, MB: The University of ManitobaPress.Keywords: First Nations Women/Gender/Manitoba104. Petersen, A. M. (1995). Waltzing with anElephant: First Nations Women’s Efforts to Createa Hostel for Yukon Women in Crisis. Thesis (M.A.)-- Simon Fraser University 1995.Keywords: Culture/First Nations/First NationsWomen/Government/Health/ Housing/Justice/WelfareAbstract: In 1975, various crucial issuesfaced Yukon women: wife-battering; lack ofhousing; migration from rural communitiesinto Whitehorse; and conflict with the Justicesystem. The First Nations women of the YukonIndian Women’s Association resolved to builda multi-purpose hostel for Yukon women incrisis as a partial response to these problems.The Yukon territorial government had alsoidentified these issues as areas of concern, suchthat various social welfare and justice systemagencies responded to requests from the FirstNations women to assist in building a transitionhome. Well-educated, professional workers(who were also feminists) from governmentaland non-governmental agencies becameactively involved in the development of a1979 proposal to the federal Departmentof Health and Welfare for a demonstrationgrant. A combination of archival and interviewdata reveals that this ostensibly collaborativeinvolvement of state agencies and feministbureaucrats had the consequence of merelyimposing the historically unequal male/femalepower relations found within state agenciesonto the grass-roots shelter. The result was that,by 1982, First Nations women had completelywithdrawn from involvement in the transitionhome. Feminist theory and a specific viewof state theory are used to examine thattransformation process. Particular attentionis paid to how issues of class, race, andprofessionalism permeated the framing andresolution of crucial issues in the Whitehorsetransition home. The concept of the ”privilegeof feminism”` is used in explaining why womenof colour and First Nations women have feltmarginalized and isolated, and been led toreject what they see as white middle-classfeminists imposing belief systems that areincongruent with other cultures’ world views.The author joins these women in calling for adeconstruction of privilege, and the building ofmutually respectful coalitions among womenof different cultures and world views to addresswomen’s issues.105. Phipps, K. (1989). Patterns of CommunityLeadership among Coppermine Women. Thesis(B.Sc. Honours) - Trent University, Peterborough,Ont., 1989. Peterborough, ON.Keywords: Native women/Family ViolenceAbstract: Examines, through oral interviewswith Native women in the community, theresponse of Coppermine women to problems ofalcohol abuse and family violence. The paperargues that women have played the decisiveAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing33

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing34role in organizing community resources tosecure better legal support for women victimsof violence; and to provide counselling andemotional support.106. Pope, Al (2004). B.C. Court IgnoresAboriginal Women’s Plea. Canadian Dimension,38, 10-12.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequatePower/Racism/Safety and Security/SocialJustice and EquityAbstract: According to the Aboriginal JusticeImplementation Commission report of 1999,“Aboriginal women are the victims of racism,of sexism, and of unconscionable levels ofdomestic violence. The justice system has donelittle to protect them from any of these assaults.”Nearly five years on, events in Watson Lake,Yukon, lead many to wonder what, if anythinghas changed. On February 22, B.C. courtjudge E.D. Schmidt sentenced Daniel Morris, aKaska man, and former chief of the Liard FirstNation, to two years’ probation on four chargesrelated to what the Liard Aboriginal Women’sSociety describes as “a horrific act of domesticviolence.”107. Razack, S. (1994). What Is to Be Gainedby Looking White People in the Eye? Culture,Race, and Gender in Cases of Sexual Violence.Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society,19, 894-923.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequatePower/Culture/Empowerment/Gender/Life-Sustaining Values, Morals, and Ethics/ Racism/Safety and Security/Sexual Violence/SocialJustice and EquityAbstract: Part of a special issue on feminismand the law. An examination of the uses towhich culture is put in the courts when theissue is violence against racialized women.Both women of color and Aboriginal womenare obliged to talk about culture and violencewithin the context of white supremacy, acontext in which racism and sexism and theirintersections are denied. White judges andwhite lawyers seeking neat, culturally sensitive,ungendered solutions to justice have not oftenstopped to question their right to interpretAboriginal culture, history, and contemporaryreality. Cross-cultural sensitivity training of thejudiciary will be of little use unless it is pursuedin the context of the greater empowerment ofthe subordinate group. Cultural considerationsmight be effectively deployed if they remaingrounded in the realities of domination. Inthe courtroom, the cultural background ofracialized women can be used to explainthe structural constraints of their lives (JournalAbstract).108. Razack, S. (2000). Gendered RacialViolence and Spatialized Justice: The Murder ofPamela George. Canadian Journal of Law andSociety, 15, 91-130.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequateIncome and Sustainable Economies/ AdequatePower/Cultural Integrity and Identity/Culture/Empowerment/History/Racism/Safety andSecurity/Social Justice and Equity109. Razack, S. H. (1998). Looking WhitePeople in the Eye: Gender, Race, and Culturein Courtrooms and Classrooms. Toronto, ON:University of Toronto Press.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Canada/ CulturalDifferences/Culture/Disabilities/ Education/Gender/History/Research/women/SexualAssaultAbstract: This book challenges the widelyheld view that relations between dominantand subordinate groups can be unmarkedby histories of oppression, as many culturaldiversity theorists, educators, and legalpractitioners presume. In this view, problems ofcommunication are mere technical glitchescaused by cultural and other differences,and educators and legal practitioners needonly learn various “cross-cultural” strategies tomanage these differences. What makes thecultural differences approach so inadequatein the classroom is not that it is wrong, becausepeople in reality do have culturally specificpractices that must be taken into account, butthat its emphasis on cultural diversity too oftendescends to a superficial reading of differencesthat makes power relations invisible and keepsdominant cultural norms in place. This bookexamines how relations of domination andsubordination stubbornly regulate encountersin the classroom and courtroom and shapewhat can be known, thought, and said. Essaysfocus on intertwining systems of domination--capitalism, patriarchy, and White supremacy--as they affect the experiences of CanadianAboriginal women, other Canadian minoritygroups, and women with developmentaldisabilities in college classrooms and in courtcases involving sexual assault and immigrationissues. In Looking White People in the Eye:Gender, Race and Culture in Courtrooms andClassrooms, Sherene Razack addresses thefailure of feminist theory and of feminist lawyers,academics, educators, and adjudicators,as well as non-feminist judges, to addressdifference. Razack explores the hierarchicalrelations implicit in feminist theory and suggeststhe means by which we can explore andredress our complicity in “relations of ruling.”This review places Looking White People in theEye at the centre of a discussion of the needfor feminism to journey from a “here” in whichdifference and hierarchical relations are notsufficiently acknowledged by feminists to a“there” in which difference is at the core offeminism. It concludes that Razack’s analysisis an integral part of the evolution of feministtheory.

110. Redbird, E. B. (1998). Honouring NativeWomen: The Backbone of Native Sovereignty.In K. Hazlehurst (Ed.), Popular Justice andCommunity Regeneration: Pathways ofIndigenous Reform (pp. 121-141). Westport:Praeger.Keywords: Justice/Aboriginal WomenAbstract: Redbird deconstructs the term“sovereignty” through a holistic lens. Tracinghistoric violation of Native women throughAmerican colonization, she reveals howcontemporary American Indian policycontinues to constrain women. Her remedy isto develop policy that will place true power- authority and responsibility - in the handsof women’s organizations to ensure therevitalization of society grounded in traditionalknowledge and “the genuine sovereignty,which comes from the family and clan - thebasic institutions of Native society.”111. Roach, K. & Rudin, J. (2000). Gladue:The Judicial and Political Reception of aPromising Decision. (Canada Supreme Courtcase Gladue) (Changing Punishment at theTurn of the Century). Canadian Journal ofCriminology, 42, 355.Keywords: Adequate Power/Canada/Safetyand Security/Social Justice and Equity/ YouthAbstract: This paper examines the SupremeCourt’s decision in R. v. Gladue whichinterpreted the requirement in s. 718.2(e) ofthe Criminal Code that judges at sentencingexamine alternatives to imprisonment “withparticular attention to the circumstancesof Aboriginal offenders.” The authors arguethat Gladue is promising in its recognition ofAboriginal over-incarceration as a pressingproblem and of the disadvantages suffered byall Aboriginal offenders including those livingin an urban environment. The authors examinethe relation between s. 718.2(e) and restorativeand retributive principles of sentencing. Theyalso explore the relevance of s. 718.2(e) incases of serious crimes and the role that Gladuemay play in a process of net widening throughextensive use of conditional sentences in caseswhere imprisonment would not normally havebeen imposed. The reception of Gladue in thecriminal justice system, including the SupremeCourt’s subsequent six decisions concerningconditional sentences, is also examined. Finally,the authors explore the negative reception thatGladue received in the popular media and theinitial decision to exclude s. 718.2(e) from the billto enact a new Youth Criminal Justice Act. Theauthors conclude that although it is a promisingdecision, Gladue is not likely to reduce the overincarcerationof Aboriginal people in Canada(Authors’ abstract).112. Rojas, A. (2001). Iglumi Isumatait: AReinterpretation of the Position of Inuit Women.Thesis (M.A.) -- Trent University, 2001.Keywords: Canada/Inuit Women/womenAbstract: This thesis is a subjective explorationof the images of Inuit women in narrative textsabout Inuit. The intention in writing this thesis is toopen up a space in which inquisitive dialogue isencouraged regarding the generally acceptedposition of Inuit women. Inuit women havebeen portrayed in many contradictory images.These images can be seen as an oppressiveforce that presently confines Inuit women whoonce held a highly important decision-makingrole in Inuit society. The reinterpretation of thedescriptions of Inuit women provides a deeperunderstanding of the position of Inuit women inInuit society. This thesis questions the uncriticalacceptance of texts and encourages theemergence of the “active” reader by readingagainst the grain of the text (Author Abstract).113. Rowley, S. (2001). Paths of Resistance,Tracks of Disruption: On Stereotypes, Native/Women’s Spirituality, and the Problems ofFunctionalism and Cultural Appropriation in the“Nature” of Dominating Western Cultures. Thesis(Ph.D.) -- York University, 2001.Keywords: Canada/Culture/Native women/WorkAbstract: Native peoples comprise living,dynamic, contemporary Nations, with life waysthat have survived in the midst of (indeed, inspite of) the genocide perpetrated againstthem by dominating non-Native cultures.Native traditions have neither vanished, as thecolonizers of North America predicted, norhave they remained frozen in “precontact”or early contact time. Such notions arereflections of extremely powerful stereotypesthat reinforce the notions of some non-Nativeswho feel that they can take for their owncertain aspects of Native tradition that appealto them because the traditions are supposedto belong to people unknown and long dead.This dissertation is an examination of some ofthe images and stereotypes of the life ways ofNative peoples, in particular, the life ways ofNative women, and how these have historicallybeen related to “nature” in dominatingcultures in North America (with a focus onCanada). It seeks to disrupt and subvert anumber of these stereotypes, appropriations,and misinformation about Native peoplesthat are present in environmental philosophy,ecofeminist and related feminist spiritualitymaterials by identifying them, outlining howthey are represented and perpetuated in thesematerials, and suggesting that all endeavours todiscuss and/or research Native peoples adoptmethods that are grounded in -- and beginwith -- the voices, the images, information, andtheories generated by Native peoples. I striveto honour the work of Native people who havealready shared their wisdom with non-Nativecommunities by concentrating on their wordsas primary sites of theory and knowledge--theories which offer profound critiques of someAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing35

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing36of the materials that are part of environmentalphilosophy and feminist/ecofeminist movement.In so doing, the methods that I have developedfor the presentation of this dissertation are at‘least’ as important as my contributions tothe literature and to “original facts” (typicalexpectations of Ph.D. dissertations). Hence, inan effort to push beyond disciplined boundariesof the academy and present this research in amanner that mirrors the issues and concerns inwhich I have grounded my research, this work iswritten with three interwoven typefaces--eachto mark clearly the “voice” or process it reveals:Native “voice,” a narrative of my process, andmy analysis (Author Abstract).114. Sanders, D. (1984). Indian Status: AWomen’s Issue or an Indian Issue? CanadianNative Law Reporter, 3, 30-41.Keywords: women/identity/Indian Act115. Sangster, J. (1999). Criminalizing theColonized: Ontario Native Women Confrontthe Criminal Justice System, 1920-60. CanadianHistorical Review, 80, 32-61.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Canada/Gender/Justice/Native womenAbstract: The author examines the roots ofAboriginal women’s over-incarceration inOntario in the 20th century, especially duringand immediately following World War II. Recordsfrom the Mercer, the only Ontario Reformatoryfor Women; Material and cultural dislocationsof colonialism; Gender and race paternalismof the courts and prisons; Cultural gap in thenotions of crime and punishment.116. Saskatchewan Women’s Secretariat(1999). Profile of Aboriginal Women inSaskatchewan. Regina, SK: SaskatchewanWomen’s Secretariat.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/BasicPhysical Needs/WorkAbstract: This Profile of Aboriginal Womenin Saskatchewan offers a comprehensiveoverview of the issues that are most importantto Aboriginal women in their struggle toimprove their lives and those of their children.It is designed to assist community-basedorganizations and policy makers at all levelsof government to better serve the needsof Aboriginal women and their families inSaskatchewan. The evidence gathered inthis Profile shows that the Aboriginal femalepopulation is much younger than the non-Aboriginal female population. Some of the keyfindings for this literature review’s considerationare: (1) Aboriginal women over 15 yearsof age are less likely to participate in thepaid labour force and more likely to spendsubstantial amounts of time caring for childrenand seniors on an unpaid basis. They havea different pattern of paid and unpaid workcompared to non-Aboriginal women. This, inturn, has an impact on their incomes, whichare lower than those of non-Aboriginal women;(2) Aboriginal women are more likely to havechildren living with them than non-Aboriginalwomen, and they are also more likely to belone parents. In Regina and Saskatoon, abouthalf of all Aboriginal children live with a singleparent, most often a lone mother. Aboriginalwomen are also much more likely to move theirplace of residence than their non-Aboriginalcounterparts. Provides an overview of the issuesthat are most important to Aboriginal womenin their struggle to improve their lives and thoseof their children. Addresses the health statusof First Nations women, along with generaldemographics and statistics on education,employment, income, housing, families, andviolence. Links gender-inclusive analysis withan approach that takes into consideration thebroad social and economic situation of groupsof people (population health approach).Features comments by a number of First Nationsand Métis women in the province.117. Shirritt-Beaumont, R. M. (2001). TheRossville Scandal, 1846: James Evans, theCree, and a Mission on Trial. Thesis (M.A.) -- TheUniversity of Manitoba, 2001.Keywords: Culture/Manitoba/Native women/WorkAbstract: In February 1846, the Reverend JamesEvans, who had been for several years thesenior missionary among the Cree at NorwayHouse, Manitoba, was accused by membersof his congregation of sexual impropriety withyoung Native women who had resided atvarious times in his home. The trial that followedis a central theme in ‘The Rossville Scandal,1846: James Evans, the Cree, and a Mission onTrial’, which is a study, like past historical works,of the impact missionaries and Hudson’s BayCompany officers had on events before, during,and after the trial. However, framed by aconsideration of the larger debate concerningthe broader meaning and significance ofmissionary/Aboriginal encounters, analysis seeksto break new ground in its focus on the origins,culture, and possible motivation of Evans’accusers and the Cree community from whichthey came. Some conclusions are possible as aresult of this investigation. Certainly the RossvilleCree were actors, not merely acted upon,in their encounter with the missionaries. Theyplayed a major role in the establishment andprogress of the mission and acted decisively todefend their religious beliefs in the face of HBCopposition in 1845. In addition, some of themwere also willing to resist perceived misconductby their senior missionary in February 1846. Thecircumstances of Evans’ trial may never be fullyunderstood, nor his guilt or innocence provenwith any finality, but not one member left theChurch as a result of the allegations against himnor was anyone involved in the trial expelled

from the congregation by the local Elders.Evidently converted to the message rather thanthe messenger, the Rossville Cree had built theirfaith upon a rock and withstood the storm.118. Stalmach, A. (1995). Native Womenand Work: Changing Representations inPhotographs from the Collections of theNational Film Board and of the Department ofIndian Affairs and Northern Development. Thesis(M.A.) -- Carleton University, 1995.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Canada/Culture/History/Native women/ WorkAbstract: Aboriginal women’s identities havebeen manufactured and manipulated by whiteculture through photography and other visualmedia. By referring to archival, postcolonial,historiographic, photographic, and feministtheories, and to the historical context, this studyargues that Department of Indian Affairs andNorthern Development (DIAND) and NationalFilm Board (NFB) photographs that portrayAboriginal women at work between 1940 and1970 are in fact mirrors of white cultural values.The images illustrate what white women, notNative women, were to aspire to and how theywere treated with respect to work, within andwithout the home. Actual Aboriginal women’shistories and experiences are absent fromimages made by departments who sought todefine and direct Native culture in Canada fortyyears ago. In NFB and DIAND photos, Nativewomen are either created in the image of whitewomen or renamed as ‘non-Indian’, or they areportrayed as the ‘other’. By demonstrating howphotos of Native women are reflective of whitecultural values, this study invites further study ofmassive archival and non-archival collections ofphotographs related to Indian Affairs.119. Standing Committee on AboriginalAffairs and Northern Development (2005).Walking Arm-in-Arm to Resolve the Issue of On-Reserve Matrimonial Real Property. Ottawa,ON: Standing Committee on Aboriginal Affairsand Northern Development.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Canada/Matrimonial Real PropertyAbstract: In most of Canada, upon thebreakdown of marriage, or in some cases, uponthe breakdown of a common-law relationship,provincial or territorial law governs how assets ofthe marriage or common-law relationship areto be divided. Assets include personal property(furniture, vehicles, and other objects) as well asreal property (land or things attached to land).This report looks at how the federal Crown canbest address the longstanding issue of onreservematrimonial real property for Aboriginalwomen and children.120. Status of Women Canada (2000).Aboriginal Women’s Roundtable on GenderEquality. Ottawa, ON: Status of WomenCanada.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequatePower/Canada/Canadian Women/FirstNations/Gender/Social Justice and Equity/Status of WomenAbstract: In December 1999, SWC held anational consultation on gender equality withCanadian women from across the country,including First Nations, Inuit and Métis women.During that consultation, the Aboriginal womenrequested a consultation dedicated to theneeds and aspirations of Aboriginal women,avoiding competition with the mainstreamprocess. In an effort to address these concerns,SWC convened an Aboriginal Women’sRoundtable on Gender Equality in Ottawa onMarch 30-April 1, 2000.121. Sugar, F. & Fox, L. (1990). NistumPeyako Seyako Seht’wawin Iskwewak: BreakingChains. Canadian Journal of Women andDevelopment, 3, 465-482.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/IncarceratedWomen/racismAbstract: In this paper, the authors offer ahighly personal and compelling analysis of theconditions under which Aboriginal womenhave come to figure so prominently amongthe population of female inmates in federalcorrectional facilities. Arguing that racism liesat the heart of the criminal justice system’streatment of Aboriginal women, the authorsargue that there is an urgent need for healing“through traditional ceremonies, support,understanding, and ... compassion” (p. 482)(Dion Stout, 1997).122. Sutherland, L. (1996). Citizen Minus:Aboriginal Women and Indian Self-government.Race, Nation, Class and Gender. Thesis (M.A.)-- The University of Regina, 1996.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/women/Canada/Gender/First Nations/First NationsWomen/Social Class/ChildrenAbstract: The purpose of this study is to developa theoretical framework which will encompasselements of race, class, nation and genderas they are applicable to the position of FirstNations women in Canadian and Indiansociety. In order for Indian women to beempowered to struggle for a fundamentalchange in their position, it is mandatory thatIndian women and Indian people in generaldevelop a social class consciousness. It is timefor Indian people to confront the kinds oftraditionalism and nationalism that justify andcondone maltreatment of Indian women andtheir children. This conservative nationalism isthe dark side of ‘liberal’ multicultural policy inCanada. It is divisive and destructive. This studyseeks to develop a new theoretical frameworkwhich will critique the prevailing ideology whichAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing37

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing38fosters reactionary nationalism and ensnaresIndian people in neocolonial hierarchies whichdestroy their hope and vision for the future.Indian self-government is viewed by many asa panacea for improved conditions for Indianpeople. This study demonstrates that Indian selfgovernmentwill probably be a continuum ofpast neocolonialism in the absence of socialistconsciousness.123. Szymanski, R. & McGill University, D. o.G. (1989). Television Images of Inuit Women inLight of their Present Experiences.Keywords: Inuit Women/Safety and Security/ImagesAbstract: The objective of this project was todetermine the significance of Inuit women’simages as represented on Inuit broadcasttelevision in light of their contemporaryexperiences and roles within the communityand the family. The author examined thesignificance and relevance of Inuit broadcasttelevision images during a period of rapidcultural and social changes. Changes thatare affecting Inuit women’s traditional roles,responsibilities and perceptions were studied.124. Turpel-Lafond, M. E. (1997). Patriarchyand Paternalism: The Legacy of the CanadianState for First Nations Women. In C. Andrew & S.Rodgers (Eds.), Women and the Canadian State(Montreal, QC: McGill-Queen’s University Press.Keywords: First Nations Women/ Constitution/PatriarchyAbstract: Unavailable125. Turpel, M. (1993). Patriarchy andPaternalism: The Legacy of the Canadian Statefor First Nations Women. Canadian Journal ofWomen and the Law, 6, 174-192.Keywords: Canada/First Nations/First NationsWomen/Poverty/Status of WomenAbstract: Two decades after the release of theReport on the Royal Commission on the Statusof Women in Canada, Turpel assesses the reportfrom the standpoint of First Nations women.She criticizes the mandate of the report, thecommitment to equality of opportunity forwomen, and ideas that are inappropriateconceptually and culturally for First Nationswomen. She also suggests that the Indian Actis such a lethal document, imposing ‘racial’categories and dividing communities, that thereport’s recommendations for ‘reform’ mustbe rejected. Moreover, Turpel remarks that thevoices of First Nations women are not evidentin either the findings or the recommendationsof the report, and she sadly notes that little haschanged in the 20 years since the report; infact, poverty and oppression have escalatedfor First Nations women. She concludes thatthe governments cannot be trusted to providechange for First Nations women and shechallenges white feminists to question theuniversality of their aspirations and prescriptions,and to support the First Nations politicalagenda.126. Van Kirk, S. (2002). From “Marryingin”to “Marrying-out”: Changing Patterns ofAboriginal/Non-Aboriginal Marriage in ColonialCanada. Frontiers, 23, 1-11.Keywords: Canada/Canadian Women/ History127. Wall, S. (2000). Disability and Wellbeing?:The Story of an Aboriginal Woman.Thesis (M.S.W.) -- University of Regina, Regina, SK.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/Disabilities/Gender/History/Multiple Oppressions/Research/Well-being/WorkAbstract: This study analyzes how living with adisability affects the well-being of a womanof Aboriginal ancestry. The research is anexploratory, qualitative, feminist study. Thesocial well-being model developed by RoeherInstitute and the theory of multiple oppressionsprovide the analytical background for thestudy. The study focused on a woman named“Hope” and concluded that her race, class,gender, and disability interrelate to significantlyaffect her quality of life. The specific questionaddressed in this research is, how does livingwith a physical disability affect the well-beingof a woman of Aboriginal ancestry? Thisresearch is an exploratory, qualitative, feministstudy. An oral history approach was used indata collection through multiple interviewswith a woman who is referred to as Hope. Twotheoretical frameworks are used in the dataanalysis. First, the social well-being modeldeveloped by the Roeher Institute breaksdown the concept of well-being into threeelements: self-determination, democratizationand equality. The second theoretical frameworkused is the theory of multiple oppressions,which emphasizes the interlocking nature ofall oppressions. It also states that oppressionis structured on multiple levels -- the personal,group, and institutional levels. The theoryof multiple oppressions emphasizes theimportance of placing the experience of theperson or group being studied at the centerof the work, a belief consistent with oral historymethodology.128. Warren, G. (2001). Just Another Indian:A Serial Killer and Canada’s Indifference.Calgary, AB: Fifth House Publishers.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Canada/Prostitution/Racism/SexismAbstract: This book is a look at the trial of JohnMartin Crawford and the serial murders ofAboriginal women in the prairie communities ofAlberta and Saskatchewan.

129. Webster, C. M. (2004). Classificationwithout Validity or Equity: An EmpiricalExamination of the Custody Rating Scale forFederally Sentenced Women Offenders inCanada. Canadian Journal of Criminology andCriminal Justice, 46, 395-421.Keywords: Social Justice and Equity/WomenOffendersAbstract: In order to fulfill its legal mandateto assign an initial security classification ofminimum, medium, or maximum to all federallysentenced women offenders, the CorrectionalService of Canada (CSC) has used the CustodyRating Scale (CRS) - an objective statisticaltool - for more than a decade. Despite CSC’snumerous claims of this tool’s validity and theequity of its outcomes, it has been repeatedlysuggested that the CRS misclassifies women ingeneral and Aboriginal women in particular.This article extends the (theoretical) debatesurrounding the applicability of the CRS forthese two sub-groups of the inmate population.Using actual findings published by CSC, thisarticle empirically demonstrates that the overallscale, one of its two sub-scales, and many ofthe individual items making up the classificationtool have weak or no predictive validity forAboriginal and/or non-Aboriginal women.Further, it provides evidence that the CRSintroduces a systematic bias against Aboriginal(relative to non-Aboriginal) offenders whereby asubstantial proportion of these minority womenare unjustly over-classified in higher levels ofsecurity. The article concludes with a discussionof several of the broader theoretical and policyimplications of these findings.130. Whattam, T. (2003). Reflections onResidential School and our Future: “Daylight inour Minds.” International Journal of QualitativeStudies in Education, 16, 435-448.Keywords: Canada/Cultural Integrity andIdentity/Education/First Nations/Social Justiceand EquityAbstract: This testimonial takes up what it meansto be an educator of Aboriginal ancestryworking within existing school structures for thebetterment of Aboriginal children. While thetestimonials do not presume to speak for herpeople, she contends that her story of growingup and becoming a teacher is not unlikethat of other First Nations people in Canada.She examines her life within the continuingcolonizing structures of Canada and showshow the struggles for justice and recognition ofAboriginal wisdom within education are makinga difference.131. Williams, D. G., Lange, P., Bayfield,D., Beardy, M., Lindsay, E. A., Cole, D. C.et al. (1992). A Lament by Women for “thePeople, the Land” [Nishnawbi-Aski Nation]: AnExperience of Loss. Canadian Journal of PublicHealth, 83, 331-334.Keywords: Canada/Health/Health CareAbstract: In response to a hunger fast by fivemembers of the Sandy Lake Band at the SiouxLookout Zone Hospital in Northern Ontario(Canada)--a cultural protest of the status ofhealth care services in the Zone--the federalMinister of Health agreed to establish a panelto review the region’s health care system. Theyear-long study involved hearings in each ofthe 28 remote communities of the Zone, andinterviews with Elders and chiefs, women,and health care providers. A consultationteam from McMaster University (Faculty ofHealth Sciences) assisted the panel withepidemiological survey research, literaturereviews, and the interpretation of the datacollected in the proceedings. This paper offersour interpretation of data collected from thequalitative study component. Specifically, itprovides an interpretation of the discourse ofthe Native women of the Nishnawbi-Aski Nationon their experience of health and health care.An “idiom of loss” captures, we feel, the depthof their concerns, dilemmas and frustrations(Journal Abstract).132. Young, L. (1997). Gender EqualLegislatures: Evaluating the Proposed NunavutElectoral System. Canadian Public Policy -Analyse de Politiques, XXIII, 316.Keywords: Adequate Power/GenderAbstract: This article outlines and evaluates aproposal for mandated gender parity in thelegislature of the new territory of Nunavut.It concludes that the proposal is consistentwith democratic rights and enhancesdesirable relationships of representationand accountability between elector andlegislator. As such, the Nunavut proposalrepresents an innovation reform that adaptsCanadian political traditions to accommodatecontemporary social cleavages. Althoughthe results of a 1997 referendum in Nunavutpreclude the implementation of the proposalin the new territory, the proposal remains arelevant contribution to policy discussionsconcerning the underrepresentation of womenin elected office.133. Zellerer, E. (2004). Aboriginal Women’sStruggles for Justice in Canada. In S. Pickering& C. Lambert (Eds.), Global Issues, Women andJustice. Sydney, Australia: Sydney Institute ofCriminology.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ Australia/Canada/Social Justice and EquityAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing39

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing2. Access, Delivery andPerspectives RegardingHealth and Well-BeingThe research in this area centers onkey health issues, the status of healthcare, perceptions, participation,decision making and attitudes andbehaviours of Aboriginal women regardingthe issue of health. It also includes a focuson indigenous knowledge respectingspirituality, medicines and the importanceof women’s involvement in the healtheducation field. The literature under thisheading have been divided into six subcategoriesthat deal with (1) health policiesas well as legal and key issues surroundingthe issue of health among Aboriginalwomen; (2) perspectives, needs anddecisions regarding health and well-being;(3) the use of storytelling and its connectionto Aboriginal women’s perspectives onhealth; (4) encounters with the healthcare profession; (5) perceptions from themedical profession about the health,well-being and quality of life of Aboriginalwomen; and (6) behaviours the Aboriginalwomen are utilizing to promote health andwell-being;Health Policies, Legal and KeyIssues Respecting the Health ofAboriginal WomenThe series of research grouped under thisrubric are devoted to examining variousgovernment health policies and legalas well as key issues that center on thehealth concerns of Aboriginal people inCanada. A great deal of the materialis not entirely specific about the healthstatus of Aboriginal women but it doesprovide valuable insight into many ofthe key issues and perspectives on thetrends and changes to the health status ofvarious Aboriginal populations which canbe extrapolated and extended towardan overall understanding of the healthsituation among the diversity of Aboriginalwomen in Canada.Research colleagues Deiter and Otway(2001) surveyed a sample group of 98Aboriginal women about what goodhealth and healing means to them andtheir communities. The sample groupincluded Aboriginal women from urban,reserve, and northern communities inSaskatchewan and Manitoba. Theirresearch provides excellent insight intoAboriginal women’s definitions of health,healthy communities and genderedperspectives on health. For the womenwho participated in this study, healthincludes a good diet, exercise, absenceof substance abuse, adequate rest andfood. In addition, their definitions wereholistic in perspective, in that for them,health involved not just the physicalaspects of health but includes intellectual,emotional and spiritual aspects. Many ofthe women utilizing the medicine wheelteachings indicate that if one is out ofbalance in any one of the domains -- mental, spiritual, emotional or physical-- then a woman is considered out ofbalance and unhealthy. Sickness andillness can result from the imbalance (p.19).Their definitions of healthy communitiesincluded a community where everyoneworked together and took care ofeach other and included absence ofaddictions and violence, active people,in addition to adequate services in healthand recreation (p.19). The Aboriginalwomen’s perspective on health is holisticand involves a balance between themental, physical, emotional and spiritual.This perspective also includes notions ofharmony between one’s self and theland as well as the importance of havingadequate financial resources in order tomeet one’s personal health needs (p.19).The findings from Deiter and Otway’sresearch are instructive in providing anunderstanding of what the Aboriginalwomen in their study consider to be thetop three health concerns for communities.Violence was identified to be the numberone concern, followed by diabetes andmental health issues; these were alsofollowed closely by the identificationof cancer and hypertension, including40

substance abuse problems and other lessprevalent concerns (e.g. obesity, STDs,HIV/AIDS, and FASD). The findings indicatethat these women are knowledgeableabout the issues impacting health andAboriginal people. They feel that thenumber one health need for all Aboriginalpeople is increased funding for non-insuredbenefits and access to other health-relatedservices and resources. They understandthe reality and impact of poverty on theirhealth. Because of their poverty, many donot have the financial resources for theirown eyeglasses, dentures, dental care,and/or prescription drugs. This is furthercompounded by a lack of access to othercommunity resources needed to addresstheir mental health concerns, propernutritional diet, access to medical careand facilities on reserve as well as longwaits to see a physician (p.20).A majority of the Aboriginal women inthis study felt that they did not live inhealthy communities. Many identifiedviolence and substance abuse as oneof the reasons why communities areunhealthy. The higher rates of diseaseswithin the community were also noted asanother factor that bears upon the overallperception of health within a community.Given the qualitative responses by theAboriginal women who participated inthis study, Deiter and Otway concludedtheir report with eight recommendationsaimed at ensuring and empoweringholistic health approaches for Aboriginalwomen. These recommendations arecentered on the need to improve thesocioeconomic and political status ofAboriginal women in Canada and therecognized need for education; betterpaying employment; adequate housing;affordable day care and family supportservices; the need for more researchand funding for mental health issues;incorporation of Aboriginal healthvalues to support effective communityhealth programming that would alsopromote and empower Aboriginalwomen; increased funding for uninsuredbenefits; further funding for communitybasedfamily violence programmingthat involved women as full participants;research and programming to addressviolence against Aboriginal women;and the development of partnershipsbetween Aboriginal, provincial, federaland municipal governments regardingcommunity-based health care delivery toensure the participation and inclusion ofAboriginal women in health care deliveryand decisions.Madeleine Dion Stout, a female Aboriginalscholar, reviewed literature on current andemerging policy issues affecting Aboriginalwomen. At that time she suggested thatmore research was required for looking atthe circumstances of Métis and off-reservewomen and women with disabilities, aswell as the justice system and women’sinvolvement in economic developmentand the impact of these systems in relationto the well-being and health of Aboriginalwomen (Dion Stout, 1998). Also, what isimportant is that Aboriginal women arediverse and that generalization aboutAboriginal women’s health is not alwayspossible. As noted by Dion Stout (1996), “itis important to remember that Aboriginalwomen do not all suffer the vagaries ofill health equally and always. In the finalanalysis, the diversity and ingenuity ofAboriginal women cannot be ignored.”Dion Stout and Kipling (2002) again lookedat health services, the administration ofhealth services, medical policies andits implications for Aboriginal womenand their health, hygiene and access tomedical care. They make reference tothe impact of low educational attainmenton Aboriginal women’s health as wellas the connecting factors that socialenvironments play in women’s health.The way in which major social roles (suchas partner, parent and/or worker) andthe socioeconomic factor play out inconnection with women’s health wereexamined in an overview and synthesis ofresearch on psychosocial influences onwomen’s health by Janzen (1998), whoseAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing41

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing42findings indicate that it is important to payattention to the particular circumstances inwomen’s lives to understand the variabilityof health among women (for example,women are also partners, parents andworkers). Janzen provided a moredetailed analysis and picture of Aboriginalwomen’s health in the chapter thatexamined Aboriginal women specifically.O’Doherty (1997) too looked specificallyat gender and health as well as thehealth determinants among Aboriginalwomen and peoples generally withinthe Province of Quebec. O’Doherty’sexamination of gender and health includesa discussion of health determinants,Aboriginal women and the Canadianconstitutional framework with regard tofederal and provincial responsibility forAboriginal health, the transfer of healthcare responsibilities, the sharing of skills,as well as the right to equality and selfgovernment.Key issues around thehealth concerns of rural, remote andnorthern women’s health were exploredby Sutherns, McPhedran and Haworth-Brockman (2005). Health Canada (2005)has developed a fact sheet that focuseson the health of Aboriginal women. HealthCanada states that Aboriginal women’shealth has improved considerably in thepast few decades but that there remainsinequality around Aboriginal health as itrelates to the general population. This isgenerally the case for all Aboriginal peoplebut even amongst Aboriginal peoplewho live off reserve; inequalities in healthcontinue to persist (Statistics Canada,2002).Perspectives, Needs andDecisions Regarding HealthThe research under this category looksprimarily at specific perspectives thathave emerged from the research amongAboriginal women regarding theirperspectives and conceptions on health.The literature also attempts to focus onthe ways that Aboriginal women havetried to influence decisions made aroundhealth concerns for the female populationthrough participation in research. Adelson(2000) for instance, provides a look intoCree perceptions around health andthe politics of Cree well-being. The Creepeople in Adelson’s research teachthat “being alive well” means a varietyof things to them (i.e. ability to pursuetraditional activities, eat the right foodsand keep warm, especially in the north)and that quality of life is linked politicallyand socially and traditional ideas around“being alive well” are very much a part ofcontemporary Cree living. The perceptionsabout health among Métis women wereexplored by Bartlett, an Aboriginal medicaldoctor and researcher. Métis womenhave very specific ideas about whatconstitutes health and what constituteswell-being. Health and well-being are twovery different but interrelated conceptsto Métis women (Bartlett, 2003). Adeeper examination of Métis women’sperspectives on these differences wasdetailed in a recent article published byBartlett in 2003. For Métis women, healthwas most often reflective of physical healthwhereas “well-being” was much broader,holistic and encompassed dimensions ofspirituality, emotional, physical and mental/intellectual aspects of living consistent withthe Aboriginal Life Promotion Frameworkdeveloped by Bartlett.Other research has highlighted that factthat urban Aboriginal women in particularwant to be more involved in influencingdecision making around services relatedto their own health. The urban Aboriginalwomen in Vancouver’s Downtown Eastsidein Benoit, Carroll and Chaudhry’s (2003)study expressed the view that they shouldhave a healing place that was based ona model of care that addressed all theirconcerns in a more integrated mannerand where they would be respectedand given the opportunity to shape andinfluence decision making about theservices that would impact their ownhealth and healing. These women alsoraised the need to focus on Aboriginalwomen’s specific health concerns andthe need for greater culture-based

programming (including traditional healingmethods and therapies), including theneed for access to parenting supportand educational programs, and accessto dental care (Benoit, Carroll, Lawr andChaudhry, 2001). More specifically thefindings from this research recommendintegrating Aboriginal women’s voices intofuture planning, policy development andthe delivery of health programs.Bent (2004) also examines the actual lifeexperiences of health and wellness forAboriginal women. One of the majorfindings from her study indicates thatAboriginal women face health problemsthat are not common to non-Aboriginalwomen and that current health servicesstill do not adequately meet their needsdespite the fact that this has been alreadyconfirmed in the research conductedto date. Aboriginal women on the eastcoast have also participated in researchthat sought to find out what their topthree health concerns were (Davidson,Holderby, Willis, Barksdale, Richardson,Loppie, et al., 2001). The three main healthconcerns identified were: psychosocialissues, other specific illness and cancer.Stress and depression were also recognizedas being a concern among all the groupsbut the researchers note that health careprofessionals rarely consider them as majorhealth problems. Health meanings andconcerns were also extrapolated fromurban Aboriginal women using in-depthinterviewing and participant observation.Garteig’s (1995) analysis of the findingsfrom this study shows that for urbanAboriginal women, their primary healthconception is an integrated understandingof “health as how you live your life.” Alsoblended in with this integrated view arethe concepts of balance, “ideal self” and“shadow self.” Garteig notes that thelatter two concepts of “ideal self” and“shadow self” are used by the womenas measures or indicators of health asthey question their health in relation tobodies, actions, feelings and their visions orgoals. Grant Timmins (2003) examined theunequal power relations between CarrierFirst Nations women in northern BritishColumbia and the medical profession andhow the negativity from these relationshipsimpacted the women. A more detailedlook into Inuit women’s health was thehighlight of Pauktuutit Inuit Women’sAssociation of Canada’s (2002) researchin which the health needs of this group ofwomen is highlighted.Storytelling and AboriginalPerspectives on HealthThe plethora of available literature underthis section attests to the significance ofAboriginal women’s perspectives and theimportance of their voice on issues relatedto their health, well-being and healing.The majority of research under this sectionspecifically utilized Aboriginal women asresearch informants and participants inresearch that focused primarily on healthconcerns among the female populationfrom the three Aboriginal groups, but aswell looks at many other issues that areconnected to well-being. Much of thisresearch is based on personal interviewsand reflections of Aboriginal women whohave looked at the impact of residentialschool (Deiter, 1999; English, 1996), themeaning of being Aboriginal and awoman (Egan, 2002), Aboriginal women’sperspectives on the impact of healthprogram services on their health andwell-being (Dressler, 2004), how Aboriginalwomen have adapted to illnesses and theirexperiences as survivors of breast cancer(Lambert Colomeda, 1996), the impact ofHIV/AIDS on Aboriginal women, especiallythose who are street involved (Ryan,2004), Aboriginal women’s contributionsto healing and strategizing on FASD issues(Ontario Federation of Indian FriendshipCentres, 2003), to women’s testimonialsaround domestic violence and the processof healing family violence victims andoffenders (Native Women’s Association ofCanada & Canadian Council on SocialDevelopment, 1991). The research underthis section includes diverse voices fromyoung, elderly and two-spirited womenas well as diverse perspectives on thetraditional and contemporary views ofhealth issues for Aboriginal women.Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing43

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing44Encounters with the Health CareProfessionBrowne and Fiske (2000a) stress thatAboriginal women’s experiences withhealth care encounters is an importantarea of study because their perspectivesreflect social, political, economic andideological relations between patientsand the dominant health care systemand that these relations are reflective ofwider postcolonial relations that shapetheir everyday lives. These findingswere further elaborated in Browne andFiske’s (2000b) investigation into theexperiences of First Nations women in asmall reserve community in northern BritishColumbia. Under this study, First Nationswomen had a chance to describe theirencounters with health care services interms of whether their experience withthe medical profession was invalidingor affirming. Their findings reveal thatwomen’s experiences with the healthcare profession werecharacterized byAboriginal women themselves as beingshaped by racism, discrimination, andstructural inequalities that continue tomarginalize and disadvantage Aboriginalwomen (Browne and Fiske, 2000b). Benoit,Carroll and Chaudhry also investigatedwhether urban Aboriginal women inVancouver’s Downtown Eastside felt theirhealth and medical needs were beingadequately met by the health profession.The findings indicate that despite effortsfrom various quarters to articulate thehealth and social concerns of the country’smarginalized populations, such has notbeen the case for Aboriginal womenliving in one of Canada’s most prosperouscities. Many Aboriginal women expresseda strong desire for a Healing Place, basedon a model of care where their healthconcerns are addressed in an integratedmanner, where they are respected andgiven the opportunity to shape andinfluence decision making about servicesthat impact their own healing. Lastly,Brunen (2000) raised awareness aboutthe triple marginalization experiencedby Aboriginal women in the health caresystem, especially for those with addictions.The author synthesized the material toexplore racism in health care. The primaryfocus was on the ways in which First Nationswomen who misuse substances are triplymarginalized in the health care system andthe implications for these women.Perceptions from the MedicalProfessionThe material under this section deals witha number of perspectives coming fromthose in various medical professions onthe health of Aboriginal women. Gibson(2005) for instance indicates that Aboriginalhealers in traditional societies may bein a better position to understand themedical needs of Aboriginal people.Hunter, Logan, Barton and Goulet (2004)look at diverse healing traditions amongAboriginal peoples and link these traditionsto holistic nursing practice. They suggestthat the nursing practice needs to takeinto consideration the understandingof Aboriginal healing traditions andthat linking holistic nursing practice withAboriginal healing traditions offers afoundation on which to build culturallycompetent care for Aboriginal peoples.Kinch (1994) and Dhalla (2002) both lookat the numbers of Aboriginal peopleattracted and retained in various medicalprofessions in Canada. Lazarus focusedon the doctor-patient relationships andAboriginal women’s personal experiencesof health care encounters (1988).Health Promoting BehavioursVery little literature actually exists on how toencourage health promoting behavioursfor Aboriginal women. The two articlesgrouped under this heading deal withhow Aboriginal women are engaging inmore health promoting behaviours suchas ensuring they exercise more often, quitsmoking, direct positive dietary changes,and understanding the range of socialdeterminants can lead to positive healthbehaviours (Elias, Leader, Sanderson andTate, 2000). Hay and Shepard (1998)looked at habitual physical activity among

Aboriginal students in southern Ontarioand the role of culturally appropriateinterventions that increase physical activityamong Aboriginal youth, both male andfemale. Health promoting behavioursto some extent are also discussed underthe section that looks at the link betweenexercising and Aboriginal women withdiabetes.Bibliography of ResourcesAn annotated list of resources organizedunder this thematic area is listed as follows.1. Adelson, N. (2000). Being Alive Well:Health and Politics of Cree Well-Being. Toronto,ON: University of Toronto Press.Keywords: Cree Nation/Cultural Integrity andIdentity/Health/Spirituality and A Sense ofPurpose/Well-beingAbstract: The author notes that in the Creelanguage there is no word that translates intoEnglish as “health.” The most apt phrase ismiyupimaatisiiun or, as the author translates it,“being alive well.” “Being Alive Well” constituteswhat one may describe as being healthy; yetit is less determined by bodily functions than bythe practices of daily living and by the balanceof human relationships intrinsic to the Creelifestyle. “Being Alive Well” means that one isable to hunt, to pursue traditional activities, toeat the right foods, and to keep warm (giventhe harsh northern winters). That quality is linked,in turn, to political and social phenomena thatare as much a part of the contemporary Creeworld as are the exigencies of “being alivewell.”2. Amadahy, Z. (2003). The HealingPower of Women’s Voices. In K. Anderson & B.Lawrence (Eds.), Strong Women Stories: NativeVision and Community Survival. Toronto, ON:Sumach Press.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/CommunityDevelopment/Community Solidarity and SocialSupport/Gender/Social DeterminantsAbstract: The author discusses the role of musicin Aboriginal social change movements andits connection to gender differentiation. Theuse of voice in healing is discussed as well asthe fact that cultural and musical expressionsneed to be a part of the evolving and flexiblemovement toward recovering past ways oflife and healing our communities and restoringbalance after centuries of colonization,genocide and assimilation.3. Antoniow, M. (1993). Final Report forthe “Talking Bridge” project, “Gaagi DomGak Azchigan.”: A Health Innovation Initiativeadministered by the Sault Ste. Marie IndianFriendship Centre. Sault Ste. Marie, ON: SaultSte. Marie Indian Friendship Centre.Keywords: Aboriginal Parents/Health Care/Single ParentsAbstract: The “Talking Bridge” project wasinitiated in response to an identified gapin services in urban Aboriginal health careprograms; specifically, it addressed singleparent families who lacked emotional supportin their everyday life in situations such asmedical operations, childbirth, mental health,addictions, socialization, health awareness,cultural awareness, financial stresses, physicaland sexual abuse, and peer support. Theproject targeted other areas in need of supportother than single parents. They were Elders,men, youth, and women with no children. Thisreport describes the activities of the projectsince funding was provided by the Ontariogovernment, demonstrating its success, and tojustify continued support for the project.4. Badine, T. (2003). First Nations WomenClients: Experiences in Dual Relationships.Thesis (M.S.W.) -- University of Northern BritishColumbia, 2003.Keywords: British Columbia/First Nations/ FirstNations WomenAbstract: Using a phenomenological approach,this study explores First Nations women clients’experiences of dual relationships with alcoholand drug abuse counselors indigenous to theclients’ communities. The goal of this studywas to provide a description of the natureof this experience from First Nations womenclients’ perspectives. Descriptive data for thestudy was gathered through conversationswith three First Nations women from rural BritishColumbia and Alberta. The thesis points outthat counseling can be very effective if thetherapeutic relationship can grow into anenduring relationship where clients trust thecounselor and eventually view the counseloras a role model. In order to even out the powerimbalance during the beginning phase of therelationship, the study recommends boundarymanagement initiatives that will allow theenduring relationship to form much quicker.5. Barrios, P. G. & Egan, M. (2002). Livingin a Bicultural World and Finding the WayHome: Native Women’s Stories. Affilia Journal ofWomen and Social Work, 17, 206-228.Keywords: Culture/Gender/Health/NativeWomenAbstract: Four Native American women livingin the majority culture were interviewed in aqualitative study, using snowball sampling,to explore their experiences concerning themeaning of being Native and of being NativeAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing45

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing46women. A constant comparative qualitativeanalysis revealed four themes reflecting thewomen’s experiences: “otherness”; conflictingdominant and Native cultural messages; Nativetraditions as strengths, particularly as taught byfemale Elders early in life; and the formation ofpositive gender and ethnic identities (JournalAbstract).6. Bartlett, J. (2004). Conceptions andDimensions of Health and Well-being for MétisWomen in Canada. International Journal ofCircumpolar Health, 63, 107-113.Keywords: Canada/Health/Métis Women/ Wellbeing/ResearchAbstract: Because of the continuing poorhealth status of Aboriginal populations inCanada, along with increasing opportunityfor Aboriginal-designed health surveys, it isargued that policies and programs, and theresearch from which they are derived, shouldbe more solidly grounded within Aboriginalunderstandings of health and well-being.Survey research for Aboriginal populationsusually draws on questions developed byand for mainstream Canadians. This paperstems from the author’s master’s thesis studythat elicited adult and elderly Métis women’sdescriptions of ‘what constitutes health’ and‘what constitutes well-being’.’ Outlined aredescriptions of Métis women’s Conceptionsof Health and Conceptions of Well-being, aswell as Dimensions of Well-being that shouldbe included in health survey research (JournalAbstract).7. Bartlett, J. (2005). Health and Wellbeingfor Métis Women in Manitoba. CanadianJournal of Public Health, 96, 22-27.Keywords: Health/Manitoba/Métis Women/Well-beingAbstract: The purpose of this article is to gainan understanding of the perception of healthand well-being for a sample of Métis womenin Manitoba and to consider if this perceptionmight be used to develop survey questions andto influence health promotion directed towardMétis women. A quasi-phenomenologicaltradition of enquiry was employed to gainunderstanding of the lived experience ofparticipants. Data was collected from focusgroups utilizing a ‘talking circle’ methodology.A participatory research approach involvedthree large Aboriginal organizations. Healthand well-being are different concepts forthese Métis women. Health was most oftenmore reflective of physical issues. Well-beingwas much broader, holistic and inclusiveof the dimensions of spirituality, emotional,physical and mental/intellectual aspectsof living, consistent with the first circle ofthe Aboriginal Life Promotion Framework(which is a framework tool for reflecting onlife created by the author of this paper). Theimplications of this study should be importantto health providers and policy developersregardless of sector. Métis women in thisstudy show significant strengths in the spiritual,emotional and intellectual/mental aspectsof life, areas that could be incorporated intohealth promotion approaches. Physical healthwas focused on ensuring a healthy diet andexercise, yet most adult women in the studyexperienced stress around goals that are seenas relatively unattainable. The data producedin this study should be utilized to develop andtest survey questions that can be applied toa larger portion of the Métis population. TheAboriginal Life Promotion Framework is useful asan organizing tool for systematically exploringelements of living (Adapted from JournalAbstract).8. Benoit, C., Carroll, D., & Chaudhry, M.(2003). In Search of a Healing Place: AboriginalWomen in Vancouver’s Downtown Eastside.Social Science & Medicine, 56, 821.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Canada/Healing/Health CareAbstract: Research on general health servicedelivery in urban areas of Canada shows thatAboriginal people face formidable barriers inaccessing culturally appropriate and timelycare. Over the past decade, Urban AboriginalHealth Centres (UAHCs) have emergedto address the unmet health concerns ofAboriginal people living in metropolitan areasof the country. The purpose of this researchwas to address the gap in social scienceliterature on how the health care concernsof Aboriginal women are being met byUAHCs. The research aimed to give voice toAboriginal women by asking them whetherthe appropriate professional services andeducational programs they need to addresstheir health care needs were being providedin the inner city. A case-study approach wasused whereby three separate focus groupswere conducted with Aboriginal women whowere clients of the Vancouver Native HealthSociety (VNHS), its sister organization, Sheway,or residents of Vancouver’s Downtown Eastside(DTES). In addition, 25 semi-structured interviewswere conducted with VNHS staff, healthproviders, government representatives, andcommunity leaders in health care (total n=61).The findings indicate that despite efforts fromvarious quarters to articulate the health andsocial concerns of the country’s marginalizedpopulations, such has not been the case forAboriginal women living in one of Canada’smost prosperous cities. Many Aboriginal womenexpressed a strong desire for a Healing Place,based on a model of care where their healthconcerns are addressed in an integratedmanner, where they are respected andgiven the opportunity to shape and influencedecision-making about services that impacttheir own healing.

9. Benoit, C., Carroll, D., Lawr, L., &Chaudhry, M. (2001). Marginalized Voices fromthe Downtown Eastside: Aboriginal WomenSpeak About their Health Experiences. Toronto,ON: National Network on Environments andWomen’s Health (NNEWH).Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Basic PhysicalNeeds/Healing/Health/Meaningful Work andService to OthersAbstract: Addresses the gap in social scienceliterature on how health care concerns ofAboriginal women living in marginalized areasof metropolitan cities are being met by UrbanAboriginal Health Centres (UAHCs). A casestudyapproach was used in which focusgroups were conducted with Aboriginal womenclients of either the Vancouver Native HealthSociety (VNHS), its sister organization, Sheway,or who were residents of the DTES (DowntownEastside). Interviews were also conducted withVNHS staff, health professionals, and communityleaders on health care issues in the Vancouverarea. Aboriginal women highlighted issuesof access including the need to focus onAboriginal women’s specific health concernsand greater culture-based programming(including traditional healing methods andtherapies). They also raised support serviceissues like the need for access to parentingsupport and education programs, access toprofessional dental care, etc. Health serviceproviders and administrators also brought upconcerns about the way regionalization wasaffecting the delivery and control of Aboriginalhealth services and programs in the DTES. Thereport concludes with recommendations for anongoing process of integrating the voices ofAboriginal women, who are the experts on theirown health care needs, into future planning,policy development and program deliverymodels (CWHN Abstract).10. Bent, K. (2004). Anishinaabe Ik-We Mino-Aie-Win. Aboriginal Women’s Health Issues: AHolistic Perspective on Wellness. Winnipeg, MB:Prairie Women’s Centre of Excellence.Available Online: http://www.pwhce.ca/pdf/abWoHealthBentFull.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/ Health/Women’s Health/womenAbstract: Aboriginal women suffer the effectsof marginalization in every area of their lives.Profound effects have particularly been notedin their health and wellness status. Yet littleresearch has been conducted to unravel thecomplex array of variables that affect theirhealth and wellness. Research that has beenconducted either medicalizes their experiencesin a Western fashion, so that little is still knownabout the actual lived experience of healthand wellness for Aboriginal women. Thisresearch study sought to answer questions thatare important to Aboriginal women’s healthand wellness because it relates to identifyingaspects of health and wellness that are uniqueto Aboriginal women. In Project I, 125 Aboriginalwomen completed a 49-item questionnairedesigned to assess their health status across fourdimensions (i.e., physical, mental, emotional,spiritual), their health and wellness concerns,their access to health care services in themainstream and in the Aboriginal communityand most importantly, their thoughts on what“wellness” means to them. In Project II, theprimary focus was on identifying aspects ofwellness, health concerns across the samefour dimensions, and documenting Aboriginalwomen’s stories about their experienceswith the health care system. Ten Aboriginalwomen who did not complete the surveyquestionnaire were interviewed and askedquestions relating to their health experiences,needs and concerns. The results indicate thatAboriginal women face health problems thatare not common to non-Aboriginal women andcurrent health care services do not adequatelymeet their needs. These results are discussed interms of acculturation theory. Elder consultationalso provided information for the inclusionof traditional knowledge in the analysis. Theinterview results were analyzed for relevantthemes in relation to the survey data, currentservices and traditional knowledge (Authorabstract).11. Blondin, G. (1997). Yamoria: TheLawmakers, Stories of the Dene. Edmonton, AB:NeWest.Keywords: Medicine/Aboriginal WomenAbstract: A Dene Elder, George Blondin,overviews Dene stories and presents theirlaws regarding medicine, social, political andspiritual life. The explicit analysis he offers frameswhat a medicine man or woman can andcannot do and is very helpful in understandingthe Dene cultural milieu.12. Boyd, L. (1996). Spirit Moves: The Storyof Six Generations of Native Women. Novato,California: New World Library.Keywords: History/Métis Women/SocialConditionsAbstract: In this autobiographical memoir,Boyd, a Cree/Blackfoot Métis American whoworks in the development and production ofprogramming for television and film, comesto terms with her childhood by portraying sixgenerations of her family. Her evocative storiesabout the lives of her great-grandmother,Margaret; her grandmother, Anne, and hermother, Silversong, are poetic and thoughtprovoking.“It would not be an overstatementto say I was often in awe of them,” the authorwrites, “when I considered the courage,determination, and spirit that not only enabledthem to survive . . . but to go that one stepAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing47

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing48further.” Boyd tells about prejudice againstNative Americans, physical abuse, and thecultural destruction of her people. Whileresearching this work, she discovered that bothher grandmother and mother had sworn vowsof silence to protect her. Her stories about theendurance of these women give readers astrong model of a family determined to survive(Copyright 1996, Reed Business Information,Inc.).13. Boyer, Y. (2004). First Nations, Métisand Inuit Health Care: The Crown’s FiduciaryObligation. (Rep. No. Discussion Paper Series:Paper No.2). Saskatoon, SK: Native Law Centreof Canada.Keywords: Adequate Power/First Nations/Health/Health Care/Legal IssuesAbstract: A timely series devoted to examininglegal issues in Aboriginal health. These legalissues have received little attention in the past,and thus this series is a much-needed andinformative response. Readers can expectdiscussion of a number of topics, includingthe Crown’s fiduciary duty, international lawand the indigenous right to health, intellectualhealth property, and traditional medicine.14. Browne, A. & Fiske, J. (2001). FirstNations Women’s Encounters with MainstreamHealth Care Services. Western journal of nursingresearch, 23, 126.Keywords: Basic Physical Needs/Health/ HealthCare/Racism/Women’s HealthAbstract: Health care encounters are importantareas for study because they reflect social,political, economic, and ideological relationsbetween patients and the dominant healthcare system. This study examines mainstreamhealth care encounters from the viewpoint ofFirst Nations women from a reserve communityin northwestern Canada. Perspectives fromcritical medical anthropology and the conceptof cultural safety provided the theoreticalorientation for the study. Critical and feministethnographic approaches were used to guidein-depth interviews conducted with ten FirstNations women. Findings were organizedaround two broad themes that characterizedwomen’s descriptions of “invalidating” and“affirming” encounters. These narrativesrevealed that women’s encounters wereshaped by racism, discrimination, and structuralinequities that continue to marginalize anddisadvantage First Nations women. Thewomen’s health care experiences havehistorical, political, and economic significanceand are reflective of wider postcolonial relationsthat shape their everyday lives.15. Browne, A. J., with Fiske, J.-A., &Thomas, G. (2000). First Nations Women’sEncounters with Mainstream Health CareServices & Systems. Vancouver, BC: BritishColumbia Centre of Excellence for Women’sHealth.Keywords: British Columbia/First Nations/ FirstNations Women/Health Care/ Research/WorkAbstract: This investigation of First Nationswomen’s encounters with mainstream healthcare services was carried out in a small reservecommunity in northern British Columbia.A qualitative research design was used,comprising a series of two interviews each withten First Nation women. Women described theirencounters with health care services underbroad categories of invalidating or affirming.Although this report examines invalidatingencounters in greater detail than affirmingencounters, the discrepancy reflects theemphasis provided by the research participants.Both types of encounters are described alongwith their influences, and policy implications areraised and listed in the authors’ conclusions.The women’s stories may be read as illustrationsof the broader social, economic and politicalforces at work influencing the lives of FirstNations women in relation to the dominantsocial systems. A second phase report onthis research will examine in greater detailrecommendations for change and possiblealternative strategies to address the issues raisedin this phase (Executive Summary).16. Brunen, L. (2000). Aboriginal Womenwith Addictions: A Discussion Paper on TripleMarginalization in the Health Care System.Prince George, B.C.: Northern Secretariat of theBC Centre of Excellence for Women’s Health.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequateIncome and Sustainable Economies/BritishColumbia/Canada/First Nations/Health/ HealthCare/Racism/Safety and Security/ Women’sHealth/Women with AddictionsAbstract: This paper is based on the author’spracticum placement at the NorthernSecretariat of the BC Centre of Excellence forWomen’s Health. Under the supervision of theNorthern Secretariat Coordinator, the author(1) defined and developed a viable researchquestion in women’s health; (2) identifiedand assessed the relevant literature; and (3)provided recommendations for further research.The author synthesized the material to exploreracism in health care which a primary focuson the ways in which First Nations women whomisuse substances are triply marginalized inthe health care system and the implications forthese women.17. Canadian Medical Association.(1994). Bridging the Gap: Promoting Healthand Healing for Aboriginal People in Canada.Ottawa, ON: Canadian Medical Association.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/Canada/Healing/Health

Abstract: Includes the Canadian MedicalAssociation’s submission to the RoyalCommission on Aboriginal Peoples, abackground paper on the health of Aboriginalpeoples, CMA resolutions on Aboriginal healthfrom 1990 to 1993, and a report on a CMAWorkshop on Aboriginal health.18. Canales, M. K. (2004). Connecting toNativeness: The Influence of Women’s AmericanIndian Identity on Their Health-Care Decisions.Canadian Journal of Nursing Research, 36, 18-44.Keywords: Health Care/Racism/ Women’sHealthAbstract: American Indian women experiencehealth inequities within the physical, mental,and spiritual realms. Although the purposeof this study was to examine mammographydecision-making processes among Nativewomen in the northeastern United States, therole of Native identity in health care decisionmaking in general was identified as significantand is therefore being reported independently.The findings of a grounded theory study with 20American Indian women formed the basis foran examination of the complexities surroundingidentity and health care decision making. Thetheme of Connecting to Nativeness reflectsthe individual and communal influences ofNative identity on women’s health and healthcare decisions. Implications for researchers andclinicians, including the relationship betweenhistorical events and current constructions ofidentity, the fluid nature of identity, and theimpact of racism on health care decisions, areaddressed (Journal Abstract).19. Canales, M. K. (2004). Taking Care ofSelf: Health Care Decision Making of AmericanIndian Women. Health Care for WomenInternational, 25, 411-435.Keywords: Health/Health Care/History/Traditional HealthAbstract: In this article, I report a component ofa qualitative grounded theory study on healthcare decision making of American Indianwomen (AIW) residing in the northeastern UnitedStates. Analysis was based upon data collectedfrom 20 women who self-identified as AmericanIndian. Taking care of self was a primary factorinfluencing health care decisions among thissample of AIW. As women moved betweentheir Native, traditional health practices andconventional Western health practices, effortstoward taking care of self were especiallysalient. The properties of taking care of selfinclude knowing family history; balancingmind, body, and spirit; understanding thebody; and integrating natural practices. I alsoaddress some implications of the study findingsfor practitioners working with Native women(Journal Abstract).20. Carlson, J. C. & Dumont, A. (1997).Bridges in Spirituality: First Nations ChristianWomen Tell Their Stories. Toronto, ON: AnglicanBook Centres and United Church PublishingHouse.Keywords: First Nations/Spirituality and A Senseof PurposeAbstract: The stories of Native women EldersSarah Simon, Dr. Jessie Saulteaux, GladysMcCue Taylor, Gladys Taylor Cook, and ViSmith, as told to Joyce Carlson and Alf Dumont.The stories weave the women’s Native spiritualtraditions with Christian ones.21. Castellano, M. (1982). IndianParticipation in Health Policy Development:Implications for Adult Education. CanadianJournal of Native Studies, 2, 113-128.Keywords: Education/Health/Research/WorkAbstract: Development of policy, in this instancehealth policy, must engage meaningful andempowered Aboriginal participation to besuccessful. Although this is an older article, itremains useful for the author’s insights, whichhave been developed further in her later workon participatory research.22. Centre for Aboriginal Health Research(1998). Manitoba First Nations Regional HealthSurvey: Final Report. Winnipeg, MB: Centre forAboriginal Health Research.Keywords: First Nations/Health/ManitobaAbstract: The report provides First Nationscommunities and organizations in Manitobawith the results of a Regional Health Survey thatis meant to be useful for program planning andpolicy development purposes. Key variablesare described in graphic form with the intent ofmaking the results of the survey more accessibleto the widest possible audience in First Nationscommunities. The report reflects on manyhealth aspects experienced by ManitobaAboriginal women.23. Cesario, S. K. (2002). Care of the NativeAmerican Woman: Strategies for Practice,Education, and Research. Journal of Obstetric,Gynecologic, and Neonatal Nursing, 30, 13-9.Keywords: Education/Health/Health Care/Native AmericansAbstract: Native Americans, the smallestracial minority in the United States, comprisethe fastest growing ethnic group and have amyriad of social and health problems. Womenplay an important role in health care practicesand decision making in this communitybecause many tribes are matrilineal. Practice,education, and research strategies shouldinclude identification of beliefs and practicesspecific to the clan or tribe because there isAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing49

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing50wide variance in values, lifestyles, and taboosfrom tribe to tribe. Traditional healers, NativeAmerican storytelling, and talking circles canbe incorporated into the health care of urbanNative American women and their families(Journal Abstract).24. Chambers, A. (2005). Healing Journey:Maybe Communities Know More about WhatAils Them than the Medical System Has BeenWilling to Recognize. Canadian Geographic,125, 87-94.Keywords: Culture/Healing/Health/Health Care/History/Lead/Medicine/WorkAbstract: When Nancy Gibson set out in 1994 tounderstand the work of healers in a traditionalsociety, she said goodbye to Alberta’s wellfundedscientific establishment and boughtan airplane ticket for Sierra Leone, a small,diamond-rich country on the Atlantic coast ofAfrica. She had lived there in the early 1970s asa volunteer with the international developmentorganization CUSO. She was a young nursethen, with five children in tow and a worldto save. Twenty-three years later, she was adoctoral student returning to study the potentialfor collaboration between Western medicineand the self-styled healers sought out by the sickin villages across the country. That encounterand others with healers in Sierra Leone gaveGibson critical insights into the strengths anddurability of the country’s indigenous healthsystem, which is based on community need,available resources and local learning. Today,at 63, with a youthful face under a shock ofwhite hair, she lives in Edmonton and is thelead researcher in a Canadian network thatis investigating Aboriginal and northern healthissues. Her work is an exploration of the organicconnection between health and communityand of the contrast between traditionalknowledge and a medical system thatadvances on the basis of abstract numbers andlinear cause and effect. Why, she asks, do weplace so much faith and so many resources inlab science and health practices that excludesuch factors as culture, history, spiritualityand the traditional knowledge and copingmechanisms of communities?25. Davidson, K. W., Holderby, A. D., Willis,S., Barksdale, C. D., Richardson, T. N., Loppie,C. J., et al. (2001). Three Top Canadian andPersonal Health Concerns of a Random Sampleof Nova Scotian Women. Canadian Journal ofPublic Health, 92, 53-56.Keywords: Canadian Women/Health/HealthCare/Medicine/Women’s HealthAbstract: We sought to understand thesubjective reports of women’s health concerns.A randomly dialed telephone survey wasconducted resulting in a sample of 458 women(Caucasian/European = 302, Native/Aboriginal= 81, Black = 75), aged 18-81. Women wereasked in an open-ended format to list theirthree top health concerns for themselves andthen for Canadian women. Responses wererecorded verbatim and categorized into oneof nine mutually exclusive health concerncategories. The three main health concerns forCanadian women were: Psychosocial Issues,Other Specific Illnesses, and Cancer. The threemost important personal health concerns werePsychosocial Issues, Other Specific Illnesses,and Heart and Related Diseases. Few ethnicdifferences were noted. Results suggest thatit is important to recognize and attempt toalleviate health concerns about stress anddepression, which are not usually consideredas being major health problems by health careprofessionals (Journal Abstract).26. Deiter, C. & Otway, L. (2001).Sharing Our Stories on Promoting Health andCommunity Healing: An Aboriginal Women’sHealth Project. Winnipeg, MB: Prairie Women’sHealth Centre of Excellence (PWHCE).Available Online: http://www.cewh-cesf.ca/PDF/pwhce/sharing-stories.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/Adequate Power/Canada/Culture/FamilyViolence/Healing/Health/Health Care/Life-Sustaining Values, Morals, and Ethics/SocialJustice and Equity/Well-being/Women’s HealthAbstract: This report, “Sharing Our Stories onPromoting Health and Community Healing: AnAboriginal Women’s Health Project,” presents abroad historical overview of Aboriginal women’shealth issues, a review of pertinent and currentresources, and recommendations on how toaddress and improve the health of Aboriginalwomen in Manitoba and Saskatchewan. Theauthors of the study are both First Nationswomen and are familiar with the many healthand social issues facing Aboriginal women.Health and health issues for Aboriginal womenare complex issues. Constitutionally, thefederal government has exclusive jurisdictionfor “Indians.” Medical Services Branch ismandated to deliver health services to FirstNations people. However, for Aboriginalpeople who are not on federal reserve land,there are jurisdictional battles for who pays forwhich health care services, frequently at thecost of the health of the people. Furthermore,the history of colonization in this country hasseverely affected the health and well-beingof Canada’s indigenous people and womenin particular. The imposition of Europeanvalues caused Aboriginal women to lose theireconomic status, language, community rights,culture, and traditional roles as healers andleaders. The high incidence of family violenceagainst Aboriginal women is seen as one ofthe most tragic results. Set in the context ofan historical overview, the report includes aselected literature review. The researchersalso surveyed nearly 100 women, including

interviews with five Elders. The analysis andreport are written from an Aboriginal women’sperspective and based on the reports providedby Aboriginal women through the surveys andinterviews (Executive Summary).27. Deiter, C. (1999). From Our Mothers’Arms, The Intergenerational Impact ofResidential Schools in Saskatchewan. Toronto,ON: United Church Publishing House.Keywords: Women/Men/First NationsAbstract: Constance Deiter unveils the storiesof women and men who attended residentialschools in Saskatchewan. Using personalinterviews and reflections, she exposes theintergenerational impact these schools havehad on First Nations people.28. Dhalla, I. A., Kwong, J. C., Streiner, D.L., Baddour, R. E., Waddell, A. E., & Johnson, I. L.(2002). Characteristics of First-Year Students inCanadian Medical Schools. Canadian MedicalAssociation Journal, 166, 1029-1035.Keywords: Critical Learning Opportunities/medical studentsAbstract: The demographic andsocioeconomic profile of medical schoolclasses has implications for where peoplechoose to practice and whether they chooseto treat certain disadvantaged groups. Theauthors aimed to describe the demographicand socioeconomic characteristics offirst-year Canadian medical students andcompare them with those of the Canadianpopulation to determine whether there aregroups that are over- or underrepresented.Furthermore, they wished to test the hypothesisthat medical students often come fromprivileged socioeconomic backgrounds. Aspart of a larger Internet survey of all students atCanadian medical schools outside Quebec,conducted in January and February 2001,first-year students were asked to give their age,sex, self-described ethnic background usingStatistics Canada census descriptions andeducational background. Postal code at thetime of high school graduation served as aproxy for socioeconomic status. Respondentswere also asked for estimates of parentalincome and education. Responses werecompared when possible with Canadianage-group-matched data from the 1996census. Although there were more peoplefrom visible minorities in medical school thanin the Canadian population, certain minoritygroups (i.e. black and Aboriginal people) wereunderrepresented, and others (Chinese, SouthAsian) were overrepresented. The authors’findings support the notion that Canadianmedical students differ significantly from thegeneral population, particularly with regard toethnic background and socioeconomic status.29. Dickson, G. (2000). AboriginalGrandmothers’ Experience with HealthPromotion and Participatory Action Research.Qualitative health research, 10, 188-213.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Cultural Integrityand Identity/ Empowerment/ Healing/Health/Life-Sustaining Values, Morals, and Ethics/Spirituality and A Sense of Purpose/ResearchAbstract: This article describes a case studyexamining the effects of participating in ahealth promotion project, one aspect of whichwas a health assessment conducted usingparticipatory action research. The study wascarried out over 2.5 years in a project for olderAboriginal women (hereafter known as thegrandmothers). Participation in the project andhealth assessment contributed to a number ofchanges in them, which were categorized ascleansing and healing, connecting with self,acquiring knowledge and skills, connectingwithin the group, and external exposure andengagement. This experience demonstrated anapproach to health promotion programmingand conducting a health assessment thatwas acceptable to this group of peopleand fostered changes congruent withempowerment.30. Dickson, G. (1997). ParticipatoryAction Research and Health Promotion:The Grandmothers’ Story. Thesis (PhD) -- TheUniversity of Saskatchewan, 1997.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Canada/Healing/Health/ResearchAbstract: This inquiry is a case study of the utilityand appropriateness of participatory actionresearch both as a research methodology andas an intervention for health promotion. In thestudy, I examined the effects of participatingin a health promotion project, one aspect ofwhich was a participatory health assessment. Ialso described in detail the experience of usingparticipatory action research to conduct thehealth assessment. The study was carried outover 2.5 years in a health promotion projectfor older, urban, Aboriginal women (hereafterknown as the grandmothers) sponsoredby the local community clinic. The overallpurpose of that project was to examine thehealth needs of those women and respondthrough health promoting programming. Thegrandmothers were the central participantsin the study. Participation in the project andhealth assessment contributed to a number ofchanges in them which I have categorized as:personal cleansing and healing; connectingwith self; acquiring knowledge and skills;connecting within the group; and externalexposure and engagement. ‘Participation’was identified as the central influenceon the outcomes, ‘action’ as a themeinterwoven throughout, and ‘opportunity’,‘encouragement’, and ‘mediation’ as keycharacteristics of the project and researchAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing51

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing52environment. This experience of usingparticipatory action research demonstratedits success as an approach to conducting ahealth assessment which was acceptable to thisgroup of people and congruent with the healthpromotion project in which it was embedded.The analysis of the experience highlights bothtensions and accomplishments. The findingsof the health assessment are published in aseparate document.31. Dickson, G. & Green Kathryn L. (2001).Participatory Action Research: Lessons Learnedwith Aboriginal Grandmothers. Health Care forWomen International, 22, 471-482.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Critical LearningOpportunities/Health/Women’s HealthAbstract: Participatory action research isevolving as both a research methodologyand an intervention for health promotion.Here we describe its use in conducting ahealth assessment as part of a larger projectfor older Aboriginal women (hereafter knownas the grandmothers). The overall purposeof the project was to study the women’shealth needs and respond through healthpromotion programming. The experience ofusing participatory action research revealeda number of lessons, including challengesand points of tension, and determinants andindicators of success. The research teamidentified some implications for considerationby others interested in participatory actionresearch.32. Dion Stout, M. (1996). AboriginalCanada: Women and Health. Ottawa, ON:Health Canada, Women’s Health Bureau.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Basic PhysicalNeeds/Canada/Canadian Women/ Education/Health/Health Care/Health Determinants/Medicine/Social Support/ Traditional Health/women/Women’s HealthAbstract: In this paper I seek to identify andunderstand the key issues, concerns and trendscurrently affecting the health of Aboriginalwomen in Canada. Adopting a ‘populationhealth’ approach, I argue that Aboriginalwomen’s relatively poor health status (whencompared to that of non-Aboriginal Canadianwomen) can only be understood in thecontext of a range of health determinants,including socioeconomic status, educationand employment conditions; social supportnetworks; physical environment; healthychild development and access to healthservices. Although Aboriginal women areoften faced with highly unfavourable personalcircumstances, they are seeking to effectpositive change in their health status by drawingupon the strength afforded by Aboriginalfeminism and traditional health frameworks.Moreover, in light of such developments as thetransfer of control over health care services toAboriginal communities, as well as the growingacceptance on the part of mainstreammedical and policy communities of the valueof traditional forms of medicine, there is reasonfor cautious optimism regarding the futuredirection that Aboriginal women’s health willtake in this country. However, for Aboriginalwomen to achieve their full health potentialthere must be a sustained commitment on thepart of all concerned parties, including womenand men as well as health care providers andgovernments to tackle not merely the effects ofill health, but also its underlying causes (AuthorAbstract).33. Dion Stout, M. & Kipling, G. D. (1998).Aboriginal Women in Canada: StrategicResearch Directions for Policy Development.Ottawa, ON: Status of Women Canada.Keywords: Aboriginal women/adequate power/canada/disabilities/Education/health/justice/research/Women with DisabilitiesAbstract: Reviews the literature on currentand emerging policy issues as they affect,and are of concern to, Canadian Aboriginalwomen. Dion Stout and Kipling provide aprofile of Aboriginal women in Canada, andan analysis of literature on Aboriginal womenon the topics of education, health, andresidence. The report provides suggestions forfuture areas of study. These include researchinto the living circumstances of Métis andoff-reserve Aboriginal women, Aboriginalwomen with disabilities, Aboriginal women andjustice, and Aboriginal women and economicdevelopment.34. Dion Stout, M., Kipling, G. D., & Stout,R. (2001). Aboriginal Women’s Health ResearchSynthesis Project: Final Report. Winnipeg, MB:Centres of Excellence for Women’s HealthResearch Synthesis Group.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/ CriticalLearning Opportunities/HealthAbstract: Provides an overview of key healthand health-related indicators for Aboriginalwomen in Canada. Presents a critical reviewand synthesis of research and other initiativeson Aboriginal women’s health undertakenor funded by the Centres of Excellence forWomen’s Health. Reports on the proceedings ofthe National Workshop on Aboriginal Women’sHealth Research, held in Ottawa in March 2001.Presents recommendations to serve as the basisfor priority-setting in future Aboriginal women’shealth research activities (CWHN Abstract).35. Dion Stout, M., Kipling, G. D., & Stout, R.(2002). Aboriginal Women’s Health Research.Winnipeg, MB: Network/Le Réseau.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Critical LearningOpportunities/Health

Abstract: Summarizes the report written forthe Centres of Excellence for Women’s Healthentitled “Aboriginal Women’s Health ResearchSynthesis Project: Final Report,” available onlineat http://www.cwhn.ca/resources/synthesis/synthesis-en.pdf. The author identifies key healthissues currently facing Aboriginal women inCanada and argues that despite unfavourablecircumstances, these women are seeking toeffect positive change in their health statusby drawing upon the strength afforded byAboriginal feminism and traditional healthframeworks (Dion Stout, 1997).36. Dion Stout, M. & Kipling, G. D. (2002).The Health Transition Fund. Aboriginal Health.Ottawa, ON: Health Transition Fund, HealthCanada.Keywords: Aboriginal peoples/Aboriginalwomen/canada/critical learning opportunities/health/women/women’s healthAbstract: This report looks in general at healthservices, administration of health services,medical policy and its implications forAboriginal peoples and their health, hygieneand access to medical care. Some referenceis made to Aboriginal women’s fears abouthealth services transfers, access to health andthe impact of low educational attainment onAboriginal women’s health as well as a brieflook at the social environments of Aboriginalwomen.37. Dion Stout, M. (2005). Healthy Living andAboriginal Women: The Tension between HardEvidence and Soft Logic. Centres of Excellencefor Women’s Health Research Bulletin, 4, 16-20.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Health/ Women’sHealth/women/Social ConditionsAbstract: Two narratives define Aboriginalwomen and healthy living: hard evidencedocuments our poor health status whilesoft logic passes us off as primary healthguardians. Understanding this tension requiresan insight into the health and social disparitieswe experience and a description of thelinkages between these realities and healthyliving policies. Key demographics, biologicalindicators, lifestyle behavioural issues andsocial conditions that aggravate Aboriginalwomen’s health have to be weighed againstthe totality of our environments and our desireand potential to contribute as health guardians.Ultimately, “healthy living” for Aboriginal womendepends, to a great extent, on meaningful,appropriate and responsive policies.38. Dressler, M. P. (2004). Aboriginal WomenShare Their Stories in an Outreach DiabetesEducation Program. Saskatoon, SK: Community -University Institute for Social Research, Universityof Saskatchewan.Keywords: Aboriginal women/diabetes/education/health/research/well-being/Abstract: Compared to other Canadians,Aboriginal people suffer disproportionatelyfrom manageable Type 2 diabetes and itscomplications. In an attempt to help bettermanage the disease, the West Side CommunityClinic launched a monthly outreach educationprogram for Aboriginal people with diabetesusing an informal hands-on approach tolearning about meal planning and looking atother forms of diabetes management. Thepurpose of this qualitative research projectis to determine the impact that participantsperceive the program has had on their healthand well-being through group and individualinterviews. Preliminary results reveal that theprogram’s impact on participants’ health andwell-being is embedded within the context oftheir lives. Possible outcome indicators for theprogram are suggested (Author Abstract).39. Dunnigan, C. M. (1997). Life Histories: AMétis Woman and Breast Cancer Survivor.Keywords: Healing/Health/History/MétisWomen/womenAbstract: Life histories of two women arepresented in this thesis. The life histories werecollected using oral history methods ofindividual open-ended interviews. The first wasgathered from a Métis woman named MaryL. The second life history was collected froma woman named Mary Holdgrafer. Mary H. isa breast cancer survivor, she used quilting asa means of healing and expression followingher diagnosis of breast cancer. Most of theinformation collected from Mary H. is about herexperiences with breast cancer and her healingprocess. In addition to collecting two lifehistories I conducted two focus groups with fourother women who also used quilting as a wayto heal themselves and express their feelingsabout breast cancer. The focus groups wereconducted to investigate the similarities anddifferences between the experiences of thefocus group participants and Mary Holdgrafer.All the stories presented in this thesis are tiedtogether by the fact that the women who wereinterviewed all had the experience of beingmarginalized by a western institution (AuthorAbstract).40. Egan, M. (2002). Living in a BiculturalWorld and Finding the Way Home: NativeWomen’s Stories. Affilia, 17, 206-228.Keywords: culture/gender/Aboriginal womenAbstract: Four Native American women livingin the majority culture were interviewed in aqualitative study, using snowball sampling,to explore their experiences concerning themeaning of being Native and of being Nativewomen. A constant comparative qualitativeanalysis revealed four themes reflecting theAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing53

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing54women’s experiences: “otherness”; conflictingdominant and Native cultural messages; Nativetraditions as strengths, particularly as taught byfemale Elders early in life; and the formation ofpositive gender and ethnic identities (JournalAbstract).41. Elias, B., Leader, A., Sanderson, D.,O’Neil, J., & Tate, B. (2000). Living in Balance:Gender, Structural Inequalities, and HealthPromoting Behaviours in Manitoba First NationsCommunities. Winnipeg, MB: Northern HealthResearch Unit, University of Manitoba.Keywords: Aboriginal peoples/Aboriginalwomen/adequate human services and socialsafety net/adequate power/First Nationsreserves/gender/health/health beliefs/socioeconomic determinantsAbstract: The intent of this report is to describehealth promoting behaviours, such as engagingin more physical activity, positive dietarychanges and nutrition, quitting smoking,and stopping drinking for a time, as positiveattributes of First Nations peoples. To understandthe contribution that social determinants canmake to positive health behaviors, the paperinvestigates these health-promoting behaviorsin relation to age, gender, socioeconomicstatus, economic security, social conditions, andhealth behaviours.42. Elias, B. & Demas, D. (2001). First NationsPeople with a Disability Needs AssessmentSurvey Findings: A Profile of Manitoba FirstNations People with a Disability/Prepared forthe Assembly of Manitoba Chiefs. Winnipeg,MB: Northern Health Research Unit, University ofManitoba.Keywords: Basic Physical Needs/Canada/Health/Housing/ManitobaAbstract: The needs assessment of people withdisabilities living in First Nations communitiesin Manitoba identified socioeconomic issues,health services, housing and transportationissues and provides comparative analysisof data between northern and southerncommunities.Notes: This project was made possible withfunding under the AHRDS initiative, HumanResouces Development Canada.43. English, V. (1996). Toward a Rebirth ofthe Medicine Wheel as a Pedagogy for NativeEducation. Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Calgary,1996. Calgary, AB.Keywords: Canada/Education/Healing/MedicineAbstract: The author uses the story of herlife and experiences in an Indian residentialschool combined with other women’s storiesto demonstrate storytelling as a healingmechanism. Secondly, she documents Nativeteaching methods using the medicine wheel.Finally, she uses the contemporary figures ofthe Ninja Turtles to blend the traditional westerneducational concepts with the objectives of theNative medicine wheel. The author, who is alsoknown as Poh-ska-ki, is a Blackfoot woman fromthe North Peigan Blackfoot Tribe.44. Fey, C. (1998). Listening to Megan:Narratives of a Female Aboriginal Youthwith a Disability. M.A. Thesis - University ofSaskatchewan.Keywords: Critical Learning Opportunities/ YouthAbstract: The study chronicles the decade-longfriendship between two unexpected friends: aresearcher/educator and an Aboriginal youth,who describes herself as an “adventurousteenager in spirit.” In a shared narrativebetween “Megan” and myself, I investigatedwhat it means to be a female youth witha disability. Using narrative methodology, Itaped conversations while the participantwas attending Grade 11 and Grade 12. Thetwo types of data that appear are text fromthe interviews themselves and the emergingstory from the participant’s reflections uponthe text. Through short stories, poems, songs,and plays, Megan conveys her realities andlife experiences. The themes arising include:resilience, freedom, and feminine desires,disabilities, and youth identity. The studyemphasizes the self-determination of youth withdisabilities in both content and methodology asthe participant collaborated in co-editing andanalyzing her own words. A forum is providedfor a currently marginalized voice to be heardand empowered.45. Foulds, L. A. (1997). Braided Tales: Livesand Stories of Women in a Northern AlbertaReserve Community. Thesis (M.A.) --University ofCalgary, 1997, Calgary, AB.Keywords: Gender/Native women/womenAbstract: This thesis describes and interprets thelives and stories of a group of Native women ina Northern Alberta Reserve community. It seeksto explore the specific experience and currentrealities faced by these women, with particularattention to the impact of colonial processes.Informed by a materialist feminist perspective,the analysis emphasizes emic perspectives anddefinitions of the concepts of gender, class,status, race and feminism. Through the useof first person narrative, insights on topics ofkinship, marriage and reproduction, spirituality,addictions and domestic violence arepresented. The use of narrative and storytelling,in conjunction with an examination of materialsocial and economic conditions, allows fora more specific analysis of the particularexperiences of this group of Native womenwithin a relevant context. In addition, it allowsfor an exploration of the question of Native

feminism as a philosophy distinct from that ofmainstream Anglo-feminism46. Garteig, J. L. (1995). Health Meaningsand Dynamics among Urban Residing NativeWomen. Thesis (M.N.) -- University of Alberta1995.Keywords: health/Native women/researchAbstract: Health meanings, in the form ofhealth conceptions, influence health actionsand health promotional activities. Usingthe strategies of in-depth interviewing andparticipant observation, health meanings areexplored among urban Native women. Analysisdemonstrates that for the women involved inthis study, their primary health conception is anintegrated understanding, of “health as howyou live your life.” Blended into the integratedconception are concepts of balance, “idealself,” and “shadow self.” The latter twoconcepts are used by the women in this studyas measures or indicators of health as theyquestion their health in relation to their bodies,their actions, their feelings, and their visionsor goals. In addition, a number of contextsshape the meaning of health for the researchparticipants. As such, multiple contexts areimportant considerations in how the womenenact their health actions.47. Grace, S. (2002). Aboriginal Women. InD. E. Stewart, A. M. Cheung, L. E. Ferris, I. Hyman,M. M. Cohen, & J. I. Williams (Eds.), OntarioWomen’s Health Status Report (pp. 359-373).Keywords: Aboriginal peoples/Aboriginalwomen/canada/cervical cancer/children/culture/diabetes/disabilities/family violence/health/men/suicide/women’s healthAbstract: In traditional Aboriginal cultures,women are considered to be the givers of life,and traditionally this role in the family was highlyrespected. However, many Aboriginal womenface greater risks of complex health issuesin a variety of areas than do women in thegeneral population (Statistics Canada, 1998),and this increased risk is partly attributableto their marginalized position in society andrapid change within their cultures (Indian andNorthern Affairs Canada, 2000). For example,the life expectancy of Aboriginal women issignificantly shorter than that of non-Aboriginalwomen (Statistics Canada, 1998). The suiciderate for Aboriginal adolescent girls is eighttimes the national average. The diabetes rateamong Aboriginal peoples is ten times theCanadian rate, and is generally higher forwomen than men (Young, Reading, Elias, &O’Neil, 2000). Rates of cardiovascular (Anand& Tookenay, 2001) and respiratory diseases(Young, 1998), disability, infections, andmental health problems are all higher amongAboriginal women than in women in general.Aboriginal women suffer higher rates of cervicalcancer (Marrett, 1998), sexually transmitteddisease (Health Canada, 1999c), and cirrhosisof the liver than do their non-Aboriginalcounterparts. A number of Aboriginal womenand children are driven to relocate owingto domestic violence and lack of support,particularly in remote and isolated communitiesacross the country (National Clearinghouseon Family Violence, 1997). The marginalizedsocioeconomic status of many Aboriginalwomen results in detrimental lifestyles, unsafeenvironments, and overcrowded housing. Theseconditions have an impact on the life chancesand health status of many Aboriginal girls andwomen (Indian and Northern Affairs Canada,2000) (From Overview).48. Grace, S. L. (2003). A Review ofAboriginal Women’s Physical and Mental HealthStatus in Ontario. Canadian journal of publichealth, 94, 173-175.Keywords: Aboriginal women/basic physicalneeds/culture/diabetes/family violence/health/health risks/suicide/ women’s healthAbstract: In traditional Aboriginal cultures,women are the givers of life, and this role ishighly respected. Unfortunately, today manyAboriginal women face greater health risksthan women in the general population. Thefollowing presents a review of Aboriginalwomen’s health status in Ontario, with particularfocus on causes of mortality and morbidity;namely the incidence and prevalence ofheart disease, diabetes, suicide, cancer,depression, substance use, and family violencein comparison to women of Ontario moregenerally.49. Hannis, P. (2001). Aboriginal Womenand Health: An Assessment. Report andRecommendations. Montreal, QC: QuebecNative Women.Keywords: Aboriginal women/basic physicalneeds/healthAbstract: Provides a summary of the generalsituation of Aboriginal women’s health inQuebec. Includes discussion on all socialdeterminants, as well as the underlyingdeterminants to the use of health services. Alsolooks at the diversity of Aboriginal women andhow this impacts health status (CWHN Abstract).50. Hannis, P. (2001). The Health of NativeWomen in Quebec. Canadian Women’s HealthNetwork, 4/5, 13-15.Keywords: First Nations/health/native womenAbstract: Quebec Native Women (QNW) is anon-profit organization representing over 3,000women from Quebec First Nations, whether ornot they live on reserves. Since it was foundedin 1974, the QNW has worked extensively on thepolitical and socioeconomic fronts, focusingparticularly on justice, the promotion of non-Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing55

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing56violence, employment and since January 2001,health.51. Harris, J. (1995). Rebuilding: Listen withthe Ears of Your Eyes. In P. H. Stephenson, S. J.Elliot, L. T. Foster, & J. Harris (Eds.), A PersistentSpirit: Towards Understanding Aboriginal Healthin British Columbia. Victoria, BC: University ofVictoria.Keywords: British Columbia/First Nations/ healthAbstract: This volume describes health issuesamong First Nations people living in BritishColumbia. The first chapter details the impactthat introduced European diseases had onmany facets of Aboriginal life. Later chaptersprovided detailed statistical and empiricalaccounts of the health gap between Aboriginalpopulations and the non-Aboriginal populationthrough attempts to deal with basic inequalities.The increased incidence of chronic diseasesis detailed. As well various projects that aredesigned to deal with Aboriginal health issues ina culturally sensitive manner are described.52. Hay, J. & Shepard, R. J. (1998).Perceptions and Patterns of Physical Activity:A Comparison of Mohawk/Cayuga and Non-Native Adolescents. American Journal ofHuman Biology, 10, 629-635.Keywords: Canada/children/education/health/youthAbstract: This study examined the relationshipsbetween habitual physical activity and selfreferentthought among Native and non-Nativegrade 9 students in Southern Ontario. TheHabitual Activity Estimation Scale (HAES) andthe Children’s Self-perception of Adequacyin and Predilection for Physical Activity(CSAPPA) scale were administered to 74% ofeligible Native students (13M, 13F) and 87%of eligible non-Native students (65M, 65F). Allwere attending the same secondary school,adjacent to the Six Nations (Mohawk/ Cayuga)reservation. Natives and non-Natives differed(P < .01) with respect to physical activitylevels, predilection for physical activity, andenjoyment of physical education, with Nativestudents reporting less physical activity than thenon-Native group. There were no significantdifferences in perceived adequacy betweenthe two groups. Further investigations areneeded to determine how far these resultscan be generalized to less prosperous Nativebands in other parts of Canada and the U.S.Nevertheless, it appears that physical educatorsshould develop culturally appropriateinterventions to increase physical activityamong Native youth, in consultation with Nativeleadership (Journal Abstract).53. Health Canada. (2005). The Healthof Aboriginal Women. Ottawa, ON, HealthCanada.Available: http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/english/pdf/womens/facts_aborig.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Women/Canada/FirstNations/Health/womenAbstract: Health Canada’s role is to foster goodhealth by promoting health and protectingCanadians from harmful products, practicesand disease. A number of services andprograms are focused to decrease health statusdisparities between Aboriginal people andother Canadians. In 1996, the female Aboriginalpopulation was 408,140, comprising roughly 51%of the total Aboriginal population in Canada.Aboriginal populations (First Nations, Inuit, andMétis as well as non-Status First Nations) have anoticeably different age structure than the non-Aboriginal population of Canada. While thegeneral Canadian population has been agingat a progressive rate, the Aboriginal populationsexhibit a youthful structure. Nearly 42% of thefemale Aboriginal population is between theages of 0 to 19. The health of Aboriginal womenhas improved considerably over the past fewdecades, yet significant inequities remain inrelation to the general population.54. Herbert, E. & McCannell, K. (1997).Talking Back: Six First Nations Women’s Storieson Recovery from Childhood Sexual Abuse andAddictions. Canadian Journal of CommunityMental Health, 16, 51.Keywords: adequate human services and socialsafety net/culture/First Nations/ gender/safetyand security/sexual abuseAbstract: Explores interpersonal violence andthe addiction experiences of First Nationswomen, and investigates these in the contextof the renaissance of First Nations culturalmovements. The authors also sought to createa discourse about recovery that embodiedand reflected the life experience of First Nationswomen who had experienced childhood sexualabuse and addictions. Six women (aged 25-53yrs) participated in this study which used anexploratory, emancipatory, feminist qualitativeresearch design to elicit data throughinteractive audio-taped interviews. After thefirst interview, feedback was provided on theirresponses and the participants were given theopportunity to request changes. The six storieswere translated into four emergent themes,alcohol abuse and addictions, sexual abuse,recovery process, and gender issues, with tensubtexts. A third contact was made with four ofthe six participants in order to obtain feedbackon the themes used to summarize the data.Gender and culture were central considerationsin the women’s recovery (PsycINFO DatabaseRecord (c) 2003 APA).55. Hooper, B. J. & Hagey, R. (1994). ControlIssues in Native Health Care: Perspectives of anUrban Community Health Centre. In B. Singh &H. D. Dickinson (Eds.), Health, Illness, and Health

Care in Canada (pp. 221-265). Toronto, ON:Harcourt Brace.Keywords: Canada/health/health careAbstract: Anishnawbe Heath Toronto, anurban Native health centre, explicitly builds itspolicies and practices on a holistic foundationthat values the coexistence of conventionalbiomedical and traditional approaches. Theholistic view is presented diagrammaticallyin images of concentric circles depicting theorganizational structure of the centre. Holismis represented as a circle, “a control principlethrough balance,” that eschews oppositionand duality. The significance of gender-basedpolicy analysis is stressed and the power of thisapproach to have a direct impact on policy isillustrated.56. Hunter, L., Logan, J., Barton, S., &Goulet, J.-G. (2004). Linking Aboriginal HealingTraditions to Holistic Nursing Practice. Journal ofHolistic Nursing, 22, 267-285.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/British Columbia/Cultural Integrity and Identity/ Healing/Health/Traditional HealthAbstract: With a phenomenal expected growthin the Canadian Aboriginal population andthe fact that less than 1% of Canadian healthprofessionals are of Aboriginal ancestry, thereis an increased need for culturally competenthealth professionals. This article explains diversehealing traditions and links those traditions toholistic nursing practice. Respect for culturallysensitive care is necessary for understandingAboriginal peoples in different contexts. Wesuggest that nursing practice, which takes intoconsideration the understanding of Aboriginalhealing traditions, strengthens the intentionof nurses to be holistic. Holism in nursingallows the profession to be on the forefront ofunderstanding Aboriginal healing traditions; thelinking of holistic nursing practice with Aboriginalhealing traditions offers a foundation on whichto build culturally competent care.57. Janzen, B. L. (1998). Women, Genderand Health: A Review of the Recent Literature.Saskatoon, SK: Prairie Women’s Health Centre ofExcellence.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/gender/ health/older women/social support/ women/women’shealth/work/research/menAbstract: This study presents a broad overviewand synthesis of the recent research literatureon the major psychosocial influences onwomen’s health. Part 1 reviews the variabilityof health among women, with a particularemphasis on diversities in health accordingto women’s major social roles of partner,parent and worker. The context within whichsocial roles are carried out, particularly thesocioeconomic context, is identified as a criticalfactor. While research examining women’shealth within the context of both social rolesand material circumstances have producedcomplex findings, the research reviewed in thisstudy clearly suggests that to appropriatelydocument and understand the variabilityof health among women, attention to theparticular circumstances of women’s livesis required. This point is further highlighted insections describing the health issues of olderwomen, Aboriginal women, and immigrant andrefugee women. Part 2 begins with a reviewof the research on differences between menand women on various indicators of health andill health. Frequently mentioned throughoutthe literature is the apparent paradox inwomen’s and men’s health: men’s higherrate of mortality and women’s higher rate ofmorbidity. Recent evidence demonstrating thecomplexity and variability of gender differencesin health is reviewed, suggesting that broadgeneralizations about health-related genderdifferences are inappropriate. As a means ofclarifying more fully the significance of genderas a determinant of health, gender is examinedas it interacts with other social characteristicsassociated with health and disease, such associoeconomic status, paid and unpaid work,exposure to stressors, and social support. Theresearch that attempts to explain genderrelateddifferences in health also is examined,among which social role explanationsdominate. Possible reasons for the diminishinglongevity advantage of women over menin recent years also are discussed. While thenumber of studies concerning women’s healthhas multiplied in recent years, this review of theliterature identified a number of general gapsin knowledge, particularly with respect to theCanadian context (Adapted from the ExecutiveSummary).58. Kelly, J. G. (2003). ‘Analyze If You Wish,but Listen’: Aboriginal Women’s Lifestorytellingin Canada and Australia and the Politics ofGender, Nation, Aboriginality, and Anti-racism.PhD -- University of Calgary.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Australia/Canada/Culture/Gender/History/womenAbstract: This study examines how Aboriginalwomen’s lifestorytelling in Canada and Australiaengages in the processes of decolonizationand how its potential for transformation can berealized through anti-racist feminist criticism andpedagogy. Chapters One through Three locateAboriginal women’s lifestorytelling practiceswithin the processes of white nation building.59. Kinch, P., Katt, M., Boone, M., & Minore,B. (1994). On Being Everything and Nothing:The Retention of Native Health Care Workersin Northern Communities. Arctic MedicalResearch, 53.Keywords: Health/Health Care/NorthernCommunitiesAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing57

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing5860. Kinnon, D. (2002). Improving PopulationHealth, Health Promotion, Disease Preventionand Health Protection Services and Programsfor Aboriginal People. Ottawa, ON: NationalAboriginal Health Organization.Keywords: Aboriginal women/adequate humanservices and social safety net/ Canada/health/preventionAbstract: While this report does not focusentirely on Aboriginal women, it does focuson the critical issues facing Aboriginal peoplegenerally in achieving good health. The paperaddresses questions regarding what is knownabout the delivery of population health, healthpromotion, disease/injury prevention and healthprotection services and programs for Aboriginalpeople across Canada, etc. The paper providesa general overview of the existing literature andreports as well as the expert opinion of peopleworking at the national, provincial and territoriallevels.61. Klem, M.-E. (1998). Colonizing Bodies:Aboriginal Health and Healing in BritishColumbia, 1900-50. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press.Keywords: health/First Nations/well-being/government/British Columbia/children/indigenous healing/medicine/ history/AboriginalpeoplesAbstract: Historical analysis of colonization ofAboriginal peoples in British Columbia. Theauthor explores the ways in which Aboriginalbodies were materially affected by CanadianIndian policy, which placed restrictions onfishing and hunting, allocated inadequatereserves, forced children into unhealthyresidential schools, and criminalized indigenoushealing and traditional medicine.62. Kulchyski, P., McCaskill, D., & Newhouse,D. (1998). In the Words of Elders, AboriginalCultures in Transition. Toronto, ON: University ofToronto Press.Keywords: Culture/Elders/Oral History/ Canada/Men/womenAbstract: This book brings together the voicesand stories of sixteen Elders and traditionalteachers from across Canada. This collection ofstories and voices allows readers to comparethe vision and experience of a generationof Aboriginal people. Today, Elders are thehistorians of the Aboriginal past and keepers ofthe cultural events and ceremonies. They areteachers, healers, and experts in survival, sharinga world view based on the knowledge thatall things in life are related and are governedby natural laws. The Elders represented in thistext include men and women from a variety oftraditions and geographical locations.63. Lambert Colomeda, L. A. (1996).Through the Northern Looking Glass: BreastCancer Stories Told by Northern Native Women.New York: National League for Nursing Press.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/AboriginalWomen/Adequate Human Services and SocialSafety Net/Cultural Integrity and Identity/HealingAbstract: Among Aboriginal peoples, oralhistories and traditional storytelling are essentialto cultural survival. In this book, thirteen NorthernAboriginal women relate their experiences assurvivors of breast cancer. They speak abouthow they adapted to the disease, and look inparticular at the ties that they have built withfamily, friends, and their environment. The bookalso examines the clashing and blending ofmedical technology with traditional healingmethods.64. Lanier, A. P. & Kelly, J. J. (1999).Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behavior of AlaskaNative Women Regarding Cervical and BreastCancer. In D. Weiner (Ed.), Preventing andControlling Cancer in North America: A Cross-Cultural Perspective. Westport: Praeger.Keywords: Native women/Cervical Cancer/Breast Cancer65. Lazarus, E. S. (1988). TheoreticalConsiderations for the Study of the Doctor-Patient Relationship: Implications of a PerinatalStudy. Medical Anthropology Quarterly, 2, 35-59.Keywords: Canada/Health/Health Care/womenAbstract: Studies of doctor-patient relationshipscan inform health policy reform. Ethnographicmethods merged with interview surveys revealpolicy implications linking women’s personalexperiences of health care encounters to thestructures of the broader health system andbeyond. Lazarus stressed the need to observepower relationships in health institution toaddress how policies are implicated in patients’lack of control over their health care. Thisstudy, with Euro-American and Puerto Ricanwomen in an American public clinic, offersmethodological approaches that resonate withgender-based policy studies in Aboriginal healthcare in Canada.66. Leipert, B. (1999). Women’s Health andthe Practice of Public Health Nurses in NorthernBritish Columbia. Public Health Nursing, 16, 280-289.Keywords: British Columbia/Canada/ Health/Health Care/Prevention/Women’s HealthAbstract: This study explored women’shealth and the practice of public healthnurses in northern British Columbia using aphenomenological methodology. Ten publichealth nurses in northern British Columbia wereinterviewed to determine their perspectives on

their practice in the area of women’s health.Findings reveal three central themes: women’shealth, public health nursing practice, and ruralcontext. Several sub-themes elaborate on thecentral themes. Women’s health is described interms of women’s health needs, how womenstay healthy in northern communities, andconditions that affect women’s health. Publichealth nursing practice is described in termsof activities, strengths, conditions, and ways tostrengthen practice. Definitions of rural contextare provided and some of the benefits andchallenges of living and working in northerncommunities are presented. Health promotionand illness and injury prevention needs ofwomen are clearly evident in the findings.Public health nurses are well placed in the Northto help women meet their health care needs.However, further attention to women’s healthneeds and the expansion of public healthnursing services would facilitate improvedhealth for women who live in isolated northernsettings. In addition, further research is neededto explicate women’s health and public healthnursing practice in isolated northern settings inCanada (Journal Abstract).67. Letendre, A. D. (2002). AboriginalTraditional Medicine: Where Does It Fit? CrossingBoundaries: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 1, 78-87.Keywords: Medicine/Prevention/AboriginalMedicineAbstract: The paper establishes the central roleof traditional medicine in Aboriginal society andthe value of the Aboriginal traditional medicineframework in working toward healthy Aboriginalcommunities. The author examines fundamentaldifferences between traditional medicine andwestern medicine and describes two conflictschallenging the successful integration ofAboriginal traditional medicine within westernmedicine: issues of power and the Aboriginalconceptualization of illness prevention.68. MacMillan, H., Walsh, C., Jamieson, E.,Crawford, A., & Boyle, M. (1999). First Nationsand Inuit Regional Health Survey. First Nationsand Inuit Regional Health Survey NationalSteering Committee.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/AboriginalWomen/Basic Physical Needs/British Columbia/First Nations/Health/Manitoba/ women/Women’s Health/YouthAbstract: The Final Report of the First Nationsand Inuit Regional Health Survey (FNIRHS) wasdeveloped from National Core Data derivedfrom the 1997 National Health Survey of FirstNations and Labrador Inuit communities. Thedata presented in this document representsthe most current, validated health informationon the First Nations in British Columbia, Alberta,Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec,New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and the Inuitpeoples of Labrador. The FNIRHS Reportconsists of seven thematic volumes andappendices consisting of a technical reportand a description of the development process.The thematic volumes are presented in sevenchapters which deal with the following topics:Children’s Health; Examination of ResidentialSchools and Elder Health; Chronic Diseases; TheTobacco Report; Activity Limitation and theNeed for Continuing Care; Search for Wellness;and Health and Dental Services for AboriginalPeople. Each thematic volume includes aliterature review, as well as an analysis of coredata results. Comparison of core data resultswith other national databases such as theNational Population Health Survey (NPHS);National Longitudinal Survey of Children andYouth (NLSCY) and the Aboriginal PeoplesSurvey (APS) are also included whereverpossible. While this report does not focus entirelyon Aboriginal women, it does provide healthstatistics in various areas that have relevance toAboriginal women’s health issues, concerns andneeds.69. Maher, P. (1999). A Review of‘Traditional’ Aboriginal Health Beliefs. AustralianJournal of Rural Health, 7, 229-236.Keywords: Gender/Health/Health Beliefs/MedicineAbstract: Western health professionals oftenexperience difficulties in service delivery toAboriginal people because of the disparitybetween Aboriginal and Western health beliefsystems. This article reviews the literature whichconsiders ‘traditional’ Aboriginal health beliefsand medical systems. The traditional Aboriginalmodel of illness causation emphasizes socialand spiritual dysfunction as a cause of illness.Supernatural intervention is regarded as themain cause of serious illness. There are genderdivisions in Aboriginal society that impact on thedelivery of Western healthcare. Managementstrategies such as preventative care, bushmedicine, and the role of traditional healers arediscussed. These belief systems are consideredwith particular reference to their interactionsand implications with regard to the Westernmedical system. This information provides aframework to allow improved understandingby health professionals of the health-relateddecisions made by Aboriginal people (JournalAbstract).70. Martin, D. E. (1997). An EthnographicStudy Examining Quality of Worklife Issues ofOutpost Nurses in Northern Manitoba. Thesis(M.Nurs.) -- University of Manitoba, 1997.Keywords: Canada/Culture/First Nations/Health/Manitoba/WorkAbstract: An ethnographic study wasimplemented to examine quality of work life(QWL) issues of outpost nurses in northernManitoba. Field notes were maintained during aten-day field experience to four outpost stationsAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing59

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing60in northern Manitoba in 1994. One- to two-hoursemi-structured interviews were conducted withfive Aboriginal and six Non-Aboriginal outpostnurses. Transcripts and field notes underwentcontent analysis to identify categories andthemes. Findings indicated that outpostnursing was inundated with contradictionsand conflicts. Outpost nurses perceived thatpositive work life factors outweighed thenegative ones. They found personal fulfillmentin several aspects of their work. Fulfillment wasa major theme comprising the following worklife categories: (1) attachment to clients; (2)learning on the job; (3) independence; (4) wedo everything; (5) being the doctor; (6) varietyof patient needs; and (7) providing quality care.Independence was the most significant positivework life factor. Work life issues that outpostnurses perceived negatively reflected a selfimageof powerlessness, which contained thefollowing categories: (1) isolation; (2) workingand living together; (3) inadequate preparation;(4) clients’ dependence on the system; (5)massive responsibility; (6) understaffing; (7)never really off; (8) living in fear; (9) lack ofsupport from Zone Nursing Officers; (10) conflictswith physicians; and (11) “it’s very political uphere.” Understaffing, working and living togetherwere factors that nurses perceived to stronglynegatively affect their work life. Aboriginalnurses expressed that their knowledge of FirstNations language and culture enhancedtheir practice. Non-Aboriginal outpost nursesdemonstrated scepticism over authenticity ofclients’ health problems. Aboriginal nurses spokeabout a long-term commitment to outpostnursing; Non-Aboriginal nurses viewed outpostnursing as a short-term experience. Aboriginalnurses participated in group and communityactivities while their non-Aboriginal colleaguestended to spend time off within the outpoststation (Author Abstract).71. McBride, C. & Bobet, E. (1990). Healthof Indian Women. Ottawa, ON: Indian andNorthern Affairs Canada.Keywords: Canada/Health/women/Women’sHealthAbstract: Differences in the health of men andwomen can be masked in global analysesof health issues. It is important to recognizethat women face different health problems,and therefore require different types of healthservices. This paper examines three questions asthey relate to the health of status Indian womenin Canada: How does Indian women’s healthcompare to that of other groups? What mightexplain the observed differences in health?And what are the implications for planning anddelivering health programs?72. Minore, B., Boone, M., & Hill, M. E.(2004). Finding Temporary Relief: Strategy forNursing Recruitment in Northern AboriginalCommunities. 36, 2, 163.Keywords: Canada/First Nations/health/jurisdiction/researchAbstract: To address a recurring shortageof nurses in the Aboriginal communities ofnorthwestern Ontario, the First Nations and InuitHealth Branch, Health Canada, commissioneda study to explore the viability of establishinga relief pool among nurses from nearbysmall industrial towns. An open/close-endedsurvey completed by a random sampleof 237 nurses from the target populationdocumented levels of awareness, willingness,and preparedness for northern practice, as wellas recruitment incentives and disincentives.Findings demonstrate an awareness of theoverlap between the professional and personaldimensions characteristic of such practices, andsuggest support for innovative rotations thatwould cut across federal/provincial/ communityjurisdictions. Although complex, given time andwillingness, a regional relief system seems viable.73. Minore, B., Boone, M., Katt, M., Kinch,P., Birch, S., & Mushquash, C. (2005). The Effectsof Nursing Turnover on Continuity of Care inIsolated First Nations Communities. CanadianJournal of Nursing Research, 37, 86-101.Keywords: Canada/Diabetes/Health/HealthCare/ResearchAbstract: Many of Canada’s northern FirstNations communities experience difficultyrecruiting and retaining appropriate nursingstaff and must rely on relief nurses for shorttermcoverage. The latter often are notadequately prepared for the demandingnature of the practice. This study examinedthe consequences of nursing turnover on thecontinuity of care provided to residents of threeOjibway communities in northern Ontario. Thefindings are based on a review of 135 chartsof oncology, diabetes, and mental healthclients, and on interviews with 30 professionaland paraprofessional healthcare providers whoserved the communities. Nursing turnover isshown to detrimentally affect communications,medications management, and the range ofservices offered; it also results in compromisedfollow-up, client disengagement, illnessexacerbation, and an added burden of carefor family and community members.74. Mitchinson, W. (2000). Colonizing Bodies(Book Review). Canadian Historical Review, 81,486-488.Keywords: British Columbia/Healing/HealthAbstract: The author reviews the book‘Colonizing Bodies: Aboriginal Health andHealing in British Columbia, 1900-1950’ writtenby Mary-Ellen Kelm.75. Molzahn, A. E., Starzomski, R.,McDonald, M., & Oloughlin, C. (2004).Aboriginal Beliefs About Organ Donation: Some

Coast Salish Viewpoints. Canadian Journal ofNursing Research, 36, 110-128.Keywords: British Columbia/Canada/Ethnocultural Beliefs/Men/Organ Donation/ResearchAbstract: A large number of Aboriginalpeople await transplantation, and reluctanceto donate organs has been noted amongAboriginal people. The purpose of this studywas to explore the values and beliefs regardingorgan donation of Coast Salish people livingin British Columbia, Canada. Interviewswere held with 14 people (8 women and6 men) ranging in age from 25 to 63 years.Contextual themes were: lack of trust, life inAboriginal communities, and tension betweencontemporary and traditional perspectives.Themes pertaining to death and dying were:acceptance of fate, death routines/rituals,and body wholeness. Themes pertaining toorgan donation were: “we don’t talk aboutit,” transfer of spirit, and helping others. Therewas considerable diversity in beliefs amongparticipants, which suggests that the beliefsheld by an individual Aboriginal person shouldnot be assumed to reflect those of any specificAboriginal community.76. Native Women’s Association ofCanada & Canadian Council on SocialDevelopment (1991). Voices of AboriginalWomen: Aboriginal Women Speak Out AboutViolence. Ottawa, ON: Canadian Council andSocial Development and Native Women’sAssociation of Canada.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequatePower/Canada/Culture/Family Violence/Healing/Safety and Security/Social Justice andEquity/womenAbstract: In 1987, members of the FamilyViolence Program at the Canadian Councilon Social Development conducted interviewswith women who had been abused by theirhusbands or boyfriends. Some were Aboriginalwomen who wanted others to hear aboutand learn from their stories. This documentcontains a descriptive overview of what it islike to be abused as an Aboriginal woman.It contains testimonials from five women whohave survived the violence in their lives. Italso contains an interview with Liza, a drugand alcohol counselor, and an Elder whotalks about her process of healing. Finally, itdescribes new directions and initiatives thatare being developed to help family violencevictims and offenders. This booklet providesfirsthand accounts of six Aboriginal women’sexperience with abuse, both of themselvesand their families, and of their culture andsociety. They are survivors of a violence bornof despair and loss of hope all too widespreadin Native communities. But they are alsostories of personal strength and courage, asthe concluding section on the healing processdemonstrates.77. Native Women’s Association ofCanada & Canadian Council on SocialDevelopment (1997). ‘Hear their Stories’: 40Aboriginal Women Speak. Ottawa, ON: NativeWomen’s Association of Canada.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequatePower/Canada/Culture/Family Violence/Healing/Native women/Safety and Security/Social Justice and Equity/women78. O’Doherty, C. (1997). Gender andHealth: From Research to Policy: Access toHealth Care Services for Aboriginal Women: TheCurrent Legal Framework. Halifax, NS: AtlanticHealth Promotion Research Centre, DalhousieUniversity.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Access to Care/Adequate Human Services and Social SafetyNet/Gender/Health/Health Determinants/Meaningful Work and Service to Others/12Abstract: Discusses the demographic profileof Quebec’s Aboriginal population from dataprovided by the 1991 Census and IndianRegister. Includes a discussion of the healthdeterminants, Aboriginal women and theCanadian constitutional framework with regardto federal and provincial responsibility forAboriginal health, the transfer of health careresponsibilities, sharing of skills, as well as theright to equality and self-government (CWHNAbstract).79. O’Neil, J., Young, T. K., Moffatt, M.E., O’Neil, Thika, R., & Mirdad, S. (1995). ThePopulation Survey as a Tool for Assessing FamilyHealth in the Keewatin Region, NWT, Canada.Arctic Medical Research, 54, 77-85.Keywords: Canada/Diet/Health/HealthDeterminants/Sexual Abuse/Suicide/Well-beingAbstract: The population survey is an importanttool in community health assessment, includingthe physical and psychological aspects offamily health. It provides data on health statusand health determinants not available fromvital statistics and health service utilization.The Keewatin Health Assessment Study(KHAS), which was designed in collaborationwith the Keewatin Regional Health Board(KRHB), surveyed a representative sample ofthe predominantly Inuit population in eightcommunities in the central Canadian Arctic.The entire survey included 874 individuals inall age groups, of whom 440 were childrenand adolescents under 18 years of age, andconsisted of questionnaires, clinical examinationand laboratory tests. Of the large number ofvariables on which data were collected, somewere of particular relevance to the healthof children and the well-being of the family,including: (1) Child growth and development;Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing61

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing62(2) Nutrition and diet; (3) Social pathologies:suicide attempts and sexual abuse; (4) Oralhealth; and (5) Audiologic health. In additionto providing cross-sectional data, surveyparticipants constitute a cohort which, iffollowed up longitudinally, can be used todetermine the incidence of specific conditionsand identify risk factors which promote orprevent their occurrence. An example of sucha cohort study is one on acute respiratoryinfection. Surveys serve many functions--providing data for planning and evaluation,promoting community awareness of healthissues, and addressing basic research questions.The KHAS is one of several surveys launchedover the past several years which jointly willbegin to provide a circumpolar perspective onthe health of Inuit people (Journal Abstract).80. Ontario Federation of Indian FriendshipCentres (2002). Aboriginal Approaches to FetalAlcohol Syndrome/Effects. Toronto, ON: OntarioFederation of Indian Friendship Centres.Keywords: Fetal Alcohol Syndrome/Effects/Life-Sustaining Values, Morals, and Ethics/ StrongFamilies and Healthy Child DevelopmentAbstract: Explores how Aboriginal culture andpractices help with the development and dailylives of Aboriginals living with FAS/E. Storiesand articles build on Aboriginal knowledgeof health and healing to explore strategiesto assist people with FAS/E and celebrateand document the variety and originality ofwork that is being done around FAS/E withinAboriginal communities (CWHN Abstract).81. Ontario Native Women’s Association(1972). A Brief in Which Is Outlined theCondition of Native Indian people in Ontario,with a Proposal for Improvement through theOrganization of Native Women in their LocalCommunities across the province. Thunder Bay:Ontario Native Women’s Association.Keywords: Native women/Social ConditionsAbstract: Unavailable82. Orr, P. (1994). Aboriginal Women’sHealth: Enhancing Access to Care throughTechnologic Innovation. Canadian WomanStudies, 14, 99-101.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Access to Care/Canada/Health/Inuit Women/Social Support/women/Women’s HealthAbstract: For Inuit women with cancer livingin the North, treatment has typically involvedmultiple visits to specialized medical centresin southern Canada, and hence prolongedseparation from their friends and family. Inthis article, the author discusses a recentprogram initiative in the Keewatin District of theCentral Arctic that has harnessed innovativetechnology so that more women might receivediagnostic and therapeutic services closerto home and thereby benefit from the socialsupport that family members and friendsoften provide (Dion Stout, 1997). Over thepast decade, comprehensive communitybasedscreening for cervical cancer has beenprovided by nurse practitioners who obtain Papsmears on all women according to publishedguidelines (Miller et al.). The smears are readby trained pathologists at the British ColumbiaCancer Agency, where a cancer registry ismaintained. Traditionally, women from theKeewatin District with abnormal Pap smearswere referred primarily to Winnipeg for biopsy.Return visits to Winnipeg were arranged forthose requiring further treatment. Over a twoyearperiod, travel costs for patients in theKeewatin District who required investigationand treatment of cervical cancer exceeded$200,000. What have not been quantified,however, are the monetary and emotionalcosts incurred through separation of the patientfrom her family and community, as well asthe anxiety generated by travel, delays indiagnosis, and the provision of health care bythose who may be unfamiliar with Inuit culture.Although efforts are made to provide culturallyappropriate care in Winnipeg, it is unknownwhether these factors may have contributedto reluctance among Inuit women to seekcare in the past. Compared to non-Aboriginalwomen, Aboriginal women in other regionsof Canada have been found to have moreadvanced cervical disease when they arefirst diagnosed (Band et al.). This observationraises the questions of whether the virus actsdifferently in Aboriginal women, or whetherthere are social and cultural “barriers” todiagnosis and care for this disease (Peters etal.). Patients referred to the Churchill programincluded women with a new diagnosis ofcervical abnormalities on Pap smear, and thosewith previous diagnoses of cervical diseasewho required follow-up. In Churchill they wereenrolled in an education program, using videos,pamphlets, and counselling sessions with Inuittranslators and health advocates, in order toprovide information regarding the causes,diagnosis, and treatment of cervical disease.Colposcopy was performed on all patients bya visiting consultant gynecologist (FernandoGuijon) with training in colposcopy, assistedby a local family physician (Wendy Smith). TheChurchill colposcopy program has broughtcost-effective and culturally appropriatehealth care for cervical disease closer to theInuit women of the Keewatin. However, morerecent advancements in diagnostic technologysince the inauguration of our programhave suggested the possibility of furtherdecentralization of care through the provisionof colposcopy in a woman’s home community.Portable colposcopes and electrosurgicalgenerators are now available which canbe transported to remote areas. Improvedscreening of women in their communities mayalso be achieved through cervicography. Thistechnique involves taking sharp photographic

images of the cervix, which are then sentfor review by a colposcopist trained inthis procedure. Along with Pap screening,cervicography would identify women whorequire referral for colposcopy with or withoutbiopsy or LLETZ electrosurgery.83. Pauktuutit Inuit Women’s Associationof Canada (2002). Inuit Women’s Health: A Callfor Commitment. Network: Canadian Women’sHealth, 4/5.Keywords: Canada/Canadian Women/ Health/Health Care/Inuit Women/women/ Women’sHealthAbstract: Discusses the health care needs ofInuit women in Canada.84. Pereira, J. R. (2005). A PreliminaryCase Study of Perceptions of Access toEthnomedicine in the Environment in theMi’kmaq Community of Indian Brook. Thesis(M.E.S.)--Dalhousie University, 2000.Keywords: Canada/Culture/Government/History/Medicine/Men/womenAbstract: A sixteen-month case study inIndian Brook, Shubenacadie was conductedto explore the significance of traditionalland by surveying perceptions surroundingaccess to traditional medicine. Five otherreserve communities were also visited to gaina broader perspective on accessibility andavailability of traditional medicines for theMi’kmaq community at large. As a result ofoccupation and habitation in Mi’kma’ki, aunique and special bond has formed; thustraditional lands are central to Mi’kmawculture and spiritual beliefs. Legal cases andtreaties support Mi’kmaw tenure, but conflicthas arisen and access to traditional Mi’kmawmedicines is perceived as limited. Usingsemi-structured interviews, transect walks,oral histories, mapping exercises, personalobservation, and a review of literature, anunderstanding of the Mi’kmaq history, cultureand belief system was established. Datacollected suggest that pollution and privateland ownership as well as government andCatholic prohibitions contribute to restrictingaccess to traditional medicines for Mi’kmaw.Although individual perceptions varied, findingsindicated that traditional medicines are animportant part of the Mi’kmaq culture. Themajority of respondents practice traditionalmedicine although procurement proceduresvary. Perceptions indicated that postcolonialissues, such as the denial of land, influenceMi’kmaw perceptions of accessibility oftraditional medicine. Despite these problems,traditional medicines are generally available toIndian Brook community members. Field studyfindings also suggest a connection betweenprevious family traditional medicine practicesand current individual practice. Furthermore,the study identified a range of opinions thatexist regarding the role of men and women inthe practice of traditional medicine (AuthorAbstract).85. Powers, N. (2005). Beyond CulturalDifferences: Interpreting a Treaty between theMi’kmaq and British at Belcher’s Farm, 1761.Atlantis: A Women’s Study Journal, 29.Keywords: Native women/women/First Nations/Canada/Government/Cultural DifferencesAbstract: It has been argued that the 1761treaty between the Mi’kmaq and British atGovernor Belcher’s farm proves that theirrelationship was a simple one of conqueror andconquered. This paper offers an alternativeinterpretation of the 1761 treaty. Throughthe guidance of stories told by women in myfamily, the paper argues that historic treatyrights must be understood within the context ofrelationships instead of individual or collectiverights. It concludes that stories about how we,as Mi’kmaq, are to relate to one another arecentral to the project of nationhood.86. Prairie Women’s Health Centre ofExcellence (2004). Naspici Niyomahcihowin(Continuous Good Health): A Community-BasedResearch Project Examining the Health Needsof Aboriginal Women in Saskatoon. (Rep. No.Project #85). Winnipeg, MB: Prairie Women’sHealth Centre of Excellence.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/ BasicPhysical Needs/Health/Research/ women/Women’s HealthAbstract: This report presents the results of aresearch project developed by the SaskatoonAboriginal Women’s Health ResearchCommittee, a group of First Nations and Metiswomen interested in improving health servicesfor Aboriginal women and their families. Theproject used a community-based approach tobegin a dialogue with Aboriginal women andservice providers in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan.Information was gathered through a series offocus groups and interviews that took place in2003. The purpose of the project was to gaina better understanding of Aboriginal women’saccess to health services in the city, to identifygaps in services, and to develop a shared visionof an Aboriginal Women’s Health Centre thatwould meet the women’s health needs. Thisreport provides feedback to the communityof women who participated in the researchproject and to others interested in improvinghealth services for urban Aboriginal women. Thewords of the women who participated in thisproject appear in bold typeface.87. Rude, D. & Deiter, C. (2004). Fromthe Fur Trade to Free Trade: Forestry and FirstNations Women in Canada. Ottawa, ON: Statusof Women Canada.Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing63

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing64Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequateIncome and Sustainable Economies/ AdequatePower/British Columbia/Canada/ Diabetes/FirstNations/Free Trade/Gender/ Health/HealthyEco-System and Sustainable Relations BetweenHuman Beings and the Natural World/Status ofWomenAbstract: The gender implications of freetrade on Aboriginal women, particularly asit relates to forestry, was examined by theauthors in this study commissioned by Status ofWomen Canada. The report focused on theexperiences of First Nations women in WesternCanada who were taking a lead in advocatingfor Aboriginal title and rights, to protect theenvironment and preserve traditional lifestyles.Thirty-four First Nations women living on ornear three reserves in British Columbia andSaskatchewan were interviewed. Sharingcircles were held to gather their stories andperspectives on the effects of forestry and freetrade. The women were deeply concernedabout the pace and manner in which tradein timber has been undertaken in Canada.Their study indicates that forestry initiativescontrolled by Aboriginal people have notconsistently included the voices of women.Women are uncertain of how their communitiesare benefiting from free trade and many haveorganized to resist the economic developmentthat is springing up on their traditional landswithout their input and consent. While the focusof this article is on forestry, it does highlightfactors that have a direct outcome on thehealth of Aboriginal women and communitymembers. The loss of traditional foods togetherwith commercialization is increasingly forcingpeople to live off store-bought foods whichcreate health problems, such as diabetes anddental concerns. Health issues, the authors note,are rarely included as part of environmentalassessments when looking at the impact towildlife and other aspects of the ecosystem.This perspective is gender specific as womentend to look at the human impacts ratherthan the financial and economic returns ofsuch endeavours. This report contributes to thediscussion of women and trade agreements bymaking the connections between First Nationswomen, forestry and free trade. It begins witha literature review on the following subjects:gender and Aboriginal women, traditional roles,the fur trade, Aboriginal title and rights, and freetrade and logging in First Nations communities.It then summarizes interviews with 34 women onor near three reserves in British Columbia andSaskatchewan on the environmental, cultural,economic and social impacts of logging. Thereport concludes with recommendations onsuch matters as public education, naturalresource management and trade agreements.88. Ryan, S. A. (2000). The Many Directionsof Four Stories: Aboriginal Women’s ExperiencesLiving with Addictions and HIV/AIDS. Thesis(M.A.) -- Simon Fraser University, Dept. ofSociology and Anthropology, Vancouver, BC.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Critical LearningOpportunities/Health/ HIV/AIDS/ Life-SustainingValues, Morals, and Ethics/ Women’s HealthAbstract: This exploratory study involvedlistening, observing, analyzing, documenting,and better understanding “things as they are”for four street-involved, HIV-positive Aboriginalwomen from Vancouver’s Downtown Eastside.The thesis highlights the circumstances thatcontribute to the women’s vulnerability not justto HIV/AIDS, but to a number of constrainingsocial factors that affect their overall health,safety, and quality of life. The narrative natureof the four women’s stories is used to gain agreater understanding of Aboriginal women’shealth issues. Historical issues, along with social,cultural, economic, and physical factors thatimpinge on the health of Aboriginal women areenhanced when combined with the four storiesof the study group.89. Statistics Canada (2002). Health of theOff-Reserve Aboriginal Population, 2000/01. TheDaily Catalogue 11-001E.Keywords: Basic Physical Needs/HealthAbstract: This report states that Aboriginalpeople who live off-reserve in cities andtowns are generally in poorer health thanthe non-Aboriginal population, accordingto the first ever study using new data fromthe 2000/01 Canadian Community HealthSurvey. The study found that inequalities inhealth persisted between Aboriginal peoplewho lived off reserve and other Canadiansafter socioeconomic and health behaviourfactors were taken into account. Four healthmeasures were used in the comparisonbetween Aboriginal and non-Aboriginals: (1)self-perceived health; (2) chronic conditions; (3)long-term activity restriction; and (4) depression.90. Status of Women Council of the NWT(2002). Untold Stories 2. Status of WomenCouncil of the NWT and Northwest Territories,Health and Social Services.Keywords: Family Violence/womenAbstract: This is the second book of storiesfrom victims of families affected by violence.The first book was published in 1990 and wasa useful resource for addressing the need forcommunity understanding of family violence.Untold Stories 2 is a compilation of stories aboutwomen who took steps to find help and supportin leaving or resolving the violent relationships.Photos of front line workers, women listeningand women sharing and laughing are included.Children’s drawings show the fear and sadnessthey experience in witnessing violence againsttheir loved ones. A song and a poem are alsoincluded to illustrate the different forms ofexpressing or telling one’s story.

91. Steckley, J. (2000). Beyond their Years:Five Native Women’s Stories. Halifax, NS:Fernwood Books.Keywords: Native women/Elders Abstract:This book tells the life stories of five NativeCanadian women. Each biography is drawnfrom a different native culture, spreadgeographically from Saskatchewan toNewfoundland; collectively the stories coverthe period from 1656 to 1992. This path breakingbook shatters stereotypes by showing the powerthat native women had in their communities.The images of squaw and Indian princess vannow be replaced by a more realistic view ofwomen diverse in personality and life history. Thisbook describes the struggles of these women’sefforts to preserve and protect their respectivecommunities.92. Stephenson, P. H., Elliot, S. J., Foster, L.T., & Harris, J. (1995). A Persistent Spirit: TowardsUnderstanding Aboriginal Health in BritishColumbia. Victoria, BC: University of Victoria.Keywords: British Columbia/First Nations/ HealthAbstract: This volume describes health issuesamong First Nations people living in BritishColumbia. The first chapter details the impactthat introduced European diseases had onmany facets of Aboriginal life. Later chaptersprovide detailed statistical and empiricalaccounts of the health gap between Aboriginalpopulations and the non-Aboriginal populationthrough attempts to deal with basic inequalities.The increased incidence of chronic diseasesis detailed. As well, various projects that aredesigned to deal with Aboriginal health issues ina culturally sensitive manner are described.93. Stillwater, B. (1999). The Alaska NativeWomen’s Wellness Project. Health Care forWomen International, 20, 487-492.Keywords: Cancer Screening/Health/HealthCareAbstract: Alaska Native women haveencountered many obstacles in the healthcare system, which deter them from adheringto cancer screening recommendations. Toimprove access, it was necessary for us to listento them and their attitudes about health care.As a result of this assessment, we changedour approach, resulting in an overall increasein screening rates from 14% to 62%. A caseexample is presented to demonstrate barriersto cancer screening and our techniques forovercoming them (Journal Abstract).94. Struthers, R. & Lowe, J. (2003). Nursingin the Native American Culture and HistoricalTrauma. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 24, 257-272.Keywords: Adequate Human Services andSocial Safety Net/Cultural Integrity and Identity/Culture/Health/Health Care/TraumaAbstract: Historical trauma is a significantfact in the Native American community, afact affecting both health status and socialmilieu. Mental health nurses and other personsworking in the mental health professions will beconfronted over and over with historical traumawhen working with Native American peoplesand communities. To heal historical trauma,culturally appropriate strategies derived fromthe ancient knowledge, philosophy, and worldview of Native America are needed. Onetool mental health care providers can usewhen encountering historical trauma is theConceptual Framework of Nursing in the NativeAmerican Culture.95. Struthers, R. (2003). The Artistry andAbility of Traditional Women Healers. HealthCare for Women International, 24, 340-354.Keywords: Canada/Cultural Integrity andIdentity/Healing/Health/Health CareAbstract: In a phenomenological research studywith a purposeful sample, six Ojibwa and Creeindigenous women healers from Canada andthe United States shared their experience ofbeing a traditional healer. Using stories obtainedduring open-ended, unstructured interviews,in this article I depict the lives, backgrounds,and traditional healing practices of womenwho, in the past, have not been afforded anopportunity to dialogue about their healingart and abilities. The methods of these womenhealers, their arts and their gifts, are differentfrom those of Western conventional medicinebecause of dissimilar world views related tohealth and illness. An increased awareness ofhealth care providers related to the ancientart of traditional healing currently practicedin communities by gifted women who provideculturally specific holistic healing and healthcare is essential (Journal Abstract).96. Sudbury & District Health Unit (2002).Aboriginal and Francophone Women’sPerception of Heart Health in their Communities:A Focus Group Study Report. Sudbury, ON:Sudbury & District Health Unit.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/ Franco-Ontarian Women/Health/Heart HealthAbstract: Provides the results of a focus groupthat wanted to raise awareness and educateand involve Francophone and Aboriginalwomen in their own heart health (CWHNAbstract).97. Sutherns, R., McPhedran, M., &Haworth-Brockman, M. (2005). Rural, Remoteand Northern Women’s Health: Policy andResearch Directions: Final Summary Report.Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing65

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and HealingWinnipeg, MB: Centres of Excellence forWomen’s Health.Keywords: Basic Physical Needs/Gender/Health/Health Services Research/Inuit Women/Rural Women/Women’s HealthAbstract: Addresses the health concernsof rural, remote and Northern women.Includes data collected from focus groupsand workshops with women from diversecommunities across Canada, including fishersand farmers, and from Aboriginal, Francophoneand Anglophone communities from coast tocoast to coast. Also draws on data collectedfrom a National Consultation meeting held inSaskatoon (2003) (CWHN Abstract).98. Tait, C. L. (1999). New BeginningsProject: Wellness Needs Assessment ofAboriginal Women Living in Montreal.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/ Health/Montreal/Well-beingAbstract: The aim of this component was todesign and conduct a qualitative assessment toidentify the health, wellness, and social serviceneeds of Aboriginal women living in Montreal.99. Tookalak, N., Qumaluk, A., & Qinuajuak,L. (1996). Inuit Midwives: Their Stories. MidwiferyToday Childbirth Education, Winter, 54-55.Keywords: Aboriginal Midwifery/Inuit WomenAbstract: Not available.100. van Rensberg, S. & Isnor, A. (2000).Primary Health Care 2000 in Kitikmeot, Nunavut,Canada: “Polar Bare Facts.” In InternationalConference, Primary Health Care 2000“Creating Healthy Communities.” Melbourne,AUS.Keywords: Canada/Education/Health/HealthCare/SuicideAbstract: In this paper the authors outline avision of primary health care 2000 in Kitikmeotas a collaborative model for the community,by the community and through the community.“Polar Bare Facts” discusses populationdispersion, challenges faced, technologicaladvances, workforce development andcommunity funding for special initiatives.Finally, a blueprint for primary health care inthe Kitikmeot is proposed. A Government ofNorthwest Territories (GNWT) report in 1998compared Nunavut health status indicatorswith Canada’s national average as follows:2 times infant mortality rate; 3 times teenagepregnancy rate; 6 times suicide rate; 8 timesmore tuberculosis; 13 - 20 times sexuallytransmitted infections; 26 times solvent abuse;5 times violent crime; 7 times sexual assault;50% of the population is less than 20 years ofage; 60% of adult population are smokers; 42%of Nunavut older than 15 years have less thanGrade 9 education; 26-40% unemploymentrates.101. Vicq, S., Dufour, L., Keewatin, E.,Arcand, D., & Whitecalf, T. (1995). Stories fromKohkom: Sharing our Values, Teaching ourYoung. Saskatoon: READ Saskatoon.Keywords: Canada/Health/Native women/womenAbstract: “The Saskatoon Community Clinicbegan a program of outreach to Aboriginalgrandmothers in the fall of 1992 with fundingfrom Health Canada. This outreach was calledthe Older Native Women ‘s Health Project.Project staff visited grandmothers in theirhomes, and brought them together to talkabout their own health as well as that of theirfamilies and communities ... By telling theirstories, the grandmothers are sharing theirstrength and wisdom with the community.” (p.4) “This book is dedicated to the [23] Aboriginalgrandmothers who told their stories to teach theyounger generations about life, traditions, andvalues...”(p. 3).102. Wachowich, N. & with Apphia AgalaktiAwa. (1999). Saqiyuq: Stories from the Livesof Three Inuit Women. Montreal, QC: McGill-Queen’s University Press.Keywords: Canada/Health/History/InuitWomen/MontrealAbstract: Includes a discussion on: (1) Awa,Apphia Agalakti, 1931-1996; (2) Katsak, RhodaKaukjak; (3) Katsak, Sandra Pikujak; (4) InuitCanada History 20th century; (5) Femmes inuitNunavut Biographies; (6) Inuit Canada Social lifeand customs; (7) Femmes inuit Nunavut Histoire.Inuit women Canada Social life and customs;(8) Inuit personal narratives; and (9) NunavutBiographies. Saqiyuq is the Inuit word for astrong wind that suddenly changes direction.Clearly, the lives of these strong Inuit womenhave totally and irrevocably changed. Theirsis a simple story of survival and strength, theessence of their lives. Storytelling is an integralpart of Inuit life and the means by which life skillsand values are shared. Wachowich went to theNorth first to observe the Inuit. These womenbecame her friends, and she later returnedto record their stories on tape with the help ofinterpreters. Respectful of oral tradition, she hasattempted to faithfully translate these women’soral histories into written narrative.103. Waller, M. A., Risley-Curtiss, C., Murphy,S., Medill, A., & Moore, G. (1998). Harnessing thePositive Power of Language: American IndianWomen, A Case Example. Journal of Poverty, 2,63-81.66

Keywords: Culture/women/WorkAbstract: Reflecting biases that permeate theU.S. culture, professional accounts generallyinterpret stories of minority women from adeficit perspective. Problems such as substanceabuse, domestic violence, and teenagepregnancy are often presented from anoutsider’s viewpoint and cast as intrapersonalphenomena independent of historical,political, and cultural context. This articlesuggests that stories and their implicationschange significantly depending on whetherthey are interpreted from a deficit or strengthsperspective. Stories of American Indian women,in their own voices, are discussed as a caseexample (Journal Abstract).104. White, E. & Archibald, J. (1992).Kwulasulwut Syuth [Ellen White’s Teachings]:Collaboration between Ellen White and JoannArchibald. Canadian Journal of NativeEducation, 19, 150-164.Keywords: Education/First Nations/ ResearchAbstract: Storytelling lies at the heart of EllenWhite’s teachings. Jo-ann Archibald’s sensitiveinteraction with Ellen’s narratives reveals theholistic world view that shapes the teachings,informs their significance for developing FirstNations research and the implications ofthis for developing educational policy andcurriculum. The teachings inform a collaborativeethnographic research process that is describedas “a critical ethnographic approach” thatholds true to respectful practices and dialogicalprinciples.105. Wilcox, S., Ainsworth, B. E., LaMonte,M. J., & DuBose, K. D. (2002). Worry RegardingMajor Diseases among Older African-American,Native-American, and Caucasian Women.Women and Health, 36, 89-99.Keywords: Diabetes/HealthAbstract: This study examined worry regardingseven major diseases and their correlates in asample of African-American (n = 57), Native-American (n = 50), and Caucasian (n = 53)women ages 36 to 91 years. African-Americanand Native-American women were mostworried about developing cancer (44% and50%, respectively) while Caucasian womenwere most worried about osteoporosis (37%)and cancer (33%). Women from each ethnicgroup were more worried about developingcancer than cardiovascular diseases andconditions. African-American and Native-American women were more worried thanCaucasian women about developing diabetesand high cholesterol. Body mass index (BMI)was a consistent correlate of worry: heavierwomen were more worried about developingdiseases than were leaner women. Other riskfactors (e.g., physical activity, blood pressure),however, were generally not associatedwith disease worry. In fact, age was inverselyassociated with worry regarding diabetes,cancer, and osteoporosis. Although womenwho were more worried about developingcancer were more likely to perform monthlybreast self-exams, worry regarding otherdiseases was not associated with preventiveactions. These results are generally consistentwith other studies that indicate womenare more concerned about cancer thancardiovascular diseases (Journal Abstract).106. Wilson, A. (2004). Living Well: AboriginalWomen, Cultural Identity and Wellness. (Rep.No. Project #79). Winnipeg, MB: Prairie Women’sHealth Centre of Excellence.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/ CulturalDeterminants/Health/Health Beliefs/ HealthCare/Well-being/Women’s HealthAbstract: Traditional understandings ofhealth and wellness in Manitoba’s Aboriginalcommunities are distinctly different fromunderstandings that have conventionallyprevailed in most of the province’s health careinstitutions. This research project, undertakenby an Aboriginal Women’s Health ResearchCommittee supported by Prairie Women’sHealth Centre of Excellence (PWHCE), seeksto extend our understanding of the positiveimpact of cultural identity on the wellnessof Aboriginal women in Manitoba and ourunderstanding of the ways that Aboriginalwomen have retained and drawn uponcultural values, teachings and knowledge intheir efforts to heal themselves, their families,and their communities. It includes a reviewand analysis of current research relevant toAboriginal women’s identity and wellness, andpresents the results of group discussions andindividual interviews with Aboriginal womenin Manitoba that focused on their personalexperiences and understandings of therelationship between identity and wellness.The Aboriginal women who participated inthis research project take care of their healthand wellness by attending to and maintainingbalance between all aspects - physical,mental, emotional and spiritual - of their being.The women’s identities are inseparable fromtheir family, history, community, place andspirituality, and understood in the context oftheir whole lives. Health care practitioners,providers and policy makers, as well as federaland provincial governments, need to assistAboriginal communities in the developmentof the infrastructure, human resources andadministrative structures needed to create andcontrol health care services that are rootedin the cultural practices and values of theAboriginal women and men they are serving.Further research into the connection betweenthe well-being and identity of Aboriginalwomen, for example research that focusesAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing67

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healingon the identity and well-being of Aboriginalwomen in remote communities, will enhanceour understanding (Author abstract).107. Wilson, K. J. (2001). The Role of MotherEarth in Shaping the Health of Anishinabek: AGeographical Exploration of Culture, Healthand Place. Thesis (Ph.D.) -- Queen’s University,2001.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/Canada/Culture/First Nations/First Nations Communities/Health/ResearchAbstract: This dissertation contributes to anexpanding body of research within HealthGeography that focuses on the role of placein shaping experiences of health. Recentresearch within the Geography of Health hasbegun to acknowledge and demonstratethat the meanings ascribed to places as wellas individual experiences of places contributeto health. The birth of the journal ‘Health andPlace’ is a reflection of the changing paradigmswithin the Geography of Health that argue fordifferent perspectives and analyses of place.At present though, research on health andplace is limited. Meanings of place and therelationship between place and health haveculturally specific dimensions, yet these tend tobe overlooked, especially with respect to FirstNations peoples. First Nations peoples have arelationship with the land that contributes totheir experiences of place and health. However,while geographic research has explored FirstNations health, few studies have actuallyattempted to explore the influence of culturalbeliefs and values on health -- let alone theintricate link between the land and health. Thisdissertation presents the results of two separateyet interrelated approaches to understandingthe intricate relationship between culture,health and place for First Nations peoples.Using data from the 1991 Aboriginal PeoplesSurvey, the first stage of this dissertation exploresthe determinants of First Nations health inthe context of cultural variables that proxy arelationship to the land. In the second stageof this research, qualitative methods wereemployed to tap the process through which theland shapes First Nations health. The interviewswere conducted in two parts. First, 17 in-depthinterviews were conducted with Anishinabek(Ojibway and Odawa peoples) living in oneFirst Nations community on Manitoulin Island,Ontario. The findings from the interviewssuggest that particular geographies exist inwhich relationships between the land andhealth are manifested. These geographiesare evident across different scales and theydemonstrate that the land, as place, representsmore than just a physical location. Rather, theland is simultaneously physical, symbolic andspiritual. Second, given that the urban FirstNations population is increasing, interviewswere conducted with Anishinabek who hadrelocated from Manitoulin Island and arecurrently residing in three urban locations:Hamilton, Sudbury, and Toronto. The interviewsexplored the extent to which cultural beliefsregarding the land could be transplantedand accommodated within urban settings.The interviews revealed that Anishinabek cansuccessfully negotiate the specific challengesposed by urban environments and maintainconnections to the land that are necessaryfor health. Further, the results demonstratethat negotiation takes place between andwithin particular geographic scales, both realand imagined. The findings of this dissertationdemonstrate that culture is an importantcomponent of the link between health andplace. Further, incorporating Anishinabeperspectives of health and place reveal thatthe current conceptualizations of health andplace within the Geography of Health literatureare partial (Author Abstract).108. Wise Women’s Health Store (2003).Minuinniu Innushkueu: Towards a CommonVision for the Promotion of Aboriginal Women’sHealth: Seminar Report. Kahnawake, QC:Quebec Native Women Inc.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Basic PhysicalNeeds/Community Solidarity and SocialSupport/Conference Report/Health/ Women’sHealthAbstract: Summarizes the discussions held in thecontext of a seminar that explored Aboriginalwomen’s health.109. Women’s Health Bureau (2004). TheHealth of Aboriginal Women. Ottawa, ON:Health Canada.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/ BasicPhysical Needs/HealthAbstract: Unavailable68

3. Birthing, Infants, Childrenand MotherhoodThe heart of the research underthis area considers mothers,pregnancy, newborns, midwifery,teen pregnancy and adolescentmothers, sterilization, gynecological issues,infant mortality, breastfeeding, SIDS andmothers’ involvement in children’s healthcare. A significant body of research alsoincludes aspect of FASD. The majorityof the research available focuses onhistorical and contemporary issues inrelation to childbirth and infant mortality,gynecological matters, sterilization,pregnancy, breastfeeding, midwifery,teenage pregnancy and adolescentmothers, sterilization and reproductiverights as well as Aboriginal mothers’involvement and participation in researchrelated to their own personal healthand that of their children. Within thiscompartment of research the conceptualframework most often relied upon by theresearchers is bio-medical in nature. Underthis theme, the literature was saturatedand so, it has been divided into sixspecific categories which look at differentaspects of the birthing circumstancesfor Aboriginal women: (1) Midwifery andevacuation of pregnant northern women;(2) Breastfeeding; (3) Birth outcomes formothers with diabetes; (4) Childbirth andgynecological and obstetrics care forpregnant Aboriginal mothers; (5) FetalAlcohol Spectrum Disorder and drug useduring pregnancy; and (6) Sudden InfantDeath Syndrome.Midwifery and Evacuation ofPregnant Northern WomenThe introduction of medical servicesinto the Arctic as policy by the federalgovernment led to the displacement oftraditional ways of childbirth and to theevacuation of women to give birth far fromtheir communities in southern hospitals. Thejustification for this policy was based onthe perinatal mortality rate (Kaufert andO’Neil, 1988, 1990). The literature revealsnorthern Aboriginal women in many casesmust leave their home community forlabour and delivery, a practice that canbe extremely disruptive not only for thepregnant woman but for the entire familyas well as the community. In particular,it often creates a major hurdle for fathersand/or other family members and friendswho wish to be present at the birth. LesleyPaulette (1995), in her research study“Midwifery in the North,” told RCAP,“Elders have suggested that in the dayswhen families gave birth together in thetraditional way, the bonds between familymembers were stronger than they aretoday. In particular, men seem to havehad a different kind of appreciation fortheir wives and a closer relationship withtheir children.” It also disrupts the potentialfor the community at large to celebratethe birth of the child with the family(Chamberlain & Barclay, 2000). In additionto psychological effects, there are alsosocial and cultural implications for northernFirst Nations, Métis and Inuit women whohave to leave their remote, often fly-in,communities to deliver their babies inlarger centers. This is especially so for“high risk” and first-time mothers. Many ofthese women are expected to stay in thehospital (often four to six weeks) resulting ina great deal of fear, stress and emotionaland economic stressors not experiencedby other Aboriginal and mainstreamCanadian women (Chamberlain &Barclay, 2000). Women who are referredout of the community to give birth oftenfeel traumatized and feel intense feelingsof isolation and worry about their families.As a result, some Aboriginal women willnot seek early health care when pregnant(Chamberlain, Barclay, Kariminia andMoyer, 2001). The limited number of healthcare professionals, including midwives,and health care services within northerncommunities prevent northern womenfrom having equitable birthing choices andopportunities which are available to manywomen living in other parts of Canada(British Columbia Centre of Excellence forWomen’s Health, 2002).Benoit and Carroll (2001), along with anumber of other colleagues (Chamberlainand Barclay, 2000; Fletcher, 1993; George,1999; Linehan, 1992; Chamberlain, Nair,Nimrod, Moyer and England, 2005) havewritten significantly on the political issue ofmidwifery in Canada. Benoit and Carrollhave also focused on historical eventsand continuing colonial forces whichAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing69

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing70contributed to the demise of Aboriginalmidwifery and the loss of Aboriginalwomen’s rights to assist with birth withintheir traditional territories. Aboriginalways of birthing, traditional medicineand Aboriginal midwifery is beginningto be revitalized and practiced in somenorthern communities and across Canadadespite lack of legislation (Carroll andBenoit, 2001a) and in light of – and partlyin contrast to – the “new Canadian modelof care” (Carroll and Benoit, 2001b).Benoit and Carroll (2001a and 2005) havealso noted that the revival of traditionalmidwifery has not been an easy taskbecause many of the ancient practiceshave been lost and few Aboriginalmidwives are left to pass on survivingknowledge around this practice. ForAboriginal women living in the north, thepresence of a midwife can be comforting.The opportunity to at least participatein the decision about where the birth oftheir child should take place can alsopsychologically aid Aboriginal women.Coochie and Nabigon (1997) exploredthe importance of Aboriginal midwivesand connect healing and strengthening ofcontemporary Aboriginal communities withmidwifery care. Carroll and Benoit (2001b)have also recognized the positive links toimproving the health of Aboriginal womenin urban and rural communities. Theysay that revitalizing Aboriginal midwiferyhas resulted in a deeper understandingof the interface between medicalscience, traditional practice and gender.Numerous research articles have focusedon evaluating the efforts of northerncommunities to set up their own birthingcentres.BreastfeedingPatricia Martens has researchedbreastfeeding issues among Aboriginalwomen in a number of First Nationscommunities in southern Manitoba. Inher first research publication on this issue,Martens (1997) indicates that very fewAboriginal women decide to breastfeedprior to pregnancy. The decision tobreastfeed often comes later in thepregnancy, usually around the thirdtrimester. If women are forced into makinga decision regarding breastfeeding,they usually make a decision basedon the perceived cultural norm withinthe community, which may be bottlefeeding. The effectiveness of promotingbreastfeeding with adolescents inSagkeeng First Nation was the focus ofMartens’ research in 1999. Martens’subsequent research into the effectof breastfeeding education with bothmales and females in the communityof Sagkeeng, Manitoba, showed thateducation significantly increased beliefin breastfeeding among females whoreceived education on the issue. Howeverthis was not as significant among themales. Martens (2002) then conductedan evaluation of two breastfeedingprojects in Sagkeeng First Nation. Onegroup of women received prenatalinstruction from a community health nurseand another group received postpartumpeer counseling from other women whohad breastfed. Martens found that peercounseledwomen in the community hadfewer problems breastfeeding, reportedgreater satisfaction with breastfeedingand tended to breastfeed longer thanthose women who had received prenatalinstruction on how to breastfeed. Theprevalence and duration of breastfeedingamong Aboriginal women giving birthin four First Nations communities (HollowWater, Little Black River, Long Plain,and Sagkeeng) was the focus of furtherresearch by Marten in 2005. Langerand Steckle (1991) examined patternsof breastfeeding among Indian andInuit women in the North and foundthat smoking and gestational diabetesinfluence breastfeeding practices amongAboriginal mothers in particular. They arguethat Aboriginal mothers require additionalsupport in order to continue breastfeedinglonger. A database was developedby Northwest Territories Health & SocialServices (1996) in which breastfeedingpractices were collected from northerncommunities with Métis, Inuit, Dene andnon-Aboriginal mothers.Birth Outcomes for Mothers withDiabetesDooley and Sugamori (1998) reviewedpregnancy outcomes for Aboriginalmothers with non-insulin dependentdiabetes mellitus (NIDDM) in the SiouxLookout Zone of northwestern Ontario

etween the years 1989 and 1992.During this time, 26 infants were born to19 women who were diagnosed withNIDDM. The findings indicate that infantsdo face significant risks if their mothers arediagnosed with NIDDM during pregnancy.A more recent American study that lookedat women with diabetes during pregnancyessentially came to the same conclusion(LaVallie, Gabbe, Grossman, Larson,Baldwin and Andrilla, 2003). AmericanIndian and Alaskan Native women werefound to be more likely than white womento receive inadequate prenatal care, tohave higher rates of pregnancy-inducedhypertension and significantly lower ratesof primary cesarean deliveries. The rateof macrosomia (larger babies) was alsonotably higher. Ray, Vermeulen, Meier,Cole and Wyatt (2004) also support thefindings of earlier studies of Aboriginalwomen and diabetes. They state thatwomen with diabetes mellitus are athigher risk for neural tube defects (NTDs).First Nations women were considered tohave increased associated risk of a NTDaffectedpregnancy compared to womenof other ethnic origins. In addition, thehigh incidence of non-insulin dependentdiabetes and gestational diabetes mellitusamong Inuit and other Aboriginal mothersis quite high and many researchers arguefor urgently needed diabetes screeningand prevention, especially in the morenortherly communities where accessto fresh, affordable and healthy dietalternatives are just not available.Adolescent Mothers andPregnancyBent, Josephson and Kelly (2004) detailthe outcome of an Aboriginal culturalenrichment program on the identity often pregnant or parenting adolescentwomen. After six weeks of being in theprogram, all of the women developeda strong cultural identity and reportedhigher levels of self-worth, which benefitedtheir job competence and behaviouralconduct. This study indicates that it ishighly advantageous to incorporatea cultural component to services andprograms delivered to Aboriginal youth.Loos, Morton and Meekis (1999) alsoreported on the outcomes of a conceptualmodel for planning adolescent parentalprograms which was delivered toadolescent Aboriginal women living in anisolated northern community. Anotherreport about a mentoring programto delay adolescent pregnancy andparenting among young First Nationswomen in Greenland was discussed byMontgomery-Anderson (2004). Rogers andDilworth (2002) reported on a frameworkto reduce the rate of teen pregnancyin Canada which was undertaken by anumber of organizations in the Timmins,Ontario area. A very thorough look atAboriginal adolescents’ perspectives onsexual and contraceptive practices wasundertaken by the Ontario Federation ofIndian Friendship Centres (2002). Femaleteenagers are at a higher risk of bearingboth premature and low birth weightinfants, says Miskelly (1999). Her researchlooked at some of the risk factors forwhy this was so among young mothersin the North West Health Region of BritishColumbia. The home environment ofbabies born to Métis, First Nations andCaucasian adolescent mothers wasexplored by Secco and Moffat (2003)whose findings point out that adolescentMétis and First Nations mothers hadsignificantly higher infant-care emotionalityscores than Caucasian mothers whileCaucasian mothers on the other handscored higher on quality of the homeenvironment.Child Birth and Gynecologicaland Obstetrics Care for PregnantAboriginal MothersCanada is known for having one of thehighest standards of prenatal care in theworld but Chalmers and Wen (2004) statethat there is still room for improvementaccording to the data they gathered fromthe Canadian Perinatal Surveillance Systemused to evaluate morbidity and mortalityamong mothers and infants. For instance,they note that in Aboriginal populations,the rates of stillbirth and perinatal mortalityis 2-2.5 times the Canadian average. It haslong been known that the health situationaffecting pregnant Aboriginal womenneeds improvement because medical,socioeconomic, cultural and geographicalfactors impact negatively on pregnantManitoba Aboriginal women according toAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing71

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing72the research published by the CommunityTask Force on Maternal and Child Health(1981).Research documenting Elders’ knowledgeabout traditional Inuit practices related topregnancy and childbirth was exploredby Daviss-Putt and the Inuit Women’sAssociation of Canada (1990). At one timeInuit women about to give birth to theirfirst child (primipara prenatals) were notoffered midwife-assisted deliveries becauseof the unknown outcomes. England(1998) explores a birthing project that wasinitiated in Rankin Inlet where over 36% ofthe prenatal population was primipara.Another publication looking at theoutcomes of perinatal care for Inuit womenin Nunavik over a five-year period wasexamined by Houd, Qinuajuak and Epoo(2005). The colonization of childbirth inthe north among pregnant Dogrib womenwas examined by Moffitt (2004). Glor(1987) outlines the success of a prenatalprogram on Native women’s health andnutritional status. Evaluation of a prenatalexercise program for urban Aboriginalwomen showed that approximately 91% ofthe participants reported improved fitnesslevels while 89% reported heightened selfesteem(Klomp and Sheppard, 2003). Theeffects of a community-based prenatalnutrition program on the oral health ofAboriginal preschool children in northernOntario was evaluated by Lawrence,Romanetz, Rutherford, Cappel, Binguis andRogers (2004). Lawrence and colleagues’evaluation of the prenatal programconcludes that the program improvedAboriginal caregivers’ knowledge aboutearly childhood caries but notes that thereare factors that place undue strain oncaregivers that can lead to poor hygieneand dietary habits among children inAboriginal communities. Heaman (2001)investigated risk factors for spontaneousbirth among Aboriginal and non-Aboriginalwomen. Supplementation of Vitamin Ato prevent Vitamin A deficiency amonginfants born to Aboriginal women was thefocus of research conducted by Godel,Basu, Pabst, Hodges and Ng (1996). Theissue of iron-deficiency anemia amongInuit women in the Inuit region of Nunavikwas explored by Hodgins (1998). Researchinto the serum markers between Aboriginaland Caucasian women in secondtrimesterDown’s syndrome screening wasconducted by Haung, Summers, Wyatt,Meier and Cote (2003) who conclude thatmaternal serum markers were 12% higheramong Aboriginal women but that sincethe sample of Aboriginal women was sosmall, more research and screening forDown’s Syndrome among this group wasneeded to confirm their findings.Johnson, Jin and Truman (2002) conductedresearch to assess the connectionbetween Aboriginal socioeconomicstatus and birth outcomes as well asmaterial morbidity among pregnantAboriginal women in Alberta. Johnsonand colleagues’ study confirms whatother studies have said about pregnantAboriginal women, in that Aboriginalwomen receiving subsidy or welfareand registered with DIAND had manydemographic similarities and generally hadworse maternal and neonatal outcomesthan other women in Alberta. A look at thetrends of infant mortality rates among FirstNations versus non-First Nations and in ruralversus urban areas in British Columbia wasanalyzed by Luo (2004). Luo (2004) alsolooked as the risk of adverse pregnancyoutcomes among both Inuit and NorthAmerican Indian women in Quebec during1985 and 1997. Luo concluded that Inuitand Indian women have different riskprofiles for adverse pregnancy outcomesand that prevention of preterm birthamong Inuit women, and of SIDS andinfection-related infant mortality in bothAboriginal groups were important areas offuture research and intervention.Grewal (1994) provides evidence as towhy women, including Aboriginal women,want children, which finding indicates thatthe decision to have children is basedon emotions and that this finding was nodifferent for any of the different groupsof women who participated. Lawrence(2000) reviewed early health practices thatwere used against indigenous women inthe United States, such as the sterilization ofindigenous women without their consent.The small body of research looksspecifically at antenatal, gynecologicaland obstetrical care which Aboriginalwomen receive whether they live inisolated communities or within an urban

context. For instance, Grzybowski (1998)discusses the problems related to providinglimited obstetrical services in small, isolated,rural populations with much of the focus onAboriginal women’s experiences. Robinson(1991) examined obstetrical and maternalhealth practices among Native womenin order to support his argument that themedical community fears the danger ofcomplication and infant mortality whichhas led to an emphasis upon evacuationand the introduction of specializedobstetrical services while ignoring theexpertise of northern women themselves,particularly that of midwives, whoseexpertise Robinson says should form acentral pillar of obstetrical care in the Northfor the future. Hiebert (2001) undertook ayear-long research study into the utilizationof antenatal services (which involvesPreconception counselling; Assessmentof risk factors (including maternal health);Ongoing assessment of fetal well-being;Ongoing assessment of complications;Education about normal discomforts ofpregnancy, emotional aspects (includingpostnatal depression), local antenatalclasses, reducing risk of SIDS, parentingissues (including childproofing the houseand coping with crying infants) anddiscussion of birthing care options) by FirstNations women in four northern Manitobacommunities. Hiebert noted that thewomen first came to the nursing station inthe ninth week of pregnancy and saw ahealth care provider -- generally a nurse-- at least ten times for routine visits beforematernal evaluation. O’Neil (1986 and1987) also carried out a study evaluatingthe impact of obstetrical evacuationamong Inuit women and their familiesfrom the Keewatin area of the NorthwestTerritories. Patterns of obstetrical carewith women with treaty status in Manitobawere also examined by Mustard, Barerand Sheps (1993). Those who practicerural obstetrics have expressed discomfortabout doing cesarean sections withina small community, especially whenunderstaffed, even though research andevidence indicates that obstetrical care isbetter when provided in the patient’s localcommunity (McIlwain and Smith, 2000).Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorderand Drug Use during PregnancyFetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder is agrowing concern as can be evidencedfrom the growing literature dedicatedto examining this issue. This section looksprimarily at literature which focused onAboriginal women and the problem ofFASD.Canadian sources on Aboriginalpeople and FASD research include thatconducted for the Aboriginal HealingFoundation regarding the scope ofthe problem respecting Fetal AlcoholSyndrome among Aboriginal people inCanada, and the intergenerational links toresidential school (Tait, 2004). Masotti, et al.(2003) looked at the prevalence of FASD inurban environments while researchers Fast,Conry and Loock focused on screening,identifying and managing offenders withFASD in the Canadian Corrections System(Fast, Conry, & Loock, 1999; Byrne, 2005).A Manitoba-specific source, while not ascurrent as other sources, includes a thesiscompleted by Kowlessor (1997) who dida cross-sectional survey in a First Nationscommunity in Manitoba to determine theprevalence of Fetal Alcohol Syndromeamong school-aged children (ages 5 yearsto 15 years). Kowlessor found that 10% (or18 out of 178) of children had physicalevidence of being adversely affectedby prenatal alcohol exposure (Kowlessar,1997). Another more timely connectionof FASD to the field of child welfare inManitoba was completed by Jones (2003)who focused on the experiences of eightfoster families living in rural and reservecommunities providing care to First Nationschildren with FASD. Jones found that alack of specialized supports for First Nationschildren with FASD in rural and reservecommunities created stress for fosterfamilies, especially among those familiesraising adolescents. Aboriginal childrenaffected with FAS/FAE are being takenfrom their biological homes and placed infoster and adoptive care, notes Gammon(2000). The women in Gammon’sstudy were found to be struggling withthe monumental task of caring for thisAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing73

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing74specialized group while dealing at thesame time with a lack of services availableto provide them with ongoing supportas well as access to other supports andresources to assist these children as theyreached adulthood. Gammon notesthat society needs to find better ways tosupport persons who take on the task ofcaring for individuals with FAS/FAE and thatsolutions need to be community based.Ferguson (1997) uses grounded theory todeconstruct the problematization of FASwithin Aboriginal communities by (missingverb?) various strands of the picture andfiltering them through a critical lens. Thestrands identified were the relationships ofalcohol to women; alcohol and ethnicity;and alcohol to Native. Loewen (2000 and2001) explored the issue of FAS/FAE from abirth mother’s perspective by interviewinga number of Aboriginal women whoadmitted to drinking throughout theirpregnancies. The gap in physician-patientrelationship between urban Aboriginalmothers and their doctors was exploredby Masote, Szala-Meneok, Selby, Ranfordand Van Koughnet (2003) who say thatFASD is permanent, preventable andunderdiagnosed and that there is aneed to develop better interventions forAboriginal women. Status of WomenCouncil of the Northwest Territories (1996)examined the special needs of womenand teen girls who abuse alcohol anddrugs and the influence of poverty, familyviolence, and sexual abuse on substanceabuse. They argue that by dealing withwomen’s substance abuse they canthen better deal with FAS/FAE. Issues ofsubstance abuse and health concernsfor Aboriginal women during pregnancyin Quebec were the primary hub of Taitand Contois’ (1998) research. One of thefindings highlighted by Tait and Contoiswas the fact that treatment services forsubstance abuse addresses only theaddiction and not the underlying factorsthat lead women into addiction.Various guides and resources havebeen developed over the years to assistpregnant Aboriginal women and theirfamilies to understand the history, causes,diagnosis and characteristics of childrenwith FAS/FAE at different stages in theirlives. The FAS/E Support Network of BritishColumbia (1997) for example producedsuch a guide called A Layman’s Guideto Fetal Alcohol Syndrome and PossibleFetal Alcohol Effects as did McGrath, et al.(1998) and the Ontario Federation of IndianFriendship Centres (1998) with their FetalAlcohol Syndrome: A Hopeful Challengefor Children, Families and Communities.An Inuit resource called Ikajuqtigiinniq:kajukkannirutiksaq QiturngaksalingnikImialuqattartittittailimanirmkk AmmaluIkajurunnaqullutigut Taimannaittuliit =A Resource for Fetal Alcohol SyndromePrevention and Intervention Work waspublished by McGrath, Hegeman andEvaluadjuk (1998).At-risk Aboriginal women participating ina study on injection drug use revealedthat although they reported using someform of contraception, the use of reliablebirth control was low (Weber, Tyndall,Spittal, Li, et al., 2003). There were a highnumber of pregnancies also reportedamong the high-risk Aboriginal women.Research examining how policy in Canadadealing with the issue of substance useduring pregnancy can be less polarizingtoward women was published by Rutman,Callahan, Lundquist, Jackson and Field(2000). Rutman and her colleaguesreviewed and analyzed the Supreme Courtof Canada case of Ms. G., in which ajudge ordered mandatory drug treatmentfor a young, low-income Aboriginal womanwho was addicted to sniffing solvents. Anearlier detailed examination of the Ms. G.case was examined by McCormack (1999)who looked at the relationship betweenscientific knowledge and legal discourseinvolving this young pregnant Aboriginalwoman.Sudden Infant Death SyndromeWilson (1999) noted that Sudden InfantDeath Syndrome (SIDS) is highest amongAboriginal infants. Wilson interviewedmany Aboriginal mothers and seniorwomen in the community about infantcare practices currently used andcompared traditional and contemporarypractices utilized in the community. Theresidential environment of the infant wasfound to contain alarmingly high levelsof air pollutants, including fungi andbacteria which may explain why SIDS is

highest among Aboriginal peoples. A smallnumber of research papers addressedthe issue of SIDS among children born toAboriginal women. Wilson (2000) exploredcontemporary Cree infant care practicesto get an understanding of whether therewere any risk factors associated with SIDS.Wilson concluded that existing infantcare practices among the Cree includedseveral that are considered protectivewhile others, such as swaddling infantsin very warm houses and smoking duringpregnancy, could contribute to higherSIDS incidences. The last research paperthat looked at SIDS was that conductedby Hildes-Ripstein (1999) who analyzedinfant care practices and lifestyle choicesof Aboriginal mothers and a comparisongroup to help formulate preventivestrategies for reducing SIDS in Aboriginalinfants.An annotated list of resources aboutbirthing, infants, childhood, obstetrics andmotherhood is set out below.Bibliography of Resources1. Asetoyer, C., Cronk, K., & Hewakapuge,S. (2003). Indigenous Women’s Health Book,Within the Sacred Circle: Reproductive Rights,Environmental Health, Traditional Herbs andRemedies. Lake Andes, SD: Native AmericanWomen’s Health Education Resource Center.Keywords: Diet/Education/Family Violence/ FirstNations/Healing/Health/Indigenous Healing/Medicine/Midwifery/Pregnancy/ReproductiveHealth/Sexual Health/women/ Women’s HealthAbstract: This book provides guidance in bothWestern and indigenous health approaches tospecifically address Native American women’shealth needs. Topics covered range fromtraditional midwifery, pregnancy, the politics ofreproductive health, contraception, domesticviolence, barriers to indigenous women’shealthcare, health effects of environmentalcontamination, traditional herbs and remedies,Native American nutrition and weight loss,smoking, alcohol, drug abuse, and much more.2. Banks, J. W. (2004). Ka’nistenhsera,Teiakotihsnie’s: A Native Community Rekindles theTradition of Breastfeeding. AWHONN Lifelines, 7,340-347.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/BreastfeedingAbstract: Unavailable3. Benoit, C., Carroll, D., & Kaufert,P. (2001). Moving in the Right Direction?Regionalizing Maternity Care Services in BritishColumbia, Canada. The National Network onEnvironments and Women’s Health, a Centre ofExcellence on Women’s Health, York University.Keywords: British Columbia/Canada/women/Health/Children/1/Health CareAbstract: The purpose of this study is to explorethe impact of regionalization on the deliveryof maternity care services outside of largemetropolitan areas, and to identify whetherwomen share a common theme or viewpointabout this impact. The study draws on findingsfrom focus groups and personal interviews withnon-urban women, as well as policy makersand key decision makers within the Ministry ofHealth, the Ministry for Children and Families,and regional health board representatives.4. Benoit, C. & Carroll, D. (1995). AboriginalMidwifery in British Columbia: A Narrative StillUntold. In P. H. Stephenson, S. Elliott, L. T. Foster,& J. Harris (Eds.), A Persistent Spirit: TowardsUnderstanding Aboriginal Health in B.C. (pp.223-248). Vancouver, BC: UBC Press.Keywords: Midwifery/British Columbia/Aboriginal Midwifery/Health/First NationsAbstract: Unavailable5. Benoit, C. & Carroll, D. (2001). AboriginalMidwifery in Canada: Blending Traditional andModern Forms. Network Magazine, 4.Keywords: Aboriginal Midwifery/AboriginalWomen/British Columbia/Canada/ CanadianWomen/First Nations/Health/Manitoba/Midwifery/Women’s HealthAbstract: This article discusses the revival ofAboriginal midwifery in Canada. Explains howthis revival has enabled Aboriginal women tobring childbirth back to their communities. It alsodescribes the different initiatives in Quebec, theNorth, Ontario, British Columbia and Manitoba.6. Benoit, C., Bourgeault, I. L., & Davis-Floyd, R. (2005). Reconceiving Midwifery.Montreal, QC: McGill-Queen’s University Press.Keywords: Aboriginal Midwifery/Canada/ FirstNations/Health/Health Care/History/ MidwiferyAbstract: This collection of articles discussesmidwifery’s historical, local, and internationalroots, its evolving regulatory status, andits integration into mainstream provincialhealth care systems. It includes a chapteron Aboriginal midwifery in Canada whichsummarizes its history and discusses its recentrevival.7. Bent, K., Josephson, W., & Kelly,B. (2004). Effects of an Aboriginal CulturalEnrichment Program on Adolescent Mothers’Self-Perceptions. First Peoples Child & FamilyAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing75

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing76Review, 1, 83-100.Keywords: Adolescent Mothers/Adolescents/women/YouthAbstract: This study explored the effects of anAboriginal cultural enrichment initiative onthe self-concept of ten pregnant or parentingadolescent women, all but one of whom wereof Aboriginal descent. The cultural enrichmentactivities were integrated into a program ofsupport for adolescent mothers. Questionnaireswere administered to the participants at thebeginning and after six weeks of participatingin the cultural enrichment component of theprogram. The results support the conclusion thatit is highly beneficial to incorporate a culturalcomponent into services for Aboriginal youth.8. British Columbia Centre of Excellencefor Women’s Health (2002). Midwifery inCanada: Directions for Research. In Vancouver,BC: British Columbia Centre of Excellence forWomen’s Health.Keywords: Canada/Midwifery/Research/womenAbstract: The “Midwifery in Canada: Directionsfor Research -- National Invitational Workshopon Midwifery Research” (May 11-13, 2001)brought together multidisciplinary researchersinterested in midwifery to begin a dialogueon priorities and strategies for carrying out anational program of research. The objectivesof the workshop were to support andencourage the ongoing exchange of ideasand information and foster collaboration,joint problem solving and mutual supportamong midwifery researchers in Canada. Thisconference proceedings report also recognizesthat on both a professional and client level,Aboriginal access to midwifery care has beenrestricted. For Aboriginal midwives this hasbeen due to practice barriers including: (1)different world views; (2) different historicaltrajectories; (3) the demise of traditional ways;and (4) the midwifery legislation process.Barriers to midwifery care for Aboriginal birthingwomen include the lack of culturally informedpractitioners and lack of an integrated modelof care. The report therefore also includesstrategies that were suggested to supportmidwifery within Aboriginal communities(Adapted from the Executive Summary).9. Bucharski, D., Brockman, L., & Lambert,D. (1999). Developing Culturally AppropriatePrenatal Care Models for Aboriginal Women.Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality, 8, 151-154.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Education/Health/ Prevention/Sexual Health/womenAbstract: In 1995, the Alberta Working Groupfor the Implementation of HIV Screening forPregnant Women examined medical recordscompiled by Dr. Wendy Vaudry, pediatricinfectious disease specialist at the UniversityHospital, Edmonton. These records revealedthat 43% of infants being followed for HIV wereborn to Aboriginal women who had had noprenatal care. Data for 1998 from the NorthernAlberta HIV Clinic indicate that 93% of pregnantHIV-positive women in northern Alberta areAboriginal. In order to reduce the verticaltransmission of HIV from mothers to their babies,new strategies for reaching women wereneeded. With this goal, the Alberta Society forthe Promotion of Sexual Health (ASPSH) set outto develop a model of prenatal care that wasculturally appropriate for Aboriginal women. Theproject objectives were as follows: i) To reviewavailable information about HIV-positive womenand their children; ii) To identify existing culturallybased supports for pregnant Aboriginal women;iii) To develop culturally appropriate prenatalcare models that would support and promoteprenatal HIV screening; and iv) To identify site(s)and develop resources for the implementationof the prevention model for the targeted riskgroup (From the Introduction).10. Carroll, D. & Benoit, C. (2001).Aboriginal Midwifery in Canada: AncientTraditions and Emerging Forms. In L.Bourgeault,C. Benoit, & R. Davis-Floyd (Eds.), ReconceivingMidwifery: New Canadian Model of Care (LynnBourgeault, Cecilia Benoit & Robbie Davis-Floyd,ed., University of Michigan Press.Keywords: Aboriginal Midwifery/BritishColumbia/Canada/Gender/Health/MedicineAbstract: In this chapter Dena Carroll andCecilia Benoit present an alternative narrativeof midwifery in Canada, with a particularfocus on how traditional midwifery practicesin British Columbia and in other parts ofCanada have resurfaced and becomerecognized as a positive link to improving thehealth of Aboriginal people in urban and ruralcommunities. For many centuries, Aboriginalpeople across the country have faced socialand cultural changes that have negativelyimpacted their overall health, cultural identityand traditional values. The authors argue thatthe revitalization of Aboriginal midwifery hasresulted in a deeper understanding of theinterface between medical science, traditionalpractices and gender. They highlight thecritical role that traditional Aboriginal midwivesand birthing families have historically playedwithin various geo-cultural communities inBritish Columbia and other provinces. They alsodiscuss some contemporary examples of therevitalization of public interest in Aboriginalways of birthing, traditional medicine, andmidwifery across Canada in light of – and partlyin contrast to – the “new Canadian model ofcare.”11. Carroll, D. & Benoit, C. (2001). AboriginalMidwifery in Canada: Blending Traditional and

Modern Forms. The Network Magazine, 4.Keywords: Aboriginal Midwifery/Canada/Culture/Healing/MedicineAbstract: This article looks at a number ofhistorical events which contributed to thedemise of Aboriginal midwifery and the lossof women’s rights to assist with birth withintheir traditional territories. This resulted fromcolonialism, the imposition of western medicine,the residential school system, and patriarchalgovernment legislation and policies thatchanged the social, economic and traditionalways of Aboriginal people and underminedmany of their long-standing healing traditions.The combined impact of these forces, inaddition to devastating epidemics, playedhavoc on Aboriginal cultures and underminedthe previous balance and harmony withincommunities. The revival of traditional midwiferyhas not been an easy task. Many of the ancientpractices have been lost and few Aboriginalmidwives are left to pass along survivingindigenous knowledge. An examination of someof the emerging forms of Aboriginal midwiferyindicates that the new initiatives attempt toblend both traditional and modern forms ofmidwifery to create innovative models thatfocus on culturally relevant, community-basedcare.12. Carroll, D. & Benoit, C. (2004). AboriginalMidwifery in Canada: Merging TraditionalPractices and Modern Science. In I. Bourgeault,C. Benoit, & R. Davis-Floyd (Eds.), ReconceivingMidwifery: Emerging Canadian Models of Care.Montréal-Kingston: McGill-Queen’s UniversityPress.Keywords: Midwifery/Canada/AboriginalMidwifery13. Cass, A. (2004). Health outcomes inAboriginal Populations. Canadian MedicalAssociation Journal, 171, 597-599.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Canada/ Health/Prenatal Care/womenAbstract: The author introduces two articleswhich explore the factors influencing adverseoutcomes in birth and renal replacementrespectively for Aboriginal Canadians.Refutation of the notion that aboriginality is arisk factor; Low number of Aboriginal womenwho attend to early prenatal care; Details onthe studies discussed by the authors of thearticles (Journal Abstract).14. Caulfield, L. E., Harris, S. B., Whalen, E.A., & Sugamori, M. E. (1998). Maternal NutritionalStatus, Diabetes and Risk of Macrosomiaamong Native Canadian Women. Early HumanDevelopment, 50, 293-303.Keywords: Canada/Canadian Women/Diabetes/HealthAbstract: Multivariate methods were usedto identify risk factors for macrosomia (birthweight > 4,000 g) among 741 singleton births toNative Canadian women from Sioux LookoutZone, Ontario, Canada, in 1990-1993. Theaverage birth weight was 3,691 +/- 577 g, and29.2% of infants weighed more than 4,000 g atbirth. Macrosomic infants were born at latergestational ages and were more likely to bemale. Women delivering macrosomic infantswere taller, entered pregnancy with higherbody mass indexes (BMI) and gained moreweight during pregnancy, but were less likelyto smoke cigarettes. They were more likelyto have previously delivered a macrosomicinfant and to have had gestational diabetesmellitus (GDM). Risk of macrosomia wasassociated with maternal glycemic status;women with pre-existing diabetes were atgreatest risk, followed by those with GDM A2(fasting glucose > or = 6 mmol/l). Women withGDM A1 (fasting glucose < 6 mmol/l) were notat increased risk for delivering a macrosomicinfant, but glucose-tolerant women with highglucose concentrations one hour after the50 g challenge were at somewhat increasedrisk. Maternal glycemic status and maternalnutritional status before and during pregnancyare important determinants of macrosomia inthis Native population (Journal Abstract).15. Chalmers, B. & Wen, S. W. (2004).Perinatal Care in Canada. BMC WomensHealth, 4, s28.Keywords: Canada/Health/Health Care/Mortality Rates/Older WomenAbstract: Canada’s standard of perinatalcare ranks among the highest in the world,but there is still room for improvement, both interms of regional differences in care and globalcomparisons of approaches to care in Canadaand elsewhere. Data from the CanadianPerinatal Surveillance System (CPSS) was usedto evaluate morbidity and mortality amongmothers and infants. Key Findings: Maternalmortality rates in Canada dropped to 4.4 per100,000 live births in 1993-1997 and are amongthe lowest in the world. Rates of Caesareansection increased from 15.3 per 100 deliveriesin 1994 to 19.1 in 1997. Although the infantmortality rate in Canada is among the lowest inthe world (5.3-8.8 per 1,000 live births 1990-2000),there are unacceptable disparities betweensubpopulations. In Aboriginal populations, ratesof stillbirth and perinatal mortality are 2-2.5times the Canadian average. There has beena steady increase in the proportion of birthsamong older women who have the highest riskof preterm births and pregnancy complications.The increasing rate of multiple births hasaccelerated recently and is of concern asthese carry a higher risk of complicationsand are associated with an increased risk ofpreterm birth. The costs to the health careAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing77

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing78system are likely to be high. Data Gaps andRecommendations: CPSS data, includingeconomic indicators, needs to be collected ina timelier and uniform manner across Canada.The CPSS should provide an evaluation of howwell Canada fares in relation to internationalstandards of perinatal care (Journal Abstract).16. Chamberlain, M. & Barclay, K. (2000).Psychosocial Costs of Transferring indigenousWomen from their Community for Birth.Midwifery, 16, 116-122.Keywords: Australia/Health/Inuit WomenAbstract: Objective: To describe thepsychosocial effect of transferring CanadianInuit women out of their communities for birth.Design: Semi-structured interviews. Setting:Two communities in the central CanadianArctic. Participants: Postnatal women andtheir partners, Inuit community members. MainFindings: Women face many stressors as a resultof being transferred from their community forthe birth of their baby, not least of which is thelack of a partner and family support. Stressorswere categorized as emotional, physical andeconomic, and women were given little choiceor support for the place of birth and methodof delivery. Key Conclusions and Implicationsfor Practice: Midwives need to be aware ofthe psychosocial disruption and stress facedby women and their families as a result ofbeing transferred from their community forbirth. Maternal/child policies and care needto focus more on the psychosocial aspects oflabour, such as family and professional support,and less on the physical aspects which cannotbe adequately addressed without culturallysensitive care (Journal Abstract).17. Chamberlain, M., Barclay, K., Kariminia,A., & Moyer, A. (2001). Aboriginal Birth:Psychosocial or Physiological Safety? Birth Issues,10, 81-85.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Australia/Canada/Health/Health Care/Life SustainingValues, Morals, and EthicsAbstract: The purpose of this paper is toraise awareness and stimulate discussionand research into maternity care options forAboriginal women living in remote areas ofAustralia and Canada. These two countrieshave similar situations in that some communitiesare so remote that emergency medical carerequires the use of aircraft. In addition, bothcountries have, since the 1970s, adoptedpolicies for the transfer of mothers in latepregnancy to hospitals in urban centres. Formany Aboriginal families this policy has been farfrom ideal. As a result, some Aboriginal womenfail to seek early health care when pregnant.In order to counteract this, it is necessary tooffer culturally sensitive maternity care thatAboriginal women will accept. The results of anevaluation of a birthing centre in the CanadianArctic will be presented along with a rangeof birthing choices for remote area Aboriginalwomen and their families. Some of theseoptions have already been initiated by somemidwives. This paper challenges health serviceproviders to identify the method of maternityhealth services required by Aboriginal familiesand provide creative solutions to meet thoseneeds in a safe and cost-effective way.18. Chamberlain, M., Nair, R., Nimrod, C.,Moyer, A., & England, J. (2005). Evaluation ofa Midwifery Birthing Center in the CanadianNorth. International Journal of CircumpolarHealth, 57, 116-120.Keywords: Canada/Health/History/Inuit WomenAbstract: An evaluation of a midwife-operatedcommunity birthing center was conducted toidentify whether it would be safe, cost-effective,and psychologically and socially satisfying forInuit women in one community in the NorthwestTerritories. Two nurse-midwives providedantenatal and postnatal care to all pregnantwomen and delivered those designated as‘low risk’ for complications. Another communitysimilar in size but with no community birthingwas used for comparison of the three indices.Data were gathered on reproductive historiesand pregnancy risk profiles of all women givingbirth in a one-year period. The financial costswere calculated for those women transferredout to hospital for delivery and compared withthose who stayed in the community. Pregnantwomen and their partners in communities,health staff, and community members wereinterviewed for their feelings and concernsabout the birthing services. Preliminary findingssuggest that with experienced midwivescommunity births are safe. A minimum of 25births is required in the community for thisproject to be cost effective. The women whohad their infants in the community expressedsatisfaction for a number of reasons (JournalAbstract).19. Chamberlain, M. & Moyer, A. (1996).Evaluation of the Birthing Project in Rankin Inlet,N.W.T. Ottawa: Faculty of Health Sciences,University of Ottawa.Keywords: Health/Inuit WomenAbstract: Report of a midwife-operated birthingcentre in Rankin Inlet. The study attemptedto determine whether it would be safe, costeffectiveand psychologically and culturallysatisfying for Inuit women to use such a birthingcentre. The study found that midwives wereable to provide a high quality, comprehensiveservice which was culturally sensitive. Theproject was only partially cost effectivebecause only a small number of births weredeemed eligible by existing risk scores andbecause of the policy of transferring womenwith first births. However, the community sawmany non-dollar benefits to the birthing centre

project.20. Chatwood-Affleck, S., Lippman, A.,Joseph, L., & Pekeles, G. (1998). Indications forTransfer for Childbirth in Inuit Women at theInnuulisivik Maternity. International Journal ofCircumpolar Health, 57, 121-126.Keywords: Canada/Inuit Women/MontrealAbstract: The Innuulisivik Maternity is a northernbasedservice in Povungnituk, Quebec, whichserves the Inuit women of the Hudson Coast.Although most women stay in the North forchildbirth, others are transferred south. Thispaper will describe the experience of theInnuulisivik Maternity, which uses committeebasedrisk assessment for transfer decisions.Data for the three-year period 1989-1991 wereexamined. Descriptive statistics were usedto compare the observed differences in thedistribution of several variables accordingto birthplace. Data were available for 411women. Three hundred fifty (85.2%) of the birthsoccurred at Innuulisivik: 44 (10.7%) women weretransferred and 17 (4.1%) were nursing stationbirths. In 80% of transfers, clinical conditionswere identified which in themselves usuallyrequire transfer. Premature labor was prevalentin the transfer group. The data demonstratethat risk scoring by consensus is a viable optionfor northern birthing units. Finally, logisticaland cultural factors should be included formeaningful risk assessment in the North (JournalAbstract).21. Community Task Force on Maternal andChild Health. (1981).The Manitoba Native IndianMother and Child: A Discussion Paper on a HighRisk Population. Winnipeg: The Task Force.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Health/Manitoba/womenAbstract: This report discusses the medical,socioeconomic, cultural, and geographicfactors affecting pregnant Manitoba Aboriginalwomen. It includes recommendations forimproving the health situation of Aboriginalwomen and children.22. Coochie, C. & Nabigon, H. (1997).A Path Towards Reclaiming Nishnawbe BirthCulture: Can the Midwifery Exemption Clausefor Aboriginal Midwives Make a Difference? InF.Shroff (Ed.), The New Midwifery, Reflectionson Renaissance and Regulation Toronto, ON:Women’s Press.Keywords: Aboriginal Midwifery/Canada/Culture/HealingAbstract: The impact of colonialism felt byAboriginal midwives who practiced birthing intheir own communities is brought to the fore.Carol Coochie and Herbert Nabigon exploretraditional Aboriginal midwifery, and connectthe healing and strengthening of contemporaryAboriginal communities with midwifery care.23. Daviss-Putt, B. A. & Inuit Women’sAssociation of Canada. (1990). Documentationof Traditional Inuit Practices Related toPregnancy and Childbirth.Ref Type: Unpublished WorkKeywords: Canada/Cultural Integrity andIdentity/Inuit Women/Life-Sustaining Values,Morals,and Ethics/womenAbstract: This project will combine analysis ofinterview data, review of available literatureand the personal accounts of the Elders. TheElders will be asked to verbally respond to aseries of open questions aimed at gatheringdata to meet the objectives of the research oftraditional Inuit practices related to pregnancyand childbirth.24. Daviss, B. A. (1996). Heeding Warningsfrom the Canary, the Whale, and the Inuit.Midwifery Today Childbirth Education, Winter,45-53.Keywords: Canada/History/Inuit Women/womenAbstract: There is a tension between traditionaland modern definitions of reproductive risk andnormalcy. This excerpt describes that tension asit plays out among the Inuit of northern Canadafrom the perspective of a community midwifewho has worked with the Inuit. She presentsan analytical framework which classifies andilluminates the types of logic that competein most birth settings around the world -- aframework useful for showing how some typesof logic can be supervalued while others,such as cultural or intuitive logic, are devaluedor simply ignored, often at great cost. Theforced evacuation of all pregnant Inuit womenfrom northern Canada for the “privilege”of a hospital birth in the south illustrates theimbalance created when decisions purportedto be based on one kind of logic (scientific)are in reality based on another (e.g., legal andclinical), or when any type of logic is givenundue authority. After presenting the analyticalframework and describing some of the historyof Inuit childbirth, the author tells the story ofone Inuit settlement’s attempt to re-integratethe authoritative knowledge of the communityby allowing Inuit midwives to choose their owncriteria for balancing the imperatives of eachkind of logic in decision making for birth (JournalAbstract).25. Dodgson, J. E., Duckett, L., Garwick,A., & Graham, B. L. (2002). An EcologicalPerspective of Breastfeeding in an IndigenousCommunity. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 34,235-241.Keywords: Culture/Health/Social SupportAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing79

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing80Abstract: To describe the sociocultural patternsthat promote breastfeeding or weaning inthe Ojibwe community, which has very lowbreastfeeding rates compared to the generalpopulation. Design: A focused ethnographicapproach with an ecological frameworkprovided community level data. Semi-structuredinterviews (N=52) were conducted in an urbanOjibwe community and with three groups ofwomen: health or social service providers,women currently breastfeeding, or people whoacted as resources. Data were analyzed usingan ethnographic approach. Group summarieswere compiled and community-level patternswere identified. Four patterns were identifiedthat encompassed the influences of (a)Ojibwe and mainstream cultures (traditions),(b) communication-related barriers froma variety of sources (mixed messages), (c)socioeconomic issues (life circumstances) and(d) social support (nurturing and supporting).The values and practices of the studiedgroup were not always congruent with thoseof the larger mainstream culture. Successfulbreastfeeding promotion and interventionprograms based on culturally relevantperspectives are needed.26. Dooley, J. P. & Sugamori, M. E. (1998).Pregnancy Outcome in Aboriginal Women withNIDDM in the Sioux Lookout Zone. InternationalJournal of Circumpolar Health, 57, 359-63.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/ BasicPhysical Needs/Canada/ Diabetes/ HealthAbstract: Purpose: To review the pregnancyoutcomes of Aboriginal women with noninsulin-dependentdiabetes mellitus (NIDDM)in the Sioux Lookout Zone of northwesternOntario, Canada. Method: Retrospectivechart review of deliveries of all women with aconfirmed diagnosis of NIDDM was carried outbetween 1989 and 1992. Results: During thisperiod, 26 infants were born to 19 women withthe diagnosis of NIDDM. Mean birth weightwas 4,075 grams, with an average gestationalage at delivery of 38 weeks. Three newbornsrequired cesarean delivery, one requiredforceps, and one a vacuum extraction. Therewere four cases of shoulder dystopia. Therewere one stillbirth, one maternal death, andtwo cases of congenital heart disease. Tennewborns had neonatal jaundice and onlytwo had neonatal hypoglycemia. These resultssuggest there is significant risk associated withNIDDM in pregnancy (Journal Abstract).27. England, J. I. (1998). Rankin Inlet BirthingProject: Outcome of Primipara Deliveries.International Journal of Circumpolar Health, 57,113-115.Keywords: Health/Newborn/BirthingAbstract: Within the Rankin Inlet Birthing Project,primipara (first baby) prenatals were not offeredmidwife-assisted, elective delivery becauseof the unknown outcome of an untried pelvis.No data of primipara outcomes of Canadiannorthern populations have been published toallow comparisons. Over 36% of the RankinInlet Birthing Project prenatal populations wereprimipara. A review of primipara outcomes fromNovember 1993 to December 1995 indicatedthat 19 (38.7%) of 49 primipara deliveries werecomplicated. However, 13 (68.4%) of the 19were anticipated to be complicated and wouldhave been referred to hospital for delivery. Acomplication was defined as anything whichcould not have been managed by midwivesin an isolated community health center, e.g.,pregnancy-induced hypertension, laborinduction by artificial means, fourth degreetears, anything other than a spontaneousvaginal delivery, or any newborn requiringmore than a minimum of resuscitative measures(Journal Abstract).28. FAS/E Support Network of BritishColumbia (1997). A Layman’s Guide to FetalAlcohol Syndrome and possible Fetal AlcoholEffects. Vancouver, BC: FAS/E Support Networkof British Columbia.Keywords: Adults/Alcohol dependence andalcoholism/Children/FAS/FAE/ Pregnancy/Women/British Columbia/First Nations/ HistoryAbstract: This guide answers many frequentlyasked questions about FAS and fetal alcoholeffects (FAE), including history, causes,diagnosis, and characteristics of children withFAS/FAE at different stages of their lives. Thisis a guide for families of pre-conceptionaland pregnant women and FAS-affectedadolescents and young adults and theirfamilies.29. Ferguson, L. (1997). DeconstructingFetal Alcohol Syndrome: A Critical Inquiryinto the Discourse around Alcohol, Women,Ethnicity, Aboriginals and Disease. Thesis (M.A.)-- Carleton University, 1997, Ottawa, ON.Keywords: Ethnicity/Fetal Alcohol Syndrome/Effects/Native women/PreventionAbstract: An inductive methodology, knownas grounded theory, was utilized in an attemptto inform and challenge current theory andpractice governing contemporary preventionefforts specifically targeting pregnant Nativewomen. Various strands of the picture arefiltered through a critical lens in an attempt todeconstruct the problematization of FAS withinAboriginal communities. The three primarystrands identified were the relationships ofalcohol to women; alcohol to ethnicity; andalcohol to Natives. The deconstruction of theproblem of FAS yields implications on two levels:(1) epistemologically, the relationships betweensocial control and language and discourse,and ideology, knowledge and power, areidentified as being of concern, needing to be

critically challenged and reconstructed; and(2) on an applied level, it is argued that there isa need for a more comprehensive approachto prevention efforts, with clearly defined goalsthat are both culturally relevant and adopt amore holistic approach to prevention.30. Fiske, J. (1992). Carrier Women andthe Politics of Mothers. In G.Creese & V. Strong-Boag (Eds.), British Columbia Reconsidered:Essays on Women (pp. 198-216). Vancouver:B.C.: Press Gang Publishers.Keywords: First Nations Women/British ColumbiaAbstract: Unavailable31. Fiske, J.-A. (1993). Child of the State,Mother of the Nation: Aboriginal Women andthe Ideology of Motherhood. (12 ed.) (vols. 1).Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Culture32. Fiske, J.-A. (1999). The Womb Is tothe Nation as the Heart Is to the Body: EthnopoliticalDiscourses of the Canadian IndigenousWomen’s Movement. In P. Armstong & M. P.Connelly (Eds.), Feminism, Political Economyand the State: Contested Terrain (pp. 293-325).Toronto, ON: Canadian Scholars Press.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Birthing33. Fletcher, C. (1993). The InuulitsivikMaternity: Issues around the Return of InuitMidwifery and Birth of Povungnituk, Quebec.Keywords: Canada/Health/Health Care/InuitWomen/womenAbstract: The Inuulitsivik maternity is unique inCanada for having Inuit women train on the jobto become community midwives. This trainingprogram provides a model of cooperationbetween health care professionals andcommunity members which serves the needsand interests of the community at large. Thepurpose of this report is to gather informationon this organization so that other Aboriginalcommunities across the country could benefitfrom its experiences. Drawing upon interviewand other source material, the author providesan historical overview of the Inuulitsivikmaternity, identifies relevant policy issues,undertakes an epidemiological evaluationof the services provided by the maternityand explores cultural aspects of birth in Inuitcommunities today and in the past (Dion Stout,1997).34. Forbes, R. (1991). Aboriginal ChildRearing Practices. Child Care Focus, 20, 14.Keywords: First Nations/ManitobaAbstract: This article by Rosemary Forbesdiscusses some the traditions of Aboriginalchild rearing from the St. Martin’s First Nationscommunity.35. Gammon, H. (2000). A Study of theNeeds of Alternative Caregivers who ProvideCare for Adolescents and Young AdultsAffected by Prenatal Exposure to Alcohol.Thesis (M.S.W.) -- The University of Manitoba,2000.Keywords: Canada/Children/Health/Manitoba/womenAbstract: Fetal alcohol syndrome and fetalalcohol effects have become a greatconcern over the past two decades herein Manitoba. Many of the children affectedby this disability are being taken from theirbiological homes and placed in foster andadoptive care. Women continue to be themain care providers for these children throughtheir childhood and on into their adolescentand adult years. This thesis is a qualitativeanalysis of the role of women as care providersto persons affected by prenatal exposure toalcohol. Sixteen women were interviewed inan attempt to understand their experiences ofraising and caring for fetal alcohol-affectedadolescents and young adults. The thesisexplores the caregivers’ struggle to understandthe disability, learn new parenting strategiesand gain support from service providers. Aphenomenological approach was taken toanalyze the interviews. The women were foundto be struggling with the huge task of caringfor this population group and with the lack ofservices available to provide ongoing supportfor FAS/FAE individuals as they reach adulthood.It is apparent that society has not found a wayto support this population group. These womencontinue to nurture and sacrifice their personaldevelopment, career prospects, and mentaland physical health to care for this populationgroup well into adult years. Society continues toexploit these women. We as a society need tofind ways to better support persons who take onthe task of caring for individuals with FAS/FAE.Community-based approaches to looking afterpersons affected by FAS/FAE are preferred overthose that continue to exploit women (AuthorAbstract).36. George, J. (1999). Good News andBad News for Aboriginal Midwives. Network/LeRιseau, 2.Keywords: Aboriginal Midwifery/Critical LearningOpportunitiesAbstract: Discusses the implications of thelegalization of midwifery in Québec for Nunavikmidwives delivering babies according totraditional Aboriginal midwifery in Quιbec.The PQ government’s new bill would makeNunavik’s birthing centres illegal (CWHNAbstract).37. Godel, J. C., Basu, T. K., Pabst, H. F.,Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing81

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing82Hodges, R. S., & Ng, M. L. (1996). PerinatalVitamin A (retinol) Status of Northern CanadianMothers and their Infants. Biological Neonate,69, 133-139.Keywords: Canada/Newborn/PreventionAbstract: Vitamin A (retinol) status wasdetermined in two groups living in the northernpart of Canada: Native (Indian and Inuit) andnon-Native (Caucasian). The dietary intakeof vitamin A and its plasma concentrationwere measured prenatally, at delivery andpostnatally in mothers. Plasma concentrationswere also measured at birth and postnatallyin their infants. The mean vitamin A intake ofNative mothers was significantly lower thanthat of non-Native mothers. We speculate thatvitamin A supplementation in Native northernCanadian mothers during pregnancy andin their neonates during infancy may havea role to play in the prevention of vitamin Adeficiency.38. Grewal, R. P. & Urschel, J. D. (1994). WhyWomen Want Children: A Study During Phasesof Parenthood. Journal of Social Psychology,134, 453-455.Keywords: Canada/Canadian Women/Children/Ethnic Groups/Health/womenAbstract: One hundred thirty-three Canadianwomen (Aboriginal, French-Canadian, andEnglish-speaking) who were either mothers,pregnant, or trying to conceive were askedopen-ended questions about why they wantedchildren. The findings indicate that the decisionto have children is an emotional decision. Therewere no differences between the ethnic groupsor between the different stages of parenthoodregarding the reasons the women said theywanted children.39. Grzybowski, S. C. (1998). Problems ofProviding Limited Obstetrical Services to Small,Isolated, Rural Populations. Canadian FamilyPhysician / Médecinde famille canadien, 44,230-233.Keywords: Obstetrical Services/IsolatedCommunitiesAbstract: Unavailable40. Health Canada (1997). Building HealthyBabies: A Prenatal Nutrition Resource Bookfor Community Health Workers in First NationsCommunities. Ottawa, ON: Health Canada.Keywords: Diabetes/Education/First Nations/HealthAbstract: This resource book for communityhealth workers working with prenatal clientsin First Nations communities covers importanttopics about healthy eating and nutrition duringpregnancy. The last two sections also dealwith postnatal nutrition: breastfeeding andinfant nutrition. Designed as a consumer healthresource and patient education facilitator’sguide to designing a prenatal program, theresource book includes handouts and coverstopics such as vitamins and minerals, shoppingand cooking, alcohol and drug use duringpregnancy, diabetes, discomfort, and physicalactivity.41. Heaman, M. I. (2001). Risk Factors forSpontaneous Preterm Birth among Aboriginaland Non-Aboriginal Women in Manitoba.Paediatric & Perinational Epidemiology, 15, A13.Keywords: Adequate Income and SustainableEconomies/Basic Physical Needs/Canada/Manitoba/Social Support/ womenAbstract: Reports briefly on investigation ofrisk factors for spontaneous preterm birthamong Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal womenin Manitoba. The author also discusses theimpact of vaginal bleeding and gestationalhypertension including the influence of lowsocial support and low self-esteem.42. Hiebert, S. (2001). The Utilization ofAntenatal Services in Remote Manitoba FirstNations Communities. International Journal ofCircumpolar Health, 60, 64-71.Keywords: Adequate Human Services andSocial Safety Net/First Nations/First NationsWomen/Health/Health Care/ManitobaAbstract: The purpose of this study was todescribe the utilization of antenatal services byFirst Nations women in four northern Manitobacommunities between January 1996 andDecember 1996, and to explore possiblerelationships between the women’s behaviorsand antenatal clinic attendance. This studyindicated that First Nations women receivedan optimal level of antenatal service. Onaverage, the women first came to the nursingstation in the ninth week of pregnancy and sawthe health care provider -- generally a nurse-- ten times for routine visits before maternalevacuation. A minority of women, however,had fewer than five visits. The frequency ofroutine antenatal clinic attendance wasexplained by the linear multiple regressionmodel. A higher number of past pregnancieswas associated with a decrease in the numberof routine antenatal visits, while the numberof pregnancy losses predicted the number ofvisits, after other variables had been taken intoaccount. Married marital status was a positivepredictor for the early initiation of care, afterpast pregnancies and risk score have beentaken into account (Journal Abstract).43. Hiebert, S. (2003). CollaborativeFieldwork with a Cree Nation: Birthing Practices.In J.Oakes, R. Riewe, K. Wilde, A. Edmunds, &A. Dubois (Eds.), Native Voices in Research (pp.34-47). Winnipeg, MB: Aboriginal Issues Press,

University of Manitoba.of anemia in this population.Keywords: Cree Nation/Research/BirthingPracticesAbstract: This multi-method study explores theresponsiveness of participatory action research(PAR) with Nisichawaysihk Cree Nation incoming to understand how birthing practicesmight more optimally reflect the needs of thiscommunity. The PAR process can be seento creatively meet mutual research goals(Abstract).44. Hildes-Ripstein, G. E. E. (1999). InfantCare Practices in First Nations Peoples ofManitoba: Are There Modifiable Risk Factors forSIDS? Thesis (M.Sc.) -- University of Manitoba,1999, Winnipeg, MB.Keywords: Canada/Infant Care/Manitoba/ RiskFactorsAbstract: Objectives. To study infant carepractices and lifestyle choices of Aboriginalmothers and a comparison group. Relevance:To help formulate preventive strategiesfor sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)in Aboriginal infants. Methods: A two- partdesign was used. Sixteen in-depth interviewswith mothers of infants were completed andanalyzed using qualitative methods. Recurrentpatterns in infant care practices, the languageused to describe infant care, and sources ofinfant care information were sought. These datawere used to construct a standardized surveytool, and to provide additional context to thequantitative results. The second phase consistedof a cross-sectional survey; administration ofthe questionnaire by trained interviewers in thehome, which was linked to perinatal data fromthe provincial postpartum database. All motherswith an infant 1-6 months old in selectednorthern Aboriginal (4) and non-Aboriginal (4)communities were approached to participate.An urban sample consisted of those motherswith apparent Aboriginal surnames in selectedneighbourhoods and a random sample of theremainder. Data were collected from 126 selfdeclaredAboriginal and 144 non-Aboriginalmothers.45. Hodgins, S., Dewailly, E., Chatwood, S.,Bruneau, S., & Bernier, F. (1998). Iron-deficiencyAnemia in Nunavik: Pregnancy and Infancy.International Journal of Circumpolar Health, 57,135-140.Keywords: Iron-deficiency/Aboriginal Women/Infants/NunavikAbstract: Purpose: This paper documents theproblem of iron-deficiency anemia in theInuit region of Nunavik, in Northern Quebec,particularly among pregnant womenand infants. It also addresses the issue ofHelicobacter pylori gastritis as a possible cause46. Houd, S., Qinuajuak, J., & Epoo,B. (2005). The Outcome of Perinatal Carein Inukjuak, Nunavik, Canada 1998-2002.International Journal of Circumpolar Health, 63,239-241.Keywords: Canada/Education/Health/Medicine/Midwifery/Montreal/Newborn/Northern Communities/women/Quebec/PregnancyAbstract: This article discusses a five-yearretrospective survey of the perinatal care inInukjuak, Nunavik.47. Huang, T., Summers, A. M., Wyatt, P.R., Meier, C., & Cote, G. B. (2003). MaternalSerum Marker Medians in Aboriginal CanadianWomen. Prenatal Diagnosis, 23, 98-100.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/Canada/Canadian Women/Diabetes/HealthAbstract: Objectives: The study evaluates thedifferences between Aboriginal and Caucasianwomen in the levels of maternal serum markersused in second-trimester Down’s syndromescreening. Since Aboriginal women make uponly a small proportion of women screened,correcting the level of uE3 for this group willhave little effect on the overall screeningperformance. However, if these results areconfirmed by further study, individual centresmay consider making this correction, so optimalscreening performance can be achieved inAboriginal women.48. Jasen, P. (1997). Race, Culture, and theColonization of Childbirth in Northern Canada.Social History of Medicine, 10, 383-400.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequatePower/Canada/Cultural Integrity and Identity/Culture/Health/Strong Families and HealthyChild DevelopmentAbstract: This paper traces the history, innorthern Canada, of what childbirth hasbeen made to stand for in the relationshipbetween Aboriginal women and the agentsof colonization. During the early centuries ofcontact, European impressions of Aboriginalwomen were dominated by associationswith animal nature and the myth of painlesschildbirth, with the result that the culture ofchildbirth and the role of the midwife wereoverlooked. During the 19th century, theemphasis upon racial difference was reinforcedby evolutionary theory, and the myth of the‘savage’ woman’s ‘parturition without pain’was put to rhetorical use by health reformers,physicians, and feminists in Europe and NorthAmerica. Meanwhile, the realities surroundingchildbirth in Aboriginal communities receivedAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing83

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing84little attention from colonial authorities untilhigh infant and maternal death rates began toarouse official concern in the early 20th century,when they were blamed on Aboriginal women’signorance of healthy child-bearing practices.As part of its ‘civilizing mission’, the Canadiangovernment adopted an interventionist policywhich led, in recent decades, to the practiceof evacuating pregnant women to distanthospitals. This policy has had serious socialconsequences, and resistance on the partof Aboriginal women includes the attemptto legitimize a traditional culture of childbirthdisregarded throughout the colonizationprocess (Journal Abstract).49. Johnson, D., Jin, Y., & Truman, C. (2002).Influence of Aboriginal and SocioeconomicStatus on Birth Outcome and MaternalMorbidity. Journal of Obstet Gynaecol Can, 24,633-640.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequateIncome and Sustainable Economies/BasicPhysical Needs/Health/Health Care/womenAbstract: Objective: To assess the association ofAboriginal and socioeconomic status with birthoutcome and maternal morbidity in Alberta.Methods: A retrospective cohort study usingAlberta Health Service and vital statistics datafrom 1997 to 2000. Aboriginal women registeredwith the Department of Indian and NorthernDevelopment (DIAND) were linked to a personalhealth number. Low socioeconomic status wasdefined as either receiving subsidization forthe Alberta Health Care Insurance premium orreceiving welfare. Results: Women registeredwith DIAND and women receiving subsidy orwelfare were younger, more often unmarried,smoked more, consumed more alcohol, andabused more illicit drugs than other women inAlberta during the time period studied. Fewerwomen registered with DIAND and womenreceiving subsidy or welfare had physicianprenatal visits, attended prenatal classes, hadforceps or vacuum deliveries, and more ofthese women frequently had gestation ages lessthan 37 weeks. Women registered with DIANDhad more deliveries in smaller, non-metropolitanfacilities; and more of these women deliveredoutside their region of residence; more hadlonger lengths of hospital stay; more mothersand neonates were re-admitted to hospitalwithin 28 days of discharge after delivery; fewerdelivered small-for-gestational-age neonates;fewer delivered neonates with birth weight lessthan 2,500 g, but more delivered neonates withbirth weight greater than 4,000 g. There werefewer Caesarean sections in women registeredwith DIAND (OR = 0.84, 95% CI 0.76-0.93) and inwomen receiving subsidy or welfare (OR = 0.88,95% CI 0.82-0.93). Conclusion: Women receivingsubsidy or welfare and women registered withDIAND had many demographic similarities andgenerally had worse maternal and neonataloutcomes than other women in Alberta.Medical system interaction may be different forthese two groups of women than it is for otherwomen in Alberta (Journal Abstract).50. Kaufert, P. & O’Neil, J. (1988). ThePolitics of Obstetric Care: The Inuit Experience.Department of Community Health Services,University of Manitoba Winnipeg.Keywords: Health/Manitoba/Inuit WomenAbstract: Unavailable51. Kaufert, P. & O’Neil, J. D. (1988).Obstetric Care in the Keewatin: Changes in thePlace of Birth 1971-1985. Oulu, Finland: NordicCouncil for Arctic Medical Research.Keywords: Health/ResearchAbstract: Unavailable52. Kaufert, P. & O’Neil, J. D. (1990). Cooptationand Control: The Reconstruction ofInuit Birth. Medical Anthropology Quarterly, 4,427-442.Keywords: Government/Inuit Women/ MortalityRates/womenAbstract: In this article the authors explorethe implications for obstetric policies andpractice of methods of recording, retrieving,and evaluating information. More particularly,they are concerned with the use of obstetricalrecords as a means of communication andsurveillance, but also as a source of statistics.Perinatal mortality rates have assumed thestatus of ritualistic formulae cited in defenseof any challenge to the medicalization ofchildbirth. As illustration the authors examinethe role of the obstetrical record in theextension of medical control over childbirthamong Inuit women from the Keewatin Regionof the Northwest Territories. The introductionof medical services into the Arctic by thefederal government led to the displacementof traditional ways of childbirth and to theevacuation of women to give birth far from theircommunities in southern hospitals. Decreasesin the perinatal mortality rate became bothjustification of this policy and a symbol of thebeneficence of a government presence in theNorth.53. Kioke, S. J. (2000). Revisiting the Past:Discovering Traditional Care and the CulturalMeaning of Pregnancy and Birth in a CreeCommunity. Thesis (M.Sc.) --Queen’s University,2000.Keywords: Canada/First Nations/History/ Men/Pregnancy/womenAbstract: The purpose of this study was toexplore the past traditional experience ofpregnancy and childbirth of a subcultureof Canadian Aboriginal people. Using anethnographic method, a group of ten key

informants shared their life experiencesand memories of childbirth to illuminate thismost critical time for the family. Participantswere women and men, ranging from 66-95years of age, who had expert knowledge inchildbirth and life ways from the past. Studyfindings revealed that this unique First Nationscommunity has a complex and rich historysurrounding the childbirth process. The fivecultural values that emerged from the datawere (a) on a journey, (b) the holistic family, (c)a spiritual nature, (d) caring/sharing, and (e)interconnectedness. These values are largelydefined through the special relationship thatexisted between the people, the land and thestruggle for survival. As part of a tri-level process,the five cultural values formed a cultural valuesystem of survival for the childbirth event. Aconceptual model was created to representthe evolved system for survival.54. Klomp, H. & Sheppard, S. (2003).Description and Evaluation of a PrenatalExercise Program for Urban Aboriginal Women.Canadian Journal of Diabetes, 27, 231-238.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Basic PhysicalNeeds/Canada/Critical Learning Opportunities/Diabetes/Education/Prevention/womenAbstract: Objective: Exercise has been shownto prevent type 2 diabetes mellitus and couldplay a role in the prevention and treatmentof gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). Thispaper describes the process and outcomeof a prenatal exercise program for urbanAboriginal women in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan,Canada. Method: The authors developeda weekly fitness program with incentivesaimed at accommodating the needs ofthe target population. Fifty-one percent ofparticipants completed a program evaluationquestionnaire. Results: During its two-yearcourse, the program attracted 69 participantsof various ages, stages of pregnancy andeducation and fitness levels. Water aerobicsand walking were the most preferred activities.Snacks and designated social time proved tobe important incentives for attendance. Whileengaged in the program, 91% of participantsreported improved fitness levels and 89%reported heightened self-esteem. Conclusions:Although exercise programs for urbanAboriginal prenatal women are challenging todesign, they are necessary and feasible. Factorsthat influenced participation in one suchexercise program is identified (Journal Abstract).55. Kowlessar, D. L. (1997). An Examinationof the Effects of Prenatal Alcohol Exposure onSchool Age Children in a Manitoba First NationsCommunity. Master of Science, University ofManitoba.Keywords: Children/First Nations/First NationsCommunities/History/Manitoba/ PregnancyAbstract: A cross-sectional survey wasconducted in one First Nations communityin Manitoba to determine the prevalenceof Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) among178 school-aged children (ages 5 years to15 years). The study consisted of four parts:a maternal interview, where mothers werequestioned about family dynamics, pregnancyand family histories, as well as alcohol useduring pregnancy using the TWEAK screeningquestionnaire; review of the child’s birth records,to confirm alcohol exposures reported by themother; dysmorphology assessment by a clinicalgeneticist; and psychoeducational testing bya trained retired teacher. The geneticist andteacher were blind to the alcohol exposurestatus of each child at the time of assessment.The dysmorphology parameters, which differsignificantly between the alcohol-exposed andunexposed groups are: decreased height andweight, head circumference and palpebralfissure lengths, and midface hypoplasia. Growthparameter data of the “Normal” category ofschool-aged children were used to generatestandard Native growth curves for school-agedchildren from this community. These curveswere compared to the preexisting curves in theliterature, primarily derived using Caucasiandata, and showed significant differencesbetween the two populations. With respectto postnatal growth, Native children from thiscommunity tend to be heavier, taller, havelarger head circumferences, longer fingers, andmore widely spaced eyes than their Caucasiancounterparts. Comparison of the FAS andPartial FAS children with the Native curvesincreased the number of children that wouldbe considered “classic” FAS cases, as opposedto comparisons against Caucasian standards(Author Abstract).56. Langner, N. & Steckle, J. (1991).National Database on Breastfeeding amongIndian and Inuit Women: Canada 1988.Circumpolar Health 90: Proceedings of the 8thInternational Congress on Circumpolar Health.Postl, B., Gilbert, P., Goodwill, J., Moffatt, M.,O’Neil, J., Sarsfield, P., and Young, T. K.Keywords: Breast Feeding/Canada/ Diabetes/Health/Inuit Women/womenAbstract: This article examines patterns ofbreastfeeding among Indian and Inuit womenin Canada. In general, the authors find thatAboriginal breastfeeding rates parallel those ofnon-Aboriginal mothers, while noting that theincidence of smoking and gestational diabeteshave both served to influence breastfeedingpractices among Aboriginal mothers inparticular. Moreover, the authors argue thatAboriginal mothers require additional supportin order to continue breastfeeding longer (DionStout, 1997).57. LaVallie D.L., Gabbe, S.G., Grossman,D. C., Larson, E. B., Baldwin, L. M., & Andrilla,C. H. (2003). Birth Outcomes among AmericanIndian/Alaska Native Women with Diabetes inAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing85

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing86Pregnancy. Journal of Reproductive Medicine,48, 610-616.Keywords: Diabetes/Health/Medicine/Nativewomen/womenAbstract: Objective: To describe perinataloutcomes and maternal characteristics amongAmerican Indian/Alaska Native (AI/AN) womenwith diabetes in pregnancy. Study Design: Aretrospective analysis of live births to AI/AN,African-American and white women withdiabetes (242,715) during pregnancy for the1989-1991 period (latest available at the timeof study) was conducted utilizing a linkedbirth/infant death database from the NationalCenter for Health Statistics. AI/AN perinataloutcomes and maternal characteristics werecompared to those of African-American andwhite women. Similar analyses compared urbanand rural AI/AN populations. Results: AI/ANwomen were more likely than white womento receive inadequate prenatal care (10.4%),to have higher rates of pregnancy-inducedhypertension (9.1%) and to have significantlylower rates of primary cesarean delivery (16.9%vs. 22.3%). The rate of macrosomia amongbirths to AI/AN women (24.2%) was notablyhigher as compared to that in the whitepopulation (17.9%). Rates of musculoskeletaland chromosomal anomalies were also higheramong AI/AN women, 9 and 4, respectively,per 1,000 live births, as compared to 6 and 2per 1,000 for the white population. Conclusion:Multiple maternal risk factors and birthoutcomes demonstrate the need for furtherresearch to evaluate methods of improvingcare in this population (Journal Abstract).58. Lawrence, H. P., Romanetz, M.,Rutherford, L., Cappel, L., Binguis, D., & Rogers,J. B. (2004). Effects of a Community-BasedPrenatal Nutrition Program on the Oral Healthof Aboriginal Preschool Children in NorthernOntario. Probe, 38, 172-182.Keywords: Canada/First Nations/First NationsReserves/Health/Health KnowledgeAbstract: Aboriginal preschool childrenacross Canada are at increased risk for EarlyChildhood Caries (ECC) when compared withtheir non-Aboriginal preschool age cohorts.Current research indicates that public dentalhealth programs fail to prevent ECC becauseintervention often arrives too late. Objectives:to evaluate the effectiveness of the dentalhygiene-coordinated prenatal nutritionprogram, delivered by community-basednutrition educators on First Nations reserveslocated in the Sioux Lookout Zone (NorthwesternOntario) on: (1) parent/ caregivers’ beliefsand behavioural decisions related to dentalpreventive practices and feeding habits ofyoung children; (2) oral health status andtreatment needs of those children; (3) earlychildhood obesity. Methods: Cross-sectionaloral health surveys of Anishnaabe 2-5-year-oldsconducted in 2001 and 2002 in 16 communities;8 communities classified as “high” interventionand 8 as “low” intervention based on frequencyof contact and content of contact betweennutrition educators and prenatal women.Training and calibrated (???) dental hygienistsexamined children for dental caries and oralhygiene and measured height and weight.A questionnaire was used to assess caregiverknowledge, beliefs, and practices in relationto the oral health of the child. Results: 471 (72%response) and 705 (65% response) caregiverand-childpairs participated in 2001 and 2002,respectively. Oral health knowledge in thispopulation was high and significantly higheramong caregivers in the high-interventioncommunities. In high-intervention communities,caregivers brushed children’s teeth morefrequently and started at an earlier age.Differences in feeding habits were noted withregard to bottle feeding on child’s demand andthe sugar-rich content of the bottle. Children inhigh-intervention communities required dentaltreatment under general anesthetic (GA) but ata later age, were less likely to have abscessedteeth and had less untreated decay by age 4than those in the low-intervention communities.The program also had significant positiveeffects on the child’s oral hygiene and bodymass index. Conclusion: The prenatal nutritionprogram improved caregivers’ knowledgeof ECC. However, factors that place unduestrain on the caregiver and lead to poorhygiene and dietary habits among children inAboriginal communities need to be addressed.Some strategies to confront these factors arediscussed in the paper (Journal Abstract).59. Lawrence, J. A. (2000). The IndianHealth Service and the Sterilization of NativeAmerican Women. Lincoln, Neb.: University ofNebraska Press.Keywords: Adequate Power/Health/Safety andSecurity/Social Justice and Equity/ Women’sHealth/Sterilization/Native American WomenAbstract: Unavailable60. Linehan, S. (1992). Giving Birth the“White Man’s Way.” Healthsharing, 13, 11-15.Keywords: Inuit Women/BirthingAbstract: An overview of the birthing optionscurrently open to Inuit women is provided bythe author as well as the forms of resistancewhich these women use to resist forcibleevacuation to a southern hospital. The authorargues that given the undisputed expertiseof Inuit midwives, there is ample room for thedevelopment of alternatives to evacuation,with one notable example being the maternitycentre at Povungnituk in northern Quebec (DionStout, 1997).61. Linquist, A. & Jackson, S. (2003). AnAboriginal Nation’s Efforts to Address the

Issue of Substance Use during Pregnancy.In D. Rutman (Ed.), Substance Abuse andPregnancy: Conceiving Women in the PolicyMaking Process. Ottawa, ON: Status of WomenCanada.Keywords: Canada/Status of WomenAbstract: Unavailable62. Loewen, C. (2000). FAS/E in theAboriginal Community: A Woman’s Perspective.Thesis (M.A.) -- The University of Manitoba, 2000.Keywords: Fetal Alcohol Syndrome/Effects/ FirstNationsAbstract: Alcohol-Related Birth Defects (ARND)including Fetal Alcohol Syndrome and FetalAlcohol Effects (FAS/E) are topics attractingmuch attention. Prevalence of alcohol abuseamong some Aboriginal communities combinedwith the relative abundance of on-reserveresearch funding have inextricably linked FAS/Ewith the Aboriginal community. Given thatchildren can only be affected by alcohol inutero, blame is often placed exclusively on thebirth mother.. Since the “discovery” of FAS/Ein 1968, the medical field has conducted themajority of research. Although invaluable, ithas done little to further our understandingof the socio-epidemiological aspects of thissyndrome. The historical relationship betweenalcohol and Aboriginals, social factors, biaseddiagnosis and colonization all play fundamentalroles in understanding the genesis of FAS/E inthe Aboriginal community. Interviews with anAboriginal birth mother who drank throughouther pregnancies, her mother who attendedresidential schools and her daughter, providea personal and intergenerational look at themalaise underlying FAS/E. The term “birthmother” is used in this paper to denote awoman who has given birth to a child affectedby alcohol and/or who has consumed alcoholduring her pregnancy. Although many writersuse this term strictly for mothers who have givenbirth to a child affected by alcohol in utero,because my interest is more in discovering thedeterminants that would lead a woman to drinkduring her pregnancy than whether she gavebirth to a child affected by alcohol, I use theterm as stated above.63. Loewen, C. (2001). A Birth Mother’sPerspective on Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. In J.Oakes, R. Riewe, B. Chisholm, & M. Bennett(Eds.), Pushing the Margins: Native and NorthernStudies. Winnipeg, MB: Native Studies Press.Keywords: Children/Fetal Alcohol Syndrome/Effects/First Nations/PregnancyAbstract: Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) is abirth defect caused by heavy prenatal alcoholexposure and manifested by a cluster ofspecific features. The FAS diagnosis is employedwhen children whose mother abused alcoholduring pregnancy have some features in eachof three categories: canonical anomalies;growth deficiency; and central nervous system(CNS) effects. It is critical to understand this issuefrom a birth mother’s perspective.64. Loos, C., Morton, A. M., & Meekis, M.(1999). The Value of Using a Prenatal EducationPlanning Model: Application to an AboriginalCommunity. The Journal of Perinatal education,8, 1.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/EducationAbstract: A conceptual model for planningadolescent prenatal programs was developedthat anticipated future trends, was easilymodifiable, and fostered community selfdirection.However, the model’s reliability withdiverse groups in atypical settings requiredtesting. Validation of its reliability focused onadolescent Aboriginal women living in anisolated northern community. Use of the modelhelped identify modifications in program design,implementation and evaluation to meet theethnocultural, socioeconomic, and age-relatedneeds differences of this population, suggestingthat this model is an effective tool for programdevelopment.65. Luo, C. (2004). Infant Mortality AmongFirst Nations Versus Non-First Nations in BritishColumbia: Temporal Trends in Rural VersusUrban Areas, 1981-2000. International Journal ofEpidemiology, 33, 1252.Keywords: Adequate Human Services andSocial Safety Net/British Columbia/First Nations/Health/Mortality Rates/Strong Families andHealthy Child Development/ womenAbstract: Background: Increasingly more FirstNations (FN) people have moved from ruralto urban areas. It is unknown how disparitiesin infant mortality among FN versus non-FNwomen have changed over time in urbanversus rural areas. Methods: We conducted acohort-based birth study of all 877,925 live births(56,771 FN and 821,154 non-FN) registered inBritish Columbia, 1981-2000. Main outcomesincluded rates, risk differences, and relative risksof neonatal, postneonatal, and overall infantdeath. Results: Both neonatal and postneonatalmortality rates for FN infants showed a steadydecline in rural areas but a rise-and-fall patternin urban areas. Relative risks for overall infantdeath among FN versus non-FN infants declinedsteadily from 2.75 (95% CI: 2.04, 3.72) to 1.87(95% CI: 1.24, 2.81) in rural areas from 1981-1984to 1997-2000, but rose from 1.59 (95% CI: 1.27,1.99) (1981-1984) to 2.80 (2.33-3.37) (1989-92)and then fell to 1.89 (1.44-2.49) (1997-2000)in urban areas. Risk differences for neonataldeath among FN versus non-FN infants declinedsubstantially over time in rural but not urbanareas. The disparities in neonatal death amongAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing87

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing88FN versus non-FN were largely explained bydifferences in preterm birth, while the disparitiesin postneonatal death were not explainedby observed maternal and pregnancycharacteristics. Conclusions: Reductions indisparities in infant mortality among FN versusnon-FN women have been less substantial andconsistent over time in urban versus rural areasof British Columbia, suggesting the need forgreater attention to FN maternal and infanthealth in urban areas.66. Luo, Z. C. (2004). Risks of AdversePregnancy Outcomes among Inuit and NorthAmerican Indian Women in Quebec, 1985-97.Paediatric and perinatal epidemiology, 18, 40-50.Keywords: Adequate Human Services andSocial Safety Net/Basic Physical Needs/Education/Inuit Women/PreventionAbstract: The researchers of this article usedStatistics Canada’s linked stillbirth, live birth andinfant death files to assess the risks of adversepregnancy outcomes among Inuit and NorthAmerican Indian vs. other ethnic women inQuebec between the years of 1985 to 1997.Both Inuit and Indian infants had much higherrisks of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)and infection-related mortality. Although theabsolute risks of adverse outcomes declinedfrom 1985-87 to 1995-97, the relative disparitiesbetween Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal womenchanged little over this period. The authorsconcluded that Inuit and Indian women havedifferent risk profiles for adverse pregnancyoutcomes, and that prevention of preterm birthamong Inuit women, and of SIDS and infectionrelatedinfant mortality in both Aboriginalgroups, are important targets for future researchand intervention.67. Luo, Z.-C., Kierans, W. J., Wilkins, R.,Liston, R. M., Uh, S.-H., & Kramer, M. S. (2005).Infant Mortality among First Nations VersusNon-First Nations in British Columbia: TemporalTrends in Rural Versus Urban Areas, 1981-2000.International Journal of Epidemiology, 33, 1252-1259.Keywords: British Columbia/First Nations/ Health/Mortality RatesAbstract: Background: Increasingly more FirstNations (FN) people have moved from ruralto urban areas. It is unknown how disparitiesin infant mortality among FN versus non-FNwomen have changed over time in urbanversus rural areas. Methods: We conducted acohort-based birth study of all 877,925 live births(56,771 FN and 821,154 non-FN) registered inBritish Columbia, 1981-2000. Main outcomesincluded rates, risk differences, and relative risksof neonatal, postneonatal, and overall infantdeath. Results: Both neonatal and postneonatalmortality rates for FN infants showed a steadydecline in rural areas but a rise-and-fall patternin urban areas. Relative risks for overall infantdeath among FN versus non-FN infants declinedsteadily from 2.75 (95% CI: 2.04, 3.72) to 1.87(95% CI: 1.24, 2.81) in rural areas from 1981-1984to 1997-2000, but rose from 1.59 (95% CI: 1.27,1.99) (1981-1984) to 2.80 (2.33-3.37) (1989-92)and then fell to 1.89 (1.44-2.49) (1997-2000)in urban areas. Risk differences for neonataldeath among FN versus non-FN infants declinedsubstantially over time in rural but not urbanareas. The disparities in neonatal death amongFN versus non-FN were largely explained bydifferences in preterm birth, while the disparitiesin postneonatal death were not explainedby observed maternal and pregnancycharacteristics. Conclusions: Reductions indisparities in infant mortality among FN versusnon-FN women have been less substantial andconsistent over time in urban versus rural areasof British Columbia, suggesting the need forgreater attention to FN maternal and infanthealth in urban areas (Journal Abstract).68. Maggah, E., Way, D., Muirhead,M., & Baskerville, B. (2004). Preterm Deliveryamong Inuit Women in the Baffin Region ofthe Canadian Arctic. International Journal ofCircumpolar Health, 63, Suppl. 2, 242-247.Keywords: Canada/History/Inuit Women/ FirstNations/women/British Columbia/ MortalityRates/Pregnancy/HealthAbstract: To evaluate the rate and causes ofpreterm (before 37 weeks gestation) and verypreterm (before 32 weeks gestation) deliveryamong a population of Inuit living in Canada.Study Design: Three-year retrospective crosssectionalreview of charts for patients deliveringin the Baffin Region of Canada. It wasdetermined that Inuit women had preterm andvery preterm delivery rates more than twice theCanadian national average. Preterm deliverywas associated with several medical risk factorsand resulted in significant increases in infanthospitalization and mortality.69. Mahajarine, N. & D’Arcy, C. (1999).Physical Abuse during Pregnancy: Prevalenceand Risk Factors. Canadian Medical AssociationJournal, 160, 1007-1011.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Ethnic Groups/Health/MedicineAbstract: Background: Violence duringpregnancy is a health and social problemthat poses particular risks to the woman andher fetus. To address the lack of Canadianinformation on this issue, the authors studied theprevalence and predictors of physical abusein a sample of pregnant women in Saskatoon.Methods: Of 728 women receiving prenatalservices through the Saskatoon District publichealth system between Apr. 1, 1993, andMar. 31, 1994, 605 gave informed consent toparticipate in the study and were interviewedin the second trimester. Of these, 543 were

interviewed again late in the third trimester.During the initial interview, information wascollected on the women’s socio-demographiccharacteristics, the current pregnancy, healthpractices and psychosocial variables. Thesecond interview focused on the women’sexperience of physical abuse during thepregnancy and during the preceding year,the demographic characteristics and the useof alcohol or illicit drugs by their male partner.Results: In all, 31 (5.7%) of the women reportedexperiencing physical abuse during pregnancy;46 (8.5%) reported experiencing it within the12 months preceding the second interview.Of the 31 women, 20 (63.3%) reported thatthe perpetrator was her husband, boyfriendor ex-husband. Although all ethnic groups ofwomen suffered abuse, Aboriginal womenwere at greater risk than non-Aboriginal women(adjusted odds ratio 2.8, 95% confidenceinterval [CI] 1.0-7.8). Women whose partnerhad a drinking problem were 3.4 times (95%CI 1.2-9.9) more likely to have been abusedthan women whose partner did not have adrinking problem. Perceived stress and numberof negative life events in the preceding yearwere also predictors of abuse. Abused womentended to report having fewer people withwhom they could talk about personal issues orget together; however, they reported socializingwith a larger number of people in the monthbefore the second interview than did thewomen who were not abused. Interpretation:Physical abuse affects a significant minority ofpregnant women and is associated with stress,lack of perceived support and a partner with adrinking problem (Journal Abstract).70. Martens, P. J. (1994). BreastfeedingChoice and Duration: A Prospective Study ofWomen and Infants in Four Southern ManitobaFirst Nations Communities. Thesis (M.SC.)University of Manitoba 1994.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/First Nations/ FirstNations Communities/Health/Health Care/Manitoba/womenAbstract: Martens undertook research todetermine prevalence and duration ofbreastfeeding among Aboriginal womengiving birth in four First Nations communities aswell as to determine factors associated withbreastfeeding choice and duration, basedon a revised model of “reasoned action.”Semi-structured qualitative interviews with 11individuals were conducted in the SagkeengFirst Nation, Manitoba.71. Martens, P. J. (1997). Prenatal InfantFeeding Intent and Perceived Social Supportfor Breastfeeding in Manitoba First NationsCommunities: A Role for Health Care Providers.International Journal of Circumpolar Health, 56,104-120.Keywords: Education/First Nations/Health/Health Care/Manitoba/Social SupportAbstract: In a prospective study of pregnantwomen (n = 36) in four southern Manitoba FirstNations communities to test a breastfeedingdecision-making model, maternal perceptionsof the impact of referents (individuals andgroups which impact a woman’s decisions)was measured. A quantitative “referent score”comprised of a measure of the referent’s“breastfeeding supportiveness” and a measureof maternal compliance with the referent. Thewoman’s own mother, the community healthnurse, and the physician were perceived ashighly supportive of breastfeeding, and aspeople with whom the woman was most likelyto comply. Women also identified the timingof their infant feeding decisions, as reportedin the third trimester of pregnancy. Only 22%had decided prior to pregnancy. During thethird trimester, 36% did not know their infantfeeding choice. Women forced to verbalize a“choice” prior to being informed may makedecisions based on the perceived culturalnorm, which may be bottle feeding. A neutralattitude by health professionals may be harmfulif it prevents informed choice by pregnant orpostpartum clients. Prenatal education of thepregnant woman with her own mother, andadolescent school education of the peer group(sisters, close friends and male partner) mayneed to be incorporated into a communitystrategy to promote breastfeeding (JournalAbstract).72. Martens, P. J. (2001). The Effect ofBreastfeeding Education on AdolescentBeliefs and Attitudes: A Randomized SchoolIntervention in the Canadian OjibwaCommunity of Sagkeeng. Journal of HumanLactation, 17, 245-255.Keywords: Canada/Education/Gender/ Health/ManitobaAbstract: Sagkeeng First Nation’s adolescentbreastfeeding educational session wasevaluated using a randomized pretest-posttestcontrol group design. The intervention groupreceived the session first; the control groupreceived the session following the posttest.A retention test to measure overall retainedlearning was given to all students ten days later.Belief in breastfeeding increased (mean +/- SD= 41.9 to 47.0, P = .0047) from pretest to posttestfor intervention subjects but not for controls.There were no changes in bottle-feedingbeliefs or breastfeeding attitudes. There was anincrease in breastfeeding beliefs from pretestto retention test for all students (true treatmenteffect [TTE] = .85 standard deviation units [SDU],P = .004). Learning was gender specific, withfemales experiencing increases in breastfeedingbeliefs (TTE = 1.12 SDU, P = .004), decreasesin bottle-feeding beliefs (TTE = -.77 SDU, P =.04), and a trend to increased breastfeedingattitudes (TTE = .41 SDU, NS). Males showedsmall, inconsistent learning effects. Learningoccurred in the areas of health, convenience,cost, and decreased embarrassment (JournalAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing89

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing90Abstract).73. Martens, P. J. (2002). IncreasingBreastfeeding Initiation and Duration at aCommunity Level: An Evaluation of SagkeengFirst Nation’s Community Health Nurse andPeer Counselor Programs. Journal of HumanLactation, 18, 236-246.Keywords: HealthAbstract: The effectiveness of two SagkeengFirst Nation breastfeeding initiatives--prenatalinstruction by a community health nurse anda postpartum peer counselor (PC) programfor breastfeeding women--was evaluated ata community level through chart audits. Theauthor notes that breastfeeding initiation ratesincreased from 38% in 1995 to 60% in 1997.Qualitative interviews confirmed PC clientsas more satisfied and more confident aboutbreastfeeding, with fewer problems and moreinformation.74. Martens, P. J. (1999). Evaluating theEffectiveness of a Breastfeeding PromotionCommunity Strategy in Sagkeeng First Nation.Thesis (Ph.D.) -- The University of Manitoba, 1999.Keywords: Canada/Education/Manitoba/Research/First Nations Women/BreastfeedingAbstract: Objectives of this research were toevaluate: (1) a peer counselor (PC) program,designed to increase satisfaction with andduration of breastfeeding; (2) a schooladolescent teaching session, designed tocreate positive breastfeeding beliefs andattitudes; (3) a hospital education program,designed to decrease supplementation ratesof breastfed babies, increase compliance withthe WHO/UNICEF Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative(BFHI), and create positive beliefs/attitudes; (4)the effectiveness of community breastfeedingpromotion activities from 1992 to 1997. The PCprogram evaluation was a separate samplepretest - post-test design, (comparing womenwho did or did not receive the program), usinga survey based on the Breastfeeding Decision-Making Model (Martens and Young, 1997),qualitative semi-structured interviews (n = 22),and community chart audits. The PC programwas associated with a decreased risk ofweaning (0.47, 95% CI 0.22-0.99, p = 0.04, 1996-97 data adjusted for parity and birth weight),increased satisfaction with breastfeeding(median 5 vs. 4, p = 0.07, n = 22), decreasednumber of reported breastfeeding problems(median 1 vs. 2, p = 0.044), and recognition ofthe Peer Counselor as a valuable resource. Theschool evaluation was a randomized pretest- post-test control group design. The session wasassociated with an increase in BreastfeedingBeliefs (true treatment effect TTE 0.85, p = 0.004).Learning effects were gender specific. Femalesexperienced an increase in BreastfeedingBeliefs (TTE 1.12, p = 0.004), decrease in BottleFeeding Beliefs (TTE -0.77, p = 0.04), and possibleincreases in Breastfeeding Attitudes (TTE 0.41,NS). Males showed small, inconsistent learningeffects. The hospital evaluation was a quasiexperimentalpretest - post-test design, usingstaff surveys and chart audits. The interventionhospital experienced an increase in BFHIcompliance (24.3 to 31.9, p = 0.0009) and inbreastfeeding knowledge (55.0 to 58.8, p

through an early intervention program whichcombines traditional cultural and presentchild-rearing practices. The program provideschildren with experiences and serviceswhich enhance their early developmentby encouraging and helping parents todevelop skills necessary to provide meaningfulexperiences for their children. The paperdescribes the establishment of the program,the training of Native women as infant workers,program content and the results of evaluation.77. McCormack, T. (1999). Fetal Syndromesand the Charter: The Winnipeg Glue-SniffingCase. Canadian Journal of Law and Society, 14,77-99.Keywords: Canada/Education/Health/Women’s HealthAbstract: The relationship between scientificknowledge and legal discourse raised in arecent decision of the Supreme Court ofCanada that involved a young Aboriginalwoman who was pregnant and orderedby the court to remain in a drug treatmentprogram at a health center until the babywas born. Her glue-sniffing habit was deemeddangerous to the normal development ofthe fetus. The Court held that her solventdependency did not justify the original courtaction, but both the Court and the variousinterveners disregarded the current state ofour knowledge on the fetal syndromes. Thereis thus a continuing disconnect between thescientific understanding of fetal risk and thedevelopment of constitutional law aroundwomen’s reproductive rights. This paper reviewsthe case and follows it through the appellateprocess.78. McGrath, J., editorial assistanceby Lona Hegeman, & translated byDeborah Evaluadjuk (1998). Ikajuqtigiinniq:Ikajukkannirutiksaq Qiturngaksalingnik Imialuqattartittittailimanirmkk Ammalu IkajurunnaqullutigutTaimannaittuliit = A Resource for Fetal AlcoholSyndrome Prevention and Intervention Work.Keywords: Fetal Alcohol Syndrome/Effects/ InuitWomen/Prevention/WorkAbstract: “This resource stems from the nationalInuit FAS/FAE workshop in Iqaluit, Nunavut,October 7-10, 1997. The workshop was calledIkajuqtigiinniq: Seeking Community Solutionsto Understanding, Preventing and Coping withFetal Alcohol Syndrome/Effects (FAS/E)” --Intro.includes six pages of newspaper articles inEnglish and Inuktitut (syllabic characters), fromNunatsiaq news tipped in. (???)79. McIlwain, R. & Smith, S. (2000).Obstetrics in a Small Isolated Community: TheCesarean Section Dilemma. Canadian FamilyPhysician, 5, 221-223.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Obstetrics/CesareansAbstract: Delivery of obstetrical services insmall isolated communities is becoming moreof an issue, particularly as these communitieslose the ability to provide cesarean sections(C-sections). There is some evidence thatobstetrical outcome is better when providedin the patient’s local community, even in theabsence of C-section coverage. However,many of us who practice rural obstetrics areintuitively uncomfortable with this situation. AtBella Coola Hospital in Bella Coola, BC, we areexperiencing increasing difficulty in maintainingour ability to provide C-section coverage,and there is a corresponding increase in thenumber of women who deliver outside thecommunity. We are attending fewer deliveriesand performing fewer C-sections. Is this safeand appropriate? We reviewed the obstetricalexperience in our community and comparedit to the experiences of others. Bella Coola isa community of approximately 2,500 people,with another 1,000 in the catchment area.We are 450 km from the nearest hospital andany obstetrical specialist. Transfer entails aneight-hour trip over a difficult highway, orair transport. Because of our location in thecoastal mountains, air travel is not alwayspossible. Bella Coola Hospital has ten acutecarebeds and an operating room staffed bythree general practitioners with anesthesia andC-section experience. When one or more of ourphysicians is away or our operating room nursesare not available, we are unable to provideC-sections.80. McWhinney, D. (1991). PrenatalAllowance in Reducing Infant Mortality Rates inthe Baffin Island Region.Keywords: Adequate Human Services andSocial Safety Net/Health/Health CareAbstract: In co-operation with the GNWTDepartment of Social Services and theWomen’s Shelter, Iqaluit, the researcher willinvestigate the extent to which women feelempowered by the health care system,particularly prenatal health care.81. Miskelly, M. (1999). Teen Pregnancy andLow Birthweight Infants: An Analysis of ThreeRegions in Northern British Columbia. Thesis(M.Sc.) -- University of Northern British Columbia,1999.Keywords: British Columbia/Canada/Health/Pregnancy/womenAbstract: Female Teenagers are expected tobe at higher risk of bearing both prematureand low birth weight infants. Within the NorthWest Health Region of British Columbia anunexpectedly low number of low birth weightinfants are born to teen mothers. Factors thatinfluence the risk of both premature and lowbirth weight infants to teen women wereAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing91

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healingreviewed and a study was conducted toexamine whether the observation of reducednumbers of low birth weight infants is statisticallyreliable. British Columbia provincial data fromthe Ministry of Health and Ministry Responsiblefor Seniors from 1987 to 1996 for both livebirths to teens (10-19 years) and low birthweight infants (

(83% participation rate). The most commonlyused substance was caffeine (87%), followedby alcohol (46%), tobacco (30%), andpsychoactive drugs (7%). Overall, 36% ofwomen reported using two substances, 16%three, and 4% all four substances. In general,risk behaviours were more prevalent amongwomen with lower education and incomelevels, Aboriginal or Métis background, thosenot living with a partner, those with previousbirths, and, in some cases, younger women. Thefindings illuminate the needs of particular groupsof pregnant women and the importance ofunderstanding maternal risk behaviour withinthe structural and cultural realities of women’slives (Journal Abstract).87. Muhajarine, N. & D’Arcy, C. (1999).Physical Abuse during Pregnancy: Prevalenceand Risk Factors. Canadian Medical AssociationJournal, 160, 1007-1011.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Basic PhysicalNeeds/Ethnic Groups/Health/Safety andSecurity/Social Justice and Equity/7Abstract: Violence during pregnancy is a healthand social problem that poses particular risksto the woman and her fetus. To address thelack of Canadian information on this issue, theauthors studied the prevalence and predictorsof physical abuse in a sample of pregnantwomen in Saskatoon. Methods: Of 728 womenreceiving prenatal services through theSaskatoon District public health system betweenApr. 1, 1993, and Mar. 31, 1994, 605 gaveinformed consent to participate in the studyand were interviewed in the second trimester.Of these, 543 were interviewed again late inthe third trimester. During the initial interview,information was collected on the women’ssocio-demographic characteristics, the currentpregnancy, health practices and psychosocialvariables. The second interview focused on thewomen’s experience of physical abuse duringthe pregnancy and during the preceding year,the demographic characteristics and the useof alcohol or illicit drugs by their male partner.Results: In all, 31 (5.7%) of the women reportedexperiencing physical abuse during pregnancy;46 (8.5%) reported experiencing it within the12 months preceding the second interview.Of the 31 women 20 (63.3%) reported thatthe perpetrator was her husband, boyfriendor ex-husband. Although all ethnic groups ofwomen suffered abuse, Aboriginal womenwere at greater risk than non-Aboriginal women(adjusted odds ratio 2.8, 95% confidenceinterval [CI] 1.0-7.8). Women whose partnerhad a drinking problem were 3.4 times (95%CI 1.2-9.9) more likely to have been abusedthan women whose partner did not have adrinking problem. Perceived stress and numberof negative life events in the preceding yearwere also predictors of abuse. Abused womentended to report having fewer people withwhom they could talk about personal issues orget together; however, they reported socializingwith a larger number of people in the monthbefore the second interview than did thewomen who were not abused. Interpretation:Physical abuse affects a significant minority ofpregnant women and is associated with stress,lack of perceived support and a partner with adrinking problem.88. Murphy, L. E. (2003). Public Mothers:Native American and Métis Women as CreoleMediators in the Nineteenth-Century Midwest.Journal of Women’s History, 14, 142-166.Keywords: Health/Health Care/Métis WomenAbstract: During the early 19th century, thelargely Francophone, mixed-ancestry residentsof the western Great Lakes region were facedwith massive immigration of Anglophonewhites who colonized the region, imposing anew U.S. government, economy, and legalsystem on the old Creole communities. Manyof these immigrants from different culturalbackgrounds in the eastern United Statesbrought their prejudices and fears with them,attitudes that had the power to alienateand marginalize the old residents. This articleexplores the ways in which some women ofcolor found techniques to mediate betweencultural groups, using hospitality, charity, andhealth care to negotiate overlapping idealsof womanhood common to both Anglos andNative-descended people. In so doing, theywon praise from both new and old neighbors,as they used Creole patterns of networkbuilding to smooth community relations (JournalAbstract).89. Mustard, C., Barer, M., & Sheps, S.(1993). Patterns of Obstetrical Utilization inManitoba 1981-1989. Winnipeg, MB: ManitobaCentre for Health Policy and Evaluation.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Health/Manitoba/Obstetrics/Treaty StatusAbstract: This report describes patterns ofobstetrical care in Manitoba in 1981/82 and1989/90, and notes significant changes inpatterns of care. Comparative analysis of trendsin usage patterns between women with treatystatus and all other women in Manitoba usingobstetrical services is included.90. National Aboriginal Health Organization(2004). Midwifery and Aboriginal Midwiferyin Canada. Ottawa, ON: National AboriginalHealth Organization.Keywords: Aboriginal Midwifery/AboriginalWomen/Canada/Children/First Nations/FirstNations Communities/First Nations Women/Health/History/ Midwifery/womenAbstract: The Inuulitsivik Health Centre inPuvirnituk, Quebec, created in 1986 by theefforts of a local women’s association anda supportive physician, is but one exampleAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing93

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healinginvolving Inuit and non-Aboriginal midwivescollaborating with other health professionalsto deliver their children in their communities.Traditional midwifery passed from onegeneration to another is regarded as animportant conveyor of cultural knowledgeand identity, and as a source of esteemamong Aboriginal women (Paulette, 1995).Current debate about appropriate legislation,educational requirements, models of training,registration, licensing and questions concerningsafety issues and financial costs must includeInuit, Métis and First Nations women who havea vested interest in any outcome or decision. Inaddition to honoring the wisdom of Elders whohave passed on their knowledge and skills tothe next generation, readers will be sensitizedto past and present midwifery and Aboriginalmidwifery in Canada, with a focus on the future;therefore the paper: (1) Discusses midwifery andexamines the history of the profession in relationto Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal communities,in addition to describing the current statusof midwifery in all jurisdictions of Canada; (2)Outlines the paths to becoming a midwife andrelated issues in terms of recognition and/oraccreditation are identified. The gaps in currentmaternity care policy and practice in Aboriginalcommunities are highlighted, as well as thecritical need for maternity care services; (3)Presents emerging models of community-basedcare, based on Aboriginal midwifery. The paperconcludes by identifying issues that must beaddressed for midwifery to be revitalized andexpanded within Inuit, Métis and First Nationscommunities (Journal Abstract).91. Northwest Territories Health & SocialServices (1996). Database on Breastfeeding:Survey of Infant Feeding Practices from Birthto Twelve Months. Yellowknife, NWT: NorthwestTerritories Health & Social Services.Keywords: Diabetes/Health/womenAbstract: Data on breastfeeding practiceswas collected in the following regions: Baffin,Inuvik, Keewatin, Kitikmeot and Mackenzie.Surveys received from the Fort Smith region areincluded in the results for the Mackenzie region.Women surveyed identified themselves asbeing Inuit, Dene, non-Aboriginal, or Métis. Datawas also collected on maternal age, parity,adoption, birth weight, gestational diabetes,smoking, and alcohol use.92. O’Neil, J. (1986). Impact of ObstetricalEvacuation on Inuit Women and their Families inthe Keewatin.Keywords: Adequate Human Services andSocial Safety Net/Canada/Health/Inuit Women/Manitoba/Medicine/ResearchAbstract: The author carried out a study toevaluate the impact of obstetrical evacuationon Inuit women and their families in theKeewatin.93. O’Neil, J., Kaufert, P., Brown, P.,Voisey, E., Moffat, M. M., Postl, B., et al. (1988).Inuit Concerns about Obstetric Policy in theKeewatin Region, N.W.T. Arctic MedicalResearch, 47, 485-489.Keywords: Inuit Women/Obstetrics/Birthing94. O’Neil, J., Gilbert, P., Kusugak, N.,St.John, C., Kaufert, P., Moffat, M. M., et al.(1991). Obstetric Policy for the KeewatinRegion, NWT: Results of the Child. CircumpolarHealth 90: Proceedings of the 8th InternationalCongress on Circumpolar Health. Postl, B.,Gilbert, P., Goodwill, J., Moffat, M. M., O’Neil, J.,Sarsfield, P., and Young, T. K.Keywords: Health/Northern WomenAbstract: This study draws upon a series ofinterviews carried out in Inuit communities as ameans of assessing the attitudes of Inuit mothersand families regarding current obstetricalpractices, specifically the evacuation ofexpecting mothers to southern hospitals forchildbirth. Not only were mothers generallyfound to be less than satisfied with the qualityof care which they received, but manywould have preferred a community birth toevacuation. The authors found that whilemany women had large kindreds whom theycould draw upon for support and assistance,a sizeable fraction of the women sampleddid not, and would therefore benefit fromadditional support. Finally, many womenreported that they would have seen an Inuitmidwife if one were available (Dion Stout, 1997).95. O’Neil, J., Moffatt, M. E. K., Tate, R. B.,& Young, T. K. (1994). Midwifery and AboriginalMidwifery in Canada. Circumpolar Health 93,Arctic Medical Research, 53.Keywords: Canada/Safety and Security/ SexualAbuse/Social Justice and Equity96. O’Neil, J. & Kaufert, P. (1995).Irniktakpanga!: Sex Determination and the InuitStruggle for Birthing Rights in Northern Canada.In F. Ginsberg & R. Rapp (Eds.), Conceivingthe New World Order: Global Intersections inthe Politics of Reproduction (Los Angeles, CA:University of California Press.Keywords: Adequate Power/Canada/SocialJustice and Equity97. O’Neil, J. D. et al. (1988). Inuit Concernsabout Obstetric Policy in the Keewatin Region,N.W.T. Oulu, Finland: Nordic Council for ArcticMedical Research.Keywords: Health/Research94

Abstract: Unavailable98. Oliver, C. (1998). Fetal AlcoholSyndrome: A Hopeful Challenge for Children,Families and Communities. Calgary: HealthPromotion and Programs Branch, HealthCanada.Keywords: Canada/HealthAbstract: Includes information on communitybasedhealth promotion strategies to preventfetal alcohol syndrome. Baseline information forprogram evaluation is given for pilot projects atthe Fort McMurray Children’s Centre and theLethbridge Native Women’s Transition Home.99. Ontario Federation of Indian FriendshipCentres (2002). Tenuous Connections: UrbanAboriginal Youth, Sexual Health and Pregnancy.Toronto, ON: Ontario Federation of IndianFriendship Centres.Keywords: Health/Pregnancy/Research/ SexualHealth/YouthAbstract: This study was set up to investigatethe following questions: What are the sexualand contraceptive practices of Aboriginalyouth today?; What are some of the reasonsthat Aboriginal youth are getting pregnant?;What are the feelings and practices aroundabortion among Aboriginal youth?; What arethe attitudes of Aboriginal youth towards sex,sexuality and family matters?; Are the youthinfluenced by traditional Native knowledgeand ethics in their approach to sex andparenting?; What types of situations are teenparents living in, and how do they feel aboutteen pregnancy and parenting? Researchwas conducted through province-widequestionnaires; interviews with female and maleyouth parents, front line workers and Elders,and youth focus groups. The authors includebackground material drawn from literature,extensive material about the findings andrecommendations.100. Ontario Federation of Indian FriendshipCentres (2002). Aboriginal Approaches to FetalAlcohol Syndrome/Effects. Toronto, ON: OntarioFederation of Indian Friendship Centres.Keywords: Fetal Alcohol Syndrome/Effects/Life-Sustaining Values, Morals, and Ethics/ StrongFamilies and Healthy Child DevelopmentAbstract: Explores how Aboriginal culture andpractices help with the development and dailylives of Aboriginals living with FAS/E. Storiesand articles build on Aboriginal knowledgeof health and healing to explore strategiesto assist people with FAS/E and celebrateand document the variety and originality ofwork that is being done around FAS/E withinAboriginal communities (CWHN Abstract).101. Pauktuutit Inuit Women’s Association.Healthy Inuit Babies Working Group (2005).Community Programs for Healthy Inuit Babies:Guidelines. Ottawa: Pauktuutit Inuit Women’sAssociation.Keywords: Family Violence/Health/Inuit WomenAbstract: This publication explores a number ofissues related to parenting skills, family violence,food, dental health, fetal alcohol syndrome andfetal alcohol effect and steps for communityaction for healthy Inuit babies. The documentidentifies seven major health and social issuesthat affect babies and gives examples ofcommunity- level strategies and activities thatcan be developed to address the issues.102. Pauktuutit Inuit Women’s Association.(2004). Teenage Pregnancy in InuitCommunities: Issues and Perspectives. Ottawa,ON: Pauktuutit Inuit Women’s Association.Available online: http://www.pauktuutit.ca/pdf/publications/pauktuutit/TeenPregnancy_e.pdfKeywords: Teenage Pregnancy/Inuit WomenAbstract: This report looks at the complexissues surrounding teenage pregnancy inInuit communities. Fifty-three individualsparticipated in this study. Twenty structuredinterviews were conducted with Inuit women:nine from Nunavut; four from Labrador; threefrom Nunavik; two from the Western Arctic; andtwo from Ottawa. Respondents were selectedbecause of their roles as Elders, mothers, healthcare workers, teachers and social workers.These roles bring them into contact with issuesrelated to adolescent pregnancy and makethem valuable key informants on the subject.Four of the interviews took place in Inuktitut. Theviews of Inuit youth were included through threefocus groups held in Ottawa. Thirty-three youthparticipated: six young men and 27 women.103. Paulette, L. (1995). Midwifery in theNorth. Ottawa, Ontario: Royal Commission onAboriginal Peoples.Keywords: Midwifery/Aboriginal Peoples/Aboriginal Women/women/Health/Health CareAbstract: This report examines the issue ofmidwifery in the North, and in particular, itsrelevance to Aboriginal women. Numerousaspects of the contemporary situation areaddressed, in light of both traditional andhistorical experiences of childbirth and maternalhealth care, from Labrador to the Yukon.104. Pinette, G. (2002). Healthy Pregnancy:Jenny’s Story. Ningwakwe Learning Press.Keywords: First Nations/Medicine/ Pregnancy/womenAbstract: Tells the story of Jenny, who learns tostay healthy in all areas of the Medicine WheelAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing95

in order to give their baby the best start in life.Keywords: Health/Lead/womenAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing105. Qinuajuak, L. (2005). ‘Birth is a NormalPart of Life’. Midwifery Today ChildbirthEducation, Winter, 55.Keywords: Aboriginal Midwifery/Inuit Children/BirthingAbstract: Unavailable106. Ray, J. G., Vermeulen, M. J., Meier, C.,Cole, D. E. C., & Wyatt, P. R. (2004). MaternalEthnicity and Risk of Neural Tube Defects: APopulation-Based Study. Canadian MedicalAssociation Journal, 171, 343-345.Keywords: Adequate Human Services andSocial Safety Net/Basic Physical Needs/Diabetes/EthnicityAbstract: Background: Maternal body massand the presence of diabetes mellitus areprobable risk factors for neural tube defects(NTDs). The association between maternalethnicity and the risk of NTDs remains poorlyunderstood, however. Methods: We performeda retrospective population-based study andincluded all women in Ontario who underwentantenatal maternal screening (MSS) at 15to 20 weeks’ gestation between 1994 andlate 2000. Self-declared maternal date ofbirth, ethnicity and weight and the presenceof pregestational diabetes mellitus wererecorded in a standardized fashion on theMSS requisition sheet. NTDs were detectedantenatally by ultrasonography or fetal autopsyand postnatally by considering all live andstillborn affected infants beyond 20 weeks’gestation. The risk of open NTD was evaluatedacross the five broad ethnic groups used forMSS, with white ethnicity as the referent. Results:Compared with white women (n = 290 799),women of First Nations origin (n = 1551) were atincreased associated risk of an NTD-affectedpregnancy (adjusted odds ratio [OR] 5.2, 95%confidence interval [CI] 2.1-12.9). Women ofother ethnic origins were not at increasedassociated risk compared with white women(women of Asian origin [n = 75 590]: adjustedOR 0.9, 95% CI 0.6-1.3; black women [n = 25966]: adjusted OR 0.6, 95% CI 0.3-1.1; womenof “other” ethnic origin [n = 10 009]: adjustedOR 0.1, 95% CI 0.02-0.9). Interpretation: Theassociated risk of NTD-affected pregnancieswas higher among women of First Nations originthan among women of other ethnic origins.The mechanisms for this discrepancy should beexplored107. Robinson, E. (1991). Maternal Healthand Obstetrical Services: Measuring HealthStatus and the Quality of Care in Remote Areas.Circumpolar Health 90: Proceedings of the 8thInternational Congress on Circumpolar Health.Postl, B., Gilbert, P., Goodwill, J., Moffat, M. M.,O’Neil, J., Sarsfield, P., and Young, T. K.Abstract: Robinson examines obstetrical andmaternal health practices among northernwomen in order to support his argument thatthe medical community’s fears of the dangerof complication and infant mortality has ledto an emphasis upon evacuation and theintroduction of specialized obstetrical services,while ignoring the expertise of northern womenthemselves, particularly that of midwives,whose expertise should form a central pillar ofobstetrical care in the North in years to come(Dion Stout, 1997).108. Rodrigues, S., Robinson, E., & Gray-Donald, K. (1999). Prevalence of GestationalDiabetes Mellitus among James Bay CreeWomen in Northern Quebec. CanadianMedical Association Journal, 160, 1293-1297.Keywords: Adequate Human Services andSocial Safety Net/Basic Physical Needs/Canada/DiabetesAbstract: The objective of this study was to helpdetermine the extent of gestational diabetes inCanada’s Aboriginal population. The authorsassessed the prevalence in a populationof Cree women in northern Quebec. Theauthors concluded that Aboriginal womenwith gestational diabetes or impaired glucosetolerance tended to be older, have had morepregnancies, weigh more before pregnancyand have heavier babies than those with anormal glycemic status. The prevalence ofgestational diabetes among James Bay Creewomen in northern Quebec is twice as highas that among women in the general NorthAmerican population and the second highestreported in an Aboriginal group worldwide.109. Rodrigues, S., Robinson, E. J., Kramer, M.S., & Gray-Donald, K. (2000). High Rates of InfantMacrosomia: A Comparison of a CanadianNative and a Non-Native Population. Journal ofNutrition, 130, 806-812.Keywords: Diabetes/Ethnic Groups/EthnicityAbstract: The Cree of James Bay have thehighest ever reported mean birth weight anda high prevalence of infant macrosomia. Thisstudy was designed to examine independentrisk factors for infant macrosomia among theCree, to compare these to risk factors amongnon-Native Canadians and to determine ifethnic differences persist after adjusting fordifferences in the distribution of other riskfactors. In conclusion, the authors state that theCree have a high prevalence of macrosomiadespite controlling for important differencesin pregravid weight and GDM. Some of thisvariation may be due to genetic differences infetal growth. The differential impact of GDM onmacrosomia in the two ethnic groups may bedue to differences in treatment strategies for96

GDM.110. Rodrigues, S. (1999). Epidemiologyof Gestational Diabetes Mellitus and InfantMacrosomia among the Cree of James Bay.Thesis (Ph.D.) -- McGill University, 1999, Montreal,QC.Keywords: Diabetes/Ethnicity/Diabetes/Gestational DiabetesAbstract: The objectives of this research wereto determine the prevalence of gestationaldiabetes mellitus (GDM) among the Cree ofJames Bay, identify independent risk factorsfor GDM and infant macrosomia in thispopulation and compare the risk for GDM andinfant macrosomia among Cree women withCanadian non-Native women. The prevalenceof GDM using the National Diabetes DataGroup criteria among the Cree was 12.8%(95% CI: 10.1-15.5), among the highest everreported for an Aboriginal group. Independentrisk factors for GDM among the Cree wereadvanced age, pregravid overweight andprevious GDM. A comparison of risk of GDMbetween Cree and non-Native womenrevealed a significant interaction betweenethnicity and pregravid weight. OverweightCree women were at an elevated risk for GDMcompared with overweight non-Native women(OR: 2.3, 95% CI: 1.3-3.8), whereas the risk forGDM was not statistically different betweennormal weight Cree and non-Native women(OR: 1.4, 95% CI: 0.7-2.7) after adjusting forage, parity, and smoking status. Mean birthweight among Cree infants was 3,859 ± 519g, the highest reported for any ethnic groupin the world. Macrosomia prevalence wasalso high at 34.3%. Independent risk factors formacrosomia among the Cree were advancedage, pregravid overweight and GDM. Asignificant interaction was noted betweenethnicity and GDM on risk for macrosomia.GDM increased the risk for macrosomia 4.5-fold among the Cree but had no significanteffect among non-Natives. After adjustingfor age, parity, pregravid weight, gestationalweight gain, GDM, gestational duration andsmoking status, Cree infants remained heavierthan non-Native infants by 235 g. The resultsof this research indicate the need to controlpregravid obesity through culturally acceptabledietary modifications and exercise in order tominimize the risk for GDM among Cree women.The significant impact of GDM on risk formacrosomia among the Cree calls for the reevaluationof the existing treatment strategiesfor GDM (Author Abstract).111. Rodrigues, S., Robinson, E. J., Kramer, M.S., & Gray-Donald, K. (2000). High Rates of InfantMacrosomia: A Comparison of a CanadianNative and a Non-Native Population. Journal ofNutrition, 130, 806-812.Keywords: Montreal/Canada/Health/RiskFactors/women/Ethnicity/Diabetes/EthnicGroupsAbstract: The Cree of James Bay have thehighest ever reported mean birth weight anda high prevalence of infant macrosomia. Thisstudy was designed to examine independentrisk factors for infant macrosomia among theCree, to compare these to risk factors amongnon-Native Canadians and to determine ifethnic differences persist after adjusting fordifferences in the distribution of other riskfactors. Macrosomia was defined as birthweight .90th percentile for gestational ageof a reference population. Independentdeterminants of macrosomia were examinedin 385 Cree and 5,644 non-Native women.The potential effect of ethnicity (Cree vs.non-Native) was determined after statisticallyadjusting for age, parity, pregravid weight,height, net rate of weight gain, gestationaldiabetes mellitus (GDM) and smoking status.The prevalence of macrosomia among theCree was 34.3% vs. 11.1% among non-Natives.Although GDM significantly increased the riskfor macrosomia among the Cree (odds ratio:4.46, 95% CI: 2.24-9.26), it was not a significantrisk factor among non-Natives (odds ratio: 1.15,95% CI: 0.79-1.65). The risk for infant macrosomiaremained elevated among the Cree comparedwith non-Natives after adjusting for other riskfactors (odds ratio: 3.64, 95% CI: 2.69-4.90). Inconclusion, the Cree have a high prevalenceof macrosomia despite controlling for importantdifferences in pregravid weight and GDM.Some of this variation may be due to geneticdifferences in fetal growth. The differentialimpact of GDM on macrosomia in the twoethnic groups may be due to differences intreatment strategies for GDM.112. Rogers, D. & Dilworth, K. (2002).Reducing the Rate of Teen Pregnancy inCanada: A Framework for Action. InternationalJournal of Adolescent Health, 14, 97-100.Keywords: Canada/Health/Youth/TeenPregnancy/Aboriginal YouthAbstract: In partnership with the Young/ SingleParent Support Network of Ottawa-Carletonand Timmins’ Native Friendship Centre,the Canadian Institute of Child Health hascompleted a framework to reduce the rateof teen pregnancy in Canada. The objectiveswere to learn what is currently being done andwhat needs to be done on this issue across thecountry, and to explore the potential role ofprojects funded by the federal Canada ActionProgram for Children and Canada PrenatalNutrition Program in reducing the rate of teenpregnancy. Being an extremely complex andsensitive issue, the report was a culminationof a number of research methods: over 40key informants from diverse backgrounds andexpertise were interviewed to determine thescope of the problem and potential solutions;a detailed literature review identified existingdate and documentation on the topic, usingAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing97

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing98both Canadian and international studies; youthsurveys and focus groups were conducted inboth on-reserve Aboriginal communities andnon-Aboriginal communities.113. Ross-Leitenberger, K. A. (1998).Aboriginal Midwifery and Traditional BirthingSystems Revisited and Revitalized: Interviewswith First Nations Elders in the Northwest Regionof British Columbia. Thesis (M.A.) --University ofNorthern British Columbia, 1999.Keywords: Aboriginal Midwifery/BritishColumbia/Canada/First Nations/First NationsWomen/Health/women/Midwifery/Elders/FirstNations CommunitiesAbstract: The intent of this thesis was to recordtraditional knowledge on midwifery and birthingpractices through interviews with First NationsElders from northwestern British Columbia and toapply this knowledge to contemporary birthingfor First Nations communities. Revitalization oftraditional birthing knowledge and First Nationsmidwifery practices in collaboration with thecontemporary medical system will potentiallyadd to the safety and comfort of giving birthfor First Nations women and their families innorthwestern British Columbia.114. Roussy, M. (2000). How PovertyShapes Women’s Experiences of HealthDuring Pregnancy: A Grounded Theory Study.Dissertation Abstracts International, The sciencesand Engineering, 60, 3205.Keywords: Adequate Income and SustainableEconomies/First Nations/ Health/Health Care/Poverty/Racism/Social Justice and Equity/Wellbeing/women/PregnancyAbstract: The health of pregnant women is amajor concern to health care providers. Thisgrounded theory study of 40 women examinedthe health of pregnant women and the specialthreat that poverty and violence posed totheir capacity for health. Pregnant womenexperienced their health as an integrated partof their daily lives; that is, they reported thattheir health was affected by “everybody andeverything.” Women’s main concern duringpregnancy was to have a healthy newbornand, to this end, they engaged in the processof creating a healthy pregnancy by engagingin health-enhancing behaviours. In this process,the woman focused primarily on ensuring thebirth of a healthy baby. Three conditions wereessential to a woman’s capacity to create ahealthy pregnancy: (1) the acceptance of thepregnancy, (2) adequate financial resources,and (3) supportive relationships (especiallyhaving a supportive partner). Pregnanciesinvariably carried with them some uncertainty,and this caused the 40 women in this studyto experience a state of vulnerability which,in turn, triggered attempts to create healthypregnancies. This led to a cycle of improvinghealth: the more energy women had to carryout health-enhancing behaviours the betterthey felt physically and mentally; the moreable they were to conduct their daily activities;and, consequently, the better their health.However, living within a context of povertyand/or violence increased pregnant women’svulnerability and decreased their capacityfor creating a healthy pregnancy, leading toextreme stress and the experience of threat.Male violence threatened the women’sability to be connected to those who wereimportant sources of emotional, financial, taskoriented,and knowledge-oriented support,and thus, jeopardized their ability to meettheir fundamental needs. Furthermore, thelack of sufficient financial resources limitedwomen’s abilities to leave their abusivepartners. In order to survive, women in thesecircumstances sometimes reverted to previous,often harmful, ways of coping in an attempt toreduce their high levels of stress. These copingstrategies usually took the form of behavioursthat required little energy, such as smoking,not eating properly, and consuming alcohol.Having financial support and a safe place togo were crucial with regard to enabling womento decide to leave abusive partners. Regainingcontrol of their lives in this way allowed womento refocus their energy on health-enhancingbehaviours. The women in this study showedincredible strength as they met the challengesimposed by poverty and abuse. They did notremain victims but took hold of their lives withcourage and conviction. In order to promotethe adoption of health-enhancing behavioursby childbearing women, health care providersmust recognize poverty and violence as factorsthat significantly threaten women’s capacityfor health. Further to this, special efforts mustbe made to render culturally sensitive careto First Nations women (i.e., recognizing theircultural identity and heritage, their connectionto nature, and the importance of the Eldersof their community). To this end, we mustrecognize the connections between racism,colonization, poverty, and violence. For untilwe have eradicated poverty, and the cycle ofviolence and degradation that is its legacy, wewill not have succeeded in doing all we can toensure the health and well-being of our citizens.(PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2003 APA).115. Rutman, D., Callahan, M., Lundquist,A., Jackson, S., & Field, B. (2000). SubstanceUse and Pregnancy: Conceiving Women in thePolicy Making Process. Ottawa, ON: Status ofWomen Canada.Keywords: Adequate Power/SubstanceAddictions/WorkAbstract: This research report examines howpolicy in Canada deals with the issue ofsubstance use during pregnancy and suggestsalternative ways of addressing this problemthat may prove less polarizing and punitivetoward women. One focus of this projecthas been to analyze the Supreme Court of

Canada case of Ms. G. (October 31, 1997),in which a judge ordered mandatory drugtreatment for a young, low-income Aboriginalwoman who was addicted to sniffing solvents;both the Majority and Minority judgmentsand the media coverage of the case wereexamined through a discourse analysis. Anotherimportant component of the project has beento uncover the experiences of substanceuse, pregnant women and the practitionerswho work closely with them, and to hear theirideas about approaches that make a positivedifference. A final and important componenthas been an in-depth case study, carried outin one Aboriginal community to determineapproaches that have a chance for success inthat community. The project has also aimed toaddress the challenge of integrating diversityinto policy research, development andanalysis. Our project resulted in a number ofimportant directions for policy and practice,and our report concludes by providing a set ofrecommendations grounded in the experiencesof the people directly affected by the issues,which, we submit, will help ensure the proposeddirections’ relevance and ultimate success(CWHN Abstract).116. Salmon, A. (2004). “It takes aCommunity”: Constructing Aboriginal Mothersand Children with FAS/FAE as Objects of MoralPanic in/through a FAS/FAE Prevention Policy.Journal of the Association for Research onMothering, 6, 112-123.Keywords: Canada/Canadian Women/Children/Disabilities/First Nations/ Government/Health/Prevention/Research/womenAbstract: Includes a discussion on thefollowing: alcohol abuse; a resource manualfor community-based prevention of fetalalcohol syndrome and fetal alcohol effects;construction of moral panic; discourse analysis;discrimination against people with disabilities;drug abusers; federal government [Canada];fetal alcohol syndrome; framework for theFirst Nations and Inuit fetal alcohol syndromeand fetal alcohol effects initiative [Canada.Health Canada]; government policy; healthpromotion programs; Native Canadian children;Native Canadian women; pregnant women;race discrimination; social construction of badmothers; social construction of motherhood;social construction of social problems; womenalcoholics.117. Secco, M. L. & Moffatt, M. E. K.(2003). The Home Environment of Métis, FirstNations, and Caucasian Adolescent Mothers:An Examination of Quality and Influences.Canadian Journal of Nursing Research, 35, 106-126.Keywords: Adequate Human Services andSocial Safety Net/Adolescent Mothers/Community Solidarity and Social Support/Education/Ethnicity/First Nations/Infant Care/Social Support/Strong Families and HealthyChild DevelopmentAbstract: This longitudinal exploratory studycompared maternal psychosocial, situational,and home environment characteristics at 4weeks and at 12-18 months postnatal for aconvenience sample of 71 Métis, First Nations,and Caucasian adolescent mothers. Thecombined group of Métis/First Nations mothershad significantly higher infant-care emotionalityscores than the Caucasian mothers at 4 weeks.The Caucasian mothers scored considerablyhigher on quality of the home environment; arefined multiple regression model containinginfant care emotionality, education level ofthe infant’s maternal grandmother, ethnicity,and enacted social support explained 49% ofthe variance, with significant influences beinginfant care emotionality and grandmother’seducation level.118. Sokoloski, H. (1995). Canadian FirstNations Women’s Beliefs about Pregnancy andPrenatal Care. The Canadian Journal of NursingResearch, 27, 89.Keywords: Cultural Integrity and Identity/ FirstNations/First Nations Women/Health Care/Life-Sustaining Values, Morals, and EthicsAbstract: Evidence links adequate prenatalcare to improved birth outcomes. Research,however, indicates that First Nations women donot attend regularly for prenatal care. In thecurrent study, seven informants, representingthree First Nations, were extensively interviewedto examine their beliefs about pregnancy andparticipation in prenatal care. First Nationswomen conceptualized pregnancy in a spiritualcontext and believed it to be a healthy, naturalprocess requiring no intervention. Since theybelieved they were responsible for “takingcare of themselves” during pregnancy, culturalpractices that were thought to promote ahealthy pregnancy were espoused. First Nationswomen were reportedly often dissatisfied withhealth care providers in prenatal clinics. Theirexpectations of freely offered explanationsand a friendly non-authoritarian approachwere often not realized and their beliefs aboutpregnancy were in conflict with those of healthcare providers. Barriers to prenatal care mightbe reduced by improving communication andproviding holistic culture-specific care.119. Status of Women Council of the NWT(1996). Keeping Women and CommunitiesStrong: Women, Substance Abuse and FAS/FAE,an NWT Needs Assessment. Yellowknife, NWT:Status of Women Council of the NWT.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Basic PhysicalNeeds/Family Violence/Fetal AlcoholSyndrome/Effects/Substance AddictionsAbstract: This article examines the special needsof women and teen girls who abuse alcoholAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing99

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing100or drugs and the influence of poverty, familyviolence, and sexual abuse on substanceabuse. The authors argue that in dealing withwomen’s substance abuse we can deal withFAS/FAE. They also examined the experiencesof women and girls who have abused alcoholand drugs, what happened when they triedto get help or treatment, and what they knowabout FAS/FAE. Also looks at what supports andresources there are for FAS kids, for kids whomight have FAE, and for people who take careof them. Concludes with recommendationsabout alcohol and drug abuse problems ofNWT women and recommendations aboutstopping alcohol use during pregnancy (CWHNAbstract).120. Stem, P. & Condon, R. G. (1995).Puberty, Pregnancy and Menopause: TheMedical Acculturation of the Copper InuitCommunity. Arctic Medical Research, 54.Keywords: Pregnancy/MenopauseAbstract: Unavailable121. Stern, P. R. & Condon, R. G. (1995).Puberty, Pregnancy, and Menopause: LifecycleAcculturation in a Copper Inuit Community.Arctic Medical Research, 54, 21-31.Keywords: Health/Inuit/Women/women/ WorkAbstract: In the past three decades CopperInuit women have gone from a situation offamily-centered births in tents and snow houses,to community births in government-run nursingstations to hospital births hundreds of milesfrom home. This process, which has been welldocumented by John O’Neil, Patricia Kaufertand others, is one aspect of the medicalacculturation of the Canadian Inuit. Thepresent work demonstrates how this medicalacculturation has profoundly affected boththe quality and the character of informationflow between generations regarding all lifecycle processes from birth to puberty tomenopause. This paper examines the changesin the transmission of cultural information aboutlife processes for three generations of Inuitwomen in the Central Canadian Arctic villageof Holman and will consider the historical andsocial roots of these changes. Among thefindings of the authors is that both elderly andyoung women are relatively knowledgeableregarding issues related to reproductive healthand are comfortable discussing these topics.Women in their middle years, however, appearto be less knowledgeable and often displaydiscomfort with the subject (Journal Abstract).122. Suzack, C. (2000). FAS and CulturalDiscourse: Who Speaks for Native Women? In R.Smith (Ed.), Postcolonizing the Commonwealth:Studies in Literature and Culture. Waterloo, ON:Wilfrid Laurier University Press.Keywords: Culture/Native women/women123. Tait, C. (1998). Exploring Issues ofSubstance Use during Pregnancy among UrbanAboriginal Women in Montreal.Keywords: Pregnancy/Aboriginal Women/women/Montreal124. Tait, C. & Contois, L. (1998). AboriginalWomen and Maternity: Fetal Alcohol Syndrome.Montreal, QC: Centre d’excellence pour lasanté des femmes - Consortium University deMontréal.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/Fetal Alcohol Syndrome/Effects/Health/Prevention/Strong Families and Healthy ChildDevelopment/Research/Pregnancy/ women/Quebec/Lead/GenderAbstract: The aim of this research project wasto examine issues of substance use duringpregnancy as a health concern for Aboriginalwomen in Quebec. While the project examinedsubstance use in general, the prevention ofFetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) and Fetal AlcoholEffects (FAE) was the main focus of the project.The research outlines the current debateover substance abuse and pregnancy butfocuses on the situation of Aboriginal women inQuebec. The report provides a summary of theinterviews with 50 Aboriginal women in Quebecand Saskatchewan. One finding was that thetreatment services for substance abuse addressonly the addiction and not the factors that leadthe women into addictions. Recommendationsincluded a gender-specific treatment programand easier access to these programs forpregnant Aboriginal women.125. Tait, C. (2000). A Study of the ServiceNeeds of Pregnant Addicted Women inManitoba. Winnipeg, MB: Prairie Women’sHealth Centre of Excellence.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/Gender Sensitive Treatment/Health/ Manitoba/Prevention/Strong Families and Healthy ChildDevelopment/Substance AddictionsAbstract: Describes service needs of pregnantwomen who are substance users. Suggestsa gender-sensitive model for treatment andextending treatment to women who presentwhile intoxicated. This study examines anddescribes the service needs and experiencesof pregnant women in Manitoba whohave problems with substance misuse. Theintroduction reviews background to the studyproject, the work of the project committees,and the study methodology, which includedinterviews with women receiving services andwith service providers. Part 2 reviews the rangeof programs and services available to pregnantwomen with substance misuse problems,including prevention programs, secondaryprevention and early intervention programs,

and detoxification and treatment programs.Part 3 profiles the interviewed women (includingtheir socioeconomic status and problemswith substance misuse) and their experiencesof pregnancy. It also discusses reasons whythe women enter addiction treatment, thebarriers to accessing treatment, the treatmentexperience, and reasons for leaving treatment,the challenges to maintaining recovery, andexperiences of Aboriginal women in treatment.The end of Part 3 includes participants’recommendations for improvements in thetreatment process. Part 4 summarizes overallconclusions and the appendix includes a listof recommendations for reform which are alsomade throughout the report. The appendixalso contains a copy of the service providerquestionnaire.126. Tarrant, M. & Gregory, D. (2001).Mothers’ Perceptions of ChildhoodImmunizations in First Nations Communities ofthe Sioux Lookout Zone. Canadian Journal ofPublic Health, 92, 42-45.Keywords: First Nations/Women’s Health/Childhood ImmunizationsAbstract: Unavailable127. Tarrant, M. & Gregory, D. (2003).Exploring Childhood Immunization Uptake withFirst Nations Mothers in Northwestern Ontario,Canada. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 41, 63-72.Keywords: Canada/First Nations/Health/ HealthCare/MedicineAbstract: Childhood immunization is animportant component of preventive healthcare for young children. Successful control ofvaccine-preventable diseases depends on highlevels of immunization coverage. Immunizationstatistics show that on-reserve First Nations(Native Indian) children have lower vaccinationcoverage than children in the generalCanadian population. There has been littleresearch, however, conducted with First Nationspopulations on this topic. The aim of this studywas to explore First Nations parents’ beliefsabout childhood immunizations and examinedfactors influencing immunization uptake.The authors state that analyses of the datarevealed the following six themes: (1) the fearof disease; (2) the efficacy of immunizations;(3) the immunization experience; (4) theconsequences of immunization; (5) interactionswith health professionals; and (6) barriers toimmunizations. Participants were motivatedto seek immunizations for their children by afear of vaccine-preventable diseases. A smallproportion of mothers, however, questionedthe effectiveness of vaccines in preventingdisease. Traumatic immunization experiences,vaccine side effects and sequelae, negativeinteractions with health professionals, andbarriers such as time constraints and childhoodillnesses all served as deterrents to immunization.The research outcomes highlight the variedbeliefs of First Nations parents about childhoodimmunizations and the numerous factorsthat both positively and negatively influenceimmunization uptake. Further research isneeded to explore the issue of childhoodimmunizations in First Nations communities andto determine strategies to improve uptake.128. The National Indian & Inuit CommunityHealth Representatives Organization (1999).Prenatal Care Approaches in AboriginalCommunities.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Inuit Women/Education/Health/Prenatal CareAbstract: Includes a discussion on: (1) Prenatalcare education Canada; and (2) Nativewomen health and hygiene.129. Thommasen, H. V., Klein, M. C.,Mackenzie, T., & Grzybowski, S. (2005). PerinatalOutcomes at Bella Coola General Hospital: 1940to 2001. Canadian Journal of Rural Medicine,10, 22-28.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Canada/Mortality Rates/NewbornAbstract: Objective: To describe perinataloutcomes (mortality, weight, condition atbirth) at an isolated, rural hospital. Design: Aretrospective cohort study. Study population:Neonates born to women beyond 20 weeks’gestation who delivered in the Bella CoolaGeneral Hospital (BCGH) between Mar.7, 1940, and June 9, 2001, inclusive. MainOutcome Measures: Information collectedfrom the labour and delivery case roomrecord book includes Aboriginal status, dateof delivery, birth weight, newborn mortality,and newborn condition at birth. Results: Therewere 2,373 deliveries, including 12 sets of twins.Total newborn mortality rates declined fromapproximately 4.7% in the 1940-1954 timeperiod to 0.7% in the 1970-1984 time periodand have remained near that level ever since.From 1940-1960 BCGH’s perinatal mortalityrate was higher than Canada’s; it was lowerthan Canada’s in the 1970s, higher in the1980s and about the same for the 1990s. Thecondition of the vast majority (approximately90%) of newborns was described as being“good” at birth. Approximately 5% of newbornshad birth weights < 2,500 g, and this has notchanged much over the years. In the 1951-1962time period, Aboriginal women had a higherpercentage (8%) of infants with birth weight

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing102recorded for Canada (Journal Abstract).130. Tookalak, N., Qumaluk, A., & Qinuajuak,L. (1996). Inuit Midwives: Their Stories. MidwiferyToday Childbirth Education, Winter, 54-55.Keywords: Aboriginal Midwifery/Inuit WomenAbstract: Unavailable131. Udel, L. J. (2001). Revision andResistance: The Politics of Native Women’sMotherwork. Frontiers: A Journal of Women’sStudies, 22, 43-63.Keywords: Canada/Culture/Men/Nativewomen/womenAbstract: The article highlights the differencesof perception about feminism betweenNative and non-Native activists in the U.S. andCanada. Many Native women academicsand grassroots activists alike invoke models ofpreconquest, egalitarian societies to theorizecontemporary social and political praxes,regardless of the differences in tribal affiliation,regional location, urban or reservationbackground, academic or community setting,and pro- or anti-feminist ideology. FeministClara Sue Kidwell argues, “Although feministsmight deny the equation of anatomy anddestiny, the fact is that the female reproductivefunction is a crucial factor in determining awoman’s social role in tribal societies. Womenbear children who carry on the culture of thegroup. Blue, like many Native women activists,links women’s authority as procreators with theirlarger responsibilities to a personified, feminizedEarth. Several Native women condemnWestern feminism for what they perceive asa devaluation of motherhood and refutationof women’s traditional responsibilities. Nativewomen argue that in their marital contractswith Euro-American men they lost power,autonomy, sexual freedom, and maternity andinheritance rights, which precluded their abilityto accomplish motherwork (Journal Abstract).132. Waiters, B., Godel, J. C., & Basu, T.K. (1999). Perinatal Vitamin D and CalciumStatus of Northern Canadian Mothers and theirNewborn Infants. Journal of American Collegeof Nutrition, 18, 122-126.Keywords: Newborn/PreventionAbstract: This study was undertaken to examinethe vitamin D and calcium status of mothersand their newborns.133. Watson, J., Hodson, K., Johnson, R.,Kemp, K., & May, J. (2002). Opinions of HealthCare Professionals Regarding the MaternityExperiences of Indigenous Women in an AcuteCare Setting. Australian Journal of Rural Health,10, 161.Keywords: Australia/Strong Families and HealthyChild DevelopmentAbstract: This is the report of stage 3 of a threestageproject. The aims of the overall projectwere to seek advice from expert indigenouswomen on how to gather information frombirthing indigenous women while in hospital.Information was gathered from indigenouswomen who gave birth in hospital or wereadmitted after the birth of their baby. Theopinions of health care professionals on thecare of these women were investigated. Thispaper describes the opinions and concerns ofhealth care professionals regarding identifiedcultural, social and economical issues forindigenous women at a large acute carehospital in the Northern Territory, Australia.The opinions of health care professionals arevital if the needs and concerns of indigenouswomen are to be considered within the hospitalsetting. Stages 1 and 2 of this project havebeen presented previously. Stage 3, reportedhere, describes a survey of 18 non-indigenousand one indigenous health care professionalregarding theiropinions of the maternityexperiences of indigenous women admittedto an acute care setting. The consultativeprocess for designing the questionnaire andreflections on issues raised by indigenouswomen during their interviews in the previoustwo stages is presented. The methodology ofthe survey, demographics and perceptions ofhealth care professionals who participated inthe project are examined and the similaritiesand differences between the issues raisedby the health care professionals and theindigenous women in stage 2 of the project arediscussed. Suggestions made by the health careprofessionals regarding improving quality ofcare for indigenous women when admitted toan acute health care setting are presented.134. Webber, G. & Wilson, R. (1993).Childbirth in the North: A Qualitative Study inthe Moose Factory Zone. Canadian FamilyPhysician-Médecin de famille canadien, 37,781-788.Keywords: Medicine/Childbirth/NorthernWomenAbstract: Cree women from the MooseFactory zone were asked about their viewson evacuation for childbirth. Significantconcerns cited were separation from children,loneliness, boredom, and the hospitalaccommodations. Shopping, the medicalstaff and equipment, and the opportunity tovisit relatives were considered positive factors.Suggested improvements were to bringalong family members, to provide alternativeaccommodation, and to have activities tooccupy the time (Journal Abstract).135. Weber, A. E., Tyndall, M. W., Spittal, P.M., Li, K., Coulter, S., O’Shaughnessy, M. V., et al.(2003). High Pregnancy Rates and Reproductive

Health Indicators among Female Injection-DrugUsers in Vancouver, Canada. The EuropeanJournal of Contraception and ReproductiveHealth Care, 8, 52-58.Keywords: Canada/Ethnicity/Health/HealthCare/Strong Families and Healthy ChildDevelopmentAbstract: The objective of this study was todetermine the incidence of pregnancy amongactive injection-drug users and to identifyfactors associated with becoming pregnant.The authors concluded that there were a highnumber of pregnancies among high-risk womenamong the women who participated in thisstudy. This corresponded with very low uptakeof reliable contraception. Innovative strategiesto provide reproductive health services to at-riskwomen who are injecting drugs should be apublic health priority say the authors.136. Weiler, H., Fitzpatrick-Wong, S., Veitch,R., Kovacs, H., Schellenberg, J., McCloy, U., etal. (2005). Vitamin D Deficiency and Whole-Body and Femur Bone Mass Relative to Weightin Healthy Newborns. Canadian MedicalAssociation Journal, 172.Keywords: Health/Manitoba/Newborn/Research/womenAbstract: Background: Vitamin D is requiredfor normal bone growth and mineralization.We sought to determine whether vitaminD deficiency at birth is associated withbone mineral content (BMC) of Canadianinfants. Methods: We measured plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] as an indicatorof vitamin D status in 50 healthy mothers andtheir newborn term infants. In the infants,anthropometry and lumbar, femur and wholebodyBMC were measured within 15 days ofdelivery. Mothers completed a 24-hour recalland three-day food and supplement record.We categorized the vitamin D status of mothersand infants as deficient or adequate and thencompared infant bone mass in these groupsusing non-paired t tests. Maternal and infantvariables known to be related to bone masswere tested for their relation to BMC usingbackward stepwise regression analysis. Results:Twenty-three (46%) of the mothers and 18(36%) of the infants had a plasma 25(OH)Dconcentration consistent with deficiency.Infants who were vitamin D deficient werelarger at birth and follow-up. Absolute lumbarspine, femur and whole-body BMC were notdifferent between infants with adequatevitamin D and those who were deficient,despite larger body size in the latter group.In the regression analysis, higher whole-bodyBMC was associated with greater gestationalage and weight at birth as well as higher infantplasma 25(OH)D. Conclusion: A high rate ofvitamin D deficiency was observed amongwomen and their newborn infants. Amonginfants, vitamin D deficiency was associatedwith greater weight and length but lower bonemass relative to body weight. Whether a returnto normal vitamin D status, achieved throughsupplements or fortified infant formula, can resetthe trajectory for acquisition of BMC requiresinvestigation (Journal Abstract).137. Wenman, W. M., Joffres, M. R.,Tataryn, I. V., & Edmonton Perinatal InfectionsGroup (2004). A Prospective Cohort Study ofPregnancy Risk Factors and Birth Outcomesin Aboriginal Women. Canadian MedicalAssociation Journal, 171, 585-589.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/CanadianWomen/First Nations/First Nations Women/Métis Women/Strong Families and Healthy ChildDevelopment/womenAbstract: Background: Aboriginal women havebeen identified as having poorer pregnancyoutcomes than other Canadian women, butinformation on risk factors and outcomes hasbeen acquired mostly from retrospectivedatabases. We compared prenatal risk factorsand birth outcomes of First Nations and Métiswomen with those of other participants in aprospective study. Methods: During the 12-month period from July 1994 to June 1995,we invited expectant mothers in all obstetricpractices affiliated with a single teachinghospital in Edmonton to participate. Womenwere recruited at their first prenatal visit andfollowed through delivery. Socio-demographicand clinical data were obtained by means ofa patient questionnaire, and microbiologicaldata were collected at three points duringgestation: in the first and second trimestersand during labour. Our primary outcomes ofinterest were low birth weight (birth weightless than 2,500 g), prematurity (birth at lessthan 37 weeks’ gestation) and macrosomia(birth weight greater than 4,000 g). Results:Of the 2,047 women consecutively enrolled,1,811 completed the study through delivery.Aboriginal women accounted for 70 (3.9%) ofthe subjects who completed the study (45 FirstNations women and 25 Métis women). Knownrisk factors for adverse pregnancy outcomewere more common among Aboriginal thanamong non-Aboriginal women, includingprevious premature infant (21% v. 11%), smokingduring the current pregnancy (41% v. 13%),presence of bacterial vaginosis in midgestation(33% v. 13%) and poor nutrition as measuredby meal consumption. Although Aboriginalwomen were less likely than non-Aboriginalwomen to have babies of low birth weight(odds ratio [OR] 1.46, 95% confidence interval[CI] 0.52-4.15) or who were born prematurely(OR 1.45, 95% CI 0.57-3.72) and more likely tohave babies with macrosomia (OR 2.04, 95%CI 1.03-4.03), these differences were lower andstatistically nonsignificant after adjustment forsmoking, cervicovaginal infection and income(adjusted OR for low birth weight 0.85, 95% CI0.19-3.78; for prematurity 0.90, 95% CI 0.21-3.89;and for macrosomia 2.12, 95% CI 0.84-5.36).Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing103

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing104Interpretation: After adjustment for potentialconfounding factors, we found no statisticallysignificant relation between Aboriginal statusand birth outcome (Journal Abstract).138. Williams, L. (2001). Sheway: An Oasis forWomen in Vancouver’s Downtown Eastside. InTouch, 21.Keywords: Child Welfare/Children/Health/Homelessness/Men/Poverty/Pregnancy/ SocialSupport/Welfare/women/WorkAbstract: The Sheway centre was createdthrough a partnership between fourorganizations -- Vancouver/Richmond HealthBoards, Vancouver Native Health Society, andthe Ministry of Child and Family Development.Sheway is an appropriate name for this dropincentre -- it means “growth” in Coast Salish.It started in 1993 in response to the needs ofpregnant and parental women living in orfrequenting this impoverished area -- womenentrenched in the way of life of the eastside.Walking through its streets becomes a lessonin urban poverty: it is common to see drugdealers and addicts, drunken street brawlers,beggars, people passed out on the sidewalksin broad daylight, and men and womensoliciting “customers” to support drug andalcohol addictions. With an average of 100female clients at any given time who arepregnant or have a child under the age of 18months, Sheway works to promote a healthierpregnancy and positive parenting experience.Before the program was started, most of thesewomen were not receiving prenatal careand babies were apprehended immediatelybecause of their mother’s substance abuse.Sadly, their statistics show that 75 per cent ofthese women are Native. Some of the issuesthat women faced back then and now are:homelessness, food and nutritional deficiencies,lack of social support, violence from a partner,working on the street, unplanned pregnancy,involvement with the law, mental illness, andfinally, their children being apprehended bychild welfare because of an unstable home life.139. Williamson, K. (1988). Inuit Child Rearingand Cultural Ecology Project. Department ofEducation, University of Saskatchewan.Keywords: Education/ResearchAbstract: A case study of research in the north.The role of Inuit perceptions of the land andhow that ideology relates to traditional childrearingpractices is the focus. Developingan understanding of Inuit world view andacknowledging the power and wisdom oftraditional ways of knowing are discussed.The author’s methodology and focus call intoquestion the predominant Western linear wayof knowing in favour of a holistic approach toeducation, learning and perceiving the world.140. Williamson, K. J. (1992). The CulturalEcological Perspectives of Canadian Inuit:Implications for Child-Rearing and Education.Thesis (M.Ed.) -- University of Saskatchewan,1992.Keywords: Education/Child RearingAbstract: The purpose of the study was toobtain and analyze Inuit perceptions of physicaland human environments, and the implicationsof these for child-rearing and education. Someof the major findings of this study includedthe strong feeling of the Inuit about theirrelationship to their habitat, nuna, which notonly encompass the past and the present, butstrongly suggested the future as playing a rolein Inuit relationship with the land. The notionof futurity was expressed in terms of having topreserve the habitat for future generations, andalso in the form of statements about uncertaintyas to what the future had to offer a significantproportion of young Inuit. Another significantfinding of this study was Inuit spirituality playinga definite role in linking their relationship withtheir habitat. It seemed that the original Inuitbeliefs were to some extent incorporatedby the Christian missionaries and inculcatedin present Inuit Christian belief. The findingswere followed by a set of research and policyrecommendations.141. Willows N.D., Iserhoff, R., Leclerc,L., & Verrall, T. (2005). Anxiety about foodsupply in Cree women with infants in Quebec.International Journal of Circumpolar Health, 64,55-64.Keywords: Children/Health/Montreal/Pregnancy/QuebecAbstract: Objectives: The objectives wereto document the prevalence of maternalanxiety about food supply in Cree women whohad 9-month-old infants, and to understandmaternal and infant characteristics associatedwith anxiety. Study Design: The design wasdescriptive and combined both cross-sectionaland retrospective analyses. Methods: The studytook place in nine Cree communities in northernQuebec. Data on maternal characteristicsin pregnancy (age, parity, anemia, smokingstatus) and infant characteristics (gestationalage, birth weight, weight and hemoglobinconcentration at 9 months old) were obtainedfrom medical records. At 9 months postpartum,mothers were asked about infant feedingpractices, the health of their infant, and thequestion, “Do you ever worry you don’t haveenough money to buy your children food toeat?” Affirmative responses were consideredevidence for anxiety about food supply. Pricingdata was collected for commercial baby food,formula, milk and water in the communitiesand, for comparison, in the large urban cityof Montreal. Results: 245 woman-infant pairsparticipated. One-fifth (20.8%) of mothers wereanxious about food supply. The prevalences ofanxiety in women who had anemia, or smoked,

during pregnancy, or who bottle-fed their 9-month-old infants, were 44.4%, 27.5% and 24.0%,respectively. The corresponding prevalences ofanxiety in women who did not have anemia,who did not smoke, or who breastfed withoutbottle feeding at 9 months postpartum, were19.0%, 13.6% and 6.7%. The adjusted ORs foranxiety were 3.10 (95% CI, 1.11-8.65), 2.12 (95%CI, 1.05-4.29) and 3.87 (95% CI, 1.12-13.36)for anemia, smoking and bottle feeding,respectively. Prevalences of anemia andinfection were comparable between infants ofmothers who did and did not express anxiety.However, infants whose mothers had anemiaduring pregnancy had higher prevalences ofanemia (44.0% vs. 24.6%, p = 0.04) and infection(77.8% vs. 50.2%, p = 0.03) at 9 months old.Conclusion: Women who had anxiety aboutfood supply for their children had characteristicsthat distinguished them from women who didnot have anxiety. Anxiety was associated withanemia and smoking during pregnancy, andwith bottle feeding at 9 months postpartum(Journal Abstract).142. Willows, N. D., Morel, J., & Gray-Donald,K. (2000). Prevalence of Anemia amongJames Bay Cree Infants of Northern Quebec.Canadian Medical Association Journal, 162,323-326.Keywords: Strong Families and Healthy ChildDevelopmentAbstract: Anemia is common among FirstNations infants in Canada, often as a result ofiron deficiency, which places them at risk forpsychomotor impairment. Prevalence data areunavailable, and the risk factors are unknown.This study assessed the prevalence of anemiaand associated risk factors among 9-month-oldCree infants in northern Quebec.143. Wilson, C. E. (2000). Cree Infant CarePractices and Sudden Infant Death Syndrome.Canadian Journal of Public Health, 91, 133-136.Keywords: Breastfeeding/Infant CareAbstract: Objective: To identify contemporaryCree infant care practices and any risk factorsassociated with Sudden Infant Death Syndrome.Methods: A questionnaire conducted andrecorded in the homes of 70 Cree women(83% of sample available) with infants under12 months of age, living full-time on a Creereserve. Participatory observation was alsoused with mothers who agreed to demonstratecertain features of Cree infant care. Findings:70% of mothers initiated breastfeeding and43% nursed from 6 to 15 months. Cree infantsare tightly swaddled and placed in a supineposition for sleeping. Prenatal care is seldomutilized because of cultural beliefs that planningahead constitutes bad luck during birth orresults in deformed infants. Conclusions: Existinginfant care practices include several that areconsidered protective to an infant in termsof reducing vulnerability to SIDS. Swaddlinginfants in very warm houses and smoking duringpregnancy could contribute to a higher SIDSincidence (Journal Abstract).144. Wilson, C. E. (1999). The EnvironmentalNiche of Aboriginal Infants: Possible Implicationsfor Sudden Infant Death Syndrome. Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University of Manitoba, 1999.Keywords: Canada/Infant Care/Manitoba/Pollutants/Research/womenAbstract: The recorded rates of SuddenInfant Death Syndrome (SIDS) are highestamong Aboriginal infants. In non-Aboriginalcommunities, the rate of SIDS has decreasedafter interventions into infant care practices,such as sleeping infants in the supine position.Prior to intervention, it is necessary to know theinfant care strategies utilized by a community.Based on 70 reserve interviews, this researchproject gives a detailed report of infant carepractices currently used by contemporaryAboriginal mothers. Nineteen senior womenwere also interviewed in order to facilitatea comparison between traditional andcontemporary practices. The results indicatethat traditional infant care practices used 50years ago are still prevalent in contemporaryAboriginal communities. These traditions includesupine sleeping position, co-sleeping, swaddlingand breastfeeding. The research reveals thatthe majority of contemporary Aboriginal infantssleep supine, are swaddled, are breastfedand co-sleep. The traditional swing, in whichinfants also sleep supine, continues to be used.Investigations were also carried out on thegeneral residential environment of the infant,which revealed alarmingly high levels of airpollutants, including fungi and bacteria (AuthorAbstract).Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing105

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing1064. Physical Aspects of IllnessThe literature under this headingincludes research on breast andcervical cancer among Aboriginalwomen. The search of the materialin this area yielded approximately 49articles that focus primarily on a varietyof physical and medical conditionsdocumented among Aboriginal andNative American women dealing withcancer and other physical illnesses.Unfortunately, many of the large-scaleepidemiologic studies have beenperformed in predominantly non-minoritypopulations and primarily in the UnitedStates.The majority of the articles relied upon inanalyzing the literature for this section arebased on Canadian studies (29 studies)however the search yielded many, if notmore, American studies; of which 16 gazeprimarily on breast and cervical cancerand other physical illnesses documentedin Native American women residing in theUnited States. There are no doubts manymore American studies exist which havenot been included in this review. Arguably,there are abundant opportunities toundertake research in this area in theUnited States simply because they have alarger population base and more accessto research institutions and funding sourceswilling to fund these sorts of studies.Cervical and Breast CancerThe majority of the studies (23) foundrelevant to this section zeroed in oncervical cancer among Aboriginal andNative American women and discussscreening methods for detecting cervicalcancer among this population. Another16 articles focused separately on studiesrelated to breast cancer and breastcancer screening among Aboriginaland Native American women. Only onestudy highlighting the combined issues ofcervical, breast and colorectal canceramong Aboriginal women in a First Nationscommunity in Saskatchewan was found(Alvi, 1999). One American study lookedat the combined effects of screening forbreast and cervical cancer among NativeAmerican women who also had diabetes(Giroux, et al, 2000).Cervical cancer is the most commonlyoccurring female cancer in the BaffinRegion and there are indications thatcervical cancer rates are higher in theNWT than elsewhere. During a study periodfrom 1991 to 1994, when approximately30,000 Pap tests were done in the NWT,a much higher proportion of “Abnormal”tests were found than was expected. Inparticular, the most abnormal results werefound in the Inuit and Dene. The BaffinRegional Health and Social Services Board,in collaboration with Queen’s University,is conducting a study to research thepresence of certain strains of a virus thatis thought to have some involvement withthe development of cancer of the cervixin the women in Nunavut, and whether thisvirus is present when there are abnormalPap tests results. If we find that this virusis present in most of the abnormal Paptests, then consideration could be givento include HPV screening into the CervicalCancer Screening program.Bone Fractures and OsteoporosisFewer studies exist focusing on Aboriginalwomen’s experiences with other illnessesand physical maladies. A searchfor studies focusing on other illnessesexperienced by Aboriginal women yieldedone Canadian study looking at bonefractures or the rate of osteoporosis amongwomen in the Aboriginal population (Leslie,et al., 2004). Research currently underwayin the Province of Manitoba indicatesthat that there may be a high incidenceof osteoporosis in Aboriginal women. Hipfracture statistics for Manitoba indicatethat Aboriginal females and males havemore than twice the rate of hip fracturesof other Manitobans. Osteoporosis,Metge and her colleagues (2004) state, ispotentially preventable and treatable, thusit was seen as important to conduct sucha study to develop a strategy for dealingwith osteoporosis among Manitoba FirstNations. The main purpose of Metge’sstudy is to assess bone health in ManitobaFirst Nations. The study will assess bonehealth in 500 Manitoba First Nations andCaucasian women between the ages of25 to 75 years. Bone health will be studied

using: (1) x-ray equipment to measurebone strength, (2) blood tests to measurebone metabolism, (3) genetics markers,and (4) a questionnaire to assess diet,activity, medications and other potentialcontributing factors.Cardiovascular DiseaseA search of material in this area alsoyielded three studies, one Canadian(Myers, 2002) and two American (Witmer,2004 and Struthers, 2004), centering oncardiovascular diseases among womenand Aboriginal populations. The Canadianresearch, while not entirely focused onwomen, reveals that impaired levels ofglucose tolerance, or established diabetesand/or newly diagnosed diabetes amongthe Aboriginal people from the Six NationsReserve in Ontario may actually increasethe risk of cardiovascular disease amongthis population (Myers, 2002).The more recent American researchon cardiovascular diseases amongindigenous women in North Americaconducted by Struthers and researchcolleagues (2004) denotes that whilecardiovascular disease is currently thenumber one killer among Americanwomen in the United States, little is actuallyknown about cardiovascular behaviourand/or responses to cardiovascularsymptomology among minority women,especially Native American women. Inan effort to understand cardiovasculardisease among this special group theyundertook a study to examine chest painin a group of American Indian women,aged 22 years and older, from three ruralreservations in Minnesota and Wisconsin.Their research indicates that the majority(68%) of women who participated in thisstudy (n=866) would activity seek healthcare immediately if they experiencedcrushing chest pain that lasted longer than15 minutes. However, 264 women (or 32%)would take passive action to crushingchest pain and 23% reported that theywould sit down and wait until the painpassed. Struthers et al. indicate that theiranalysis shows that among those womenwho reported passive responses, most wereyounger in age (under 45 years) and hadless education (less than a high schooleducation). Significant concern wasexpressed by Struthers and her colleaguesat the challenge in designing culturallyappropriate messages and healtheducation regarding heart attack signsand symptoms which Native Americanwomen can relate to. In particular theynote that crushing pain is not always theonly symptom of a heart attack. Youngwomen, as well as women from minoritygroups, tend to be misdiagnosed in theemergency room because of an absenceof chest pain. In fact, Struthers, et al.(2004) indicate that these women will moreoften present with shortness of breathor other chest pain equivalents, such asnausea, indigestion, excessive sweatingand/or a brief loss of consciousness;or vague symptoms including activityintolerance, fatigue, or a general senseof not feeling well (p.163). As such, itbecomes imperative that education oncardiovascular disease and symptomsmust target younger and less educatedNative American women and be based onthe reality of their world and culture.Other researchers (Witmer, Hensel, Holck,Ammerman & Will, 2004) indicate theimportance of teaching lifestyle andpsychosocial changes to Aboriginalwomen. This included education onphysical activity, nutrition, traditionalwellness and stress management as wellas the effects of tobacco and alcoholuse. Witmer, et al. focused on AlaskaNative women, whom they note typicallyexperienced relatively low incidence ofcardiovascular disease until recently. Thispattern, they note, has begun to changedramatically. Given the drastic changenoted in the health of Alaskan women,a Native- owned health corporationinitiated a heart disease interventionprogram called Traditions of the Heart,which was tailored to Alaska Nativewomen. Approximately 76 womenenrolled in the pilot study which included12 weekly sessions on lifestyle change andgoal setting. The participants’ height,weight, resting blood pressure, fastinglipid levels, and blood glucose weremeasured both at the beginning and12 weeks after the study. The majorityof the women experienced significantimprovements in walking and physicalactivity. Also observed was substantialAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing107

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing108movement from the contemplation andpreparation stages to an action stageregarding physical activity and hearthealthyeating. Participants perceived theintervention as valuable and exhibitedsignificant improvements in certain areasof diet and physical activity. After the12-week intervention, more participantsreported more physical activity and higherconfidence in their ability to achieveregular physical activity. Similarly, moreparticipants reported improvements intheir general nutrition and psychosocialstatus, by taking the time and effort to seekcommunity support and input and build onthe strengths of the Alaska Native culture.As a result, the pilot project gained greatercommunity acceptance and the resultshelped to refine essential study proceduresto increase their acceptability and suggestpromising future directions for culturallyrelevant interventions for Alaska Nativeand American Indian women respectingcardiovascular issues.TuberculosisResearch on infectious respiratory diseasessuch as tuberculosis among Aboriginalwomen yield four articles, all of which wereCanadian-based studies (FitzGerald, et al.,2000; Clark, et al., 2002; and Cook, et al.,2004). The research article published byFitzGerald, et al., is general in nature butpresents a gender-specific case scenarioof an Aboriginal woman, man and infantwho may or may not have tuberculosis.FitzGerald, et al.’s research is instrumentalin understanding the issue of tuberculosisfor the Aboriginal population. FitzGerald,et al., indicates that tuberculosis (or TB)remains a major public health problemfor Aboriginal people in Canada.Although incidence rates for this segmentof the population have declined inmany parts of the country, they remainunacceptably high. These rates tend tobe highest in more northerly and remoteareas, communities that were the last tobe exposed to TB as European settlersmoved across Canada. The prevalenceof tuberculosis infection is much higherin Aboriginal communities than amongCanadian-born non-Aboriginal people,and it is therefore likely that TB will remain amajor problem in these communities for theforeseeable future. A reduction in rates willlikely be achieved only with improvementsin socioeconomic status and communityinvolvement in disease management,combined with comprehensive medicalsurveillance and treatment programs.FitzGerald, et al., also indicate thatAboriginal people form a disproportionategroup of the poor and deprived residentsof Canada’s inner cities who maybe susceptible to increased rates oftuberculosis. For example, among injectiondrug users in Vancouver, approximately30% are thought to be Aboriginal. Amongparticipants in the Vancouver InjectionDrug Users Study, 25% had tuberculosisinfection and 23% were infected with HIV.These high rates of disease bring with themthe risk of clustering and the potential forsignificant deterioration in efforts to controlTB (Blenkush, 1994). In addition, Blenkush,et al., identified a significant increase inHIV-related TB in Vancouver, mainly amongyoung Aboriginal women who are injectiondrug users.The second Canadian study dealing withtuberculosis and Aboriginal populationswas done by Clarke, Nowgesic &Riben (2002) who focused their sightson understanding the associationbetween housing density, isolation, andthe occurrence of TB in First Nationscommunities in Canada. In the earlydecades of the 20th century, the deathrate from tuberculosis (TB) in the FirstNations population of Canada was ashigh as 700 per 100,000. A combinationof malnutrition, confinement on crowdedreservations with poor sanitation, and lackof immunity to the TB bacillus contributedsubstantially to this epidemic. In 1999, theTB notification rate among First Nationspeople living on reserves in Canada was10 times that of the overall Canadian ratein 1997. Overcrowded housing conditionscan increase exposure of susceptiblepeople to those with infectious respiratorydisease, and in doing so may increasethe probability of transmission. This wouldespecially affect Aboriginal mothers whostay at home with infants and toddlers. Theassociation between overcrowded housingand TB incidence, paediatric TB, and TBmortality has long been recognized. Majorhousing problems have been identifiedin First Nations communities in Canada,and analyses have shown TB incidence is

higher in communities isolated from healthservices. It has been widely stated thatsocial conditions drive TB rates in Aboriginalcommunities upwards, but evidencefor this relationship has been largelyanecdotal and assumed to exist. This hasled to a recommendation that this area beresearched further.The most recent research on TB by Cook,Manfreda & Hershfield, (2004) confirmsthat tuberculosis is on the rise in Canada.Cook, et al.’s study looked at tuberculouslymphadenitis (TBL) as an important formof extrapulmonary tuberculosis. Their studywas conducted with the mainstream andFirst Nations populations within the Provinceof Manitoba over a 10-year period. Onehundred and forty-seven cases of TBL wereidentified with 77% confirmed by culture.Sixty-eight per cent of the confirmed caseswere women. TBL was found in Canadianborn/non-StatusAboriginal people (12%),Status Aboriginal (29%) and foreign-born(59%) populations.TB control among Aboriginal people inCanada, both those living on reserves andthose residing in the inner city, continuesto pose a major public health problem.The potential for a significant worseningof the situation is real, especially for themarginalized inner-city population with abackground of substance abuse. Majorefforts involving targeted surveillance willbe needed to prevent such deterioration.In addition, attention must be paid tosocial issues such as housing and programsto reduce substance abuse. Surveillanceefforts will be successful only if they areundertaken in tandem with appropriatemeasures to improve housing and providebetter substance abuse programs andgreater involvement with communityagencies (FitzGerald, et al., 2000). Thesegoals must be achieved in a culturallysensitive manner with a greater degreeof community partnership than has beenseen in the past (FitzGerald, 2000; andClarke, et al., 2002).International Research onCancerThe research also retrieved one Canadianinitiated international study that lookedat comparing breast cancer survivalrates between two small Canadian andAmerican metropolitan areas (Winnipeg,Manitoba and Des Moines, Iowa), whichincluded a small cohort of Aboriginalwomen in the Canadian sample andwomen from relatively poorer areasin the United States where there arehigher residential concentrations of suchcategorical groups as the poor, the socallednear poor, including the workingpoor, as well as better off working people,even including members of the middleclass, who, for a number of social, structuraland economic reasons, are periodicallyor chronically uninsured or underinsuredin the US (Gorey, et al., 2003). CanadianAboriginal women diagnosed withcancer tended to have better survivalrates compared to women with lowersocioeconomic levels in the United States.Even though Aboriginal status was verystrongly associated with low income status,Canadian Aboriginal women were justas inadequately served as women withcancer in the lower socioeconomic sectorsin the United States.One American initiated study used ameta-analytic approach to summarizestudies of cancer incidence among Nativepopulations in both the United Statesand Canada. Their findings indicatedthat Native females were found to havesignificantly elevated incidence forcancers of the gallbladder, cervix, andkidney, while significantly decreasedincidence was found for cancers ofthe colon, breast and uterus and forlymphomas (Mahoney & Michelek, 1991).Cancer SurvivalFive articles retrieved during my searchof the literature deal with the issue ofsurvival rates from cervical and breastcancer among the indigenous femalepopulation in North America. Two of theseCanadian-based studies form the crux oftwo Master Theses by Dunnigan (1997) andChaudhry (2005) while the other two areAmerican-based studies done by the sameprincipal researcher respecting cancersurvival data for both Native Americanmen and women (Burhansstipanov, etAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing109

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing110al., 1999; and Burhansstipanov, et al.,2001). Dunnigan’s research is one of therare studies specific to Métis women. Oralhistory methods were utilized by Dunigan inexamining the survival factors associatedwith a diagnosis of cancer. Culturallyspecific healing processes grounded inAboriginal ways by the women involved inthe study are the major focus. Chaudhry’sresearch on the survival rate of status FirstNations individuals from Ontario revealedthat status Indians have poorer rates ofsurvival when compared with the generalpopulation. Both American studies byBurhansstipanov (1998 and 2001) discuss apublic health program that was designedto improve survival and the quality of lifeafter a cancer diagnosis for AmericanIndian, Alaska Native and CanadianAboriginal patients and their loved ones.Cancer survival data is presented forNative American men and women, aswell as information about cancer survivorsupport groups, survivor resources andsome examples of how Native Americanperceive cancer.Bibliography of ResourcesAn annotated list of resources organizedunder this thematic is listed below. Because ofthe medical complexity of the topic, originalabstracts have been retained.1. Alvi, R. A. (1999). Breast, Cervical andColorectal Cancer Survival Rates for NorthernSaskatchewan Residents and First Nations. Thesis(M.Sc.) -- University of Saskatchewan, 1999.Keywords: Basic Physical Needs/ CervicalCancer/First Nations/ Medicine/PreventionAbstract: This descriptive study was done1) to explore and describe the proportionaldistribution of breast, cervical and colorectalcancers by stage (a proxy measure ofavailability, access, and utilization of secondaryprevention strategies) in northern SaskatchewanFirst Nations and non-First Nations in comparisonto southern Saskatchewan First Nations andnon-First Nations; 2) to assess the impact ofstage and age on the survival patterns for thesecancers in northerners and First Nations whosesurvival patterns have been shown by previousresearch to be equal or poorer in comparisonto southerners. Univariate and multivariatesurvival analyses were carried out to ascertainthe impact of the different proportions ofstage for each study group on survival. Stageat time of diagnosis is a proxy assessment ofsecondary prevention services, which includeformal screening programs. Data for this studywas obtained from the Saskatchewan CancerRegistry, which has been maintaining cancerdata since 1932. Cancer stage at time ofdiagnosis information is complete in the registryfor different years for each cancer site. Hencedata for breast cancer was for the years 1970to 1995; cervical cancer data for the years1980 to 1995; colorectal cancer data for theyears 1990 to 1995. The proportion of cancercases for each site by TNM stage and age werecompared among the four study groups. FirstNations and northern populations were found tohave a larger proportion of diagnoses at a laterstage in comparison to the southern non-FirstNations group. Using Cox’s proportional hazardsmodel, both stage and age at time of diagnosiswere found to be significant predictors ofsurvival for all study groups. Age and stageadjusted relative risks were calculated andfound to be significant in comparison to thesouthern non-First Nations group for cancer ofthe breast (RR = 1.81 p = 0.013). For cervicalcancer the relative risk of dying of cervicalcancer for southern First Nations in comparisonto southern non-First Nations was found to be1.38 but this was not statistically significant (p =0.097). For colorectal cancer, the relative riskof dying of colorectal cancer was found to bebetter for northern First Nations in comparison tosouthern non-First Nations (RR = 0.59), howeverthis was not statistically significant (p = 0.45). Thisstudy showed that despite adjusting for stageand age at time of diagnosis, there were stillsome unexplained differences in the survivalpattern of northern First Nations, northernnon-First Nations and southern First Nationsin comparison to southern non-First Nations.Hypotheses as to what these unexplaineddifferences are have been offered. Theseinclude differences in socioeconomic statusas well as availability, accessibility, attitudestowards and knowledge of secondaryprevention strategies. Further study into theseunexplained differences should be carried out.2. Arambula Solomon, T. G. & Gottlieb,N. G. (1999). Measures of American IndianTraditionality and its Relationship to CervicalCancer Screening. Health Care for WomenInternational 20[5], 493-504.Keywords: Cancer Screening/Cervical Cancer/Culture/womenAbstract: The goal of this study was to evaluatethe relationship between culture and attitudesabout cervical cancer screening amongyoung American Indian women living andworking in northeast Oklahoma. A cohort of199 American Indian women, ages 18-40, weresurveyed to determine their blood quantum,self-identification, and beliefs and practicesregarding traditional behavior in order todevelop a traditional behavior scale (thedegree to which an individual maintainedtraditional tribal ways or behaviors). Theuse of this scale indicated that the degreeof American Indian blood quantum, blood

quantum for primary tribe, and self-identificationare correlated to the traditional behavior scale.The scale, however, was unable to predictintention to get a Pap test. Results indicatethat it is useful to understand the variationof traditional behavior within the specificpopulation group to be served when planningand implementing culturally appropriateinterventions for American Indian women. Itis also useful to evaluate which segments ofthe population current programs are reaching(Journal Abstract).3. Atkinson, J. & Ober, C. (1995). WeAl-Li ‘Fire and Water’: A Process of Healing.Hazlehurst, Kayleen. Popular Justice andCommunity Regeneration: Pathways ofIndigenous Reform. [11]. Westport, Conn.,Praeger. 1-26-2005.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/ AdequatePower/Canada/Culture/ Healing/Justice/NativeWomen/ Offenders/ Prevention/women/YouthAbstract: Unavailable4. Bottorff, J. L., Balneaves, L. G., Sent,L., Grewal, S., & Browne, A. J. (2005). CervicalCancer Screening in Ethnocultural Groups: CaseStudies in Women-Centered Care. WomenHealth 33[3-4], 29-46.Keywords: British Columbia/Canada/ CancerScreening/Cervical Cancer/ First Nations/Health/Health CareAbstract: The purpose of this study was toidentify and describe critical elements ofwomen-centered care within the context ofproviding cervical screening to three ethnoculturalgroups in Canada: Asian, SouthAsian and First Nations women. While theestablishment of Pap test clinics for ethnoculturalgroups has the potential to enhanceparticipation in cervical screening, changesin health policy and the structure of healthservices are required for existing programsto fully implement the elements of womencenteredhealth care identified in this study.Other models of providing health care towomen in ethno-cultural groups, including theuse of clinics staffed by nurse practitioners,should be evaluated.5. Browne, A. J. & Smye, V. (2002).A Post-Colonial Analysis of Health CareDiscourses Addressing Aboriginal Women. Nurseresearcher, 9[3], 28. 2005.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ AdequateIncome and Sustainable Economies/BasicPhysical Needs/ Cervical Cancer/Health/HealthRisks/Women’s HealthAbstract: Annette Browne and Vicki Smye usepostcolonial theoretical perspectives to informa critical analysis of health care discoursesrelated to cervical cancer among CanadianAboriginal women. They also examine howdecontextualized discourses addressingAboriginal women’s risks for cervical cancercan perpetuate negative stereotypical imagesof Aboriginal women while downplaying orignoring the historical, social and economiccontext of women’s health risks.6. Burhansstipanov, L., Gilbert, A.,LaMarca, K., & Krebs, U. (2001). An InnovativePath to Improving Cancer Care in IndianCountry. Public Health Reports 116[5], 424-433.Keywords: HealthAbstract: The Native American CancerSurvivors’ Support Network is an innovativepublic health program designed to improvesurvival from cancer and the quality of life aftera cancer diagnosis for American Indians, AlaskaNatives, and Canadian Aboriginal patientsand their loved ones. The Network, initiated in1999, now has more than 300 survivors enrolledas members. This article briefly describes theprocess that led to its formation and preliminaryfindings, primarily for breast cancer survivors, ofongoing qualitative and quantitative research.Network data show patterns of cancercare that are partially responsible for poorsurvivorship outcomes (Journal Abstract).7. Burhansstipanov, L., Lovato, M. P., &Krebs, L. V. (1999). Native American CancerSurvivors. Health Care for Women International20[5], 505-515.Keywords: Native American Women/ CancerSurvivalAbstract: This paper provides a brief review ofcancer survival data for Native American menand women, information about cancer survivorsupport groups, survivor resources, and someexamples of how cancer is perceived by someNative Americans.8. Chaudhry, M. R. (1998). CancerIncidence, Mortality and Survival among StatusIndians in Ontario, 1968-1991. Thesis (M.Sc.) --University of Toronto, 1998.Available Online: http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk1/tape11/PQDD_0001/MQ40708.pdfKeywords: Canada/Manitoba/ Mortality Rates/Research/Risk FactorsAbstract: The author discusses the cancerincidence, mortality and survival amongStatus Indians in Ontario and compared theirexperience with that of the general populationof Ontario. The author concluded thatadditional information on risk factors for canceramong Status Indians is needed. Additionalresearch is also required to understand whyStatus Indians have poorer survival comparedwith the general population.Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing111

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing1129. Clark, M., Nowgesic, E., & Riben, P.(2002). The Association of Housing Density,Isolation and Tuberculosis in Canadian FirstNations Communities. International journal ofepidemiology 31[5], 940-945.Available Online: http://ije.oupjournals.org/cgi/reprint/31/5/940.pdfKeywords: Canada/First Nations/ Housing/TuberculosisAbstract: This article discusses a study that wasdone to assess the association between housingdensity, isolation, and the occurrence of TB inFirst Nations communities in Canada.10. Clarke, F., Joseph, R., Deschamps,M., Hislop, T. G., Band, P. R., & Atleo, R. (1998).Reducing Cervical Cancer among First NationsWomen. The Canadian Nurse 94[3], 36-41. 1-17-2005.Keywords: Adequate Human Services andSocial Safety Net/Basic Physical Needs/BritishColumbia/Cervical Cancer/Cultural Integrityand Identity/First Nations/First Nations Women/Health/Health CareAbstract: First Nations women in British Columbiahave a four to six times higher mortality ratefrom cancer of the cervix than do women inthe general population. Their participation inthe provincial Cervical Cytology ScreeningProgram (CCSP) is less regular and less frequentthan other women in B.C. Likewise, they havemore difficulty in obtaining culturally suitablehealth care services from respectful andconsistent professionals. These issues should beof critical concern to nurses, as nurses providethe majority of health services to First Nationspeople.11. Cook V.J., Manfreda, J., & Hershfield,E. S. (2004). Tuberculous Lymphadenitis inManitoba: Incidence, Clinical Characteristicsand Treatment. Canadian Respiratory Journal11[4], 279-286.Keywords: Canada/Culture/First Nations/Health/ManitobaAbstract: Background: Tuberculosislymphadenitis (TBL) is an important form ofextrapulmonary tuberculosis (TB). Recent studieshave shown an increase in TBL in Canada.Objectives: To determine the incidence of TBLin Manitoba and to identify the characteristicsassociated with its presentation, diagnosis andtreatment. Methods: Population data fromthe Manitoba Health Population Registry, theFirst Nations and Inuit Health Branch of HealthCanada, and Statistics Canada were used tocalculate incidence. Case characteristics andoutcomes were determined by a systematic,retrospective review of all cases betweenJanuary 1, 1990 and December 31, 2000.Results: One-hundred forty-seven cases of TBLwere identified during the study period; 77%confirmed by culture; 68% women. TBL wasfound in Canadian-born/non-status Aboriginal(12%), status Aboriginal (29%) and foreign-born(59%) populations. Incidence of TBL was 1.17per 100,000 person-years (95% CI 0.98 to 1.36).The highest incidence was in status Aboriginalsover 65 years (16.85 per 100,000 person-years;95% CI 3.37 to 30.33). TBL is seen most often inWestern Pacific women. The most commonpresentation was a single, enlarged cervicalnode (80%). No atypical mycobacterium wasfound. Drug resistance occurred in 13% of casesand only in the foreign-born. Cure rates (81%)were influenced by co-morbidity and burdenof TB disease. Relapse occurred in 8.1 per1,000 person-years of follow-up (95% CI 1.7 to23.7). Conclusions: Respiratory physicians, whomanage the majority of TB disease in Canada,need to remain aware that TB is an importantand treatable cause of enlarged lymph nodes(Journal Abstract).12. Coughlin, S. S., Uhler, R. J., & Blackman,D. K. (1999). Breast and Cervical CancerScreening Practices among American Indianand Alaska Native Women in the United States,1992-1997. Preventive Medicine 29[4], 287-295.Keywords: Cancer Screening/Cervical Cancer/Education/Health/Older Women/PreventionAbstract: Background: Recent studies suggestthat American Indian and Alaska Native womenhave important barriers to cancer screeningand underuse cancer screening tests. Methods:We examined the breast and cervical cancerscreening practices of 4,961 American Indianand Alaska Native women in 47 states from 1992through 1997 by using data from the BehavioralRisk Factor Surveillance System. Results: About65.1% [95% confidence interval (CI) 60.2 to69.9%] of women in this sample aged 50 years orolder had received a mammogram in the pasttwo years. About 82.6% (95% CI 80.1 to 85.2%)of women aged 18 years or older who had notundergone a hysterectomy had received aPapanicolaou test in the past three years. Olderwomen and those with less education were lesslikely to be screened. Women who had seena physician in the past year were much morelikely to have been screened. Conclusions:These results underscore the need for continuedefforts to ensure that American Indian andAlaska Native women who are elderly ormedically underserved have access to cancerscreening services (Journal Abstract).13. Dunnigan, C. M. (2007). Life Histories:A Métis Woman and Breast Cancer Survivor.Thesis (M.A.) -- University of Alberta 1997.Keywords: Healing/Health/History/ MétisWomen/womenAbstract: Life histories of two women arepresented in this thesis. One of the participantsin this study is a breast cancer survivor, who

used quilting as a means of healing andexpression following her diagnosis of breastcancer. Most of the information collectedfrom this woman was about her experienceswith breast cancer and her healing process.In addition to collecting two life histories theauthor conducted two focus groups with fourother women who also used quilting as a wayto heal themselves and express their feelingsabout breast cancer. All the stories presentedin this thesis are tied together by the fact thatthe women who were interviewed all had theexperience of being marginalized by a westerninstitution.14. FitzGerald, M. J., Wang, L., & Elwood,R. K. (2000). Tuberculosis: 13. Control of theDisease among Aboriginal People in Canada.Canadian Medical Association Journal 162[3],351-355. 2005.Available Online: http://tinyurl.com/72btkKeywords: Basic Physical Needs/ Canada/HealthAbstract: Tuberculosis (TB) remains a majorpublic health problem for Aboriginal peoplein Canada. Even though the incidence ratesof TB for this population have declined, therates still remain unacceptably high. Theserates tend to be highest in more northerly andremote areas, communities that were the last tobe exposed to TB as European settlers movedacross Canada. But rates also tend to be highalso among Aboriginal people residing in theinner city and the potential of the TB worseningamong this population is real, especially forthe marginalized inner-city population with abackground in substance abuse. The articleprovides three case scenarios and discusses themanagement of TB among Aboriginal people,vaccination against TB, surveillance of thedisease and control of TB and substance abusein the inner city. A resolution of the three caseshighlighted earlier in the text is also provided.15. Giroux, J., Welty, T. K., Oliver, F. K., Kaur,J. S., Leonardson, G., & Cobb, N. (2000). LowNational Breast and Cervical Cancer ScreeningRates in American Indian and Alaska NativeWomen with Diabetes. The Journal of theAmerican Board of Family Practice 13[4], 239-245.Keywords: Cancer Screening/Cervical Cancer/Diabetes/HealthAbstract: BACKGROUND: The cervical cancermortality rate for American Indian and AlaskaNative women is twice that of all races inthe United States. To date the only publishednational breast and cervical cancer screeningrates for American Indian and Alaska Nativewomen are based on self-reported data.When the Indian Health Service (IHS) conductsan annual audit on patients with diabetes, itincludes cancer screening. This observationalstudy presents national breast and cervicalcancer screening rates for American Indian andAlaska Native women with diabetes. METHODS:Cancer screening rates were extracted fromthe 1995 diabetic audit for the 12 IHS areas.These rates were compared with rates forwomen without diabetes of the same age, 50to 69 years, by chart review, at four IHS hospitalsin the Aberdeen IHS area. RESULTS: Screeningrates for women with diabetes in the 12 areasvaried: mammogram (ever) 35% to 78%; clinicalbreast examination (last year) 28% to 70%, andPapanicolaou smear (last year) 26% to 69%.The Aberdeen IHS area women with diabeteshad 51% more clinic visits per year thanwomen without diabetes, but the groups hadsimilar screening rates. CONCLUSION: Cancerscreening rates for American Indian and AlaskaNative women vary by region. In the AberdeenIHS area, women with diabetes had more visits(missed opportunities) but similar screening ratesas women without diabetes. The diabetic auditcould be used to monitor national IHS cancerscreening trends for women with diabetes andin the Aberdeen IHS area for all women aged50 to 69 years (Journal Abstract).16. Gorey, K. M., Kliewer, E., Holowaty,E. J., Laukkanen, E., & Ng, E. Y. (2003). AnInternational Comparison of Breast CancerSurvival: Winnipeg, Manitoba and DesMoines, Iowa, Metropolitan Areas. Annals ofEpidemiology 13[1], 32-41.Keywords: Canada/Health/Health Care/ManitobaAbstract: Purpose: Extending previousCanadian-United States cancer survivalcomparisons in large metropolitan areas,this study compares breast cancer survival insmaller metropolitan areas: Winnipeg, Manitobaand Des Moines, Iowa. Methods: Manitobaand Iowa cancer registries, respectively,provided a total of 2,383 and 1,545 womenwith breast cancer (1984 to 1992, followed untilDecember 31, 1997). Socioeconomic datafor each person’s residence at the time ofdiagnosis was taken from population censuses.Results: Socioeconomic status and breastcancer survival were directly associated in theUS cohort, but not in the Canadian cohort.Compared with similar patients in Des Moines,residents of the lowest fifth of income areasin Winnipeg experienced a significant fiveyearsurvival advantage (survival rate ratio[SRR] = 1.14). In these lowest income areas,the Canadian survival advantage was largeramong women aged 25 to 64 years (SRR =1.23), and this was observed in the middlefifth of income areas among this youngercohort (SRR = 1.11). The Canadian survivaladvantage even seemed apparent in thepoorest neighborhoods with relatively highrepresentations of Aboriginal people (SRR =1.16). Conclusion: This study replicated thefinding of advantaged Canadian cancersurvival in smaller metropolitan areas thatAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing113

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing114had been consistently observed in largermetropolitan areas. Canada’s single payerhealth care system seems to offer similaradvantages across a number of diverse urbancontexts (Journal Abstract).17. Grunfeld, E. (1997). Cervical Cancer:Screening Hard-to-Reach Groups. CanadianMedical Association Journal 157[5], 543-545.Ottawa, ON: Canadian Medical AssociationJournal. 1-16-2005.Available Online: http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/reprint/157/5/543.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Women/ AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/CancerScreening/Cervical Cancer/ImmigrantWomenAbstract: Suggests recruitmentstrategies for reaching under-screened groupssuch as elderly, Aboriginal, poor, and immigrantwomen. The article provides a summation onthe role of primary care providers in promotingregular screening for hard-to-reach women intheir practices.18. Healey, S. M., Aronson, K. J., Mao,Y., Schlecht, N. F., Mery, L. S., Ferenczy, A., etal. (2001). Oncogenic Human PapillomavirusInfection and Cervical Lesions in AboriginalWomen of Nunavut, Canada. SexuallyTransmitted Diseases 28[12], 694-700.Available Online: https://upload.mcgill.ca/cancerepi/STD-28-694.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Women/ AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/Canada/Cervical Cancer/ PreventionAbstract: Explores the prevalence of oncogenichuman papillomavirus (HPV) in Nunavut,Northwest Territories, and the associationbetween HPV and squamous intraepitheliallesions (SIL). Prevalence rate for oncogenicHPV and for SIL; Role of liquid-based cytologyand HPV testing in cervical cancer prevention;Cost benefit of using HPV testing in a primaryscreening capacity. Background: The highrate of cervical cancer among Aboriginalwomen of northern Canada has promptedthe search for more aggressive methods toaugment Papanicolaou (Pap) screening inthis population. Nearly all cervical cancersresult from oncogenic human papillomavirus(HPV) infections. This has generated interestfor incorporating HPV testing into the currentscreening program. Goals: To determine theprevalence of oncogenic HPVs in Nunavut,and to assess the association between HPVand squamous intraepithelial lesions (SIL).Study Design: A cross-sectional study wasconducted on the Pap-screened populationsin 19 communities of Nunavut, Canada. Liquidbasedcytology was used to screen for SIL. HPVtesting was performed using the Hybrid CaptureII assay. Correlates of HPV infection and SIL wereassessed by logistic regression with control forpotential confounders. Results: In 1,290 womenages 13 to 79 years, the prevalence rate was26% for oncogenic HPV and 6.9% for SIL. Theodds ratio for the association between HPV andSIL was 37.9 (95% CI, 17.7-80.8) after multivariateadjustment. This association increased markedlywith increasing viral load. More than 90% of thewomen with squamous intraepithelial lesionshad positive test results for HPV. More than 75%of the women who had positive test resultsfor HPV but negative test results for SIL wereyounger than 30 years. Conclusion: The resultsof this study form the basis for further evaluationof the role that liquid-based cytology and HPVtesting plays and will contribute to the strategyfor cervical cancer prevention in Nunavut.19. Healey, S. M. (2000). HumanPapillomavirus Infection and Cervical Dysplasiain Nunavut. Kingston, ON, Queen’s University.Keywords: Cervical Cancer/Health/ PreventionAbstract: This study’s objective was todetermine the prevalence of high-risk HumanPapillomavirus (HPV) types in Nunavut and toexplore the association between high-risk HPVand cervical dysplasia. With the realization thatthe Pap test is less than ideal for screening forcancer of the cervix, this study looks at howincorporating HPV testing into the screeningprocess might improve cervical cancerprevention. A cross-sectional study of womenfrom 19 communities in Nunavut revealed astrong association between HPV and cervicaldysplasia, and points out the need for a newscreening process.136. Johnston, G. M., Boyd, C. J., &MacIsaac, M. A. (2005). Community-BasedCultural Predictors of Pap Smear Screening inNova Scotia. Canadian Journal of Public Health95[2], 95-98.Keywords: Canada/Cervical Cancer/ Ethnicity/Health/Status of Women/ Well-beingAbstract: Background: Pap smear screening iseffective in reducing the incidence of cervicalcancer. However, some subgroups of womenare less likely to be screened than others. SinceCanadian provincial health databases donot contain data fields identifying ethnicityor language, analyses employing thesevariables are typically not available. This paperovercomes this problem by using communityratherthan person-based measures.Associations with having had a recent Papsmear are reported by community income,language, ethnic group, and urban/rural status,as well as the woman’s age. Methods: Theprovincial Health Card Number and CytologyRegistries were linked to ascertain the screeningstatus of women in mainland Nova Scotiaand Cape Breton. Postal codes were linked tocensus enumeration areas and then to StatisticsCanada census data to create communitybasedcultural measures for each woman.

Results: Women in mainland Nova Scotia weremore likely to have had a recent Pap smear(Odds Ratio (OR)=1.36; 95% Confidence Interval(CI):1.33-1.39). Women living in low income(OR=1.19; CI:1.15-1.22), Aboriginal (OR=1.60;CI:1.46-1.76), mixed Black (OR=1.25; CI:1.19-1.30)and rural (OR=1.09; CI:1.07-1.11) communitiesand who were older were less likely to have hada recent Pap smear. DISCUSSION: These findingswere not unexpected. In the United States andelsewhere, associations between Pap screeningstatus and women with low income, ruralresidence, Aboriginal and Black heritage havebeen reported using person-based methods.Our findings demonstrate a method of providingmeasures of ethnicity and language that shouldbe considered for use in Canadian studies ofservice utilization, disease status, and well-being(Journal Abstract).20. Kiser-Larson, N. (2002). Life Pattern ofNative Women Experiencing Breast Cancer.International Journal for Human Caring 6[2], 61-68.Keywords: Native women/Breast Cancer21. Kjaer, S. K. & Nielsen, N. H. (1996).Cancer of the Female Genital Tract inCircumpolar Inuit. Acta Oncol 35[5], 581-587.Keywords: Canada/Cervical Cancer/ InuitWomenAbstract: Cervical cancer incidence amongInuit is high. Especially women from Greenlandexhibit rates which are among the highest inthe world. Compared with women in Denmark,USA and Canada, Inuit women have a 3-4time higher cervical cancer risk. By contrast,the incidence of uterine corpus cancer is lowin the circumpolar area. Both in Greenlandicand Canadian Inuit women, ovarian cancerrates are similar to those in Danish women andnon-Inuit women from Canada respectively.Only nine cases of placental cancer wererecorded in the circumpolar area during the 20years of observation. Compared with availableincidence rates for Denmark the incidencein Greenland was significantly higher (JournalAbstract).22. Lambert Colomeda, L. A. (1996).Through the Northern Looking Glass: BreastCancer Stories Told by Northern Native Women.New York, National League for Nursing Press.2005.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/ AboriginalWomen/Adequate Human Services and SocialSafety Net/ Cultural Integrity and Identity/HealingAbstract: Among Aboriginal peoples, oralhistories and traditional storytelling are essentialto cultural survival. In this book, thirteen NorthernAboriginal women relate their experiences assurvivors of breast cancer. They speak abouthow they adapted to the disease, and look inparticular at the ties that they have built withfamily, friends, and their environment. The bookalso examines the clashing and blending ofmedical technology with traditional healingmethods.23. Lanier, A. P., Kelly, J. J., & Holck, P.(1999). Pap Prevalence and Cervical CancerPrevention among Alaska Native Women.Health Care for Women International 20[5], 471-486.Keywords: Cancer Screening/Cervical Cancer/Health/Health Care/ Prevention/Women’sHealthAbstract: The goals of the Alaska NativeWomen’s Health Project (WHP) were todetermine the following: (1) Pap prevalencebased on chart review before and duringan intervention period; (2) the level ofunderstanding of cancer and cancer screeningservices with emphasis on cervical cancer;(3) use and satisfaction with current healthmaintenance services; and (4) improvementin knowledge and cancer screening ratesfollowing intervention. A random sample of 481Alaska Native (Eskimo, Aleut, Indian) womenliving in Anchorage were interviewed faceto face about their understanding of cancerrisk factors (tobacco use, sexually transmitteddiseases (STDs), reproductive issues), cancerscreening examinations (Pap test, breastself-examination (BSE), breast exam by aprovider, mammography), and their attitudesabout health care and health care services.Sixty-two per cent of control women weredocumented to have had at least one Paptest within the three-year period prior to thebeginning of the study; however, only 9%were documented to have had annual Papscreening. The intervention included distributionof educational materials, counseling on anywoman’s health issue, special evening clinics,and reminders (mail/phone call) of scheduledPap appointments (Journal Abstract).24. Lanier, A. P. & Kelly, J. J. (1999).Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behavior of AlaskaNative Women Regarding Cervical andBreast Cancer. Weiner, Diane. Preventing andControlling Cancer in North America: A Cross-Cultural Perspective. Westport, Praeger.Keywords: Native women/Cervical Cancer/Breast Cancer25. Lanier, A. P., Kelly, J. J., & Holck, P.(1999). Pap Prevalence and Cervical CancerPrevention among Alaska Native Women.Health Care for Women International 20[5], 471-486.Keywords: Cancer Screening/Cervical Cancer/Health/Health Care/Native women/Prevention/women/Women’s HealthAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing115

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing116Abstract: The goals of the Alaska NativeWomen’s Health Project (WHP) were todetermine the following: (1) Pap prevalencebased on chart review before and duringan intervention period; (2) the level ofunderstanding of cancer and cancer screeningservices with emphasis on cervical cancer;(3) use and satisfaction with current healthmaintenance services; and (4) improvementin knowledge and cancer screening ratesfollowing intervention. A random sample of 481Alaska Native (Eskimo, Aleut, Indian) womenliving in Anchorage were interviewed faceto face about their understanding of cancerrisk factors (tobacco use, sexually transmitteddiseases (STDs), reproductive issues), cancerscreening examinations (Pap test, breastself-examination (BSE), breast exam by aprovider, mammography), and their attitudesabout health care and health care services.Sixty-two per cent of control women weredocumented to have had at least one Paptest within the three-year period prior to thebeginning of the study; however, only 9%were documented to have had annual Papscreening. The intervention included distributionof educational materials, counseling on anywoman’s health issue, special evening clinics,and reminders (mail/phone call) of scheduledPap appointments. A second interview wasconducted after the intervention periodamong 200 women randomly selected from theoriginal 481 participants. Chart reviews werealso completed for the 481 participants, 130nonparticipants, and 250 randomly selectedcontrols. Improvement in Pap screening rates,knowledge of cervical cancer, and a high levelof satisfaction with the project intervention wasdocumented.26. Leslie, W. D., Derksen, S., Metge, C., Lix,L. M., Salamon, E. A., Wood Steiman, P., et al.(10-12-2004). Fracture Risk among First NationsPeople: A Retrospective Matched Cohort Study.Canadian Medical Association Journal 171[8],869-873.Available Online: http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/abstract/171/8/869Keywords: Basic Physical Needs/First Nations/HealthAbstract: Background: Canadian First Nationspeople have unique cultural, socioeconomicand health-related factors that may affectfracture rates. We sought to determine theoverall and site-specific fracture rates of FirstNations people compared with non-First Nationspeople. Methods: We studied fracture ratesamong First Nations people aged 20 yearsand older (n = 32 692) using the Manitobaadministrative health database (1987-1999).We used federal and provincial sources toidentify ethnicity, and we randomly matchedeach First Nations person with three peopleof the same sex and year of birth who did notmeet this definition of First Nations ethnicity (n= 98 076). We used a provincial database ofhospital separations and physician billing claimsto calculate standardized incidence ratios (SIRs)and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for eachfracture type based on a five-year age strata.Results: First Nations people had significantlyhigher rates of any fracture (age- and sexadjustedSIR 2.23, 95% CI 2.18-2.29). Hip fractures(SIR 1.88, 95% CI 1.61-2.14), wrist fractures (SIR3.01, 95% CI 2.63-3.42) and spine fractures (SIR1.93, 95% CI 1.79-2.20) occurred predominantlyin older people and women. In contrast,craniofacial fractures (SIR 5.07, 95% CI 4.74-5.42) were predominant in men and youngeradults. Interpretation: First Nations people area previously unidentified group at high risk forfracture.27. Liede, A., Jack, E., Hegele, R. A., &Narod, S. A. (2002). A BRCA1 Mutation in NativeNorth American Families. Human Mutation 19[4],460.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/ Canada/HealthAbstract: Germline mutations in the BRCA1(MIM 113705) and BRCA2 (MIM 600185) geneshave been identified for breast and ovariancancer families of diverse ethnic backgrounds.To date, there have been no reports of NativeNorth American families with mutations inBRCA1 or BRCA2. Here we report two families ofAboriginal descent both with the same BRCA1alterations (1510insG, 1506A>G). The familiesrepresent two Aboriginal Canadian tribes (Creeand Ojibwe), although a common ancestralorigin is likely. This is the first evidence of aBRCA1 mutation specific to Aboriginal peoplesof North America (Journal Abstract).28. Martin, B., Smith, W., Orr, P., & Guijon,F. (1995). Investigation and Management ofCervical Intraepithelial Neoplasia in CanadianInuit: Enhancing Access to Care. Arctic MedicalResearch 54[Suppl 1], 117-121.Keywords: Access to Care/Cervical Cancer/Inuit Women/womenAbstract: Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia(CIN) is a major cause of morbidity amongcircumpolar women. Cervical cancercomprised 15% of all cancers in CanadianInuit women from 1969-1988. The agestandardized incidence for invasive cervicalcancer in Canadian Inuit women is 3.1 timesthe rate in the general Canadian population.Management of CIN in women of remote Arcticregions has traditionally required multiple visitsto specialized medical centres for diagnosis,therapy and follow-up. Such centralizedcare requires separation of women fromtheir families, resulting in significant medical,emotional and economic costs for the patient,her family and community. In the Canadiancentral Arctic, a program for the diagnosisand therapy of CIN has been established usingcolposcopy with loop electrosurgery, performed

y a trained local family practitioner and visitinggynecologist. Early program evaluation hasindicated reduction in medical expendituresdue to travel costs, minimal procedure-relatedmorbidity and discomfort, and improved patientsatisfaction associated with reduced separationfrom family and community. It is hoped that theprogram design, which harnesses technology inorder to provide improved care closer to home,will be applicable to other circumpolar regions(Journal Abstract).29. Miller, A. B. & Gaudette, L. A. (1996).Breast Cancer in Circumpolar Inuit 1969-1988.Acta Oncol 35[5], 577-580.Keywords: Canada/DietAbstract: Breast cancer was studied overa 20-year period in Inuit populations in thecircumpolar region. A total of 193 breastcancers were observed in women. Theincidence increased from 28.2 per 100,000in 1969-1973 to 34.3 per 100,000 in 1984-1988.However, the incidence is low, about halfwhat could be expected based on the rates inDenmark, Canada and Connecticut (USA). Thelow incidence could be explained by the Inuitdiet and other lifestyle factors. These benefitsshould be preserved, in particular in the young,to maintain a low breast cancer incidence(Journal Abstract).30. Moses, S., Mestery, K., Kaita, K. D., &Minuk, G. Y. (2002). Viral Hepatitis in a CanadianStreet-Involved Population. Canadian Journal ofPublic Health 93[2], 123-138.Keywords: Ethnicity/Health/Manitoba/Medicine/WorkAbstract: Background: Data on the prevalenceand compliance with management of viralhepatitis in the street-involved population arelimited. Method: Hepatitis A (HAV), B (HBV) andC (HCV) serology and compliance with HBVvaccination were documented in 533 streetinvolvedindividuals. Results: The mean age ofthe study population was 25.7 years (range: 11-65) and 53% were female. Serologic evidenceof HAV infection was present in 53%; HBV, 12%(3% ongoing infection); and HCV, 17%. HAVinfections were associated with Aboriginal/Métis ethnicity and age over 25 years; HBV withinjection drug use (IDU); and HCV with IDU, sextrade work and age over 25 years. Compliancewith three-step HBV vaccination was 98%, 77%and 63%. Conclusions: HAV, HBV and HCV arecommon infections in urban street-involvedpersons. Successful HBV (and presumably HAV)vaccination can be achieved in the majorityof this population, but concerns exist regardingcompliance with more long-term, parenterallybased antiviral therapies (Journal Abstract).31. Myers, K. A. (2-5-2002). CardiovascularDisease and Risk in the Aboriginal Population.Canadian Medical Association Journal 166[3],355. 2005.Available Online: http://www.cmaj.caKeywords: Adequate Human Services andSocial Safety Net/Basic Physical Needs/DiabetesAbstract: This short article is an overview of jointresearch carried out by Anand, Yusuf, Jacobs,Davis, Yi, Gerstein, et al. (2001) on the incidenceof cardiovascular disease (CVD) amongAboriginal people. The main research questioncentered on “what is the prevalence of CVDand CVD risk factors in the Canadian Aboriginalpopulation compared with the prevalence in aCanadian population of European ancestry?”The research was carried out with members ofthe Six Nations Reserve in Ontario and McMasterUniversity. Potential Aboriginal participants wererandomly selected from a comprehensive listof band members and those with Europeanancestry were selected from Hamilton, Torontoor Edmonton. The Aboriginal samples were olderand had lower incomes than those of Europeanancestry. The Aboriginal sample also hadsignificant histories of diabetes, hyperlipidemia,hypertension and family history of myocardialinfaction. Almost half of the Aboriginalparticipants had either impaired glucosetolerance, established diabetes or newlydiagnosed diabetes, which alone increases therisk of CVD two- to threefold.32. NWT Breast Cancer Working Group.(1997). Breast Cancer in the NWT: The Voiceof Survivors: Summary Report. Yellowknife, NT,Status of Women Council of the NWT.Keywords: Canada/Health/Status of WomenAbstract: Sixteen breast cancer survivors fromthe Western Arctic and the Kitikmeot Regionwere interviewed. Participants represented thecultural diversity of the NWT: two Inuit, two Métis,two Dene, eight Euro-Caucasian, and two newCanadian.33. Ponchillia, S. (1993). The Effect ofCultural Beliefs on the Treatment of NativePeoples with Diabetes and Visual Impairment.Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness 87[9],333-335.Keywords: Diabetes/Native Americans/MedicalTreatmentAbstract: The author reviews the diabetesepidemic among Native Americans and usingtraditional cultural beliefs to affect the successof services to Natives experiencing vision loss.34. Rea, E., Thompson, G., Young, T., O’Neil,J., & Tate, R. (1994). Factors Associated withEdentulousness in Keewatin Inuit. Arctic MedicalJournal 53, 757-760.Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing117

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing118Keywords: Edentulous/Inuit PeopleAbstract: Unavailable35. Roubidoux, M. A., Kaur, J. S., Griffith,K. A., Sloan, J., Wilson, C., Novotny, P. et al.(2003). Correlates of Mammogram Density inSouthwestern Native-American Women. CancerEpidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 12[6], 552-558.Available Online: http://cebp.aacrjournals.org/cgi/reprint/12/6/552Keywords: Cancer Screening/ Diabetes/Health/HistoryAbstract: Little is known about the breast cancerrisk factors or mammogram characteristicsamong Native-American women. SouthwesternNative-American women have a low risk ofbreast cancer and a high risk of diabetes. Ourpurpose was to determine the prevalence ofknown clinical risk factors for breast cancer andtheir association with mammogram density ina sample of Southwestern Native-Americanwomen undergoing breast cancer screening.A retrospective review was performed ofscreening mammogram examinations in 455women. Density was classified by AmericanCollege of Radiology Breast Imaging Reportingand Data System (BIRADS) density patterns 1 to4 (fat to dense). Clinical data including patientage, weight, body mass index, parity, lactation,age at first birth, menopause status, hormonereplacement therapy, diabetes status, andfamily history of breast cancer were obtained.Multivariate analyses were performed. Amongthe entire group, 152 women (33.4%) haddiabetes. Patient age (P = 0.0012), weight(P < 0.0001), menopause status (P = 0.0134),estrogen use (P = 0.0311), age at first birth(P = 0.0035), and diabetes (P = 0.0015) wereassociated with mammogram density. Diabeteswas associated with mammogram density inpremenopausal women (P = 0.0032) but not inpostmenopausal women (P = 0.3178) in stratifiedanalyses. Diabetes, hormone replacementtherapy, age, weight, menopause status,parity, and age at first birth were significantlyassociated with mammogram density. Theassociation of mammogram density withdiabetes varied by menopause status and wassignificant only for premenopausal women(Journal Abstract).36. Salmon Kaur, J. (1999). NativeWomen and Cancer. Health Care for WomenInternational 20[5], 445-453.Keywords: Cancer Screening/Cervical Cancer/Education/Health/Health Care/PreventionAbstract: Literature regarding cancer patternsin American Indians and Alaska Nativewomen is reviewed and attention is paid topromising research initiatives to improve cancerprevention and control as well as approachesto enhance exchange of knowledge througha new national resource center. Lung, breast,and colorectal cancer are the leading causeof cancer deaths in American Indians andAlaska Native women. There continues to bea disproportionate death rate from cervicalcancer. Enhanced availability for breast andcervical cancer screening in conjunction withcommunity education is showing promisingtrends toward reversing the patterns of latediagnosis. Communities can benefit fromsharing their collective resources in a newnational resource center called “NativeC.I.R.C.L.E.” housed in the Mayo Cancer Center(Journal Abstract).37. Solomon, T. G. & Gottlieb, N. H. (1999).Measures of American Indian Traditionality andits Relationship to Cervical Cancer Screening.Health Care for Women International 20[5], 493-504.Keywords: Cancer Screening/Cervical Cancer/Culture/Health/Health CareAbstract: The goal of this study was to evaluatethe relationship between culture and attitudesabout cervical cancer screening amongyoung American Indian women living andworking in northeast Oklahoma. A cohort of199 American Indian women, ages 18-40, weresurveyed to determine their blood quantum,self-identification, and beliefs and practicesregarding traditional behavior in order todevelop a traditional behavior scale (thedegree to which an individual maintainedtraditional tribal ways or behaviors). Theuse of this scale indicated that the degreeof American Indian blood quantum, bloodquantum for primary tribe, and self-identificationare correlated to the traditional behavior scale.The scale, however, was unable to predictintention to get a Pap test. Results indicatethat it is useful to understand the variationof traditional behavior within the specificpopulation group to be served when planningand implementing culturally appropriateinterventions for American Indian women. Itis also useful to evaluate which segments ofthe population current programs are reaching(Journal Abstract).38. Solomon, T. G. A. (1998). The Psycho-Social Correlates of Cervical Cancer Screeningamong Young American Indian Women. Texas,Thesis (Ph.D) -- University of Texas at Austin, 1998.Keywords: Cancer Screening/Cervical Cancer/Health CareAbstract: Examines three studies of cervicalcancer screening among Native women inOklahoma to identify demographic, social,cultural, psychological and health care systemfactors that may influence whether or not ayoung Indian woman gets a Pap test.39. Steven, D., Fitch, M., Dhaliwal, H.,Kirk-Gardner, R., Sevean, P., Jamieson, J. et

al. (2004). Knowledge, Attitudes, Beliefs, andPractices Regarding Breast and CervicalCancer Screening in Selected EthnoculturalGroups in Northwestern Ontario. OncologyNursing Forum 31[2], 305-311.Keywords: Canada/Cancer Screening/CervicalCancer/Ethnic GroupsAbstract: Purpose/Objective: To examine theknowledge, attitudes, beliefs, and practicesregarding breast and cervical cancerscreening in selected ethnocultural groups(i.e., Italian, Ukranian, Finnish, and the Nativepopulation) in northwestern Ontario, Canada.Design: Descriptive, exploratory. SETTING: Ruraland urban settings in northwestern Ontario.Sample: 105 women aged 40 and older whowere residents of northwestern Ontario andmembers of selected ethnic groups, includingItalian, Ukranian, Finnish, Ojibwa, and Oji-Cree.Methods: An interview guide was designedspecifically for this study to gather informationregarding knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, andpractices about breast self-examination(BSE), clinical breast examination (CBE),mammography, and cervical cancer screeningprocedures. Data were obtained throughface-to-face interviews (two or three hours)in English or the language spoken. Interviewsin other languages were transcribed intoEnglish. FINDINGS: Ojibwa and Oji-Cree womenwere more likely than any other group to nothave practiced BSE, to have refused CBE ormammogram, to not have been told howto perform BSE, to not have received writteninformation about breast examination, and tobe uncomfortable and fearful about cervicalcancer screening procedures (33% refusedinternal examination as compared to 0-8% inthe other ethnic groups). Four issues emergedfrom the findings: (a) using multimedia sourcesto inform women about screening programs,(b) educating women regarding breast andcervical cancer screening, (c) remindingwomen when they are due for screening, and(d) identifying that Pap tests are uncomfortableand frightening. Conclusions: Cultural beliefs,attitudes, and practices of marginal populations(e.g., Native women) are important to considerwhen developing strategies to address barriersto effective breast and cervical screening.Implications for Nursing: Educational programsthat are culturally sensitive to participants areimperative (Journal Abstract).40. Stillwater, B., Echavarria, V. A., & Lanier,A. P. (1995). Pilot Test of a Cervical CancerPrevention Video Developed for Alaska NativeWomen. Public Health Reports 110[2], 211-214.Keywords: Cervical Cancer/ Education/Health/Prevention/Women’s HealthAbstract: Cancer of the cervix is twice morelikely to occur among Alaska Native womenthan among Caucasian women in the UnitedStates. To understand some of the factorsassociated with this high incidence, a randomsample of 528 Alaska Native women weresurveyed about their knowledge, attitudes,and behavior regarding cervical cancer andits risk factors. From the results of the AlaskaNative Women’s Health Project study, the needfor more public education related to cervicalcancer prevention was identified. A review ofexisting educational resources revealed thatno culturally appropriate materials relatedto cervical cancer had been developed forAlaska Native women. To increase Nativewomen’s knowledge about cervical cancerand to motivate them to obtain annualPapanicolaou tests, a 12-minute videotapepresentation was developed specifically forthis population. The videotape portrayedAlaska Native women as role models fromthe community discussing cervical cancerand Papanicolaou tests and engaging inhealthy lifestyles. The videotape was pilottested with several groups of Alaska Nativewomen. The women were surveyed beforeand after watching the video and were askedto rate the tape and make comments aboutit. The results of the posttest demonstrated asignificant increase in the knowledge levelof the participants. The videotape was wellreceived because of its cultural sensitivity andappropriateness. On the basis of this study,the development of additional culturallyappropriate educational materials related tocancer prevention of Alaska Native women isrecommended (Journal Abstract).41. Struthers, R., Savik, K., & Hodge,F. S. (2004). American Indian Women andCardiovascular Disease: Response Behaviors toChest Pain. Journal of Cardiovascular Nursing19[3], 158-63.Keywords: Education/Health/History/Cardiovascular DiseaseAbstract: Cardiovascular disease (CVD) iscurrently the number one killer of Americanwomen. Consequently, CVD is a concernfor all women, including ethnic women.However, little is known about CVD behaviorsand responses to CVD symptomology amongminority women, especially American Indianwomen. Response behaviors to chest painrequire important actions. This article examinesresponse behaviors to chest pain in a groupof American Indian women participants of theInter-Tribal Heart Project. In 1992 to 1994, 866American Indian women, aged 22 years andolder, participated in face-to-face interviewsto answer survey questions on multiple areasrelated to cardiovascular disease on threerural reservations in Minnesota and Wisconsin.A secondary data analysis was conductedon selected variables including demographiccharacteristics, health care access, rating ofhealth status, personal and family history ofcardiovascular disease, and action in responseto crushing chest pain that lasted longer than15 minutes. Research findings report that 68%Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing119

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing120of women would actively seek healthcareimmediately if experiencing crushing chest painthat lasted longer than 15 minutes. However,264 women (32%) would take a passive actionto crushing chest pain, with 23% reportingthey would sit down and wait until it passed.Analysis revealed women reporting a passiveresponse were younger in age (under age 45)and had less education (less than a high schooleducation). These findings have implicationsfor nurses and other health care providersworking in rural, geographically isolated Indianreservations. How to present CVD educationin a culturally appropriate manner remains achallenge (Journal Abstract).42. Sudbury & District Health Unit. (2002).Aboriginal and Francophone Women’sPerception of Heart Health in their Communities:A Focus Group Study Report. Sudbury, ON,Sudbury & District Health Unit. 1-16-2005.Available Online: http://www.sdhu.com/Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/Franco-Ontarian Women/ Health/Heart HealthAbstract: Provides the results of a focus groupthat wanted to raise awareness and educateand involve Francophone and Aboriginalwomen in their own heart health (CWHNAbstract).43. Tatemichi, S., Miedema, B., & Leighton,S. (2002). Breast Cancer Screening: First NationsCommunities in New Brunswick. CanadianFamily Physician-Médecin de Famille Canadien48, 1084-1089.Keywords: Cancer Screening/First Nations/FirstNations Communities/ Health/History/ BreastCancerAbstract: Objective: To determine use of breastcancer screening and barriers to screeningamong women in First Nations communities(FNCs). Design: Structured, administered survey.Setting: 5 FNCs in New Brunswick. Participants:133 (96%) of 138 eligible women between theages of 50 and 69 years. Interventions: Afterproject objectives, methods, and expectedoutcomes were discussed with communityhealth representatives, we administered a 32-item questionnaire on many aspects of breastcancer screening. Main Outcome Measures:Rate of use of mammography and other breastcancer screening methods, and barriers toscreening. RESULTS: Some 65% of participantshad had mammography screening within theprevious two years. Having mammography atrecommended intervals and clinical breastexaminations (CBEs) yearly were significantlyassociated with having had a physicianrecommend the procedures (P < .001). A familyhistory of breast cancer increased the odds ofhaving a mammogram 2.6-fold (P < .05, 95%confidence interval [CI] 1.03 to 6.54). Ratesof screening differed sharply by whether afamily physician was physically practising in thecommunity or not (P < .05, odds ratio 2.68, 95%CI 1.14 to 6.29). Conclusion: Women in FNCsin one health region in New Brunswick havemammography with the same frequency asoff-reserve women. A family physician practisingpart-time in the FNCs was instrumental inencouraging women to participate in breastcancer screening (Journal Abstract).44. Walker, C. A. (2005). Native IllnessMeanings: Depression and Suicide. Thesis (Ed.D.) -- University of Toronto, 1999.Available Online: http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk1/tape7/PQDD_0008/NQ59093.pdfKeywords: Canada/Culture/ Research/Suicide/DepressionAbstract: Depression and suicide rates areprevalent amongst Native people living onreservations in North America. The literatureindicates that the emotional difficulty termed“depression” is common among Nativepeople (O’Nell, 1993). However, Westernunderstandings of the term “depression”may not always be applicable in Nativecontexts. Studies indicate that in some Nativecommunities the particular impact of socialcircumstances on mood is related to Nativepeoples’ experiences of depressive illness.It is important to understand the meaningsNative people give to the term “depression,”their experience of it, and the sources theyascribe to it, both social and individual. It wasthe purpose of this study to assess from theNative participants’ understanding, whetherdepression and suicide does affect those livingon a reserve in northwestern Ontario. This study’saim was to explore whether both depressionand suicide, as the terms are understood inWestern culture, are a problem for these Nativepeoples. Also, it was the aim to understandwhat the illness experience of depression andsuicide means for these Native people, both atthe social level, the contextual level and thepersonal one. It was intended that from thisresearch, knowledge would be gleaned aboutwhat these Native peoples’ explanatory modelswere regarding the sources of low mood andsuicide. This exploratory narrative investigationrevealed the participants’ themes or meaningsthat they gave to their illness experience.These themes spoke to psychosocial sourcesto which these Native individuals attributedtheir experiences of psychological distress.In their understanding, both female andmale participants experienced episodes ofdepressive mood and certain symptoms.Participants also had experienced suicidalthoughts and intentions. Importantly,participants sourced their mood difficulties tosocial causes and not to their own biologicallybasedpredispositions or diseases as posited byWestern medicalized perspectives as sources

for mood problems. Rather, the occurrences ofpsychosocial stressors that began in early lifeand continued into adulthood were describedas major contributors to the illness experienceof mood difficulties by participants in this study(Author Abstract).45. Wilcox, S., Ainsworth, B. E., LaMonte,M. J., & DuBose, K. D. (2002). Worry RegardingMajor Diseases among Older African-American,Native-American, and Caucasian Women.Women and Health 36[3], 89-99.Keywords: Diabetes/Health/Worry/ NativeAmerican WomenAbstract: This study examined worry regardingseven major diseases and their correlates in asample of African-American (n = 57), Native-American (n = 50), and Caucasian (n = 53)women ages 36 to 91 years. African-Americanand Native-American women were mostworried about developing cancer (44% and50%, respectively) while Caucasian womenwere most worried about osteoporosis (37%)and cancer (33%). Women from each ethnicgroup were more worried about developingcancer than cardiovascular diseases andconditions. African-American and Native-American women were more worried thanCaucasian women about developing diabetesand high cholesterol. Body mass index (BMI)was a consistent correlate of worry: heavierwomen were more worried about developingdiseases than were leaner women. Other riskfactors (e.g., physical activity, blood pressure),however, were generally not associatedwith disease worry. In fact, age was inverselyassociated with worry regarding diabetes,cancer, and osteoporosis. Although womenwho were more worried about developingcancer were more likely to perform monthlybreast self-exams, worry regarding otherdiseases was not associated with preventiveactions. These results are generally consistentwith other studies that indicate womenare more concerned about cancer thancardiovascular diseases (Journal Abstract).46. Wilson, T. M. (2002). Onion Lake FirstNations Women: Knowledge, Attitudes andHealth Beliefs of Cervical Cancer and CervicalCancer Screening. Thesis (M.N.) -- University ofAlberta.Keywords: Canada/Canadian Women/CancerScreening/Cervical Cancer/Cultural Integrityand Identity/First Nations/Health/Health Beliefs/Prevention/Spirituality and A Sense of PurposeAbstract: Canadian First Nations women utilizecervical screening programs less -- often or notat all -- when compared to other Canadianwomen and due to this are at a greater risk fordeveloping and dying from cervical cancer.Factors that influence women’s participationin screening programs include cultural healthbeliefs, feeling physically or psychologicallyuncomfortable, especially with male physicians,and feelings of embarrassment. Little researchhas been done that examines the possiblereasons why First Nations women do or do notobtain cervical screening tests. The purposeof this study was to explore the knowledge,attitudes, and health beliefs of cervical cancerand cervical screening among First Nationswomen residing in Onion Lake, Saskatchewan.Eight First Nations women who had experiencewith cervical screening participated in thestudy. Open-ended interviews took place ateach woman’s convenience and occurred intheir own chosen location. Each interview wastaped recorded and transcribed verbatim.Data analysis occurred throughout thedata collection process. Key concepts wereidentified and coded. Major themes andsub-themes were identified and coded withineach interview as well as across the interviews.(Abstract shortened by UMI.)47. Witmer, J. M., Hensel, M. R., Holck, P.S., Ammerman, A. S., & Will, J. C. (2004). HeartDisease Prevention for Alaska Native Women:A Review of Pilot Study Findings. Journal ofWomen’s Health 13[5], 569-578.Keywords: Diet/Health/Native women/PreventionAbstract: Background: Although historicallyAlaska Native women have had a relativelylow incidence of cardiovascular disease(CVD), this pattern has changed dramaticallyin recent years. Alaska Native leaders haveidentified decreasing cardiovascular riskas an intervention priority. Methods: FromOctober 2000 to April 2001, South CentralFoundation, an Alaska Native-owned andmanaged health corporation in Anchorage,conducted a pilot randomized controlledtrial of a heart disease prevention programtailored for Alaska Native women. The aim wasto assess feasibility and cultural acceptabilityand to develop enrollment procedures. Of 76women who enrolled, 44 were randomizedto the intervention group. Thirty-seven of 44attended at least two intervention sessions,23 completed pre-questionnaires and postquestionnaires,and 27 returned for 12-monthfollow-up screening. Thirty of 32 control groupparticipants returned for 12-month follow-upscreening. The intervention included 12 weeklysessions on lifestyle change and goal setting. Atbaseline and 12 months, participants’ height,weight, resting blood pressure, fasting lipidlevels, and blood glucose were measured.At sessions 1 and 12, participants completedassessments regarding diet, physical activity,tobacco use, and psychosocial status. Results:At 12 weeks, significant improvements werenoted in moderate walking and physicalactivity self-efficacy. Also observed wassubstantial movement from the contemplationand preparation stages to the action stageregarding physical activity and heart-healthyeating. Conclusion: Although the small sampleAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing121

size precludes drawing conclusions about theintervention’s effect, participants reportedlifestyle and psychosocial changes. Thepilot study resulted in protocol changes thatimproved the design and implementation of asubsequent large-scale study (Journal Abstract).48. Young, T. K., Kliewer, E., & Blanchard,J. (2000). Monitoring Disease Burden andPreventive Behavior with Data Linkage: CervicalCancer among Aboriginal people in Manitoba,Canada. American Journal of Public Health90[9], 1466-1468. 1-16-2005.Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and HealingKeywords: Aboriginal Women/Basic PhysicalNeeds/Canada/Cervical Cancer/Health/ManitobaAbstract: This study sought to estimate ratesof cervical cancer and Papanicolaou testingamong Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal womenin Manitoba, Canada. Methods: Data werederived through linking of administrativedatabases. Results: In comparison with non-Aboriginal women, Aboriginal, women had 1.8and 3.6 times the age-standardized incidencerates of in situ and invasive cervical cancer,respectively. With the exception of those aged15 to 19 years. Aboriginal women were lesslikely to have had at least one Papanicolaoutest in the preceding three years. Conclusions:Data linkage provides a rapid and inexpensivemeans to estimate disease burden andpreventive behavior in the absence of registries.There is an urgent need for an organizedPapanicolaou test screening program in theAboriginal population (Journal Abstract).122

5. Mental Health NeedsThis section of the paper turns tomental health research and itsapplicability to the experiencesof Aboriginal women. There is apaucity of research on mental health issuesfor Aboriginal people in Canada generallybut even less exists in relation to Aboriginalwomen’s mental health specifically. Thisresearch area includes resources thathighlight the health issues regarding stress,depression, trauma, self-harm, suicide,and death as well as psychological andintergenerational impacts of the residentialschool experience on female survivors. Theissue of addiction and use of drugs andalcohol by Aboriginal women as copingstrategies is also integrated. A scan ofthe literature produced numerous reportsspecifically addressing mental illness andAboriginal peoples. Although none ofthese reports are gender specific, we canextrapolate from this literature what mightbe the some of the issues facing CanadianAboriginal women, especially in terms ofunderstanding how they have coped withmental stresses in their lives.Laurence Kirmayer is one of the leadingresearch and clinical psychiatrists inCanada who has conducted extensiveresearch into mental illness with variousAboriginal populations. Kirmayer (2000)states that much of the mental healthproblems faced by Aboriginal peopletoday stem from the very first contactwith early European settlers. The historyof European colonization of NorthernAmerica is a harrowing tale of theindigenous population’s decimation byinfectious disease, warfare, and activesuppression of culture and identity thatwas tantamount to genocide (Kirmayer,2000). Kirmayer notes that the indigenouspopulation of North America prior to thearrival of Europeans is estimated to havebeen approximately 7 million. Close to90% of this population, he states, died as aresult of the direct and indirect effects ofcontact with European cultures. Europeaneconomics, politics and religious institutionsalso contributed to the displacement andoppression of the indigenous populationsin North America. Many diseases (e.g.smallpox, measles, influenza, bubonicplague, diphtheria, typhus, cholera, scarletfever, etc) were introduced along with agrowing reliance upon European food thateffectively helped wipe out or severelyweaken once strong societies. Withconfederation came policies that imposedforced sedenterization, creation ofreserves, and relocation to remote regions,residential schools and bureaucraticcontrol that would ultimately hasten thedestruction of indigenous cultures. Theseearly policies developed and implementedby the earlier governments regardingAboriginal peoples devastated their cultureand life ways. These historical events havedocumented effects, which reach into the21st century and can be found elsewherein the literature about North Americanindigenous peoples.This postcolonial contact has causedintergenerational stress, historical traumaand psychological wounds amongAboriginal peoples that span manygenerations (Struthers and Lowe, 2003).The policies enacted by the Canadiangovernment—taking away lands andterminating or assimilating First Nationsculture—have resulted in a trauma ofcatastrophic proportions with accordinglydestructive outcomes. Kirmayer notes thatthe cumulative effect of these polices arereflected in the endemic mental healthproblems of many Aboriginal communitiesand populations across Canada. Struthersand Lowe’s (2003) research points out that:The symptoms resulting from historical traumaare numerous and affect the psychological,social, economic, intellectual, political,physical, and spiritual realms of NativeAmerican people. Links have been madebetween the phenomenon of historicaltrauma and states of imbalance anddisease (Bullock, 2001; van derKolk, 2001;Yellow Horse Brave Heart, 1999). Responsesto trauma manifest psychologically asunresolved grief across generations,high rates of substance abuse includingalcoholism (Yellow Horse Brave Heart,1999; Yellow Horse Brave Heart-Jordan,1995), depression, suicide, and overeatingAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing123

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing124(Yellow Horse Brave Heart-Jordan, 1995).Social concerns resulting from historicaltrauma include poverty, crime (Trujillo, 2000),attainment of low education levels, and highrates of homicide, accidental deaths, childabuse, and domestic abuse (Departmentof Health and Human Services, 1997).Effects of historical trauma occurring on thephysical plane include hypertension, heartdisease, (Yellow Horse Brave Heart, 1999),diabetes (Bullock, 2001), being overweight(Yellow Horse Brave Heart- Jordan, 1995),and cirrhosis (Department of Health andHuman Services, 1997). In the spiritual realm,historical trauma is referred to as woundingof the soul (Duran, 2001). …Currently, Type 2diabetes is an epidemic in Native Americancommunities (Bullock, 2001; Struthers, Hodge,De Cora, & Geishirt-Cantrell, 2003; Swift,2000) and it appears this chronic disease willserve as the contemporary trauma for NativeAmerican people (p.259-260).More recently, Kirmayer pointed out thatthe intergenerational impact of residentialschool:… has had an enduring psychological,social and economic effect on survivors.Transgenerational effects of the residentialschools include: the structural effects ofdisrupting families and communities; thetransmission of explicit models and ideologiesof parenting based on experiences inpunitive institutional settings; patterns ofemotional responding that reflect the lackof warmth and intimacy in childhood;repetition of physical and sexual abuse;loss of knowledge, language and tradition;systematic devaluing of Aboriginal identity;and, paradoxically, essentializing Aboriginalidentity by treating it as something intrinsic tothe person, static and incapable of change.These accounts point to a loss of individualand collective self-esteem, to individual andcollective disempowerment and, in someinstances, to the destruction of communities.The corrosive effect of poverty andeconomic marginalization also continuesto have a deep impact on the mentaland physical health of Aboriginal people(Kirmayer, 1997, 2000). In earlier research,Kirmayer stated that the most consistent riskfactors for common mental disorders arelow socioeconomic status (poverty) andfemale gender. The effects of employmenton mental health among women arecontext dependent, i.e., it depends onthe relative benefits and drawbacks ofemployment. In many situations, womenwho work continue to do the largest partof child care and homemaking. As aresult they experience a double burdenand may be at risk of depression or otherproblems. Married women with youngchildren and full-time jobs may be atespecially high risk (Kirmayer, 1997).Conversely, a review of U.S. researchon mental health and Native AmericanIndians is relatively substantial and mayalso be instrumental in understanding themental health issues for the Aboriginalpopulations within Canada. Althoughmuch of this research is based on theAmerican perspective, the applicationof the findings to the Canadian contextis comparable. Manson (2000) buildson the cultural experience of illness andincorporates the current body of U.S.research into a discussion about the needfor and availability of services to NativeAmerican populations specifically. In theUnited States, Manson states that over2,000 journal articles and book chaptershave been published specifically onmental health and American Indiansbetween the years 1980 and 1995.However, Manson notes that newadvances in research involving culture inthe assessment and treatment of mentalhealth problems for Native AmericanIndians continues to be one of the greatestdeficiencies noted in the publishedliterature. Likewise, Kirmayer (2000) hasnoted a lack of professional training inmental health and research in the mentalhealth field among Aboriginal peoples.Manson’s review of the literature in the fieldof mental health involving the historicalimpact of colonialization essentiallymirrors the lived experiences of CanadianAboriginal peoples. Like CanadianAboriginal people, the birth rate is thehighest of any major cultural group in theUnited States. Similarly, like the Nativepopulation in Canada, American Indiansare considerably younger than the U.S.population as a whole, with a median ageof 24.4 years compared with 34.4 years.Yet, infant mortality is greater amongAmerican Indians than among the generalpopulation. Nationally, the unemployment

ates for American Indian men andwomen are 16.2% and 13.5%, respectively,significantly higher than the 6.4% and 6.2%for their “U.S. all races” counterparts. Themedian household income for the formeris $19,865, compared with $30,056 for thelatter; 31.7% of American Indian familieslive below the poverty level, comparedwith a national rate of 13.1%. Employmentopportunities are especially scarce in mostreservation communities. Northern PlainsIndian reservations were among the 10counties in the nation with the highestunemployment rates in 1990.. Thirty-sevenper cent and 28% of American Indian andAlaska Native children, respectively, live insingle-parent families (similar to Canadianstatistics). Adoption rates and foster careplacement, especially out of Indian homes,are unparalleled in any other segment ofthe population. Mortality data indicate thatsuicide and homicide are the second andthird leading causes of death, respectively,for American Indian youth 15 to 24 years ofage, exceeded only by accidents. Mansonindicates these rates are two to threetimes the national average. In this specialpopulation, 6 of the 10 leading causesof death are alcohol-related. AmericanIndian children growing up under thesestressful circumstances are at high risk forbehavioural and emotional problems:while data on the prevalence of alcohol,drug, and mental (ADM) disorders amongAmerican Indian youth are scarce, someevidence suggests that American Indianyouth experience more mental healthproblems than their peers in the generalpopulation. Although population-baseddata on adolescent suicide, alcohol, anddrug use rates for American Indians areavailable, little data exist for these andother mental disorders defined accordingto current diagnostic systems for eitheradults or adolescents. Suicide rates amongAmerican Indians vary greatly amongtribes and over time (Manson, 2000).In Native populations, Manson notes,suicide is primarily a phenomenon of theyoung, and especially of males. CitingIndian Health Statistics data used byother researchers, Manson observedage-specific suicide rates for ages 10-24 years to be 2.3 to 2.8 times as high asgeneral U.S. rates; certain communitieshave experienced much higher rates andclusters of suicides. Further, in a survey ofover 13,000 American Indian adolescents,22% of females and 12% of males reportedhaving attempted suicide at some time.Over 67% of those who reported attemptshad made those attempts within the pastyear. Fourteen per cent of the femalesand 8% of the males reported significantfeelings of sadness and hopelessness(Manson, 2000, p.620).Better assessment strategies to measure themental capacity of Aboriginal seniors areneeded and capacity assessments shouldinclude acknowledgement of the differingdegrees of acculturation within andbetween Aboriginal groups (Cattarinish,Gibson and Cave, 2001). In a review of theliterature on women, gender and health,Janzen (1998) found that to appropriatelydocument and understand the variabilityof health among women, attention to theparticular circumstances of women’s livesis required, especially in relation to olderwomen, Aboriginal women and immigrantand refugee women. Nine out of tenformer residential school students felt thatmental health services were in need ofimprovement.Self-harm among women is a serioushealth concern in Canada, especiallyamong women who are in conflict withthe law. Fillmore, Dell and the Elizabeth FrySociety of Manitoba (2000) paid particularattention to incarcerated Aboriginalwomen’s experiences of self-harm. Itwas found that women had the greatestlikelihood of self-harm when in highlyunstable and unsupportive families. Suchfamilies were characterized by: frequentmoving and intermittent or permanentplacements in foster and group homes;absent, weak or traumatic bonds withprimary caregivers (especially the mother);unmet emotional and social needs;childhood abuse and violence (sexual,emotional, physical, and neglect); andAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing125

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healingadult abuse and violence, primarily by apartner (sexual, emotional, physical, andneglect). The study also found that themajority of women endured traumaticchildhood and adult experiences.Traditional healing and the use of Medicinewomen as well as men were seen asintegral to the services delivered to NativeAmericans by a Native American MentalHealth Program (Kahn, Lejero and Marion,1988).Although not gender specific in theiranalysis of mental health problems amongAboriginal people, Kirmayer, Simpsonand Corgo (2003) note there are highrates of social problems, demoralization,depression, substance abuse, suicide andother mental health problems in many,though not all Aboriginal communities.Cultural oppression and marginalizationcontributes to the high levels of mentalhealth problems in Aboriginal communitiesand intervention and prevention needsto begin with youth and emphasizecommunity empowerment.Kirmayer, Fletcher, Corin and Boothroyd(1994) conducted research among theInuit to get a better understanding abouttheir perspectives on mental health andillness. Some of the findings indicate thatmost Inuit people were not very familiarwith mental health problems and that theyhad no general term for mental health orillness in their Inuktitut language. The Inuitidentified that the most prevalent mentalhealth problems were alcohol and drugabuse, family violence and abuse, andsuicidal behavior. Although some peoplewho completed suicide were describedas withdrawn, isolated, depressed, havingheavy thoughts, low self-esteem or hatingthemselves prior to their suicide, in manycases their suicide came as a completesurprise even to close friends and relatives.The presence of hallucinations or bizarrebehavior prompted people to think ofmental illness or demon possession. Inuitwomen are in need of more psychiatriccounselling said Abbey and Hood (1993).Kirmayer, Bass and Tait (2000) summarizeevidence on the social origins of mentalhealth problems among Aboriginal peoplesand illustrate the ongoing responses ofindividuals and communities to the legacyof colonization. Cultural discontinuity andoppression have been linked to high ratesof depression, alcoholism, suicide, andviolence in many communities, with thegreatest impact on youth. Despite thesechallenges, Kirmayer and his colleaguesstate that many communities have donewell, but more research is needed toidentify factors that promote wellness.Cultural psychiatry can contributeto rethinking mental health servicesand health promotion for indigenouspopulations and communities.The aim of Kirmayer and Colleagues’(Kirmayer, Gill, Fletcher, Ternar, Boothroydand Quesney, 1994) report on mentalhealth issues among the three Aboriginalgroups was to identify emerging trends inresearch themes and methods. The reviewof the literature reveals that with respectto Aboriginal peoples the emphasis hasbeen more on substance use and socialproblems than on underlying psychiatricdisorders. Exclusive focus on the socialdimension has given a distorted picture ofthe mental health issues experienced byAboriginal peoples.Mohatt, Ed and Sverre Varvin (1998)provide details about a case of how aFirst Nation’s woman who experiencedsignificant psychotic symptoms wasunderstood and treated by both westernprofessionals and traditional healerssimultaneously. Although significantdifferences existed in the western and FirstNations’ approaches, enough commonground existed for complementarytreatment to occur and for the First Nationswoman to find each system helpful. Napoli(2002) also looked at an integrated healthmodel which offered an opportunity todeal with the challenges of mental healthand health issues through traditional126

activities, enhancing physical and spiritualhealth while creating an atmosphere ofempowerment and mutual support.Depression and SuicideMacLean (1988) explored the viewsand experiences of depression byChipewyan and white northern womenas related from their perspective as wellas analyzed how these experiences maybe constructed and viewed differentlyby women of the two different cultures.MacLean also analyzed the similaritiesand differences in how depression isviewed between the women and Nativeand white mental health practitioners. Itappeared that the majority of aspects ofthe depressive experience for these twocultural groups were similar, suggestingfunctional equivalence of the depressionphenomenon. The importance of socialdisconnection in the role of depression wasmentioned by both cultural groups. Otherpossible differences discussed concernedthe possibly greater emphasis on spiritualityand harmony for mental health for theChipewyan women, the different viewsof sources of help for depression, anddifferences in concern for confidentialityand stigma.MacMillan, Patterson, Wathen and theCanadian Task Force on PreventiveHealth Care (2005), while not exclusivelyfocusing on Aboriginal women, found thatthe Aboriginal women who participatedin their study tended to have higherrates of depression than did the non-Aboriginal samples in the study. Ross(1995) established that Aboriginal womenare at high risk of committing suicideespecially if there are addictions present.Walker (1999) on the other hand, exploredAboriginal peoples’ understanding ofdepression and suicide and whetherAboriginal people believe it is a problem.The male and female participantsindicated that they have experiencedepisodes of depressive moods and certainsymptoms along with suicidal thoughtsand intentions. The findings indicate thatthe participants connected their mentalconditions to social causes rather than totheir own biologically based predispositionsor diseases as suggested by Westernmedicalized perspectives.Malchy, Enns, Young and Cox (1997)looked at suicide among Aboriginal andnon-Aboriginal peoples by reviewing andanalyzing the records held by the Office ofthe Chief Medical Examiner in Manitoba.The findings reveal that the average ageof suicide victims was 27 years for theAboriginal sample while it was 44 years forthe non-Aboriginal sample. Also it appearsthat the blood alcohol level was higheramong Aboriginal peoples. Non-Aboriginalpeople were also more likely to see outpsychiatric treatment than Aboriginalsuicide victims. Although suicide was higheramong Aboriginal people living on reservethan among those living off reserve,both rates were considered substantiallyhigher than the overall rates among non-Aboriginal peoples. Suicide ideationand intention has also been exploredin the research conducted by Paproski(1997) among women of five First Nationscommunities in British Columia. Paproski’sfindings indicate that cultural connectionsand Native spirituality in particular doesplay a positive role in intervention andprevention of suicide among First Nationsyouth.Wardman and Khan (2004) examined theuse of antidepressant medicinal drugsamong First Nations peoples in BritishColumbia and found that during 2001,10,982 individuals or 9.8% of the populationfilled an antidepressant medicationprescription. The majority, (70.1%), wasfemale and the average age of claimantswas 40.3 years. The authors of this studyindicate that this high prevalence ofantidepressant medication use may beexplained by a higher prevalence ofdisorders treated with antidepressantmedications or that these disorders may beover-diagnosed in First Nations people.StressLittle is known about stress factors andAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing127

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing128coping mechanisms employed byAboriginal women to handle stress.Research into stress among Aboriginalwomen and men was conducted byIwasaki, Bartlett and O’Neil and the resultspublished in two articles (2004 and 2005).Both articles sought to understand howstress was dealt with by Aboriginal womenand men living with diabetes. Participants’descriptions derived from focus groupshave revealed that lives of Aboriginalpeople with diabetes are filled with stress.The key common themes identified areconcerned not only with health-relatedissues (i.e. physical stress of managingdiabetes, psychological stress of managingdiabetes, fears about the future, sufferingthe complications of diabetes, andfinancial aspects of living with diabetes),but also with marginal economicconditions (e.g. poverty, unemployment);trauma and violence (e.g. abuse, murder,suicide, missing children, bereavement);and cultural, historical, and politicalaspects linked to the identity of beingAboriginal (e.g. ‘deep-rooted racism’,identity problems). These themes are,in fact, acknowledged not as mutuallyexclusive, but as intertwined. Furthermore,the findings suggest that it is important togive attention to diversity in the Aboriginalpopulation. Specifically, Métis-specificstressors, as well as female-specific stressors,were identified. An understanding ofstress experienced by Aboriginal womenand men with diabetes has importantimplications for policy and programmeplanning to help eliminate or reduce atriskstress factors, prevent stress-relatedillnesses, and enhance their health and lifequality.The stress experiences of young First Nationswomen living in a Mi’kmaq reserve wasexplored by McIntyre, Wien, Rudderham,Eter, Moore, MacDonald and the MaritimeCentre of Excellence for Women’s Health(2001). Stress was described by the girls inthis study as an internal emotion but oftenexternalized feelings outside of themselves.In addition the young women identifysuch stressors as family and school amongothers. Stress experiences included therealms of physical, mental, emotionaland spiritual health stressors. Female viewon stress was compared to that of maleson reserve as well as compared to theviews expressed by individuals providingprofessional services to youth on reserve.Closely related to stress was the topic ofworry. Worry was the topic of researchconducted by Wilcox (2002) in response tothe presence of diseases among a numberof Native American, Caucasian, andAfrican-American women between theages of 36 to 91 years.TraumaWalters and Simoni (2002) noted thatempirical evidence to date shows thattrauma such as “soul wound” or historicaland contemporary discrimination againstNative women influences health andmental health outcomes for women. “Soulwounds” and trauma was connectedto domestic violence and/or physicaland sexual assault. Other researcherswho have looked at the connectionbetween trauma and mental illness amongAboriginal women includes research byBraveheart-Jordan and DeBruyn (2005)who highlight the concepts of historicaltrauma, unresolved grief and traditionalcultural perspectives into therapeuticcontent regarding the clinical interventionswith Native American women in theUnited States. Intergenerational traumaexperienced by Aboriginal people wasthe focus of a four-day workshop onhealing by an international grief expert(Robinson, 1997). Seeing the facilitator assomeone who has gone through similarexperiences and who has been able torecover often gives people the courageto express their pain for the first time, orto take the next big step in looking at thetraumas of their childhood. Struthers andLowe (2003) have also noted that trauma,especially historical trauma, is a significantfact in the lives of Native Americanpeople which affects both their health

status and social environment. Struthersand Lowe indicate that mental healthnurses and others working in the mentalhealth field are repeatedly confrontedwith historical trauma when working withNative American communities and thathealing historical trauma requires culturallyappropriate strategies derived fromancient knowledge, philosophy and worldviews of Native American people.Substance MisuseIn reviewing mental health and substanceuse literature, it becomes obvious thatthere is a variety of links between them.Mental health problems often occur inconjunction with substance use problems.The literature also suggests that mentalhealth problems can act as risk factorsfor substance use problems and viceversa. This type of linkage indicates thatwhen people begin to have problems inone area, they may be affected in theother. As well, individuals who are able tocope or who have a sense of well-beingare less likely to experience substanceuse problems. The literature thereforeunder this section looks at the ways inwhich Aboriginal women have copedwith mental health, trauma, grief, abuseand what is known about the connectionbetween mental health and addictions.Substance abuse among Aboriginalwomen has been seen as a symptom ofunderlying problems facing women thatstem from low self-esteem, physical, sexualand/or psychological abuse, povertyand isolation (McNaughton, 1993). Areview of press coverage about womenwho drink revealed that Aboriginalwomen who drink received harsher moraljudgment and the media coverage wasoften laden with patronizing perspectivestoward Aboriginal women who drink (Ford,2000). Grace (2003) found that amongwomen who presented for primary carefor mental disorders, Native Americanwomen had high rates of alcohol usedisorders, anxiety disorders, and anxiety/depression co-morbidity compared withother samples of non–American Indian/Alaska Native women in primary caresettings. Anaquot and Scott (1995) notedthat little is known about the addictions ofindigenous women. Their findings suggestthat alcohol is the abuse substance ofchoice for Aboriginal women and thehigh rates of FASD indicate that addictionsamong indigenous women do result insevere and debilitating consequences, ifnot for them physically, for their children(Ferguson, 1997). The Province of BritishColumbia (2000) has looked extensivelyat the issue of substance abuse amongAboriginal women. From their review ofthe literature, it became evident that littlefocused attention has been paid to theissue of providing gender-specific supportto Aboriginal women with substance useproblems. The presence of addictionsalso increased women’s vulnerability tocommitting suicide (Ross, 1995).The literature also discusses treatmentservices for Aboriginal women althoughwhat is available is scant. Parker (1999)for instance, discussed residential grouptherapy for alcoholism. Group therapyappears to be more effective for the FirstNations participants and helped themand others to know and appreciate oneanother. Peterson, Berkowitz, Cart andBrindis (2002) also noted that knowledgeabout the treatment needs of NativeAmericans is sorely lacking. They notethat Native American women experiencevarious forms of abuse and neglect fromchildhood into adulthood and have beenexposed to alcohol and other drugs froman early point in their lives. Most of thewomen who participated in their studymade multiple attempts to recover fromtheir addictions, primarily for the sake oftheir children. Wardman, Khan and el-Guebaly’s (2002) research with Aboriginalpeople in addiction treatment indicatesthat very little research exists with respectto the high rates of inappropriate use ofprescription medication by Aboriginalpeople. In their findings they notedinappropriate prescription medicationuse was a significant problem amongAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing129

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing130an Aboriginal population that soughtaddiction treatment, and many of theseindividuals accessed medication froma prescribing physician. Harris (2003)notes that the inadequacy of addictionservices to Aboriginal women recoveringfrom addiction in urban areas raises thesewomen’s risk of recidivism and impairs theirability to maintain healthy addiction-freelifestyles. The need for more after-care andoutpatient treatment facilities for Aboriginalpeople and women with addictions wasstressed by Jacobs (2000). In accessinghealth services, Brunen (2000) noted thatAboriginal women are triply marginalizedby their addictions in addition to their lowincome status and racial identification asFirst Nations women. Pregnant Aboriginalwomen who are substance users also needaccess to services that are cognizant oftheir culture and the diversity of Aboriginalpeople (Tait, 2000). Tait also noted thatgeography also plays a part in womenbeing able to access services because somany of them live in isolated geographicallocations which make access to servicedelivery difficult.There is little published informationregarding the prevalence of mental healthproblems among Aboriginal women inCanada. Diagnosis and classification ofmental health problems cross-culturallyusing Western medical definitionscontinue to present a challenge for healthprofessionals, but high suicide rates andthe adverse socioeconomic circumstancesfacing many Aboriginal people indicatehigher prevalence rates for some mentalhealth problems, including depression,with large variation between differentcommunities;this is supported by Americandata.An annotated list of resources for mentalhealth and substance misuse issues inconnection with Aboriginal women is listedbelow.Bibliography of Resources1. Abbey, S. & Hood, E. (1993). PsychiatricConsultation in the Eastern Canadian Arctic:Mental Health Issues in Inuit Women in theEastern Arctic. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry38[1], 32-35.Keywords: Health/Inuit Women/ Sexual ViolenceAbstract: This paper describes mental healthissues affecting Inuit women as seen inpsychiatric consultation. Recent public andgovernmental attention has focused on theemotional and behavioural impacts of rapidcultural change, spousal assault and sexualviolence. The process of psychiatric consultationwith Inuit women patients is described. Theneed for innovative, community-basedtreatment strategies is highlighted (JournalAbstract).2. Anaquot, K. & Scott, K. (1995).Canadian Indigenous Women and SubstanceUse. Winnipeg, MB, Canadian MedicalAssociation. 1-16-2005.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Basic PhysicalNeeds/Fetal Alcohol Syndrome/Effects/Healing/Substance AddictionsAbstract: Little is known about addictions andindigenous women. Commonly, substanceabuse is determined from social indicators,such as deaths due to injury and poisoning.However, indigenous women do not showrates in these categories as high as their malecounterparts. The author suggests that thephysical consequences of indigenous women’saddictions are not as frequently fatal as males’addictions. Nonetheless, when the high rateof fetal alcohol syndrome is examined, it isclear that addictions do result in severe anddebilitating consequences. Other surveys reportthat more women were entering treatmentcentres in the western provinces and a largenumber of participants were between 25-34years of age. Alcohol surfaced as the abusesubstance of choice but there was a clearpattern of polarization (heavy users andabstainers) in alcohol consumption patterns.Treatment programs remain essentially maleoriented;structural changes, such as theavailability of day care during treatment, maybe necessary to aid a woman’s quest to heal.3. Atkinson, J. & Ober, C. (1995). WeAl-Li ‘Fire and Water’: A Process of Healing.Hazlehurst, Kayleen. Popular Justice andCommunity Regeneration: Pathways ofIndigenous Reform. [11]. Westport, Conn.,Praeger. 1-26-2005.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/ AdequatePower/Canada/Culture/ Healing/Justice/Nativewomen/ Offenders/Prevention/women/YouthAbstract: This publication reports on innovationsin the administration of justice, socialreintegration of offenders, administrationof justice alternatives, and in the recoveryof damaged communities. This publicationprovides descriptions of programs, assessment

of their impact, and advocacy for furtherchange involving: Indigenous Models forCommunity Reconstruction and SocialRecovery; Social Policy and Canada’sAboriginal People: The Need for FundamentalReforms; Making the Criminal Law Your Own:The Tokelau Endeavour; Maori and YouthJustice in New Zealand; ‘Slay the Monsters’:Peacemaker Court and Violence ControlPlans for the Navajo Nation; Mediation withinAboriginal Communities: Issues and Challenges;‘The Strength of Community’: The NativeCounselling Services of Alberta Story; ‘A FittingRemedy’: Aboriginal Justice As a CommunityHealing Strategy; Addressing Aboriginal Crimeand Victimization in Canada: RevitalizingCommunities, Cultures and Traditions; ‘Body,Mind and Spirit’: Native Community Addictions,Treatment and Prevention.4. Auger, J. (2005). Walking Through Fireand Surviving: Resiliency among AboriginalPeoples with Diabetes. Edmonton, AB, Thesis(M.Sc.) -- University of Alberta, 1999.Available Online: http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/ftp01/MQ40026.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Peoples/ Canada/Diabetes/Gender/Health/Health Care/ResearchAbstract: The purpose of the evaluation of theAboriginal Diabetes Wellness Program (ADWP)in Edmonton is to determine whether or notindividuals attending the ADWP are healthieras a result of the services that the programprovides. The research is quantitative based. Alimitation of the study is that it does not includequalitative data to assess what causes somepeople to improve their health and others not.This thesis utilized explanatory models as a guideto interview a total of twelve Aboriginal peopleswith diabetes, their family members, and ahealth care professional from the ADWP tounderstand the lived experience of Aboriginalpeople with diabetes. The Aboriginal peoplewere of Cree, Ojibway, and Métis heritage.In addition to the twelve explanatory models,a focus group with staff members and twosemi-structured interviews with an Elder andcultural helper were obtained. There was abroad range of explanatory models due tothe age, gender, and geographic locationof the people interviewed. Twelve themeswere extrapolated, including causes of type2 diabetes, impact of prior knowledge aboutdiabetes, levels of exercise, the consumption offatty foods, support systems, caregiving, Nativespirituality, humor, residential school experience,alcohol consumption, socioeconomic status,grieving and fears related to complications.These results reflect the experience of resiliencyamong Aboriginal people living with diabetes.This research complements an evaluation of theAboriginal Diabetes Wellness Program that wasoutcome based (Author Abstract).5. Braveheart-Jordan, M. & DeBruyn, L.(2005). So She May Walk in Balance: Integratingthe Impact of Historical Trauma in the Treatmentof Native American Indian Women. Adleman,Jeanne and Enguidanos, Gloria M. Racismin the Lives of Women: Testimony, Theoryand Guides to Antiracist Practice. New York:Haworth Press.Keywords: Culture/Empowerment/ History/Native women/Racism/ TraumaAbstract: The impact of traumatic historicalevents on the indigenous peoples of theAmericas by European cultures has powerfulimplications for clinical interventions withNative peoples of today. The article introducesthe general concept of “historical trauma,”outlining the specific history of the Lakota/Dakota (Sioux) of the Northern plains as itrelates to the theory of historical trauma andunresolved grief. Focus is on the importanceof integrating the concept of historical traumaand traditional cultural perspectives into thetherapeutic content of clinical interventionswith Native American Indian women. Theauthors address issues of transference andcounter-transference as well as what it meansto become a culturally competent therapist.They caution against utilizing feminist theorywithout consideration of cultural and historicalfactors relevant to Indian women clients anddiscuss the effectiveness of psychoeducationalgroups that are semi-structured, based on anempowerment model of providing copingskills and other skills development for NativeAmerican Indian women (from the chapter).6. British Columbia Ministry of Health.(2000). Report on the Action Forum onAboriginal Women’s Health and AddictionServices, Vancouver, Saturday, March 4, 2000.Victoria, BC: British Columbia Ministry of Health.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/British Columbia/Canada/Health/Prevention/Women’s HealthAbstract: This article includes a discussion ona variety of issues pertaining to Aboriginalwomen’s health and hygiene, substanceabuse, substance-related disorders as well as anexamination of prevention and control of suchdisorders.7. Brunen, L. (2000). Aboriginal Womenwith Addictions: A Discussion Paper on TripleMarginalization in the Health Care System.Prince George, B.C.: Northern Secretariat of theBC Centre of Excellence for Women’s Health.2005.Available Online: http://www.unbc.ca/northernfire/Addictions.PDFKeywords: Aboriginal Women/ AdequateAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing131

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing132Income and Sustainable Economies/BritishColumbia/Canada/ First Nations/Health/HealthCare/ Racism/Safety and Security/Women withAddictions/Women’s HealthAbstract: This paper is based on the author’spracticum placement at the NorthernSecretariat of the BC Centre of Excellence forWomen’s Health. Under the supervision of theNorthern Secretariat Coordinator, the author(1) defined and developed a viable researchquestion in women’s health; (2) identifiedand assessed the relevant literature; and (3)provided recommendations for further research.The author synthesized the material to exploreracism in health care which a primary focuson the ways in which First Nations women whomisuse substances are triply marginalized inthe health care system and the implications forthese women.8. Burns, N. (1983). Women and Alcohol:The Current Status of Educational Media.Ottawa, National Native Drug and AlcoholAbuse Program. Background paper (NationalNative Alcohol and Drug Abuse Program(Canada).Keywords: Native women/Substance AddictionsAbstract: This report examines the topic ofNative Women and what media tools havebeen developed to focus on their use of drugsand alcohol and the causes and solutions to theproblem. The bibliography provides a list of films,pamphlets, audio tapes, video tapes, posters,books, training manuals and kits, Native mediatools, and a resource directory.9. Crawford, L. (1992). Perspective onMental Health and Illness by Selected DogribWomen Patients.Keywords: Adequate Human Services andSocial Safety Net/Health/Life-Sustaining Values,Morals and EthicsAbstract: The purpose of this research is toidentify Dogrib perspectives surroundingmental health and illness. Women from Dogribcommunities who are currently receivingtreatment for a long-term mental illness will beinterviewed to learn their perceptions of needfor treatment, what their expectations are andhow their familial relationships have shifted overthe course of treatment (Au).10. Duran, B., Sanders, M., Skipper, B.,Waitzkin, H., Halinka Malcoe, L., Paine, S., et al.(2004). Prevalence and Correlates of MentalDisorders among Native American Women inPrimary Care. Women’s Health 94[1], 71-77.Keywords: Health/Medicine/Native Americans/Women’s HealthAbstract: Objectives: We examined thelifetime and the past-year prevalence andcorrelates of common mental disorders amongAmerican Indian and Alaska Native womenwho presented for primary care. Methods: Wescreened 489 consecutively presenting femaleprimary care patients aged 18 through 45 yearswith the General Health Questionnaire, 12-itemversion. A sub-sample (n = 234) completedthe Composite International DiagnosticInterview. We examined associations betweenpsychiatric disorders and socio-demographicvariables, boarding school attendance, andpsychopathology in the family of origin. Results:The study participants had high rates of alcoholuse disorders, anxiety disorders, and anxiety/depression co-morbidity compared with othersamples of non-American Indian/Alaska Nativewomen in primary care settings. Conclusions:There is a need for culturally appropriate mentalhealth treatments and preventive services(Journal Abstract).11. Ferguson, L. (2005). DeconstructingFetal Alcohol Syndrome: A Critical Inquiryinto the Discourse around Alcohol, Women,Ethnicity, Aboriginals and Disease. Ottawa, ON,Thesis (M.A.) -- Carleton University, 1997.Available Online: http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/ftp04/mq22077.pdfKeywords: Ethnicity/Native women/Prevention/Fetal Alcohol SyndromeAbstract: An inductive methodology, knownas grounded theory, was utilized in an attemptto inform and challenge current theory andpractice governing contemporary preventionefforts specifically targeting pregnant Nativewomen. Various strands of the picture arefiltered through a critical lens in an attempt todeconstruct the problematization of FAS withinAboriginal communities. The three primarystrands identified were the relationships ofalcohol to women; alcohol to ethnicity; andalcohol to Natives. The deconstruction of theproblem of FAS yields implications on two levels:(1) epistemologically, the relationships betweensocial control and language and discourse,and ideology, knowledge and power, areidentified as being of concern, needing to becritically challenged and reconstructed; and(2) on an applied level, it is argued that there isa need for a more comprehensive approachto prevention efforts, with clearly defined goalsthat are both culturally relevant and adopt amore holistic approach to prevention12. Fillmore, C., Dell, C. A., & Elizabeth FrySociety of Manitoba. (2000). Prairie Women,Violence and Self-Harm. Winnipeg, MB,Elizabeth Fry Society of Manitoba.Available Online: http://www.pwhce.ca/pdf/self-harm.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Women/ Canada/Culture/Health/History/Manitoba/Research/Self-

Harm/WorkAbstract: Self-harm among women is a serioushealth concern in Canada. In recent yearsthe Elizabeth Fry Society of Manitoba, in itswork with women in conflict with the law,recognized an alarming increase in the numberof women who identified themselves as selfinjurersand the need for expanded researchand understanding. The link between childhoodexperiences of violence and abuse (physical,sexual, emotional, neglect) and self-harm iswell documented in the research literature.An unexamined focus is the relationshipbetween adult experiences of abuse andviolence and self-harm. This study addressestwo areas of self-harm that have receivedlittle attention: (1) the needs, supports andservices of women in conflict with the law inboth the community and institutional settings,and (2) Aboriginal women in conflict withthe law. Each of our data sources offered aunique perspective from which to addressthe research focus: interviews with women,both in the community and correctionalinstitutions; a focus group with incarceratedwomen; community agency and correctionalstaff interviews; correctional staff surveys; andreview of community and correctional institutepolicies. Our study concentrated on the PrairieRegion of Canada. Considerable insight andunderstanding has been gained in this researchregarding the needs, supports and services ofwomen who self-harm while incarcerated andin the community. This study has enabled usto examine helpful and unhelpful responses toself-harm in these settings. Special awarenesshas been attained in these areas regarding theimportance of Aboriginal culture in respondingto the needs, supports and services of womenwho self-harm. The narratives of the womenin the community and correctional institutionswere combined for the data analysis. The mainreason was that all women, with one exception,had a history of conflict with the law, withthe majority having experienced a period ofincarceration. Particular attention was paid toAboriginal women’s experiences of self-harm.As well, information gathered on communityand correctional staff members was combineddue to the limited number of staff respondentsand the close similarity between the twogroups. Where feasible, however, generalreferences are made to denote whether acommunity or institutional context applies(Adapted from Executive Summary).13. Ford, S. (2005). Women Who Drink: ACritical Consideration of Press Coverage, 1978-1998. Thesis (M.S.W.) -- Carleton University, 2000.Available Online: http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/ftp03/MQ52700.pdfKeywords: Canada/Research/womenAbstract: Articles about women and drinkingthat appear in the daily press often focus moreattention on their socially constructed role ofmother than on their physical or medical needs.This research involves statistical and contentanalyses of 149 newspaper articles aboutwomen and drinking that appeared in sevenCanadian daily newspapers at various intervalsbetween 1978 and 1998. The research exploresthe effect on the tone of the article of a numberof variables, including: the sex of the journalist,the sex, race, employment and socioeconomicstatus of the drinker, and the sources. Articlesin the 1990s are generally sensationalized, asopposed to the more compassionate coverageof the 1970s. Articles are more likely to benegative than positive, and when the drinkeris an Aboriginal woman the article is oftenpatronizing and laden with moral judgment(Author Abstract).14. Grace, S. L. (2003). A Review ofAboriginal Women’s Physical and Mental HealthStatus in Ontario. Canadian Journal of PublicHealth 94[3], 173-175.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Basic PhysicalNeeds/Culture/ Diabetes/ Family Violence/Health/Health Risks/Suicide/Women’s HealthAbstract: In traditional Aboriginal cultures,women are the givers of life, and this role ishighly respected. Unfortunately, today manyAboriginal women face greater health risksthan women in the general population. Thefollowing presents a review of Aboriginalwomen’s health status in Ontario, with particularfocus on causes of mortality and morbidity;namely the incidence and prevalence ofheart disease, diabetes, suicide, cancer,depression, substance use, and family violencein comparison to women of Ontario moregenerally.15. Grant, A. (2004). Finding My Talk: HowFourteen Native Women Reclaimed Their Livesafter Residential School. Calgary, AB, FifthHouse.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/Adequate Power/CultureAbstract: When residential schools opened inthe 1830s, First Nations envisioned their childrenlearning in a nurturing environment, staffed withtheir own teachers, ministers, and interpreters.Instead, students were taught by outsiders,regularly forced to renounce their culturesand languages, and some were subjectedto degradations and abuses that left severeemotional scars for generations. In Finding MyTalk, fourteen Aboriginal women who attendedresidential schools, or whose lives were affectedby the schools, reflect on their experiences. Theydescribe their years in residential schools acrossCanada and how they overcame tremendousobstacles to become strong and independentmembers of Aboriginal cultures. Dr. AgnesAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing133

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing134Grant’s painstaking research and interviewmethods ensure that it is the women’s voices wehear in Finding My Talk, and that these womenare viewed as members of today’s globalsociety, not only as victims of their past.16. Greaves, L., Varcoe, C., Poole, N.,Morrow, M., Johnson, J., Pederson, A., et al.(2002). A Motherhood Issue: Discourses onMothering under Duress. Ottawa, ON: Status ofWomen Canada.Available Online: http://collection.nlc-bnc.ca/100/200/301/swc-cfc/motherhood_issuee/021011-0662326791-e.pdfKeywords: Strong Families and Healthy ChildDevelopmentAbstract: Although this report is general in scoperegarding the portrayal of Canadian womenmothering under duress, it does speak widely onthe experience of Aboriginal women motheringunder the media spotlight. Three types ofcases of examined in detail: mothers who usesubstances, mothers who have mental healthissues and mothers who have experiencedviolence in domestic settings.17. Grossmann, M. G. (1992). TwoPerspectives on Aboriginal Female Suicides inCustody. Canadian Journal of Criminology 34[3-4], 403-415.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ Canada/SuicideAbstract: Reviews two theoretical perspectivesthat explain the etiology of suicide, drawingon data on incarcerated Aboriginal womenin Canada. Deprivation theory emphasizesthe role of the prison environment, whileimportation theory focuses on individual inmatecharacteristics. These opposing perspectivesare rejected in favour of an interactionistapproach that stresses the interplay betweenenvironmental forces (e.g. social andphysical isolation created by incarceration)and individual risk factors (e.g. economicdeprivation and violence existing prior to theinmate’s admittance to custody) (JournalAbstract).18. Harris, B. (2000). The Voice of Five UrbanNative Women in Recovery from Addictions:An Argument for the Holistic Integration ofTreatment and Aftercare Services. Vancouver,BC, University of British Columbia.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ Canada/Children/History/Native women/Research/womenAbstract: The purpose of this study was to learnabout the experiences of Aboriginal womenin recovery from addiction. Specifically,understanding their life experiences andtheir perspective on service delivery weresought. The two questions that were askedwere: (1) what’s life been like since you gotout of treatment? and (2) what do you thinkabout existing services? The participantswho participated in this study were quiteheterogeneous. At the time of this research,their ages ranged from 35 to 48 years old; theyhad between 8 and 12 years of abstinencefrom drugs or alcohol; three were singlemothers, one was married with children, andone did not have children; three worked fulltime,one worked part-time, and one was inschool; one is a lesbian; two had no connectionto their cultural history due to growing up awayfrom their community; one was Métis; two werefrom eastern Canada, while two were fromBC; and the fifth participant was from northernSaskatchewan. The author notes that basedon the small sample and on the diversity of theparticipants, the findings cannot be generalizedto all urban Native women in recovery fromadditions.19. Harris, B. (2003). Urban Native Womenin Recovery from Addictions: Towards HolisticIntegration of Treatment and Aftercare Services.Native Social Work Journal 5 [ArticulatingAboriginal Paradigms: Implications forAboriginal Social Work Practice], 185-212.Keywords: Health/Native women/ womenAbstract: The purpose of this article was todetermine the adequacy of current addictionservices for Vancouver’s urban Native women inrecovery from addiction. Urban Native womencontinue to be at risk of recidivism due to anumber of issues that directly affect their abilityto maintain a health addiction-free lifestyle.The author argues that urban Native womenexperience unique difficulties in their efforts tofind a new way to live, difficulties that could bemitigated by providing holistic and integratedservices.20. Hayden, J. (1995). Walking in TwoWorlds: A Profile of Gaye Hanson. Herizons 9[1],21-23.Keywords: First Nations/Sexual AbuseAbstract: Profiles Gaye Hanson, a consultantat Yukon First Nations. Spiritual life; Educationalbackground; Views on alcohol, violence andsexual abuses on women (Journal Abstract).21. Hislop, T. G., Clarke, H. F., Joseph,R., Band, P. R., Smith, J., Le, N., et al. (2005).Cervical Cytology Screening. How Can WeImprove Rates among First Nations Womenin Urban British Columbia? Canadian FamilyPhysician – Médecin de Famille Canadien 42,1701-1708.Keywords: British Columbia/Cancer Screening/First Nations Women/First Nations Communities/First Nations Women/Health/Health CareAbstract: Objective: To determine Pap smear

screening rates among urban First Nationswomen in British Columbia; to identify facilitatorsand barriers; and to develop, implement, andevaluate specific interventions to improvePap smear screening in Vancouver. Design:Computer records of band membershiplists and the Cervical Cytology ScreeningProgram registry were compared to determinescreening rates; personal interviews andcommunity meetings identified facilitatorsand barriers to urban screening programs. Acommunity advisory committee and the projectteam collaborated on developing specificinterventions. Setting and Participants: Purposivesample of British Columbia First Nations women,focusing on women living in Vancouver.Interventions: Poster, art card, and follow-uppamphlet campaign; articles in First Nationscommunity papers; community meetings; andPap smear screening clinics for First Nationswomen. Main Outcome Measures: Pap smearscreening rates among BC First Nations womenaccording to residence and reasons for notreceiving Pap smears. Results: Pap smearscreening rates were substantially lower amongFirst Nations women than among other BritishColumbia women; older women had evenlower rates. No clear differences were foundamong First Nations women residing on reserves,residing in Vancouver, or residing off reserveselsewhere in British Columbia. Facilitatorsand barriers to screening were similar amongwomen residing on reserves and in Vancouver.Many First Nations women are greatly affectedby health care providers’ attitudes, abilitiesto provide clear information, and abilities toestablish trusting relationships. Conclusion:Family physicians are an important sourceof information and motivation for Pap smearscreening among First Nations women (JournalAbstract).23. Hodge, F. S. & Struthers, R. (2004).Sacred Tobacco Use in Ojibwe Communities.Journal of Holistic Nursing 22[3], 209-225.Available Online: http://jhn.sagepub.com/cgi/content/refs/22/3/209Keywords: Culture/First Nations/ Tobacco/Ojibway Communities/substance abuseAbstract: This article features information basedon the interviews of six Ojibwe traditional healersand spiritual leaders regarding the sacred useof tobacco. This research provides informationon key-informant smoking behaviors, influenceof tobacco industry media, and three essentialthemes: the origin of sacred traditionaltobacco; contemporary use and abuse oftobacco; and cultural strengths and meaningof tobacco in Anishinabe (Ojibwe) communities(Journal Abstract).24. Hodgson, M. (1995). ‘Body, Mindand Spirit’: Native Community Addictions,Treatment and Prevention. Hazlehurst, Kayleen.Popular Justice and Community Regeneration:Pathways of Indigenous Reform. [10.]. Westport,Conn., Praeger. 1-26-2005.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/ AdequatePower/Canada/Culture/ Healing/Justice/Nativewomen/ Offenders/Prevention/women/YouthAbstract: Reports on innovations in theadministration of justice, social reintegrationof offenders, and administration of justicealternatives, and in the recovery of damagedcommunities. This publication providesdescriptions of programs, assessment of theirimpact, and advocacy for further change.25. Iwasaki, Y., Bartlett, J., & O’Neil,J. (2004). An Examination of Stress amongAboriginal Women and Men with Diabetes inManitoba, Canada. Ethnicity and Health 9[2],189-212.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/ AboriginalWomen/Adequate Human Services and SocialSafety Net/Basic Physical Needs/Canada/Diabetes/ Health/Life-Sustaining Values, Moralsand Ethics/Manitoba/Poverty/ Racism/Safetyand Security/Suicide/ TraumaAbstract: In this study, a series of focus groupswere conducted to gain an understandingof the nature of stress among CanadianAboriginal women and men living withdiabetes. Specifically, attention was givento the meanings Aboriginal people withdiabetes attach to their lived experiencesof stress, and the major sources or causes ofstress in their lives. The key common themesidentified are concerned not only with healthrelatedissues (i.e. physical stress of managingdiabetes, psychological stress of managingdiabetes, fears about the future, sufferingthe complications of diabetes, and financialaspects of living with diabetes), but also withmarginal economic conditions (e.g. poverty,unemployment); trauma and violence (e.g.abuse, murder, suicide, missing children,bereavement); and cultural, historical, andpolitical aspects linked to the identity ofbeing Aboriginal (e.g. ‘deep-rooted racism’,identity problems). These themes are, in fact,acknowledged not as mutually exclusive, butas intertwined. Furthermore, the findings suggestthat it is important to give attention to diversityin the Aboriginal population. Specifically, Métisspecificstressors, as well as female-specificstressors were identified. An understanding ofstress experienced by Aboriginal women andmen with diabetes has important implicationsfor policy and programme planning to helpeliminate or reduce at-risk stress factors, preventstress-related illnesses, and enhance their healthand life quality.26. Iwasaki, Y., Bartlett, J., & O’Neil, J.(2005). Coping with Stress among AboriginalWomen and Men with Diabetes in Winnipeg,Canada. Social Science & Medicine 60[5], 977.1-17-2005.Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing135

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and HealingKeywords: Aboriginal Peoples/ AboriginalWomen/Adequate Human Services and SocialSafety Net/ Canada/Diabetes/First Nations/Healing/Health/Manitoba/Métis Women/Safetyand Security/TraumaAbstract: Many Aboriginal peoples arewidely exposed to stress in their lives. Thisexposure to stress appears linked not onlyto their contemporary and immediate lifecircumstances (e.g., marginal economicand at-risk living conditions) but also to theirhistorical, cultural, and political contexts.Recently, diabetes has become prevalentin many Aboriginal communities worldwide.The purpose of the present study was to gaina better understanding of the ways in whichAboriginal peoples with diabetes cope withstress. The study used a series of focus groupsamong First Nations and Métis women andmen with diabetes in Winnipeg, Manitoba,Canada. Based on our cross-thematic analysesof the data, three overarching themes wereidentified: (1) individual and collective strengthsof Aboriginal peoples with diabetes must berecognized and utilized to facilitate healingfrom or coping with the experience of stressand trauma; (2) healing must be accomplishedholistically by maintaining balance or harmonyamong mind, body, and spirit; and (3) effectiveways of coping with stress and healingfrom trauma potentially promote positivetransformations for Aboriginal peoples andcommunities at both individual and collectivelevels. Also, sub-themes of stress-coping andhealing that underlie and further describe theabove three overarching themes emerged fromthe data. These include: (a) interdependence/connectedness, (b) spirituality/transcendence,(c) enculturation/facilitation of Aboriginalcultural identity, (d) self-control/selfdetermination/self-expression,and (e) the roleof leisure as a means of coping with stress andhealing from trauma. Accordingly, our deeperanalyses resulted in the development of anemergent model of stress-coping and healingamong Aboriginal peoples with diabetes, whichis presented as a dynamic system in which thethree overarching themes are embedded inthe five specific themes of coping/healing. Thisevidence-based emergent model appearsto provide some important insights into healthpolicy and program planning for Aboriginalpeoples with diabetes and their communities(Journal Abstract).27. Jacobs, K. w. J. (2000). Mental HealthIssues in an Urban Aboriginal Population: Focuson Substance Abuse. Thesis (M.Sc.) -- McGillUniversity, 2000.Available Online: http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk1/tape4/PQDD_0029/MQ64375.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Peoples/ Canada/Health/MontrealAbstract: The aims of the study were to examinesubstance abuse and physical and mentalhealth in an urban Aboriginal population. Datawas collected through structured interviews(n = 202) with Aboriginals in the greaterMontreal area. The majority were single,unemployed, and lived in the urban area fora long time (mean of 9.96 ± .76 years). Onethird reported having a current substanceabuse problem. Results indicated high levelsof psychological distress augmented bysubstance abuse. Substance abusers werealso more likely to have been the victims ofabuse. Ethnographic interviews with urbanAboriginals and community workers were alsoconducted (n = 30). One third were victimsof abuse and six reported having a currentsubstance abuse problem. Psychological andbiological understructures were used in definingaddiction and explaining substance use amongAboriginal people. Cultural traditions wereviewed as integral components of substanceabuse treatment and the need for outpatienttreatment facilities and aftercare programswere indicated (Author Abstract).28. Kirmayer, L., Simpson, C., & Cargo,M. (10-1-2003). Healing Traditions: Culture,Community and Mental Health Promotion withCanadian Aboriginal Peoples. AustralasianPsychiatry 11[s1], S15-S23.Available Online: http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/links/doi/10.1046/j.1038-5282.2003.02010.x/absKeywords: Aboriginal Peoples/ Canada/Culture/Empowerment/Healing/Health/History/Suicide/YouthAbstract: Objective: To identify issues andconcepts to guide the development ofculturally appropriate mental health promotionstrategies with Aboriginal populations andcommunities in Canada. Methods: We reviewrecent literature examining the links betweenthe history of colonialism and governmentinterventions (including the residential schoolsystem, out-adoption, and centralizedbureaucratic control) and the mental health ofCanadian Aboriginal peoples. Results: There arehigh rates of social problems, demoralization,depression, substance abuse, suicide andother mental health problems in many, thoughnot all, Aboriginal communities. Althoughdirect causal links are difficult to demonstratewith quantitative methods, there is clear andcompelling evidence that the long history ofcultural oppression and marginalization hascontributed to the high levels of mental healthproblems found in many communities. Thereis evidence that strengthening ethno-culturalidentity, community integration and politicalempowerment can contribute to improvingmental health in this population. Conclusions:The social origins of mental health problems inAboriginal communities demand social and136

political solutions. Research on variations in theprevalence of mental health disorders acrosscommunities may provide important informationabout community-level variables to supplementliterature that focuses primarily on individuallevelfactors. Mental health promotionthat emphasizes youth and communityempowerment is likely to have broad effectson mental health and well-being in Aboriginalcommunities (Journal Abstract).29. Kirmayer, L., Macdonald, M. E., & Brass,G. M. (2005). The Mental Health of IndigenousPeoples. Kirmayer, Laurence, Macdonald,Mary Ellen, and Brass, Gregory M. The MentalHealth of Indigenous Peoples, May 29 - May 31,2000, Montréal, Québec. Proceedings of theAdvanced Study Institute. The Mental Health ofIndigenous Peoples. McGill Summer Program inSocial & Cultural Psychiatry and the AboriginalMental Health Research Team May 29 - May31, 2000. Montréal, Québec Culture & MentalHealth Research Unit. Report No. 10. Montreal,QC, McGill Summer Program in Social & CulturalPsychiatry and the Aboriginal Mental HealthResearch Team, McGill University.Available Online: http://upload.mcgill.ca/tcpsych/Report10.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Peoples/ AboriginalWomen/Australia/ Canada/Culture/ Health/MontrealAbstract: This report presents the proceedingsof a conference on “The Mental Healthof Indigenous Peoples” organized by theAboriginal Mental Health Team of the Culture &Mental Health Unit, Sir Mortimer B. Davis-JewishGeneral Hospital, in Montreal, May 29-31, 2000.The conference was organized in conjunctionwith the Annual Summer Program in Socialand Cultural Psychiatry of the Division of Social& Transcultural Psychiatry, McGill University.The aim of the meeting was to bring togetherexperts on mental health research amongindigenous peoples in Canada, the U.S. andAustralia to exchange perspectives, methodsand models for research and service delivery.All thirteen articles review the mental healthissues of Aboriginal peoples and Aboriginalwomen in particular (Introduction).30. Kirmayer, L. J., Fletcher, C., Corin,E., & Boothroyd, L. (1994). Inuit Concepts ofMental Health and Illness: An EthnographicStudy. Report No. 4. Montreal, QC, Culture andMental Health Research Unit, Institute of FamilyPsychiatry and Department of Psychiatry, McGillUniversity.Keywords: Culture/Family Violence/ Health/Montreal/Safety and Security/ SuicideAbstract: This resource discusses conceptsof mental health and illness in the Inuit ofNunavik (Northern Quebec). While it does notfocus specifically on women’s concepts, itprovides a general perspective that was culledfrom ethnographic interviews, participantobservation and a questionnaire survey. The aimof the report is to document Inuit knowledgeand practices in order to inform mental healthworkers and planners working in Nunavik on therange of difference perspectives and identifiedneeds. The major findings of the study indicatethat there is no general terms for mentalhealth or illness in Inuktitut; the most prevalentmental health problems were alcohol and drugabuse, family violence and abuse, and suicidalbehaviour; most people were not very familiarwith mental health problems; suicide came asa complete surprise to many in the study; andthe Inuit recognize four board types of causes ofmental health: (1) physical and environmental;(2) psychological or emotional; (3) demon orspirit possession; and (4) culture change andsocial disadvantage.31. Kirmayer, L. J., Bass, G. M., & Tait, C.(2000). The Mental Health of Aboriginal Peoples:Transformations of Identity and Community.Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 45[7], 607-616.2005.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/ AboriginalWomen/ Canada/ Community Solidarity andSocial Support/Cultural Integrity and Identity/First Nations/Health/Life-Sustaining Values,Morals,and Ethics/Strong Families and HealthyChild Development/Suicide/YouthAbstract: This paper reviews some recentresearch on the mental health of the FirstNations, Inuit, and Métis of Canada. Wesummarize evidence for the social originsof mental health problems and illustratethe ongoing responses of individuals andcommunities to the legacy of colonization.Cultural discontinuity and oppression have beenlinked to high rates of depression, alcoholism,suicide, and violence in many communities,with the greatest impact on youth. Despitethese challenges, many communities havedone well, and research is needed to identifythe factors that promote wellness. Culturalpsychiatry can contribute to rethinking mentalhealth services and health promotion forindigenous populations and communities. Thispaper does provide statistical information onAboriginal women and their mental healthneeds and concerns.32. Kirmayer, L. J., Simpson, C., & Cargo,M. (2003). Indigenous Populations HealingTraditions: Culture, Community and MentalHealth Promotion with Canadian AboriginalPeoples. Australasian Psychiatry 11[1], S15-S23.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/ AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/Canada/Community Solidarity and SocialSupport/ Culture/Empowerment/Healing/Health/History/Strong Families and Healthy ChildDevelopment/Suicide/YouthAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing137

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing138Abstract: Objective: To identify issues andconcepts to guide the development ofculturally appropriate mental health promotionstrategies with Aboriginal populations andcommunities in Canada. Methods: We reviewrecent literature examining the links betweenthe history of colonialism and governmentinterventions (including the residential schoolsystem, out-adoption, and centralizedbureaucratic control) and the mental health ofCanadian Aboriginal peoples. Results: There arehigh rates of social problems, demoralization,depression, substance abuse, suicide andother mental health problems in many, thoughnot all, Aboriginal communities. Althoughdirect causal links are difficult to demonstratewith quantitative methods, there is clear andcompelling evidence that the long history ofcultural oppression and marginalization hascontributed to the high levels of mental healthproblems found in many communities. Thereis evidence that strengthening ethno-culturalidentity, community integration and politicalempowerment can contribute to improvingmental health in this population. Conclusions:The social origins of mental health problems inAboriginal communities demand social andpolitical solutions. Research on variations in theprevalence of mental health disorders acrosscommunities may provide important informationabout community-level variables to supplementliterature that focuses primarily on individuallevelfactors. Mental health promotionthat emphasizes youth and communityempowerment is likely to have broad effectson mental health and well-being in Aboriginalcommunities (Journal Abstract).33. Kirmayer, L. J., Gill, K., Fletcher, C.,Ternar, Y., Boothroyd, L., Quesney, C., et al.(2005). Emerging Trends in Research on MentalHealth among Canadian Aboriginal Peoples.Montreal, QC, Culture & Mental HealthResearch Unit, Institute of Community & FamilyPsychiatry, Sir Mortimer B. Davis-Jewish GeneralHospital & Division of Social & TransculturalPsychiatry, Department of Psychiatry, McGillUniversity.Available Online: http://upload.mcgill.ca/tcpsych/Report2.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Peoples/ Canada/Health/Prevention/Research/Suicide/WorkAbstract: This report was prepared at therequest of the Royal Commission on AboriginalPeople. The mandate given to the authors wasto review the scientific literature in order toidentify emerging trends in research on mentalhealth among Native peoples in Canada. Inthis report the author does not directly addressthe issue of suicide as this was the topic ofan earlier report for the Royal Commission.The authors do review some of the work onalcohol and substance abuse because, whilethese are the topic of other reports to theCommission. They are closely related to mentalhealth and the authors wanted to ensure thatthere was a counter to the fragmentation ofresearch and care that seems to plague Nativemental health. As requested by the RoyalCommission on Aboriginal Peoples, the aim inthe report is to review the scientific literatureon the mental health problems of CanadianAboriginal peoples to identify emerging trendsin research themes and methods. The topicsto be covered include the following: (1) anoverview of epidemiological data on Aboriginalmental health in Canada; (2) a critical reviewof existing literature on the topic of preventionand treatment among Aboriginal peoplesin Canada; (3) a comprehensive discussionof emerging trends in this field; (4) guidelinesfor future research. This report is organized inaccordance with these themes. The authorsendeavoured to include specific material onwomen, status and non-status Indian, Inuit andMétis peoples (Adapted from the Preface andIntroduction).34. Kowlessar, D. L. (1997). An Examinationof the Effects of Prenatal Alcohol Exposure onSchool Age Children in a Manitoba First NationsCommunity. Master of Science, University ofManitoba.Available Online: http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk3/ftp05/mq23370.pdfKeywords: Children/First Nations/First NationsCommunities/History/ Manitoba/PregnancyAbstract: A cross-sectional survey wasconducted in one First Nation Communityin Manitoba to determine the prevalenceof Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) among178 school-aged children (ages 5 years to15 years). The study consisted of four parts:a maternal interview, where mothers werequestioned about family dynamics, pregnancyand family histories, as well as alcohol useduring pregnancy using the TWEAK screeningquestionnaire; review of the child’s birth records,to confirm alcohol exposures reported by themother; Dysmorphology assessment by a clinicalgeneticist; and psychoeducational testing bya trained retired teacher. The geneticist andteacher were blind to the alcohol exposurestatus of each child at the time of assessment.The dysmorphology parameters which differsignificantly between the alcohol-exposedand unexposed groups are: decreased height,weight, head circumference and palpebralfissure lengths, and midface hypoplasia. Growthparameter data of the “Normal” category ofschool-aged children were used to generatestandard Native growth curves for school-agedchildren from this community. These curveswere compared to the preexisting curves in theliterature, primarily derived using Caucasiandata, and showed significant differencesbetween the two populations. With respectto postnatal growth, Native children from thiscommunity tend to be heavier, taller, have

larger head circumferences, longer fingers, andmore widely spaced eyes than their Caucasiancounterparts. Comparison of the FAS andPartial FAS children with the Native curvesincreased the number of children that wouldbe considered “classic” FAS cases, as opposedto comparisons against Caucasian standards(Author Abstract).35. Linquist, A. & Jackson, S. (2003). AnAboriginal Nation’s Efforts to Address the Issueof Substance Use during Pregnancy. Rutman,Deborah. Substance Abuse and Pregnancy:Conceiving Women in the Policy MakingProcess. Ottawa, ON: Status of WomenCanada.Keywords: Canada/Status of Women/Substance Abuse/Pregnancy/Policy andWomen36. MacLean, L. (1988). The Experienceof Depression for Chipewyan and WhiteNorthern Women. Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University ofSaskatchewan.Keywords: Adequate Human Services andSocial Safety Net/Culture/ Depression/ HealthAbstract: Objective: To record (throughinterviews) and explore the views andexperiences of depression by Chipewyan andwhite northern women as related from theirperspective; to analyze how these experiencesmay be constructed and viewed differentlyby women of the two different cultures; and,to analyze similarities and differences in howdepression is viewed, between the women andNative and white mental health practitioners.Summary: Lynne MacLean interviewed womenand mental health workers about depressionand how to overcome it. All interviews wereconfidential. She wants to know whether theexperience and effects of depression aredifferent between Chipewyan and whitewomen. She also asked mental health workersabout the sort of difficulties they experiencewhen dealing with depression in Native (versusnon-Native) women (Au).37. MacMillan, H. L., Patterson, C. J.S., Wathen, C. N., & and the CanadianTask Force on Preventive Health Care. (1-4-2005). Screening for Depression in PrimaryCare: Recommendation Statement from theCanadian Task Force on Preventive HealthCare. Canadian Medical Association Journal172[1], 33-35.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/BasicPhysical Needs/ Health/Health CareAbstract: This does not focus primarily onAboriginal women however it does mentionthat the Aboriginal women in the study sampletended to have higher rates of depression thanthe non-Aboriginal sample utilized in the study.38. Malchy, B., Enns, M. W., Young, T. K.,& Cox, B. J. (1997). Suicide among Manitoba’sAboriginal People, 1988 to 1994. CanadianMedical Association Journal 156, 1133-1138.2005.Available Online: http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/reprint/156/8/1133Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/ AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/CulturalIntegrity and Identity/Manitoba/Strong Familiesand Healthy Child Development/SuicideAbstract: Objective: To compare and contrastthe characteristics of suicides among Aboriginaland non-Aboriginal people in Manitoba.Design: Retrospective review of all suicides,based on a confidential analysis of records heldby the Office of the Chief Medical Examiner.Setting: Manitoba between 1988 and 1994.Outcome Measures: Standardized suiciderates, age- and sex-specific suicide rates, bloodalcohol level at time of death, psychiatric helpseekingbehaviour before suicide and residenceon a reserve. Results: Age-standardizedsuicide rates were 31.8 and 13.6 per 100,000population per year among Aboriginal andnon-Aboriginal people, respectively. The meanage of Aboriginal people who committedsuicide was 27.0 (standard deviation [SD] 10.8)years, compared with a mean age of 44.6(SD 18.8) years for non-Aboriginal people whocommitted suicide (p < 0.001). Blood alcohollevels at the time of death were a mean of28 (SD 23) mmol/L among Aboriginal peopleand 12 (SD 20) mmol/L among non-Aboriginalpeople (p < 0.0001). Before their death, 21.9%of non-Aboriginal suicide victims had soughtpsychiatric care whereas among Aboriginalsuicide victims 6.6% had sought care (p

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing140Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Critical LearningOpportunities/Culture/ Education/ Gender/HealingAbstract: Counselor education for working withAboriginal women must address both cultureand gender issues and this may be done byapplying feminist theory within a multiculturalcounselling perspective. This paper exploresthese perspectives, their application to thesewomen, and specific counselor educationconsiderations. Issues particular to Aboriginalwomen are discussed in addition to factorsfor integrating feminism and multiculturalcounselling within this context, particularlytraditional healing. Once counselors have anincreased awareness of these factors, theymay become more effective cross-cultural andfeminist counselors for Aboriginal women.40. Maritime Centre of Excellence forWomen’s Health. (2001). Moving TowardsWomen’s Health. An Exploration of the StressExperience of Mi’kmaq Female Youth in NovaScotia. Number 22, September 2001. Halifax,NS, Maritime Centre of Excellence for Women’sHealth. 1-16-2005.Available Online: http://www.cewh-cesf.ca/PDF/acewh/fact_sheets/moving22.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Women/ AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/BasicPhysical Needs/ Gender/Health/Women’sHealth/ YouthAbstract: Provides a summary of researchfindings. Explores the underlying stressexperiences of young Mi’kmaq women livingon reserves, and seeks to develop policy andprogram interventions (CWHN Abstract).41. McCulla, K. (2005). Women andTabacco. In Touch.Available Online: http://www.niichro.com/Tobacco%202002/tob02_7.htmlKeywords: Aboriginal Women/Inuit Women/Pregnancy/TobaccoAbstract: Tobacco misuse is an epidemicamongst Aboriginal people. The rates areeven higher for women. The Heart and StrokeFoundation has reported that 60 per cent ofAboriginal women aged 15 or older are regularsmokers. In the Northwest Territories, up to 80 percent of Inuit women are smokers, comparedto fewer than 40 per cent of non-Inuit women.Aboriginal women have been found to be morethan twice as likely as non-Aboriginal women tosmoke during their pregnancies. Findings haveshown that 53 percent of Aboriginal motherssmoked while pregnant compared to just 26 percent of non-Aboriginal mothers.42. McIntyre, L., Wien, F., Rudderham,S., Etter, L., Moore, C., MacDonald, N., et al.(2001). An Exploration of the Stress Experienceof Mi’kmaq On-Reserve Female Youth inNova Scotia. Halifax, NS, Maritime Centre ofExcellence for Women’s Health.Available Online: http://www.acewh.dal.ca/eng/reports/Wien%20Finalreport.pdfKeywords: Health/YouthAbstract: The purpose of this article is to deepenthe understanding of what lies behind the stressexperience of on-reserve Mi’kmaq female youthwith an eye to policy and program intervention.Stress experiences include the realms ofphysical, mental, emotional and spiritual healthstressors confronted by Mi’kmaq female youth.The stress experienced by female youth wascompared with that experienced by Mi’kmaqmale youth on reserve as well as the views ofyouth-serving professionals working on reserve.43. McIntyre, L., Wien, F., Rudderham, S.,Etter, L., Moore, C., MacDonald, N., et al. (2005).A Gender Analysis of the Stress Experience ofYoung Mi’kmaq Women. Centres of Excellencefor Women’s Health Research Bulletin 4[1].Available Online: http://www.acewh.dal.ca/eng/reports/Wien%20Finalreport.pdfKeywords: First Nations/Gender/ Health/Women’s Health/Work/YouthAbstract: In 1997 the Mi’kmaq Health ResearchGroup, made up of health coordinators of threeFirst Nations organizations and academics fromDalhousie University, conducted the Mi’kmaqHealth Survey. The single most arresting findingof this study was the stress experience of youngfemales living on reserve. Thirty per cent ofMi’kmaq female youth compared to seven percent of Mi’kmaq male youth said they were“quite a bit or extremely stressed.” Feeling“sad or depressed for two weeks or more” wasselected by 47% of the female youth comparedto 21% of male youth. And male Mi’kmaq youthwere much more likely to report “I like the wayI am” (84%) than were female youth (57%). Thefindings of the Health Survey, our first researchundertaking, led to our study of adolescentMi’kmaq women (12 to 18 years old). AnExploration of the Stress Experience of Mi’kmaqOn-reserve Female Youth in Nova Scotia(2001) examines physical stressors (e.g., beingoverweight), mental stressors (e.g., depression,self-esteem, and emotional health) and stressorsrelated to social relationships. The overall goalof this study was to identify policy and programsthat might be effective in reducing thenegative stress of young Mi’kmaq women.44. Napoli, M. (2002). Holistic Health Carefor Native Women: An Integrated Model.American Journal of Public Health 92[10], 1573-1575.Keywords: Diabetes/Education/ Empowerment/

Health/Health Care/ WorkAbstract: Providing health care services toNative women has become a challenge owingto the severity of illness -- in particular, diabetes,alcoholism, and arthritis -- in this group today.If comprehensive health care is to be offered,coordination of services between healthand mental health practitioners is needed.Gathering together to support each other hasbeen a traditional custom for Native women. Anintegrated health care model is discussed thatoffers Native women an opportunity to dealwith the challenge of mental health and healthissues through traditional activities, enhancingtheir physical and spiritual health and receivingeducation while creating an atmosphere ofempowerment and mutual support (JournalAbstract).45. Native Women’s Association ofCanada. (1994). Aboriginal Women andSubstance Abuse: Needs Consultation Report.Ottawa, ON: Native Women’s Association ofCanada.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ Culture/Prevention/womenAbstract: Aboriginal women’s sobriety is not anentity unto itself; it involves their families andcommunities. As caretakers of their culture,Aboriginal women have the greatest influencein promoting activities which can avoid orreduce the risk of substance use or abuse.Moreover, Aboriginal women have a significantrole to play in the co-design of preventionprograms. Yet, in most consultations forprogramming directives, Aboriginal women area forgotten minority. Thus, the purpose of thisreport is to provide a forum in which Aboriginalwomen identify methods for preventing alcoholand substance abuse, and to develop aconceptual prototype which would assist in theprevention of alcohol abuse among Aboriginalwomen and their families.46. Native Women’s Association ofCanada. (1996). Helping You Quit: A SmokingCessation Guide for Aboriginal Women inCanada. Ottawa, ON: Native Women’sAssociation of Canada.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ Canada/Health/Prevention/Smoking Cessation/Women’s HealthAbstract: This publication’s contents includediscussions around; 1.Indian women & Tobaccouse, Canada; 2. Smoking cessation programs,;3.Smoking Prevention, ; 4. Indians, NorthAmerican,; 5.Women’s Health,; 6. SmokingCessation,; 7. Smoking prevention & control,.47. Native Women’s Transition Centre.(1996). Kichi Chistemaw Pimatisiwin: Tobacco asthe Way of Life: Facilitator’s Guide & Handbook.Smoking Reduction Program for AboriginalPeople. Winnipeg, MB: Native Women’sTransition Centre. 1-16-2005.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Critical LearningOpportunities/Cultural Integrity and Identity/Smoking Cessation/Strong Families and HealthyChild DevelopmentAbstract: Contains all the tools needed tocreate a thirteen-week program, includingtraditional teachings about the use of tobacco.Power, control and Aboriginal experiences arehighlighted (CWHN Abstract).48. Obin, C., Kirmayer, L. J., Gill, K., &Robinson, E. (1997). Widening the Circle:Collaborative Research for Mental HealthPromotion in Native Communities. Montreal,QC, Institute of Community & Family Psychiatry,Sir Mortimer B. Davis - Jewish General Hospitaland Division of Social & Transcultural Psychiatry,Department of Psychiatry, McGill University.2005.Available Online: http://upload.mcgill.ca/tcpsych/Report8.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Women/ AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/Adequate Income and Sustainable Economies/Basic Physical Needs/Health/Social Justice andEquityAbstract: This report represents the proceedingsof a conference on developing partnerships forresearch on mental health and illness in Nativecommunities and also to discuss and improvethe understanding of issues related to mentalhealth and social services. A great deal of thereport focuses on factors that contribute toAboriginal women’s mental health problems.49. Paproski, L. (1997). Healing Experiencesof British Columbia First Nations Women:Moving Beyond Suicidal Ideation and Intention.Canadian Journal of Community Mental Health16[2], 69. 1-17-2005.Keywords: Adequate Power/British Columbia/Culture/Empowerment/First Nations/Healing/Life-Sustaining Values, Morals and Ethics/Prevention/Suicide/YouthAbstract: This study explores how five BritishColumbia First Nations women moved throughsuicidal ideation and intention in their youth.Much of their healing process was facilitatedby a reconnection to their cultural identity andtraditional Native spirituality. Phenomenologicalresearch methods were used to guidethe interview process, analysis, and theinterpretation of unstructured interviews. Eachtranscribed interview was analyzed for themesand developed into a narrative. Severalprocedures were used to examine the validityof the analysis and interpretation, includingparticipant review of the findings. Three of the12 themes that emerged suggest commonexperiences surrounding suicide attempts orAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing141

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing142ideation. These experiences suggest that theimpact of separation from family, community,and culture was significant for each of thesewomen. Nine of the 12 major themes describea variety of healing experiences for these fivewomen, involving Elders or other role models,professional counselors, family, and community.As a consequence of their healing experiences,all participants reported an increased senseof personal empowerment, a positive view ofthemselves, and a commitment to a positivefuture for themselves and other First Nationspeople. The significance of cultural connectionsand Native spirituality may have importantimplications for the intervention and preventionof suicide in First Nations youth (JournalAbstract).50. Parker, P. R. (1999). Alcoholism, GroupTherapy and Self-Esteem: Residential GroupTreatment in the North. Thesis (M.S.W.) --University of Northern British Columbia, 1999.Available Online: http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk1/tape10/PQDD_0034/MQ62489.pdfKeywords: First Nations/First Nations Women/womenAbstract: Residential group therapy treatmentfor alcoholism was studied looking at clientelecharacteristics of eighty clients. Combinedmethodology both qualitative and quantitativewas used. Forty-four per cent of the clients wereFirst Nations. Self-administered self-esteem resultsfor 47 participants were analyzed showing anincrease in self-esteem. A second measure,Hudson’s Index of Self-Esteem, was given to awomen’s group and a statistically significantimprovement in self-esteem was noted. Threeinterviews were recorded, two with First Nationswomen and one with a couple some thirteenyears after treatment. It was learned that200 others followed from the reserve to seektreatment. As well as analyzing improvementin self-esteem, this study asked whethergroup therapy was helpful for the clients.Therapeutic experiences proposed by Yalomwere observed during group therapy. Grouptherapy also appeared to be an effective wayfor First Nations people and others to know andappreciate one another.51. Peterson, S., Berkowitz, G., Cart, C. U.,& Brindis, C. (2002). Native American Womenin Alcohol and Substance Abuse Treatment.Journal of Health Care for the Poor andUnderserved, 13[3], 360-378.Keywords: Health/Health CareAbstract: Alcohol and other drug use is aserious problem among American Indian andAlaska Native women. However, informationabout their needs for treatment is lacking. Inresponse, a study was conducted to documentthe life experiences and perceived recoveryneeds of American Indian and Alaska Nativewomen at nine treatment centers nationwide.The data show that most of these womenhave experienced various forms of abuse andneglect from childhood into adulthood andhave been exposed to alcohol and otherdrugs from an early point in their lives. Most ofthese women have made multiple attemptsto recover from their addictions, often for thesake of their children. The information derivedfrom this study can be used as the foundationfor further research about the treatment needsof American Indian and Alaska Native women(Journal Abstract).53. Reading J. & with assistance fromAllyard, Y. (1999). The Tobacco Report: FirstNations and Inuit Regional Health Surveys.Winnipeg, MB, Northern Research Unit, Universityof Manitoba.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/ Canada/FirstNations/Health/ Manitoba/Prevention/ResearchAbstract: The main purpose of this paper is tohighlight results concerning the non-traditionaluse of tobacco from the First Nations and InuitRegional Health Survey (FNIRHS, 1997). The nontraditionaluse of tobacco among Aboriginalpeoples living in Canada is a serious andgrowing health concern, thus tobacco misuse isan appropriate target for health promotion anddisease prevention efforts. The report includes anumber of cessation programs, many of whichare aimed at women.54. Robinson, C. (1997). Legacy to Choice:Healing the Pain of the Past. Dreamspeaker.Vancouver, BC, BC Region, Department ofIndian Affairs and Northern Development.Available Online: http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/nr/nwltr/drm/1997/drm_su_97_e.pdfKeywords: Healing/Poverty/Racism/ TraumaAbstract: The author discusses a four-dayhealing workshop “From Legacy to Choice”which was held on the Squamish Reserve inNorth Vancouver in 1997. The Workshop wasled by author and internationally known griefexpert, Jane Middelton-Moz. The workshop wasmeant to guide people through difficult andpersonal issues arising from intergenerationaltrauma. This is when tragedies such as war,oppression, poverty, racism, alcoholism, deathsof parents or siblings, sexual, emotional andphysical abuse are not grieved by individuals,families and communities, and the unresolvedgrief is carried into the next generation. Usinga very interactive and personal approach,Middelton-Moz helps people understand theeffects of trauma that they, their parents orgrandparents experienced and helps themto validate those experiences. As part of thisprocess, many people often begin to feelpainful emotions they have blocked out fora long time. Others are able to find logical

explanations for the turbulent emotions thathave ruled their lives.55. Ross, M. (1995). Relation of Addictionto Suicide in Aboriginal Women. Winnipeg, MB,Canadian Medical Association. 1-16-2005.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/BasicPhysical Needs/ Healing/Health/SuicideAbstract: Suicide among Aboriginal peoplein Canada is a serious and tragic problemthat needs to be addressed by all concernedCanadians, not just a relatively small numberof specialists in mental health. Those of usin the caring professions come in contactregularly with people at high risk for suicide. Thisprofessional contact provides an opportunityto relieve compassionately not only physicalsuffering but also states of mental anguishthat can lead a despairing person to commitsuicide. Aboriginal women are a high-riskgroup for suicide, especially when addictionsare also present. This paper suggests healingapproaches in a hitherto neglected area ofstudy-the health of Aboriginal women (CWHNAbstract).56. Rutman, D., Callahan, M., Lundquist,A., Jackson, S., & Field, B. (2000). SubstanceUse and Pregnancy: Conceiving Women in thePolicy Making Process. Ottawa, ON: Status ofWomen Canada.Available Online: http://www.swc-cfc.gc.ca/pubs/0662286146/200008_0662286146_e.pdfKeywords: Adequate Power/ SubstanceAddictions/WorkAbstract: This research report examines howpolicy in Canada deals with the issue ofsubstance use during pregnancy and suggestsalternative ways of addressing this problem thatmay prove less polarizing and punitive towardwomen. Examines how policy in Canadadeals with the issue of substance use duringpregnancy and suggests alternative ways ofaddressing this problem that may prove lesspolarizing and punitive toward women. Onefocus of this project has been to analyze theSupreme Court of Canada case of Ms. G.(October 31, 1997), in which a judge orderedmandatory drug treatment for a young, lowincomeAboriginal woman who was addictedto sniffing solvents; both the Majority andMinority judgments and the media coverage ofthe case were examined through a discourseanalysis. Another important component of theproject has been to uncover the experiencesof substance use, pregnant women and thepractitioners who work closely with them, and tohear their ideas about approaches that makea positive difference. A final and importantcomponent has been an in-depth case study,carried out in one Aboriginal community todetermine approaches that have a chance forsuccess in that community. The project has alsoaimed to address the challenge of integratingdiversity into policy research, developmentand analysis. Our project resulted in a numberof important directions for policy and practice,and our report concludes by providing a set ofrecommendations grounded in the experiencesof the people directly affected by the issues,which, we submit, will help ensure the proposeddirections’ relevance and ultimate success(CWHN Abstract).57. Ryan, S. A. (2000). The Many Directionsof Four Stories: Aboriginal Women’s ExperiencesLiving with Addictions and HIV/AIDS.Vancouver, BC, Thesis (M.A.) -- Simon FraserUniversity, Dept. of Sociology and Anthropology.2005.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Critical LearningOpportunities/Health/HIV/ AIDS/Life-SustainingValues, Morals and Ethics/Women’s HealthAbstract: This exploratory study involvedlistening, observing, analyzing, documenting,and better understanding “things as they are”for four street-involved, HIV-positive Aboriginalwomen from Downtown Eastside Vancouver.The thesis highlights the circumstances thatcontribute to the women’s vulnerability, not justto HIV/AIDS, but to a number of constrainingsocial factors that affect their overall health,safety, and quality of life. The narrative natureof the four women’s stories is used to gain agreater understanding of Aboriginal women’shealth issues. Historical issues, along with social,cultural, economic, and physical factors thatimpinge on the health of Aboriginal women areenhanced when combined with the four storiesof the study group.58. Schanche Hodge, F. & Casken, J.(1999). Characteristics of American IndianWomen Cigarette Smokers: Prevalence andCessation Status. Health Care for WomenInternational 20[5], 455-469. Felicia SchancheHodge, John Casken.Available Online: http://tinyurl.com/5fvx4Keywords: Education/Health/SmokingCessation/womenAbstract: A high rate of cigarette smoking isdocumented among the American Indianpopulation in California, but data on Indianwomen smokers have not been widely studied.This paper reports on a survey conducted in asmoking cessation project implemented andevaluated as part of a National Cancer Institute(NCI) cooperative agreement. Characteristicsof Indian women smokers are presented andcessation status is examined. The overall goal ofthe project was to increase long-term smokingcessation among American Indian populationsthrough a reproducible clinic-based smokingAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing143

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing144cessation program. To ascertain smokingprevalence and tobacco use patterns, a selfadministeredsurvey was completed by 1,369adult male and female American Indian healthclinic users in Northern California. Study resultsreported several important characteristics ofIndian women smokers. Single and divorcedparticipants had a higher smoking rate (40.4%and 42%) than married participants (34.4%);54.5% of unemployed women smoked; andlevel of education was strongly associated withsmoking status (p=.011). Almost 80% (79.9%) ofwomen former smokers quit using the ‘’coldturkey’’ method. Fewer than 50% of Indianwomen smokers reported willingness to quitat the following smoking cessation stages:‘’immediately’’ or ‘’ready’’ (12.4%), ‘’in onemonth’’ (10.5%), and ‘’in six months’’ (25.2%).This points to a need for effective tobaccocessation interventions for American Indians,which will take into consideration Indianwomen smokers’ demographic characteristics,lenient attitudes toward smoking, and smokingbehaviors (Journal Abstract).59. Struthers, R. & Lowe, J. (2003). Nursingin the Native American Culture and HistoricalTrauma. Issues in Mental Health Nursing 24[3],257-272.Keywords: Adequate Human Services andSocial Safety Net/Cultural Integrity and Identity/Culture/Health/ Health Care/TraumaAbstract: Historical trauma is a significantfact in the Native American community, afact affecting both health status and socialmilieu. Mental health nurses and other personsworking in the mental health professions will beconfronted over and over with historical traumawhen working with Native American peoplesand communities. To heal historical trauma,culturally appropriate strategies derived fromthe ancient knowledge, philosophy, and worldview of Native America are needed. Onetool mental health care providers can usewhen encountering historical trauma is theConceptual Framework of Nursing in the NativeAmerican Culture.60. Tait, C. (2000). A Study of the ServiceNeeds of Pregnant Addicted Women inManitoba. Winnipeg, MB, Prairie Women’sHealth Centre of Excellence. 1-16-2005.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/GenderSensitive Treatment/Health/Manitoba/Prevention/Strong Families and Healthy ChildDevelopment/ Substance AddictionsAbstract: Describes service needs of pregnantwomen who are substance users. The authorsuggests a gender-sensitive model fortreatment and extending treatment to womenwho present while intoxicated. This studyexamines and describes the service needs andexperiences of pregnant women in Manitobawho have problems with substance misuse. Theintroduction reviews background to the studyproject, the work of the project committees,and the study methodology, which includedinterviews with women receiving services andwith service providers. Part 2 reviews the rangeof programs and services available to pregnantwomen with substance misuse problems,including prevention programs, secondaryprevention and early intervention programs,and detoxification and treatment programs.Part 3 profiles the interviewed women (includingtheir socioeconomic status and problemswith substance misuse) and their experiencesof pregnancy. It also discusses reasons whythe women enter addiction treatment, thebarriers to accessing treatment, the treatmentexperience, and reasons for leaving treatment,the challenges to maintaining recovery, andexperiences of Aboriginal women in treatment.The end of part 3 includes participants’recommendations for improvements in thetreatment process. Part 4 summarizes overallconclusions and the appendix includes a listof recommendations for reform which are alsomade throughout the report. The appendixalso contains a copy of the service providerquestionnaire.61. Walker, C. A. (2005). Native IllnessMeanings: Depression and Suicide. Thesis (Ed.D.)-- University of Toronto, 1999.Available Online: http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk1/tape7/PQDD_0008/NQ59093.pdfKeywords: Canada/Culture/ Research/SuicideAbstract: Depression and suicide rates areprevalent amongst Native people living onreservations in North America. The literatureindicates that the emotional difficulty termed“depression” is common among Nativepeople (O’Nell, 1993). However, Westernunderstandings of the term “depression”may not always be applicable in Nativecontexts. Studies indicate that in some Nativecommunities the particular impact of socialcircumstances on mood is related to Nativepeoples’ experiences of depressive illness.It is important to understand the meaningsNative people give to the term “depression,”their experience of it, and the sources theyascribe to it, both social and individual. It wasthe purpose of this study to assess from theNative participants’ understanding, whetherdepression and suicide does affect those livingon a reserve in northwestern Ontario. This study’saim was to explore whether both depressionand suicide, as the terms are understood inWestern culture, are a problem for these Nativepeoples. Also, it was the aim to understandwhat the illness experience of depression andsuicide means for these Native people, both atthe social level, the contextual level and thepersonal one. It was intended that from thisresearch, knowledge would be gleaned about

what these Native peoples’ explanatory modelswere regarding the sources of low mood andsuicide. This exploratory narrative investigationrevealed the participants’ themes or meaningsthat they gave to their illness experience.These themes spoke to psychosocial sourcesto which these Native individuals attributedtheir experiences of psychological distress.In their understanding, both female andmale participants experienced episodes ofdepressive mood and certain symptoms.Participants also had experienced suicidalthoughts and intentions. Importantly,participants sourced their mood difficulties tosocial causes and not to their own biologicallybased predispositions or diseases as posited byWestern medicalized perspectives as sourcesfor mood problems. Rather, the occurrences ofpsychosocial stressors that began in early lifeand continued into adulthood were describedas major contributors to the illness experienceof mood difficulties by participants in this study(Author Abstract).62. Walters K. L. & Simoni J. M. (2002).Reconceptualizing Native Women’s Health: An“Indigenist” Stress-Coping Model . AmericanJournal of Public Health 92[4], 520-524.Keywords: Healing/Health/Native women/Trauma/women/Women’s HealthAbstract: This commentary presents an“Indigenist” model of Native women’s health,a stress-coping paradigm that situates Nativewomen’s health within the larger contextof their status as a colonized people. Themodel is grounded in empirical evidence thattraumas such as the “soul wound” of historicaland contemporary discrimination amongNative women influence health and mentalhealth outcomes. The preliminary model alsoincorporates cultural resilience, including asmoderators identity, enculturation, spiritualcoping, and traditional healing practices.Current epidemiological data on Nativewomen’s general health and mental health arereconsidered within the framework of this model(Journal Abstract).63. Walters, K. & Simoni, J. (1999). Trauma,Substance Use and HIV Risk among UrbanAmerican Indian Women. Cultural Diversity andEthnic Minority Psychology 5[3], 236-248.Keywords: Prevention/Research/ Sexual Assault/Trauma/women/ Substance MisuseAbstract: A survey of 68 American Indianwomen in New York City --aimed to informcommunity-based HIV prevention approaches--revealed that respondents indicated generallyhigh levels of HIV knowledge and self-efficacyfor safer behavior and low levels of perceivedrisk. Few had ever injected drugs, and 54%had been tested for HIV. However, 38% hadused alcohol or other drugs in the last sixmonths, and among the 59% who reportedsexual activity in this period, 80% had hadunprotected sex. Alarmingly, 44% reportedlifetime trauma, including domestic violence(25%) and physical (27%) or sexual (27%) assaultby a family member or stranger. Consistent witha postcolonial theoretical framework, traumawas a better predictor of HIV risk behavior thansocial cognitive variables. Moreover, preliminarylogistic regression analyses indicated the useof alcohol or other drugs may mediate therelationship between non-partner sexual assaultand sexual risk behaviors. Implications for futureresearch and culturally relevant communitybasedinterventions are considered.64. Wardman, D., Khan, N., & el-Guebaly,N. (2002). Prescription Medication Use AmongAboriginal Populations Accessing AddictionTreatment. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry47[4], 355-360.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/ Canada/First Nations/Inappropriate Use/PrescriptionMedicationAbstract: Objectives: Inappropriate prescriptionmedication use can have significantconsequences. Although it is suspected thatAboriginal populations within Canada havehigh rates of inappropriate use, publishedinformation is lacking. To better understandthis issue, we studied an Aboriginal populationseeking addiction treatment. Methods: Wesurveyed Aboriginal clients who accessedaddiction treatment in Calgary, Alberta, forprescription medication use in the previousyear, frequency of medication use, andmedication source(s), if inappropriatelyused. Results: Sixty-nine per cent of theclients completed the survey (n = 144). Mostrespondents were aged 31 to 50 years (56%),and 52% were male. Of the respondents,48% reported that they used prescriptionmedication inappropriately, 8% indicatedappropriate use, and the rest indicated nomedication use. Sedatives or relaxants weremost frequently used inappropriately. Amongthose who inappropriately used medication,47% used medication more than 10 times inthe previous year. Common sources for thosewho used medication inappropriately includedmedication given by a friend or a stranger(52%), medication bought on the street (45%),and medication prescribed by a physician(41%). Age greater than or equal to 30 yearswas associated with inappropriate use. Sex,residence, and Aboriginal status were notfound to be associated with inappropriateuse. Conclusion: Inappropriate prescriptionmedication use was a significant problemamong an Aboriginal population that soughtaddiction treatment, and many of theseindividuals accessed medication from aprescribing physician (Journal Abstract).Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing145

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing1466. Sexual and PhysicalViolence against WomenThis broad area encompassesthe many different aspects ofviolence experienced by Aboriginalwomen including sexual violence,sexual childhood abuse (incest),sexual exploitation and prostitution.Understanding the sexuality and sexualhealth of Aboriginal women would also bea focus of this area. The sexual health ofAboriginal women also includes a review ofresearch comprised of literature regardingsexually transmitted diseases, HIV/AIDS andprevention and protection against STDs.Aboriginal women face multiple forms ofviolence, including physical and sexualviolence perpetrated not only by theirown communities, but from mainstreamCanadians and as a result of the systemicrealities of living within Canada. Theliterature grouped under this section looksat a variety of issues from: (1) domesticviolence; (2) childhood sexual abuse andsexual violence; to (3) Aboriginal sexualityand sexual education and preventionof sexually transmitted diseases; (4) HIV/AIDS and sexually transmitted diseases;and lastly (5) the utilization of violence byAboriginal women.Domestic ViolenceFamily violence has no boundaries anddoes not discriminate. The existence offamily violence is evident and occursacross all ethnic, cultural, age, religious,social and economic lines. Accordingto the literature at least three quartersof Aboriginal women in Canada havebeen the victims of family violence(Ontario Native Women’s Association,1989; The National Clearing House onFamily Violence, 1997). The Ontario NativeWomen’s Association found that 8 out of 10Aboriginal women in Ontario (comparedto the national statistics that report 1out of 10 women are victims of spousalabuse) had personally experienced familyviolence, 87% had experienced physicalinjury and 57% had been sexually abused(Ontario Native Women’s Association,1989). It is estimated that between 75%and 90% of women in some northernAboriginal communities are abused. Thesame study found that 40% of children innorthern communities had been physicallyabused by a family member (Dumont-Smith & Sioui-Labelle, 1991). A nationalstudy by the Aboriginal Nurses Associationof Canada indicates that Aboriginal youthunder 15 years of age are most frequentlyphysically abused (Dumont-Smith, & Sioui-Labelle, 1991).More facts to consider:• Aboriginal women experience higherrates of spousal abuse• Aboriginal children witness violence ata higher rate• Aboriginal peoples experience higherrates of victimization• Aboriginal victims experience moresevere forms of violence• Over the past 20 years, approximately500 Aboriginal women have gonemissing in communities across Canada(Native Women’s Association ofCanada)Dion Stout (1997) noted that for manyAboriginal children and youth, violenceis a fact of life. Firsthand experienceswith abuse, alcoholism and violenceare so great that few children grow upunscathed as family violence spansmany generations. LacRocque (1993)believes that violence against Aboriginalwomen and children has escalateddramatically and that it is one of twoof the most important health problemsfacing Aboriginal peoples. Analysis ofshelter intake data in Canada’s NorthwestTerritories by Reinke (1997) revealed thatover 80% of shelter clients were Aboriginaland had experienced multiple formsof abuse by their partners. Police andprofessionals believe that there are stilllots of cases of family violence and abusewhich are not reported. And there is stilllittle acknowledgement that some forms ofviolence and abuse are even happening,especially child neglect and elder abuse(Chambers, Little, Brockman, Abel andCatholique, 1993). Brownridge (2003)established that Aboriginal women inparticular experience a significantly higherprevalence of violence by their partnersin comparison to other non-AboriginalCanadian women. Cohen and MacLean

(2004) note that exposure to violence asa child or an adult places a woman athigher risk of poor health outcomes, bothphysically and psychologically. In thatstudy Aboriginal women in Manitoba andSaskatchewan were found to suffer higherrates of violence than non-Aboriginalwomen. The Aboriginal Justice InquiryCommission (2001) reviewed the AJI reporton violence against women and notedthat the concerns expressed by Aboriginalwomen about domestic violence havenot always been adequately addressedby society, police, the courts and/orband governments and that Aboriginalmale leaders have been reluctant toacknowledge or respond to the issue offamily violence.Mahajarine and D’Arcy’s (1999) studyfound that although all ethnic groups ofwomen suffer abuse, pregnant Aboriginalwomen were at a greater risk of physicalharm than non-Aboriginal women,especially if their partners had a drinkingproblem. Aboriginal women’s perspectivesabout domestic violence and their viewsof the justice system and ideas aboutoffender disposition were exposed byMcGillivray and Comaskey (1999). Frank(1997) argued that solutions to familyviolence issues in Aboriginal families mustbe made within the community andsuch solutions must arise out of holisticapproaches that deal with all aspectsof the spiritual, emotional, mental andphysical needs of the individual, familyand community. Aboriginal womenhave indicated that Aboriginal maleperpetrators of family violence must beinvolved in the family violence preventionprocess, because men play an integralpart in human development (AboriginalJustice Implementation Commission,2001). Violence experienced by otherAboriginal women in Canada was alsoconducted by the Canadian Panel onViolence against Women (1993), whichidentified various obstacles to enddomestic violence in Inuit communitiessuch as poverty, lack of housing andeducation as well as employment, movingfrom traditional health care methods tonon-Inuit health care methods, to alcoholand solvent abuse. Hopkins (1995) lookedat men’s violence against women in theYukon while Orozco (1991) researcheddomestic violence issues among the Inuitof Baffin Island in the Northwest Territories.Pauktuutit Inuit Women’s Association (1995)also looked at Inuit traditional knowledgeand values regarding criminal behaviourswhich endanger Inuit women’s lives inremote communities. Most women, andespecially Aboriginal women, who havebeen victims of sexual violence, rarelyreport their victimization because ofsociety’s and the court’s hurtful responseto victims and Canada’s laws on sexualviolence (Roberts, 2005). Robertsdescribed three main ways in which thecriminal justice process has been hurtfulto Aboriginal women who are sexuallyvictimized: denial of victims’ experiences ofabuse, blaming of victims for having beenabused, and violation of victims’ privacyand autonomy.Childhood Sexual Abuse andSexual ViolenceThe Aboriginal Women’s Council ofSaskatchewan (1989) conducted researchon the pervasive problem of child sexualabuse in Aboriginal families, communitiesand reserves. Their understanding of childsexual abuse in Aboriginal communitiesindicates that this is a feature of bothAboriginal and non-Aboriginal societies.The power imbalance between Aboriginalwomen and men is what keeps Aboriginalwomen from reporting sexual abusethrough silence, political power and fear.Surgar and Fox’s (1995) research intothe experiences of federally sentencedwomen also revealed that many Aboriginalwomen serving time have been subjectto childhood sexual abuse, violenceand assault or rape. Barker-Collo (1999)documented the symptomatology andcoping behaviours of Aboriginal andnon-Aboriginal women who have beensexually abused in childhood. Baker-Collo’s study indicates that Aboriginalwomen have significantly higher levels ofsymptomatology than Caucasian womenfollowing sexual abuse. An investigationinto the lived experience of childhoodsexual abuse by six Aboriginal womenwas also conducted by McEvoy andDaniluck (1995). Six women’s stories onrecovery from childhood sexual abuse washighlighted by Herbert and McCannell(1997), which findings point to theAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing147

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healingimportance of culture and gender in theAboriginal women’s recovery. Kingsleyand Mark’s (2000) attention was on theissue of commercially sexually exploitedchildren and youth. Their researchprovides insight into youths’ perspectiveson abuse and exploitation, prevention,crisis intervention, harm reduction, exitingand healing as well as public attitudesand the participation of youth in suchstudies as this one. The Law Commissionof Canada (2000) carried out one ofthe largest studies into the issue of childabuse in Canadian institutions, includingresidential schools, in an attempt toanalyze and understand the social andlegal issues around institutional child abuseand to evaluate possible approaches toredress. Qualitative interviews done byNixon, Tutty, Downe, Gorkoff and Ursell(2002) found that over half of the women(n=23) who participated in their studyregarding prostitution had been involvedin prostitution since they were 15 yearsold or younger. Many of these womenpoint out that they experienced high ratesof violence and that the sexual abuseagainst them occurred most often in thehome by family members or by caretakerswhile they lived in foster care. Parsons’(1999) thesis compared and contrastedlegal protections extended to sexuallyabused non-Aboriginal children withthose afforded to Aboriginal childrenin Canada. Parsons found inequity inthe treatment of Aboriginal peopleand made recommendations aroundrevisions to the rules of evidence withrespect to procedures regarding childsexual abuse victims and to provideprotection to women and children living inAboriginal communities. The Inuit analysisof childhood sexual abuse can be foundin research conducted by the PauktuutitInuit Women’s Association (2003), whichdocumented the success of a programthat emphasized healing and supportfor survivors of child sexual abuse in Inuitcommunities. The experience of sexualassault among Inuit females was alsothe focus of research done by Nahanee(1994). Koski and Mahoney (1995) provideinsight into family violence issues as wellas child sexual abuse concerns amongNative peoples in the Northwest Territories.The experience of incest among womenof color and Native American women wasalso explored by Tyagi (2001). An earlyresource on childhood sexual abuse wasdeveloped by Samson (1992), which offersinformation to First Nations adult survivorsof childhood sexual abuse and what to doto help recover from the trauma of sexualabuse and where to get support. Despitethe availability of resources such as thatdeveloped by Samson, other researchers(Tayler and Watters, 1994) have notedthat there are far too few resourcesand services, including funding, to assistyoung Aboriginal people in dealing withthe trauma from childhood sexual abuseregardless of whether they live at home orin alternative care arrangements.The material in this area also looks at thesexual abuse of adult Aboriginal women. AManitoba study by Young and Katz (1998)on the prevalence and extent of sexualabuse among Aboriginal women wasexamined. The prevalence of sexual abusewas higher among Aboriginal womenand the findings indicate that Aboriginalwomen tended to be younger when theyfirst had sexual intercourse, along withmultiple partners and a history of sexuallytransmitted diseases. Other researchthat has looked at sexual violence andrape experienced by Aboriginal womenwas recently done by Bell (2005), whileAmnesty International (2004) releaseda report on the factors that contributedto the heightened awareness of the risksof sexual violence and violence againstindigenous women in urban environments.Lynn (2005) discusses prostitution and FirstNations women in Canada and notes thatprostitution is a particularly (obviously)violent legacy of colonization and thatmany Aboriginal women wanting toleave the profession have no access toprograms to assist them to leave, whichresults in women remaining trapped in theprostitution trade. Neron (2000) addressesthe connection between HIV and sexualviolence among Aboriginal women andhow health care workers and organizationscan connect these issues in their work withAboriginal women.148

HIV/AIDS and SexuallyTransmitted DiseasesThe sexual violence the Aboriginal womenexperience as a result of exposures tochildhood sexual abuse and racismalso leaves them vulnerable to sexuallytransmitted diseases, including HIV/AIDs.A very small percentage of the literaturelooks at sexually transmitted diseasessuch as Chlamydia and gonorrhoea andother communicable diseases such ashepatitis A, B and C. But there is now agrowing body of literature that is beginningto document the toll of HIV/AIDS onthe female populations of indigenouscommunities in North America.The literature dealing primarily with sexuallytransmitted diseases is fairly small. Theearliest piece of literature that exists wasthat conducted by Jolly (1993) who lookedat the number of women undergoingtesting for sexually transmitted diseasesin Manitoba. Jolly’s study revealed thatamong those tested for STDs were youngAboriginal people with Indian status wholived primarily in urban settings in lowincomeareas. The Aboriginal women in thisstudy were also deemed to be at a higherrisk of co-infection with both gonorrhoeaand Chlamydia in comparison to the non-Aboriginal sample involved in the study.Orr, Sherman, Blanchard, Fast, Hammondand Brunham (1994) again looked atthe incidence of Chlamydial infection inManitoba and concluded that Chlamydialinfection was highest among females aged15-24 and that recurrent infections weremore common in women and registeredNorth American Indians. A follow-up studyby Jolly, Orr, Hammond and Young (1995)also confirmed that a young age, Indianstatus and urban residence were factorsassociated with Chlamydial infection.Two years later, Young, McNicol andBeavais (1997) published the results of astudy they conducted on the prevalenceand correlates of human papillomavirusinfection among women attending anethnically mixed, predominantly lowincome,inner-city primary care clinic.Human papillomavirus was detectedin 33% of the participants in the studywith no significant difference betweenAboriginal and non-Aboriginal women.Other research on STDs among the Inuitpopulation was done by Pauktuutit InuitWomen’s Association (1999), which wasmore of an information paper on thecause and effect of STDs in the north.Another more recent paper publishedabout STDs among the Inuit population wasSteenbeek’s (2004) article on the need todevelop strategies to increase self-esteem,self-advocacy and healthy choices amongAboriginal adolescents in the North in orderto prevent sexually transmitted infections(STIs).The balance of the material under thissection deals specifically with the concernaround the growing prevalence of HIVand AIDs transmission among Aboriginalwomen in North America. Mill (1997) notesthat the Aboriginal female populationappears to be overrepresented in theHIV/AIDS statistics. There is a dramaticincrease in HIV and AIDS rates reportedamong Aboriginal peoples in Canada,particularly among Aboriginal women,despite underreporting and the smallnumber of documented AIDS cases (Shipand Norton, 2001). While the prevalenceof HIV/AIDS is relatively low among theNative American populations, Nativewomen are at extreme risk for contractingthe disease because of several riskfactors such as poverty, alcoholism, druguse, violence and high rates of sexuallytransmitted infections and poor access tohealth care (Fernandez, 2003). A morecomprehensive understanding of socialfactors and the environment around HIVrisk behaviours is needed to understandwhy Aboriginal women migrate to urbancentres, how and whether they connectwith services upon arrival and how thesepatterns are influenced by victimization,substance abuse and reliance on incomefrom the sex trade (McKeown, Reid,Turner and Orr, 2002). Risk factors suchas poverty and injection drug use mayincrease the likelihood of Aboriginalwomen being exposed to HIV/AIDS(Craib, Spittal, Wood, Laliberte andHogg, 2003). Survival techniques mayplace Aboriginal women in situations thatincrease exposure to HIV infection (Mill,1997). In addition, the Aboriginal NursesAssociation (1996) explored the attitudes,knowledge and risk behaviours amongAboriginal women with respect to HIV/Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing149

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing150AIDS. Amaratunga and Gahagan (2005)focused on gender, social, political andeconomic factors that contribute to AIDSas well as the challenges of understandingthe experience of those at greater risk ofHIV (i.e. Aboriginal persons with drug useand alcohol addictions). Prenatal carefor Aboriginal women with HIV/AIDS andthe need to educate these women toreduce transmission of HIV from mothers totheir babies was examined by Bucharski,Brockman and Lambert (1999). Moresubstantial effort is needed to educateAboriginal women about the implicationsof participating in HIV/AIDS screeningand studies, indicated Jones (2004), whoexamined the results of a three-year studyon 5,242 pregnant Aboriginal women,of which 15 Aboriginal women (seventimes more than expected in the generalpopulation) tested positive for HIV butwere not notified because the study wasconducted anonymously. The publicationThe Red Road: Pathways to Wholeness: AnAboriginal Strategy for HIV and AIDS in BCexamines HIV/AIDS and Aboriginal peoplesfrom a gendered perspective as well asthe types of healing approaches beingutilized in BC communities (BC AboriginalHIV/AIDS Task Force, 1999).Sexuality, Sex Education andPrevention against STDsA small body of literature looks atAboriginal sexuality, sexual educationand strategies around the preventionof sexually transmitted diseases andinfections. A study on condom useamong Aboriginal men and women from111 First Nations communities in Ontario,Canada was conducted by Calzavara,Burchelle, Myers, Bullock, Escobar andCockerill (1998). A more specific lookat Aboriginal female condom use waspublished by Marsden and Newman(2001), which sought to introduceAboriginal women to condom use, providethem with condoms and documenttheir experiences using condoms. Theirstudy revealed that the introduction offemale-controlled prevention method inAboriginal communities, through culturallyappropriate ways, has significant potentialto reduce the risk of women contractingSTDs, including HIV/AIDS and unplannedpregnancies. The Aboriginal NursesAssociation of Canada and PlannedParenthood Federation of Canada (2002)also produced one of the first sourcebooks of its kind on sexual reproductivehealth from an Aboriginal perspectiveand context and include up-to-dateinformation, teaching resources, programmodels, and personal stories on sexualand reproductive health as defined byAboriginal peoples. A similar Americanpublication looking at reproductive health,sexuality, midwifery, pregnancy, barriers towomen’s health care and approaches toaddress Native American women’s healthneeds was covered by Asetoyer, Cronkand Hewakpage (2003). The attitudesof young Aboriginal people, includingyoung Aboriginal women, about sex,sexuality and family matters, includingcontraceptive practices, were ascertainedthrough a province-wide questionnaire,interviews with front line workers, parentsand Elders and a youth focus groupby the Ontario Federation of IndianFriendship Centres (2002). Aboriginalacademics have argued that there is aneed for more and better access to sexeducation for Aboriginal children, youthand adults (LaRocque, 1994; AboriginalNurses Association, 2002). Sex educationis essential as a preventative measureagainst sexual abuse, sexually transmitteddiseases and necessary in effectiveplanning for parenthood. Aboriginalwomen are particularly susceptible tosexually transmitted diseases largelybecause of inequitable gender relations ashas been noted by a number of scholars(Dion Stout, 1996; Aboriginal NursesAssociation, 1996; Bruce, 2000; Mill, 1996,1996, 2000).Violence by Aboriginal WomenResearch that addresses the violenceperpetrated by Aboriginal womenthemselves simply does not exist althoughit can easily be abstracted from thevolumes of material that address theoverrepresentation of Aboriginal womenin the criminal justice system (Jackson,1999). In her article, The Violence WeWomen Do: A First Nations View, PatriciaMonture-Okanee refers to the CanadianHuman Rights Commission findings thatit is more likely for a First Nations persongrowing up in this country to go to prison

than to university (1992). Murdock(2001) is the only other author to havedirectly addressed the issue of violenceby women themselves and the need todirect our attention to women’s intimateviolence from the standpoint of Aboriginalwomen who engage in violent behaviour.Murdock (2002) explored the issue ofwomen’s intimate violence by interviewingAboriginal women for her Master’s thesisin order to understand how these womenmade sense of their own use of violence.Murdock states that much of Aboriginalwomen’s violence is blamed on the longhistory of oppression and victimization fromtrying to survive in a predominantly whitesociety.An annotated list of all the resourcescentering on the sexual and domesticviolence is listed below.Bibliography of Resources1. Aboriginal Family Healing Joint SteeringCommittee (1993). For Generations to Come:The Time is Now: A Strategy for Aboriginal FamilyHealing. Toronto: Aboriginal Family Healing JointSteering Committee.Keywords: Family Violence/ Healing/NativeWomenAbstract: This publication looks at the abuseexperienced by Aboriginal women and familyviolence issues in Ontario.2. Aboriginal Justice ImplementationCommission (2001). Chapter Nine: Violencetowards Aboriginal Women and Children. InVolume 1, Report of the Aboriginal JusticeInquiry of Manitoba: The Justice System andAboriginal People. Winnipeg, MB: Manitoba.Available Online: www.aji-cwi.mb.caKeywords: Aboriginal Women/ Manitoba/SocialJustice and EquityAbstract: The Aboriginal Justice Inquiry devoteda chapter to dealing with issues facingAboriginal women and children. One of themost significant was the issue of domesticviolence. This chapter of the AJIC reportcontains separate sections on the ways thatsociety responds to violence against Aboriginalwomen and violence against children. It reviewspolicy developments since the AJI report andmakes recommendations.3. Aboriginal Nurses Association (1996).HIV/AIDS and its Impact on Aboriginal Womenin Canada. Ottawa, ON: Department of HealthCanada.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ Canada/HIV/AIDS/womenAbstract: In the context of a broad consultationwith health care experts, various agencies andAboriginal women, a study was undertaken in1992 to assess the knowledge, attitudes andrisk behaviors in relation to HIV/AIDS amongAboriginal women in Canada. Participantsincluded 582 Aboriginal females. This reportsummarizes data collected in the study andprovides information on demographics, sexualorientation, knowledge about AIDS, attitudesconcerning AIDS, sexual lifestyles, safe sexpractices, issues of violence, issues of alcoholand drug abuse, issues of sexually transmitteddiseases, and implications for Aboriginalchildren. The report includes a number ofrecommendations centering on a need forcommunity-based, comprehensive educationalprograms that address safe sex, sexuality, andsexual health.4. Aboriginal Nurses Association ofCanada & Planned Parenthood Federation ofCanada (2002). Finding Our Way: A Sexual andReproductive Health Sourcebook for AboriginalCommunities. Ottawa, ON: Aboriginal NursesAssociation of Canada.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/ Canada/FamilyViolence/First Nations/Health/HIV/AIDS/Men/Menopause/Pregnancy/Reproductive Health/Residential School Legacy/Sexual Health/Two-Spirited/womenAbstract: Finding Our Way is the firstcomprehensive Canadian resource on sexualand reproductive health within an Aboriginalcultural context. This sourcebook includesup-to-date information, teaching resources,program models, and personal stories on sexualand reproductive health issues as defined byAboriginal peoples.5. Aboriginal Women’s Action Network(2001). Research Report on the Implications ofRestorative Justice for Women and Children inIsolated Communities in BC with DocumentedHistories of Violence. Ottawa, ON: The LawCommission of Canada.Available Online: http://www.lcc.gc.ca/en/themes/sr/rj/awan/Awan.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Women/ British Columbia/Canada/Children/ Gender/Government/Justice/ Social Justice and Equity/ViolenceAgainst Women/womenAbstract: This paper is intended as acomparative overview of five Aboriginalcommunities in British Columbia and thepossible implications of initiating RestorativeJustice Reforms in cases of violence againstwomen and children in these communities.This document examines the ways in whichAboriginal women’s experience of colonizationAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing151

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healingis mediated by gender and attempts to locatethe effects of violence against women andchildren within this trajectory. As Aboriginalwomen it is our belief that our voices must beconsidered before any discussion of restorativejustice and diversion of K files (files on violentoffences against women and children) takesplace. This paper looks at the conditions ofwomen’s lives within their community, andprovide a frame of reference and contextshould these reforms become more commonlyused in cases of violence against womenand children. Restorative justice as it is usedfor violent offenses should not be theoreticalabstracted ideas that are formed in a vacuumby government officials, romanticized andremoved from the context of our lives asAboriginal people. These reforms can anddo have a profound impact on women andchildren’s safety, particularly in communitiesthat are geographically and socially isolated.This paper attempts to articulate our numerousconcerns, taking both women’s voices andcurrent theory around restorative justice intoaccount.6. Aboriginal Women’s Council ofSaskatchewan (1989). Child Sexual Abuse:Words from Concerned Women. CanadianWomen Studies Magazine, 10, 90-91.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/First Nations/Sexual Abuse/women/ Offenders/First NationsCommunities/MenAbstract: This article describes the pervasiveproblem of child sexual abuse in Aboriginalfamilies, communities and reserves from theperspective of the Aboriginal Women’s Council.Anger is expressed not only at the offenders,but also at the system which “tends to punishpeople more for damaging property than itdoes for damaging a child’s life forever.” Theintergenerational nature of sexual abuse andits damaging effects on people’s lives areexplained. Denial of this social ill is a featureof both Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal society.The Aboriginal Women’s Council does not feelthat alcohol is responsible for sexual abuse,saying that this implies that the offender is notresponsible for his actions when, in fact, heis. The writers stipulate that cases of abusemust be reported in First Nations communitiesand offenders must be held accountable fortheir actions. The power imbalance betweenAboriginal men and women is mentioned inthis article. The Aboriginal Women’s Councilnotes that there are some communities whereAboriginal men are also taking responsibility,but the Aboriginal Women’s Council clearlypoints out that many Aboriginal women arestill silenced through violence and lack ofpolitical power and fear (portions of overviewand commentary taken from First Nations Self-Government of Social Services: An AnnotatedBibliography, by Dr. Douglas Durst, 1996: 76).7. Amaratunga, C. & Gahagan, J. (2005).Striking to the Heart of the Matter: SelectedReadings on Gender and HIV. Halifax, NS:Atlantic Centre of Excellence for Women’sHealth.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ Gender/Health/HIV/AIDS/Prevention/Sex Trade Workers/ SocialJustice and Equity/Women’s HealthAbstract: Focuses on contributing factorsrelated to AIDS such as gender, social, politicaland economic factors. Discusses awarenessof gender issues and differences with thedisease, as well as challenges of understandingthe experiences of those at greater risk of HIV(CWHN Abstract).8. Amnesty International (2004).Stolen Sisters: A Human Rights Response toDiscrimination and Violence against IndigenousWomen in Canada. Ottawa, ON: AmnestyInternational.Available Online: http://www.amnesty.ca/stolensisters/amr2000304.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Women/ Human Rights/Social Justice and Equity/Violence AgainstWomenAbstract: Looks at the factors that havecontributed to a heightened risk of violenceagainst indigenous women in Canadiancities, including the social and economicmarginalization of Aboriginal women. Examinesthe role of discrimination in acts of violencecarried out against indigenous women inCanadian towns and cities (CWHN Abstract).9. Anderson, K. (2000). A Recognition ofBeing: Reconstructing Native Womanhood.Toronto: Sumach Press.Keywords: Native women/ Violence/IdentityAbstract: Is there a special role for Nativewomen? Author Kim Anderson, herself a Cree-Metis woman, asserts that Native womanhood“is not about simply playing certain roles, oradopting a preset identity; rather... it is anongoing exercise” in finding the balancebetween one’s individuality, place in a family,the broader community and nation, and thespiritual world. Anderson explores how theNative female identity has been dismantledover the years through colonization, abuse anddisrespect, both within and outside the Nativecommunity. Anderson explains how Nativewomen are reclaiming their cultural traditionsand creating positive images of themselves trueto their heritage.10. Asetoyer, C., Cronk, K., & Hewakapuge,S. (2003). Indigenous Women’s Health Book,Within the Sacred Circle: Reproductive Rights,Environmental Health, Traditional Herbs and152

Remedies. Lake Andes, SD: Native AmericanWomen’s Health Education Resource Center.Keywords: Diet/Education/Family Violence/FirstNations/Healing/ Health/Indigenous Healing/Medicine/Midwifery/Pregnancy/ReproductiveHealth/Sexual Health/women/Women’s HealthAbstract: This book provides guidance in bothwestern and indigenous health approaches tospecifically address Native American women’shealth needs. Topics covered range fromtraditional midwifery, pregnancy, the politics ofreproductive health, contraception, domesticviolence, barriers to indigenous women’shealth care, health effects of environmentalcontamination, traditional herbs and remedies,Native American nutrition and weight loss,smoking, alcohol, drug abuse, and much more.11. Atkinson, J. & Ober, C. (1995). WeAl-Li ‘Fire and Water’: A Process of Healing.In K.Hazlehurst (Ed.), Popular Justice andCommunity Regeneration: Pathways ofIndigenous Reform. Westport, Conn.: Praeger.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/ AdequatePower/Healing/Justice/ Offenders/Canada/Youth/Culture/ Prevention/1Native women/womenAbstract: This publication reports oninnovations in the administration of justice,social reintegration of offenders, andadministration of justice alternatives, and inthe recovery of damaged communities. Thispublication provides descriptions of programs,assessment of their impact, and advocacyfor further change involving: IndigenousModels for Community Reconstruction andSocial Recovery; Social Policy and Canada’sAboriginal People: The Need for FundamentalReforms; Making the Criminal Law Your Own:The Tokelau Endeavour; Maori and YouthJustice in New Zealand; ‘Slay the Monsters’:Peacemaker Court and Violence ControlPlans for the Navajo Nation; Mediation withinAboriginal Communities: Issues and Challenges;‘The Strength of Community’: The NativeCounselling Services of Alberta Story; ‘A FittingRemedy’: Aboriginal Justice as a CommunityHealing Strategy; Addressing Aboriginal Crimeand Victimization in Canada: RevitalizingCommunities, Cultures and Traditions; ‘Body,Mind and Spirit’: Native Community Addictions,Treatment and Prevention.12. Barker-Collo, S. L. (1999). ReportedSymptomatology of Native Canadianand Caucasian Females Sexually Abusedin Childhood: A Comparison. Journal ofInterpersonal Violence, 14, 747-760.Keywords: Canadian Women/ Ethnic Groups/Sexual Abuse/ TraumaAbstract: As noted by the DSM-IV, “. . . theseverity and pattern of response [to trauma]may be modulated by cultural differences”such as “culturally prescribed coping behaviorsthat are characteristic of particular cultures”(American Psychiatric Association, 1994, p.430). As such, outcomes of sexual abuse (i.e.,symptomatology) may differ between ethnicgroups. This study examined symptomatologyreported in survey data obtained from a clinicalsample of 138 female survivors of childhoodsexual abuse. Seventy-eight respondentswere Caucasian, whereas 60 were of NativeCanadian ancestry. Native Canadian womenreported significantly higher levels of overallsymptomatology than Caucasian womenfollowing sexual abuse, F(137, 1) = 5.57, p < .05.In addition, levels of symptoms reported on theTrauma Symptom Checklist--40 did not varyequally in Native Canadian and Caucasiansamples. Native Canadian individuals reportedsignificantly higher levels of somatic, sexual,and sleep-related symptoms than Caucasians.The clinical implications of these findings areexamined (Journal Abstract).13. Barman, J. (1998). Taming AboriginalSexuality: Gender, Power, and Race in BritishColumbia, 1850 - 1900. BC Studies: The BritishColumbia Quarterly, 115/116.Keywords: British Columbia/ Gender/SexualityAbstract: Unavailable14. BC Aboriginal HIV/AIDS Task Force(1999). The Red Road: Pathways to Wholeness.An Aboriginal Strategy for HIV and AIDS in BC.British Columbia: BC Aboriginal HIV/AIDS TaskForce.Available Online: http://www.healthservices.gov.bc.ca/cpa/publications/red-road.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Peoples/ Basic PhysicalNeeds/ Gender/ Healing/ HIV/AIDS/MeaningfulWork and Service to OthersAbstract: Looks at HIV/AIDS and Aboriginalpeoples from the perspective of gender as wellas healing approaches in BC communities.15. Bell, D. (2005). Intra-Racial RapeRevisited: On Forging a Feminist Future BeyondFactions and Frightening Politics. Women’sStudies International Forum, 14, 385-412.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ Gender/History/Violence Against Women/womenAbstract: Three contentious issues are revisited:interracial rape, feminist theorizing around raceand gender, and the problematics of crossculturalcollaboration. The modes of analysisof abuse of Aboriginal women as revealed inrecent reports are examined and comparativecase material from North America offered.With particular reference to the shifting basesof a relationship with Topsy Napurrula Nelson,a personal, partial, and hidden history of anAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing153

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing154idea is traced: that is, a more empoweringfeminist future may be envisaged by groundingour theorizing on questions of gender, raceand violence in the possibility of relationality.The propensity to engage in social constructboundary maintenance is obscuring the factthat it is women who are being brutalized. Withreference to the handling of violence againstwomen by the courts and by “communities,”cross-cultural collaborations and enunciationsof women’s law can empower women. Forginga sustainable vision of a meaningful future in thecurrent crisis requires that the needs of womenbe addressed; that in pursuit of the politicsof difference we not lose sight of questionsof power; that the politics of law, the nationstate, the academy, and Aboriginal liberationstruggles that shape the “master narratives” areinterrogated from within and from “elsewhere.”16. Bellerose, E. (1993). Sentencing andsexual assault: Eurocentric and AboriginalApproaches. Ottawa, ON: National Associationof Women and the law.Keywords: Sexual Assault/Aboriginal WomenAbstract: Unavailable17. Blaney, F. (2001). AWAN’s “AboriginalWomen, Violence and the Law” Project. Kinesis,11.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ CanadianWomen/Justice/Violence Against WomenAbstract: Discussion covers: Aboriginal women’saction network [organization]; antiviolencemovement; Fraser River journey for justiceproject [2000]; Native Canadian women;violence against women; women’s experience18. Braveheart-Jordan, M. & DeBruyn, L.(2005). So She May Walk in Balance: Integratingthe Impact of Historical Trauma in the Treatmentof Native American Indian Women. In J.Adleman & G. M. Enguidanos (Eds.), Racismin the Lives of Women: Testimony, Theoryand Guides to Antiracist Practice. New York:Haworth Press.Keywords: Culture/Empowerment/ History/Native women/Racism/ TraumaAbstract: The impact of traumatic historicalevents on the indigenous peoples of theAmericas by European cultures has powerfulimplications for clinical interventions with Nativepeoples of today. The article introduces thegeneral concept of “historical trauma” outliningthe specific history of the Lakota/Dakota (Sioux)of the Northern plains as it relates to the theoryof historical trauma and unresolved grief. Focusis on the importance of integrating the conceptof historical trauma and traditional culturalperspectives into the therapeutic content ofclinical interventions with Native AmericanIndian women. The authors address issues oftransference and counter-transference aswell as what it means to become a culturallycompetent therapist. They caution againstutilizing feminist theory without consideration ofcultural and historical factors relevant to Indianwomen clients and discuss the effectivenessof psycho-educational groups that are semistructured,based on an empowermentmodel of providing coping skills and otherskills development for Native American Indianwomen (from the chapter).19. Brownridge, D. A. (2003). Male PartnerViolence against Aboriginal Women in Canada- An Empirical Analysis. Journal of InterpersonalViolence, 18, 65-83.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ AdequatePower/Canada/Social Justice and EquityAbstract: This study fills a gap in the extantliterature through an empirical investigationof male partner violence against Aboriginalwomen in Canada. Using a large-scalerepresentative sample of Canadian women,analyses show Aboriginal women to have asignificantly higher prevalence of violenceby their partner compared to non-Aboriginalwomen. Violence against Aboriginal womenis more likely at all levels of severity, with thegreatest disparity on the most severe formsof violence, and appears more likely to beongoing. Risk markers generally operate inthe same direction for Aboriginals and non-Aboriginals, although Aboriginal womenpossess greater representation on risk markersof violence, and the impact of risk markersis generally larger for Aboriginal women.Although established risk markers are helpfulfor understanding violence against Aboriginalwomen, differences between Aboriginals andnon-Aboriginals on risk markers do not accountfor Aboriginal women’s significantly higherprevalence of violence. These results indirectlylend support to colonization theory (JournalAbstract).20. Bruce, B. (2000). Aboriginal Women,Sexual Assault & HIV. Winnipeg, MB: NativeWomen’s Transition Centre.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/First Nations/Native women/Sexual Abuse/Sexual Violence/womenAbstract: Aimed at Aboriginal women, thisbooklet discusses sexual assault and HIVinfection.21. Bucharski, D. (2005). AboriginalWomen’s Perspectives on “CulturallyAppropriate” HIV Counselling & Testing. InHealth for All in the Year 2000, Ottawa, Ontario,22 - 25 October 2000 Ottawa, ON: CanadianPublic Health Association.

Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ British Columbia/Cultural Integrity and Identity/Health/ HealthCare/ HIV/AIDS/PreventionAbstract: HIV/AIDS is a growing concern in theCanadian Aboriginal community, especiallyfor Aboriginal women. Recent data from BritishColumbia, Alberta and Saskatchewan showthat Aboriginal people account for 15%, 26%and 43% of newly diagnosed HIV positivecases respectively. Aboriginal cases tend tobe younger and are more likely to be female,compared to non-Aboriginal cases.Prevention programming, including HIVcounselling and testing, are strategies presentlyused to increase HIV awareness. Aboriginalpeople and health care providers havefrequently identified the need for culturallysensitive services. Little research has beendone in Canada to define what is meantby “culturally appropriate”, relative to HIVprevention programming in this community.The purpose of this presentation is to discuss thesignificance of HIV prevention programming forAboriginal women, based on the findings froma qualitative research study. A discussion of theresearch protocol, including the developmentof the Aboriginal Advisory Group, will follow.Initial findings and challenges conductingthe research will be shared, followed byprogramming and policy implications inthe area of HIV counselling and testing forAboriginal women.22. Bucharski, D. M. (2003). AboriginalWomen’s Perspectives on ‘CulturallyAppropriate’ HIV Counselling and Testing(Immune Deficiency). Masters AbstractsInternational, 41, 208.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ Canada/Research/womenAbstract: A qualitative study was conductedto determine Aboriginal women’s perspectiveson “culturally appropriate” HIV counsellingand testing. Data were collected throughsemi-structured individual interviews with sevenAboriginal women, and with six women ina focus group, in a western Canadian city.The data were analyzed utilizing thematiccontent analysis. Four major categories wereexplicated: Aboriginal women’s life experiencesthat may increase their risk for HIV infection;barriers to HIV counselling and testing forAboriginal women; guiding principles of theideal HIV testing situation; and characteristicsof culturally appropriate HIV counselling andtesting for Aboriginal women. The need forsensitivity to the hardships and life experiencesAboriginal women may have experiencedwas a pervasive theme in all of the categories.The study concludes with directions for furtherresearch and implications for HIV policy andprogramming for Aboriginal women.23. Burhansstipanov, L. (1997). NativeWomen Living Beyond HIV/AIDS Infection. In N.Goldstein & J. Marlowe (Eds.), The Politics of HIV/AIDS in Women. New York: New York UniversityPress.Keywords: HIV/AIDS/Native WomenAbstract: Unavailable24. Callison, C., Humchitt, C., & Assmann,W. (2001). Speaking of Abuse: Violence againstAboriginal Women in Relationships. Vancouver,BC: Legal Services Society.Available Online: http://www.lss.bc.ca/legal_info/pubs_pdf/sec_s/speakingOfAbuse/Abuse_aboriginal.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Women/ British Columbia/Criminal Law Issues/Family Violence/SocialJustice and EquityAbstract: Provides help for any Aboriginalwoman living in British Columbia who needslegal information about rights because she isbeing abused, assaulted, or harassed by herhusband, boyfriend, or ex-partner. Explains whatshe can to do protect her safety, and what kindof help she can get from the police, courts, andpeople in her community (CWHN Abstract).25. Calzavara, L. M., Burchell, A. N., Myers,T., Bullock, S. L., Escobar, M., & Cockerill, R.(1998). Condom Use among Aboriginal Peoplein Ontario, Canada. International Journal of STD& AIDS, 9, 272-279.Keywords: Basic Physical Needs/ Canada/Gender/HIV/AIDS/PreventionAbstract: Summary: A survey of 658 Aboriginalmen and women living in 11 reservecommunities in Ontario, Canada, was utilizedto collect data on patterns of condom use.Individuals who had sexual intercourse inthe previous 12 months were included in theanalysis (n =400). Descriptive statistics andmultiple logistic regression were used to analyzecondom use in the previous 12 months. Eightper cent always, 31% sometimes, and 61%never used condoms. Rates of condom usediffered with the number of sex partners in thelast year, age, gender, having a steady sexpartner, and marital status. Multiple logisticregression revealed that people most likely touse condoms were under the age of 30, male,did not have a long-term steady sex partner,had more than one sex partner, worriedabout pregnancy, were knowledgeableabout HIV/AIDS, and were not embarrassedto obtain condoms. Condom users who wereknowledgeable about HIV/AIDS and whoknew someone with HIV/AIDS were more likelyto always use condoms. The most commonreason for not using a condom was ‘I was withAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing155

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing156my steady sex partner’. These results haveimplications for STD prevention efforts and forfuture research of sexual and STD-preventivebehaviour among Aboriginal people.26. Canadian Aboriginal AIDS Network,Canadian AIDS Society, Canadian AIDSTreatment Information Exchange, & CanadianTreatment Action Council (2002). Summaryof the recommendations from the NationalConference on Women and HIV/AIDS held inToronto, Ontario on May 25-28, 2000. Ottawa,ON: Canadian AIDS Society.Available Online: http://www.cdnaids.ca/web/repguide.nsf/24157c30539cee20852566360044448c/95834e088b26177085256c6a005c6ec0/$FILE/Women’s%20Recommendations%20.pdfKeywords: Adequate Power/HIV/ AIDS/Prevention/Women’s HealthAbstract: Provides a summary ofrecommendations surrounding women andHIV/AIDS. Summaries are broken into fourcategories: Legal, Ethical and Public PolicyIssues; Prevention; Support; Treatment (CWHNAbstract).27. Canadian Panel on Violence againstWomen (1993). Inuit Women: From the FinalReport of the Canadian Panel on Violenceagainst Women. Ottawa: Canadian Panel onViolence against Women.Keywords: Culture/Education/ Government/Health/Health Care/ Housing/Inuit Women/Justice/ Poverty/Sexual Abuse/Status ofWomen/Suicide/Traditional Health/ ViolenceAgainst Women/womenAbstract: This report describes the problems ofabuse against Inuit women, both in the pastand currently, in their own words. It provides anhistorical analysis of the culture and the placeof women, including arranged marriages andthe value of women in the traditional society;arranged marriages and the status of womenin the traditional society; the problems whenthe Europeans appeared. It describes theforms of abuse, including wife abuse, sexualassault, child sexual abuse, elder abuse, suicide,and abuse of trust by professionals and thesocial service and justice systems. Obstaclesto change are identified, including housing,poverty, lack of education and employment,moving from traditional health care methodsto health care supplied by white governments,and alcohol and solvent abuse. Methods ofchange include community initiatives, mediaeducation, and self-government.28. Chester, B., Robin, R. W., Koss, M. P.,Lopes, J., & Goldman, D. (1994). GrandmotherDishonoured: Violence against Women byMale Partners in American Indian Communities.Violence and Victims, 9, 249-258.Keywords: Gender/Health/Social Justice andEquity/Violence against WomenAbstract: The holistic, multidisciplinaryapproach used in this study embraces asocial, ecological and cultural understandingof violence against women. The researchersstress that gender relations are understood andenacted in culturally specific ways, and thatthese understandings must inform analysis andpolicy strategies that are solution oriented. Theresearchers stress the need to integrate thephysical, mental and social to develop theintegration of mental health, substance abuseand social service programs.29. Cohen M. M. & Maclean, H. (2004).Violence against Canadian Women. BMCWomens Health, 4, s22.Available Online: http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6874/4/S1/S22Ref Type: JournalKeywords: Aboriginal Women/ British Columbia/Canada/Canadian Women/Ethnicity/Health/Health Care/Older Women/Prevention/Violence Against Women/women/ Women’sHealth/Women with DisabilitiesAbstract: Exposure to violence as childrenor as adults places women at higher riskof poor health outcomes, both physicaland psychological. Abused women usemore health care services and have poorersocial functioning than non-abused women.Knowledge of the prevalence of violenceagainst women, and of which women are atrisk, should assist in the planning of services forabuse prevention and treatment of the healthconsequences of abuse. Key Findings: Thehighest rates of any partner violence were inAlberta (25.5%) and British Columbia (23%). Thelowest rates were in Ontario (18.8%). Womenaged 15-24 had the highest rates in all regionsin Canada, compared with older women.Aboriginal women in Manitoba/Saskatchewanand Alberta had higher rates of violence (57.2%and 56.6% respectively) than non-Aboriginalwomen (20.6%). Lower rates of partner-relatedviolence were reported among womennot born in Canada (18.4%) than amongCanadian-born women (21.7%). Visible minoritywomen reported lower rates of lifetime sexualassault (5.7%) than non-visible minority women(12.3%). Perceptions of violence may vary byethnicity. Data Gaps and Recommendations:More information is required concerning theprevalence of violence among Aboriginalwomen, immigrant and refugee women,women with disabilities, lesbian women andpregnant women. Future national populationbasedsurveys need better questions on thehealth consequences of violence and relatedresource utilization. Further research is neededto identify the health care system’s role inprevention, management and rehabilitation as

they relate to violence against women. Futureprograms and policies must be based on valid,reliable and comprehensive empirical data(Journal Abstract).30. Cole, M. (2004). Youth Sexual Health inNunavut: A Needs-Based Survey of Knowledge,Attitudes and Behaviour. International Journal ofCircumpolar Health, 63, 270-273.Keywords: Education/Health/YouthAbstract: This study attempts to address theneed for culturally specific data on beliefs andbehaviours around youth and sexual health inorder to design and implement appropriatepublic health interventions. The goal of thehealth promotion booklet that followed thestudy is to give youth a tool that will promotehealthy choices and give non-judgmentalinformation about sexuality. In Nunavut, teenpregnancy and sexually transmitted infectionrates exceed national averages and continueto have devastating health and socialconsequences -- particularly for Inuit girls andwomen. Using the data and a participatoryapproach, a culturally appropriate, bilingualbooklet about sexual health is being developedfor Nunavut youth.31. Cossins, A. (2003). Saints, Sluts andSexual Assault: Rethinking the Relationshipbetween Sex, Race and Gender. Social & LegalStudies, 12, 77-103.Keywords: Culture/Gender/Social Justice andEquityAbstract: This article considers howlegal cultures construct different femalesubjectivities, using an Australian case studythat documented the differential treatment ofAboriginal and non-Aboriginal complainantswithin sexual assault trials. In particular, thearticle analyses the cultural significance of theconcepts of sex and race within the sexualassault trial by comparing and contrasting theanalytic utility of the sexed bodies approachand the concept of gender for understandingdifferent women’s experiences. It argues thatneither of these approaches adequatelydescribes the experiences of black andindigenous women and, instead, presents theconcept of convergence for explaining theinteractions of sex and race and revealing theunique vulnerabilities of black and indigenouswomen within legal cultures.32. Craib, K. J. P., Spittal, P. M., Wood, E.,Laliberte, N., Hogg, R. S., Li, K., et al. (2003).Risk Factors for Elevated HIV Incidence amongAboriginal Injection Drug Users in Vancouver.Canadian Medical Association Journal, 168, 19-24.Keywords: Adequate Human Services andSocial Safety Net/Basic Physical Needs/HealthAbstract: Background: Because of establishedlinks between entrenched poverty and risk ofHIV infection, there have long been warningsthat HIV/AIDS will disproportionately affectAboriginal people in Canada. We comparedHIV incidence rates among Aboriginal andnon-Aboriginal injection drug users (IDUs) inVancouver and studied factors associatedwith HIV seroconversion among Aboriginalparticipants. Methods: This analysis was basedon 941 participants (230 Aboriginal people)recruited between May 1996 and December2000 who were seronegative at enrolment andhad completed at least one follow-up visit.Incidence rates were calculated using theKaplan-Meier method. The Cox proportionalhazards regression model was used toidentify independent predictors of time toHIV seroconversion among female and maleAboriginal IDUs. Results: As of May 31, 2001,seroconversion had occurred in 112 (11.9%)of the participants, yielding a cumulativeincidence of HIV infection at 42 months of12.7% (95% confidence interval [CI] 10.3%-15.1%). The cumulative incidence at 42 monthswas significantly higher among the Aboriginalparticipants than among the non-Aboriginalparticipants (21.1% v. 10.7%, p < 0.001). Thiselevation in risk was present in both femaleand male Aboriginal IDUs. Among the femaleAboriginal IDUs, frequent speedball (combinedcocaine and heroin) injection (adjusted relativerisk [RR] 3.1; 95% CI 1.4-7.1) and going onbinges of injection drug use (adjusted RR 2.3;95% CI 1.0-5.2) were found to be independentpredictors of HIV seroconversion. Amongthe male Aboriginal IDUs, the independentpredictors of seroconversion were frequentspeedball injection (adjusted RR 2.9; 95%CI 1.0-8.5) and frequent cocaine injection(adjusted RR 2.5; 95% CI 1.0-6.5). Interpretation:In Vancouver, Aboriginal IDUs are becomingHIV positive at twice the rate of non-AboriginalIDUs. Our findings emphasize the urgent needfor an appropriate and effective publichealth strategy -- planned and implementedin partnership with Aboriginal AIDS serviceorganizations and the Aboriginal community-- to reduce the harms of injection drug use inthis population.33. Davis, K. & Taylor, B. (2002). Voicesfrom the Margins Part 2: Narrative Accountsof the Support Needs of Indigenous FamiliesExperiencing Violence. Contemporary Nurse,14, 76.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/Australia/Family Violence/Healing/Social Justice andEquity/TraumaAbstract: Part 2 focuses on the needs ofinformal supporters of rural Aboriginal womenexperiencing family violence. The strategies forstrengthening support for Aboriginal familiesare presented. The participants identified thebarriers to help seeking by Aboriginal women,Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing157

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing158the needs of Aboriginal families experiencingviolence, and healing models necessary to dealpositively with the past and present traumaexperienced by indigenous people in Australia.34. Dion Stout, M. (1996). Family Violencein Aboriginal Communities: The Missing Peace.Ottawa, ON: The Royal Commission onAboriginal Peoples.Keywords: First Nations/Aboriginal Peoples/Family Violence/Violence/ Healing/Research/Community DevelopmentAbstract: After reviewing numerousheartbreaking stories from the First Nations,Métis and Inuit people alike, the author notesthat it is apparent that peace has not been,nor is it, forthcoming for most Aboriginalpeoples. As their families bear the brunt ofan unredeemed past and present, a specialchallenge of helping them find peaceemerges. A future must be charted whichis not a mere repetition of what they havealready toiled heavily against. Knowing thegeneral status of Aboriginal families is thefirst step towards coming to terms with familyviolence. For instance, Dion Stout notes thatmany Aboriginal families have lost their abilityto act as mediating structures. Further, becausethey are in the midst of existing problems, theyare no longer able to provide their memberssafe refuge from life’s stresses. Being undersiege, they do not have the energy andconfidence for renewal. All of this because thesacredness of the Aboriginal family has givenway to escalating and destructive violence.The fact that the Aboriginal family has beenweakened to the extent that it now poses abarrier to human development is a terribletwist of irony. Yet, many voices have framedthis paradox. What most Aboriginal personspreviously thought impossible has now becomethe focus of social change. Their smallest anddearest social unit is troubled and in the needof healing. This paper has been written for theRoyal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples withthe purpose of advancing policy developmenton family violence. It draws on testimony at theCommission’s public hearings, commissionedresearch including three community studiesof current initiatives, reports by previouscommissions and task forces, and selectedliterature relating to community development ingeneral and family violence in particular.35. Dion Stout, M. (1996). Stopping FamilyViolence: Aboriginal Communities Enspirited.In J.R.Ponting (Ed.), First Nations in Canada,Perspectives on Opportunity. Toronto, ON:McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/ Family Violence/First Nations/ CanadaAbstract: Dion Stouts provides background factson the issue of violence in Aboriginal families.According to the testimonies of Aboriginalpeople to the Royal Commission on Aboriginalpeoples, in the Aboriginal community, achronic state of violence exists. Poor housing,high unemployment, high suicide rates andfamily violence relegate Aboriginal peopleto the margins in society. In the end, povertyvisited upon individuals, communities andnations translates into unmet human needs andgenerates pathologies like alienation, forcedmigration, and more violence. The authorstates that nothing short of radical and criticalapproaches to controlling and ending familyviolence are required.36. Downe, P. J. (2005). IntersectingSites of Violence in the Lives of AboriginalGirls in Canada. Saskatoon, SK: Departmentof Women’s & Gender Studies, University ofSaskatchewan.Keywords: Violence/Canada/Aboriginal GirlsAbstract: Unavailable37. Dumont-Smith, C. & Sioui Labelle, P.(1991). Dragging Wife Abuse Out of the Closetin National Family Violence Abuse Study/Evaluation. Ottawa, ON: Aboriginal Nurses ofCanada.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ Canada/FamilyViolence/Safety and Security/Social Justice andEquityAbstract: Unavailable38. Dumont-Smith, C. (1995). AboriginalCanadian Children Who Witness and Live withViolence. In E. Peled & P. G. Jaffe (Eds.), Endingthe Cycle of Violence: Community Responsesto Children of Battered Women (pp. 275-283).Thousand Oakes, CA: Sage Publications.Keywords: Adequate Human Services andSocial Safety Net/ Canada/Healing/ Poverty/Safety and Security/YouthAbstract: The author describes how too manyAboriginal children and youth in Canada areliving in violent and depressive environments,compounded by extreme poverty. This articleoffers the reader the option that traditionalhealing can be a rehabilitative process thatcan help to break the cycle of violence in ourhomes and communities.39. Durst, D., MacDonald, J., & Parsons, D.(1999). Finding Our Way: A Community NeedsAssessment on Violence in Native Families inCanada. Journal of Community Practice, 6, 45-59.Keywords: Canada/Family Violence/AboriginalFamiliesAbstract: In the fall of 1992, a community needsassessment on the problem of family violencewas completed in the Aboriginal community

of Conne River, Newfoundland, Canada. Thisarticle reports both the process and findings ofthe study which was guided by two importantprinciples. First, community participation wasa critical component of all aspects of theassessment, and, second, the assessment wasbased on multiple sources of data. The datawere collected from face-to-face interviewswith key informants (community experts) andconsumers/potential consumers of services,focus groups with youth and women, andinformal contact and discussion with interestedmembers of the community, some of themprofessionals. The findings indicate that thepeople of Conne River are knowledgeableabout the types of family violence that occurin the community and the various sources ofsupport and help. There was also a high levelof interest in the topic and a genuine concernthat some positive action would result fromthis assessment. The assessment identifiedthe need for more supports for women withfamilies in crisis, not just crisis interventionduring incidents of violence but a more holisticnetwork of supports. These supports need tobe community-based, operating within existingagencies. The study identified the need for acommunity-based committee to undertake theplanning of emergency services for women andfamilies in crisis and long-term planning for asupport network and/or community centre forwomen (Journal Abstract).40. Farrell Racette, S. (2001). Sex, Fear,Women, Travel and Work: Five Triggers ofEurocentric Negativity. In J. Oakes, R. Riewe,B. Chisholm, & M. Bennett (Eds.), Pushing theMargins: Native and Northern Studies (pp. 144-159). Winnipeg, MB: Native Studies Press.Keywords: Children/Fetal Alcohol Syndrome/Effects/First Nations/ Pregnancy/WorkAbstract: Consistent throughout colonialnarratives is an unquestioning acceptance ofthe inherent superiority of the writer and the“rightness” and inevitability of colonization.The purpose of this article is to apply thepostcolonial critique of such discourse as itdescribes the Métis, Saulteaux and other groupswhose everyday lives intersected with theauthors’ colonial experiences.41. Fernandez, A. R. (2003). The Risk Factorsof HIV/AIDS among Native American Women:One Woman’s Story. Wisconsin: NationalInstitutes of Health.Available Online: http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/Grad_Sch/McNair/Summer03/fernandez.pdfKeywords: Health/Health Care/ HIV/AIDS/NativeAmericans/Native women/Poverty/Prevention/Research/Risk Factors/womenAbstract: Since Christopher Columbus’“discovery” of America, Native Americans havebeen barraged with various diseases, alonereducing the original Native population from 5million people to 250,000 at the turn of the 20thcentury -- not including deaths from warfare(Thornton, 1987). Native American people aredescribed as the “poorest, least educated, andmost neglected minority in the United States,”having a wide range of health and socialproblems incomparable to other larger ethnicpopulations (Hodge & Fredericks, 1999). Whilemany Americans believed HIV/AIDS to be agay man’s disease when news of the epidemicfirst emerged, many Native people still view itas a white gay man’s disease (Vernon, 2000).Though the prevalence of HIV/AIDS amongNative Americans is low in comparison to otherpopulations, Native women in particular are atextreme risk for contracting the disease throughseveral risk factors. Poverty correlates withalcohol and other drug abuse, violence, highrates of sexually transmitted infections, and pooraccess to health care, all factors which greatlyincrease the risk for contracting HIV/AIDS.Though one of the least studied populationgroups with HIV, Native Americans face anextremely wide range of risks for contractingthe virus. Thus, more research should to beconducted on this high-risk population in orderto address their prevention and interventionneeds from a culturally relevant standpoint. Toaddress this pressing issue, this study develops acase study of one woman, an enrolled memberof a Wisconsin Indian tribe, derived from alarger, longitudinal and qualitative study on 55Wisconsin women living with HIV. This case studyhighlights several key factors that expose Nativewomen to risks of contracting HIV/AIDS in orderto highlight the need for more research on thisvery important topic.42. Ferris, L. E. (1994). Detection andTreatment of Wife Abuse in AboriginalCommunities by Primary Care Physicians:Preliminary Findings. Journal of Women’s Health,3, 265-271.Keywords: Canada/Canadian Women/Culture/Education/Ethnic Groups/Health/Health Care/Men/ Research/women/Women’s Health43. Fillmore, C., Dell, C. A., & Elizabeth FrySociety of Manitoba (2000). Prairie Women,Violence and Self-Harm. Winnipeg, MB:Elizabeth Fry Society of Manitoba.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ Canada/Culture/Health/History/ Manitoba/Research/Self-Harm/ women/WorkAbstract: Self-harm among women is a serioushealth concern in Canada. In recent yearsthe Elizabeth Fry Society of Manitoba, in itswork with women in conflict with the law,recognized an alarming increase in the numberof women who identified themselves as selfinjurersand the need for expanded researchand understanding. The link between childhoodexperiences of violence and abuse (physical,sexual, emotional, neglect) and self-harm isAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing159

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing160well documented in the research literature.An unexamined focus is the relationshipbetween adult experiences of abuse andviolence and self-harm. This study addressestwo areas of self-harm that have receivedlittle attention: (1) the needs, supports andservices of women in conflict with the law inboth the community and institutional settings,and (2) Aboriginal women in conflict withthe law. Each of our data sources offered aunique perspective from which to addressthe research focus: interviews with women,both in the community and correctionalinstitutions; a focus group with incarceratedwomen; community agency and correctionalstaff interviews; correctional staff surveys; andreview of community and correctional institutepolicies. Our study concentrated on the Prairieregion of Canada. Considerable insight andunderstanding has been gained in this researchregarding the needs, supports and services ofwomen who self-harm while incarcerated andin the community. This study has enabled usto examine helpful and unhelpful responses toself-harm in these settings. Special awarenesshas been attained in these areas regarding theimportance of Aboriginal culture in respondingto the needs, supports and services of womenwho self-harm. The narratives of the womenin the community and correctional institutionswere combined for the data analysis. The mainreason was that all women, with one exception,had a history of conflict with the law, withthe majority having experienced a period ofincarceration. Particular attention was paid toAboriginal women’s experiences of self-harm.As well, information gathered on communityand correctional staff members was combineddue to the limited number of staff respondentsand the close similarity between the twogroups. Where feasible, however, generalreferences are made to denote whether acommunity or institutional context applies(Adapted from Executive Summary).44. First Nations of Quebec and LabradorHealth and Social Services Commission (2003).HIV/AIDS Prevention among Aboriginal Women:Training the Trainers Report. Wendake, QC: FirstNations of Quebec and Labrador Health andSocial Services Commission.Available Online: http://www.cssspnql.com:8080/cssspnql/ui/health/documents/reporthivtraining.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Women/ ConferenceReport/Critical Learning Opportunities/Education/ HIV/AIDS/PreventionAbstract: Reports on a trainers’ trainingconference, held in Quebec City January 28-30, 2003, that examined HIV/AIDS preventionamong Aboriginal women (CWHN Abstract).45. Flaherty, M. (1997). Inuit Women andViolence. In C. Andrew & S. Rogers (Eds.),Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press.Keywords: Inuit Women/Montreal46. Fontaine-Brightstar, M. (1992). Breakingthe Silence. Canadian Dimension, 26, 5-9.Keywords: Aboriginal families/ Family Violence/HealingAbstract: Unavailable47. Fontaine, N. (2001). Neither Here, NorThere: A Reflection on Aboriginal Women andIdentity. Thesis (M.A.) -- University of Manitoba,Fall 2001.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ Manitoba/womenAbstract: This thesis seeks to explore the notionand complexity of identity as it relates toAboriginal women within the contemporaryCanadian colonial context. How do Aboriginalwomen view and position themselves withina contemporary context? As well, how doAboriginal women negotiate their subjectivitywithin conflicting historical and contemporarydiscourses? The overall objectives of theresearch are a) to provide an overview ofvarious theoretical theories on contemporaryidentity; b) to record Aboriginal women’sperspectives and constructions of theiridentity in their own voice and; c) to provide atheoretical analysis on how Aboriginal women’sidentity constructions create and open a newpostcolonial space in which to (re)claim and(re)define themselves. In simple terms, thepurpose of this research is simply to presentthe multiplicity of voice, place and identity ofAboriginal women within the contemporaryCanadian perspective. On a more personalnote, the fundamental purpose in pursuingthis research is for me a way to honour andacknowledge my mother’s struggle and legacyas an Aboriginal woman (Adapted from theIntroduction).48. Frank, S. (1996). A Needs Assessmentfor an Aboriginal Women’s Transition House.Vancouver, BC: Feminist Research, Education,Development and Action.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ women/Research/Education/ Family Violence/EldersAbstract: This report highlights research findingsundertaken by the Laichwiltach Family LifeSociety to determine the needs of Aboriginalwomen residing on northeast Vancouver Island,regarding the development of an Aboriginalwomen’s transition house. The report exploresthe incidence of family violence in fourAboriginal communities, barriers to accessingservices, and planning and cost information forestablishing an Aboriginal women’s transitionhouse. Research methodology consisted of aliterature review, small group discussions withwomen, Elders and staff from the Aboriginalcommunity, and telephone interviews with

local agencies to determine the incidence ofAboriginal family violence. From the communitydiscussions and literature review, it is clear thatmainstream approaches are not working forAboriginal women in abusive relationships:violence in Aboriginal communities remainsdisproportionately high; mainstream servicesare underutilized; and Aboriginal women aregenerally reluctant to seek outside assistance.Based on the research, the Society developedand submitted a funding proposal to the Ministryof Women’s Equality for the establishment of anAboriginal women’s transition house.49. Frank, S. (1992). Family Violence inAboriginal Communities: A First Nations Report.Victoria, BC: Ministry of Women’s Equality.Keywords: British Columbia/Family Violence/FirstNationsAbstract: Sharlene Frank stressed the need forpolicy shifts that will link Aboriginal women’sworld views, experiences and state actions.She argues: “If solutions are going to work,they have to be made by, and within, thecommunity, however that community maybe defined” (p. 17). These solutions must arisefrom “[h]olistic approaches...which deal withall aspects of spiritual, emotional, mental andphysical needs regarding the individual, family,and community.”50. Frank, S. (1996). Background Report- Proposal for an Aboriginal Women’s TransitionHouse. Vancouver: Feminist Research,Education, Development & Action Centre.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ British Columbia/Canada/ Education/Health/HousingAbstract: Contents include discussions about:(1) Abused women, Housing, British Columbia,Vancouver Island; (2) Indian women, BritishColumbia, Vancouver Island; (3) Women’sshelters, British Columbia, Vancouver Island; (4)Needs Assessment; (5) Domestic Violence; (6)Indians, North American, British Columbia; (7)Indians of North America, Housing, Canada;and (8) Indian women, Canada.52. Greaves, L., Varcoe, C., Poole, N.,Morrow, M., Johnson, J., Pederson, A., et al.(2002). A Motherhood Issue: Discourses onMothering under Duress. Ottawa, ON, Status ofWomen Canada.Available Online: http://collection.nlc-bnc.ca/100/200/301/swc-cfc/motherhood_issuee/021011-0662326791-e.pdfKeywords: Strong Families and Healthy ChildDevelopmentAbstract: Although this report is general in scoperegarding the portrayal of Canadian womenmothering under duress, it does speak widely onthe experience of Aboriginal women motheringunder the media spotlight. Three types ofcases are examined in detail: mothers who usesubstances, mothers who have mental healthissues and mothers who have experiencedviolence in domestic settings.53. Green, K. (2005). Family Violencein Aboriginal Communities: An AboriginalPerspective. Ottawa, ON: Health Canada.Available Online: http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/ncfv-cnivf/familyviolence/html/fvabor_e.htmlKeywords: Family Violence/ Healing/Safety andSecurityAbstract: This online government sourceprovides an overview and definition of familyviolence from an Aboriginal perspective. Itdiscusses how Aboriginal communities aredealing with family violence, its incidence,factors contributing to family violence andfinally, pathways toward healing.54. Griffiths, C. T. & Belleau, C. (1995).Addressing Aboriginal Crime and Victimizationin Canada: Revitalizing Communities, Culturesand Traditions. In K. M. Hazelhurst (Ed.),Popular Justice and Community Regeneration:Pathways of Indigenous Reform. Westport,Conn.: Praeger.Keywords: Canada/Culture/JusticeAbstract: Reports on innovations in theadministration of justice, social reintegrationof offenders, and administration of justicealternatives, and in the recovery of damagedcommunities. The authors provide descriptionsof programs, assessment of their impact andadvocacy for further change.55. Halcrow, B. J. (1995). The Inclusion ofSpirituality within a Second-Stage BatteredWomen’s Group. Thesis (M.S.W.) -- University ofManitoba 1995, Winnipeg, MBKeywords: Empowerment/ Healing/Manitoba/women/WorkAbstract: This is the report of two Aboriginal andfive non-Aboriginal women and the explorationof their spirituality within their process of healingand empowerment. This group was facilitatedwithin the context of a second-stage groupfor battered women, which ran for twelveconsecutive weeks. This report describes theintegration of feminist and social work principles,practices, and cross-cultural considerations,which served to promote insight and awarenessof the importance of addressing spirituality asintegral to the holistic healing of women.56. Hankins, C., Hum, L., Tran, T.,Laberge, C., Lapointe, N., O’Shaughnessy,M., et al. (1997). Low HIV Prevalence amongAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing161

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing162Childbearing Women of Aboriginal Origin. AIDS,11, 9457-947.Keywords: 4/Aboriginal Women/ Newborn/7Abstract: The article looks at HIV infectionsamong pregnant Aboriginal women andtransmission of HIV infection to infants.57. Health Canada & Pauktuutit InuitWomen’s Association of Canada (2001). InuitWomen, Sexual Assault & HIV: Are You at Risk?Ottawa, ON: Health Canada.Keywords: Canada/Health/HIV/ AIDS/InuitWomen/Risk Factors/ Sexual Abuse/SexualViolence/ womenAbstract: Written for Inuit women, this bookletdiscusses sexual assault and HIV infection. Itincludes answers to general questions on rape,HIV and AIDS, and includes lists of help linesand resources. This booklet was producedand adapted in consultation with PauktuutitInuit Women’s Association of Canada, forHealth Canada, from the brochure “Women,sexual assault and HIV: are you at risk?” (AIDSCommittee of Toronto, May 2000).58. Herbert, E. & McCannell, K. (1997).Talking Back: Six First Nations Women’s Storieson Recovery from Childhood Sexual Abuse andAddictions. Canadian Journal of CommunityMental Health, 16, 51.Keywords: Adequate Human Services andSocial Safety Net/ Culture/First Nations/Gender/Safety and Security/Sexual AbuseAbstract: Explores interpersonal violence andthe addiction experiences of First Nationswomen, and investigates these in the contextof the renaissance of First Nations culturalmovements. The authors also sought to createa discourse about recovery that embodiedand reflected the life experience of First Nationswomen who had experienced childhoodsexual abuse and addictions. Six women(aged 25-53 yrs) participated in this study thatused an exploratory, emancipatory, feministqualitative research design to elicit datathrough interactive audiotaped interviews. Afterthe first interview, Ss provided feedback on theirresponses and were given the opportunity torequest changes. The six stories were translatedinto four emergent themes: alcohol abuse andaddictions, sexual abuse, recovery process,and gender issues, with 10 subtexts. A thirdcontact was made with four of the six Ss in orderto obtain feedback on the themes used tosummarize the data. Gender and culture werecentral considerations in the women’s recovery.(PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2003 APA).59. Hoffman-Goetz, L., Friedman, D. B., &Clarke, J. N. (2005). HIV/AIDS Risk Factors asPortrayed in Mass Media Targeting First Nations,Metis, and Inuit Peoples of Canada. Journal ofHealth Communication, 10, 145.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ Canada/FirstNations/Health/ HIV/ AIDS/Injection Drug Use/Men/ Poverty/Risk Factors/Sexual AbuseAbstract: Purpose: The purpose of this studywas to describe the coverage and portrayalof human immunodeficiency virus/acquiredimmune deficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) riskfactors as framed in newspapers targetingAboriginal (First Nations, Metis, and Inuit)peoples in Canada. Methods: From a sampleof 31 Aboriginal newspapers published inEnglish from 1996 to 2000, 14 newspaperswere randomly selected. Of the 167 articlespublished on HIV/AIDS during this time period,all anecdotal (n = 34) and an approximate 25%random sample of scientific (n = 32) articleswere analyzed using both quantitative (codingreliability and frequencies) and qualitative(in-depth content analysis) analyses. Results:Individual risk factors for HIV/AIDS weredescribed in 74% (49/66) of the articles andincluded unprotected sexual intercourse (20/49or 41%), sharing of needles for injection drug use(IDU; 149 or 33%), infected blood transfusions(3/49 or 6%), and vertical transmission frommother to baby (49 or 20%). Additional riskfactors of alcohol use and poverty werementioned in 29% and 25% of the articles. Inaddition to the well-recognized HIV/AIDS riskgroups of prostitutes and homosexual men,sexual abuse victims, prisoners, and womenwere identified in Aboriginal newspapers asbeing at risk. Although Aboriginal women wereidentified as being at high risk, the newspapercoverage also emphasized their lack ofknowledge regarding HIV/AIDS. Heterosexualmen were not mentioned as being at risk forHIV/AIDS in the newspaper articles. Background:The prevalence of HIV/AIDS is higher amongCanadian Aboriginals than in the generalpopulation. Local and community newspapersare an important channel for the disseminationof health information for isolated, rural, andAboriginal communities. Interpretation: Thefindings show that Aboriginal media identifyhigh-risk groups and individualistic risk factorsfor HIV/AIDS, within a public health perspective(Author Abstract).Notes: lhgoetz@healthy.uwaterloo.ca60. Hopkins, J. L. (1995). A Yukon PilotProject on Men’s Violence against Women.Vancouver: Feminist Research, Education,Development & Action Centre.Keywords: Education/Family Violence/Health/Native women/ Prevention/Violence AgainstWomen/womenAbstract: Contents include: 1. Child abuse; 2.Abused women; 3. Family violence prevention;4. Family violence; 5. Crimes against Indianwomen; 6. Indians, North American; 7. DomesticViolence.

61. Jaccoud, M. (2005). The Marginalizationof Aboriginal Women in Montreal. In D.Newhouse & E. Peters (Eds.), Not Strangers inThese Parts: Urban Aboriginal Peoples (pp. 131-145).Available Online: http://policyresearch.gc.ca/doclib/AboriginalBook_e.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Peoples/ AboriginalWomen/Diabetes/First Nations/Health/MontrealAbstract: This article is based on a case studyof ten Aboriginal women living in Montreal(eight were First Nations and two were Inuit)under conditions that fall within a theoreticalframework of exclusion and marginalization. Theprimary purpose of the article is on the processof exclusion and marginalizational experiencedby these women who had temporarily orpermanently migrated to Montreal, using a lifenarratives methodology. The living conditionsof the women at the time of the study revealedthat they had children placed in care, werereceiving income security payments, weredependent on drugs and alcohol at some pointin their lives and three indicated that they hadhealth problems such as diabetes, anemiaand HIV. The article discusses the migrationpatterns and the lure of Montreal on the livesof these women and the resulting processes ofmarginalization faced by each one.62. Jackson, M. A. (1999). CanadianAboriginal Women and Their ‘Criminality’: TheCycle of Violence in the Context of Difference.Australian and New Zealand Journal ofCriminology, 32, 197-298.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ Social Justiceand Equity63. Jacqueline Lynn (2005). Prostitution ofFirst Nations Women in Canada. Sisyphe.Available: http://sisyphe.org/article.php3?id_article=1803Keywords: Prostitution/First Nations/First NationsWomen/ women/Canada/Canadian WomenAbstract: This short online article discusses theprostitution of First Nations women in Canadafrom first contact to present and submits thatprostitution is a particularly violent legacy ofcolonization. The author raises the issue oflegalizing prostitution and what this may meanfor First Nations women engaged in the sextrade. The author also raises the fact that thereare virtually no programs to assist women whowant to leave prostitution and that looking toother countries for resolution of the prostitutionproblem means that many Canadian womenremain trapped in the prostitution trade.64. Jamieson, W. (1987). Aboriginal MaleViolence against Aboriginal Women in Canada.Thesis (M.A.) --University of Ottawa.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ women/Canada/365. Jamieson, W. & Semanyk, K. (2002).Aboriginal Women’s Program Family ViolenceInitiative Learning Circle: March 16 and 17, 2002.Ottawa, ON: Jamieson Hart Graves Consulting.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/ AboriginalWomen/Children/ Culture/ Education/FamilyViolence/Healing/women/WorkAbstract: On March 16th and 17th , 2002, theAboriginal Women’s Program, Family ViolenceInitiative component, of the Department ofCanadian Heritage, hosted a Learning Circleat the Odawa Friendship Centre in Ottawa.The Learning Circle was an opportunity forselected Aboriginal Women’s organizations,which had received project funding from theAboriginal Women’s Program, to meet andshare information about their project andexperiences. Twenty-one (21) organizationsfrom across the country were invited. All hadreceived project funding from the AboriginalWomen’s Program. Together, they representedthe diversity of types of project fundingthrough the Family Violence Initiative, includinghealing and wellness, training, education andawareness, information-sharing and capacitybuildingactivities. There were projects thataddressed the needs of Aboriginal peopleliving in both urban and rural communities. Atotal of 14 projects from organizations based inthe Northwest Territories, Nunavut, the Westernand Prairie provinces, and Ontario wererepresented. As well there was a representationof several languages and cultures. Why theLearning Circle Was Held: Currently, theAboriginal Women’s Program componentof the Family Violence Initiative is beingevaluated. It was felt that a Learning Circlewould be a good way to share knowledgeand information; explore lessons learned fromthe work to date, and gather community-levelinsight on the issues and direction for the future.As participants noted, Aboriginal women arecentral in their cultures. Aboriginal women areexpected to take a leadership role in healingthemselves, their children, their families and theircommunities.66. Jolly, A. M., Orr, P. H., Hammond, G.,& Young, T. K. (1995). Risk Factors for Infectionin Women Undergoing Testing for ChlamydiaTrachomatis and Neisseria Gonorrhoeae inManitoba, Canada. Sexually TransmittedDiseases, 22, 289-295.Keywords: Canada/Ethnicity/ Health/ManitobaAbstract: The demographic andsocioeconomic characteristics of women withlaboratory-confirmed Chlamydia, gonorrhea,or co-infection were compared with those ofcontrol women who tested negative for bothpathogens. Differences in the demographicand socioeconomic characteristics of womenAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing163

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing164with gonorrhea, Chlamydia, and co-infectionsuggest the existence of multiple reservoirsof infection due to these agents in the studypopulation. The preventive, diagnostic, andtherapeutic strategies of sexually transmitteddisease control programs must be adaptedto the individual needs of identified high-riskgroups (Journal Abstract).67. Jolly, A. (1993). The Epidemiologyof Neisseria Gonorrhoea and ChlamydiaTrachomatis Genital Infection and TheirSequelae. Thesis (M.SC.) -- University ofManitoba 1993, Winnipeg, MB.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ Health/Manitoba/PregnancyAbstract: This historical prospective cohortstudy describes the epidemiology of Neisseriagonorrhoea and Chlamydia trachomatis genitalinfection, specifically with regard to incidenceof recidivism, and the development of sequelaesuch as pelvic inflammatory disease, ectopicpregnancy, and tubal infertility. Young age,being Aboriginal, living in an urban area andlow mean household income were associatedwith gonorrhoea and Chlamydia co-infection.Having a subsequent diagnosis of an STD froma physician in an ambulatory care clinic wasassociated with having a positive lab test forChlamydia, gonorrhoea, or co-infection withboth organisms. A second diagnosis of STDwas associated only with having a previouspositive test for Chlamydia. Women who hadexperienced co-infection with N. gonorrhoeaand C. trachomatis were at higher risk thanwere controls of being diagnosed with PID in anambulatory setting. However, within this groupof co-infected women, Aboriginal women wereat much higher risk, and this risk was similarirrespective of whether they had been coinfectedor not (Author Abstract).68. Jones, D. (2004). Pregnant AboriginalsMore Likely to be HIV-Positive. CanadianMedical Association Journal, 171, 559-55a.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/BasicPhysical Needs/Canada/HealthAbstract: Martin, a program medical officerwith Health Canada in Vancouver, coordinateda three-year study (September 2000 to 2003),during which blood samples were taken from5,242 pregnant Aboriginal women. A totalof 15 tested positive for HIV; 7 times morethan what would be expected in the generalpopulation. Because the study was conductedanonymously, none of the women who testedpositive were notified, a fact that drew criticismfrom some Aboriginal groups. Kevin Barlow,head of the Canadian Aboriginal AIDS Network,said “Without any direct way of informingcertain study participants that they have testedHIV-positive, substantial ongoing efforts need tobe taken to educate Aboriginal women aboutall the implications of these findings.”69. Kahenrakwas Goodleaf, D. (1997).Under Military Occupation: Indigenous Women,State Violence and Community Resistance. InL.Carty (Ed.), And Still We Rise: Feminist PoliticalMobilizing in Contemporary Canada (Toronto:Women’s Press.)Keywords: Canada/womenAbstract: In 1990, Kanienkehaka women ledtheir nation’s resistance to the appropriation ofsacred lands at Oka. Donna Goodleaf sharesher holistic view of resistance by telling her storyof involvement at Oka in conjunction with agendered analysis of state violence. She locatesher nation’s resistance in a holistic analysisof historical colonialism, present-day Eurosexistimperialist attitudes and “left” resistancestrategies. She calls upon social movements to“go beyond the human to a vision rooted ina spiritually and politically based world viewof indigenous people that encompasses thefour-legged, the waters, the air, the earth....”Her vision calls for new policies and governanceformed within a holistic understanding of theearth’s ecosystem.70. Kaye, M. (1990). In the Spirit of theFamily. Canadian Living, 131.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ CommunitySolidarity and Social Support/Healing/StrongFamilies and Healthy Child DevelopmentAbstract: This article speaks to the role ofAboriginal women in healing their woundedfamilies as a result of colonization and itsaftermath.71. Kingsley, C. & Mark, M. (2000).Sacred Lives: Canadian Aboriginal Children& Youth Speak Out about Sexual Exploitation.Vancouver, BC: Save the Children Canada.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ Canada/Healing/Life-Sustaining Values, Morals andEthics/ Prevention/Safety and Security/ Work/YouthAbstract: This report was a culmination of fivemonths of consultations with more than 150commercially sexually exploited Aboriginalchildren and youth which took place in 22communities across Canada. Cherry Kingsleyand Melanie Mark, two Aboriginal women,with experience in the sex trade, co-facilitatedvarious focus groups with Aboriginal childrenand youth. The ultimate goal of this project wasto record the recommendations from the youthconsulted and act upon them in conjunctionwith community members, government officialsand service providers. The report outlinesvarious individual and systemic factors whichcommercially sexually exploited Aboriginalchildren and youth face. Historicizing socialfactors incumbent on Aboriginal children and

youth explains their over-representation withthe larger population of commercially sexuallyexploited people in Canada. The third partof the report outlines the youth perspectiveof abuse and exploitation, prevention,crisis intervention, harm reduction, exitingand healing, public attitudes, and youthparticipation. This is an important contributionto the literature on child welfare in that it speaksto the social issues which Aboriginal childrenand youth face in urban environments whichstrongly impact on the delivery and challengesof extending social work services to Aboriginalyouth in an urban context facing these issues.72. Koski, K. & Mahoney, D. (1995). FromDark to Light: Regaining a Caring CommunityPhase II: Final Activity Report. Yellowknife, NT:Status of Women Council of NWT.Keywords: Education/Family Violence/Health/Sexual Abuse/ Status of Women/14Abstract: The Contents include a discussionon family violence; child sexual abuse; andeducation in the Northwest Territories amongNative peoples.73. LaRocque, E. (1993). Violence inAboriginal Communities. In The Path toHealing: Report of the National Round Table onAboriginal Health and Social Issues (pp. 72-89).Vancouver, BC: Royal Commission on AboriginalPeoples.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/ AboriginalWomen/Canada/Family Violence/First Nations/Healing/ Health/Safety and Security/SexualViolence/Social Justice and Equity/ womenAbstract: LaRocque provides a valuablediscussion of family violence as it affectsAboriginal women, teenagers, and children,with a particular focus on sexual violence. Itanalyzes the roots of family violence and theisolation of Aboriginal women and proposesstrategies to eliminate abuse and achievejustice. This publication is geared towardresearchers, policy makers, and serviceproviders. This issue of domestic violence inFirst Nations and Métis communities is one thatdemands urgent study and action. There isevery indication that violence has escalateddramatically. For example, studies show thatamong Indians “the single most important groupof health problems in terms of both mortalityand morbidity is accidents and violence.” Thegoal of this paper is not to comment on familyviolence generally, though it does requirefurther comment. This paper will focus onfamily violence as it affects Aboriginal women,teenagers and children. And since muchfamily violence involves sexual assault, specialattention is given to sexual violence within theAboriginal community.74. LaRocque, E. (1997). Re-examiningCulturally Appropriate Models in Criminal JusticeApplications. In M. Ash (Ed.), Aboriginal andTreaty Rights in Canada: Essays on Law, Equity,and Respect for Difference ( UBC Press.Keywords: Justice/CanadaAbstract: Unavailable75. Law Commission of Canada (2000).Restoring Dignity: Responding to Child Abusein Canadian Institutions. Ottawa, ON: LawCommission of Canada.Keywords: Canada/Children/ Government/Justice/Legal Issues/ Research/Sexual AbuseAbstract: In November 1997, the Minister ofJustice asked the Law Commission of Canadato assess processes for redressing the harm ofphysical and sexual abuse inflicted on childrenwho lived in institutions that were run or fundedby government. This Report draws together theresearch and consultations conducted by theLaw Commission in response to that request.The Commission has attempted to analyze thesocial and legal issues involved in institutionalchild abuse and to evaluate a variety ofapproaches to redress. It has also made severalspecific recommendations for action. The LawCommission hopes that this Report will providegovernments with a framework of analysis anda blueprint for actions that must be taken tomeet the needs of those whose childhoodwas destroyed by physical and sexual abuse.Although this Report was written for the Ministerof Justice, it is addressed to a broader publicaudience, not just to governments.76. Longclaws, L., Barkwell, L., & Rosebush,P. (1994). Report of the Waywayseecappo FirstNation Domestic Violence Project. CanadianJournal of Native Studies, 14, 342-375.Keywords: Family Violence/ Manitoba/ViolenceAbstract: The authors review the literatureon Aboriginal family violence, and attemptto identify programs useful and appropriatefor Aboriginal communities. A survey of oneManitoba Reserve led to the development ofa treatment program based upon communitystandards, and thus culturally appropriate.Such a program is more likely to be successful inactually reducing family violence.77. MacKenzie Petersen, A. (1994). Waltzingwith an Elephant: First Nations Women’s Effortsto Create a Hostel for Yukon Women in Crisis.Thesis (M.A. (Criminology)) - Simon FraserUniversity, 1994.Keywords: 3/Culture/First Nations/First NationsWomen/ women/Women of Colour/7Abstract: Documents the development of amulti-purpose hostel or shelter for women incrisis in Whitehorse. Analysis of the processof development of the transition house isAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing165

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing166presented, with an examination of the issueswhich surrounded the complete withdrawalof First Nations women in the organization.The concept of ‘privilege of feminism’ is usedin explaining why women of colour and FirstNations women have felt marginalized andisolated, and been led to reject what they seeas white middle-class feminists imposing beliefsystems that are incongruent with other cultures’world views.78. Mahajarine, N. & D’Arcy, C. (1999).Physical Abuse during Pregnancy: Prevalenceand Risk Factors. Canadian Medical AssociationJournal, 160, 1007-1011.Available Online: http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/reprint/160/7/1007.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Women/ Ethnic Groups/Health/MedicineAbstract: Background: Violence duringpregnancy is a health and social problemthat poses particular risks to the woman andher fetus. To address the lack of Canadianinformation on this issue, the authors studied theprevalence and predictors of physical abusein a sample of pregnant women in Saskatoon.Methods: Of 728 women receiving prenatalservices through the Saskatoon District publichealth system between Apr. 1, 1993, andMar. 31, 1994, 605 gave informed consent toparticipate in the study and were interviewedin the second trimester. Of these, 543 wereinterviewed again late in the third trimester.During the initial interview, information wascollected on the women’s socio-demographiccharacteristics, the current pregnancy, healthpractices and psychosocial variables. Thesecond interview focused on the women’sexperience of physical abuse during thepregnancy and during the preceding year,the demographic characteristics and the useof alcohol or illicit drugs by their male partner.Results: In all, 31 (5.7%) of the women reportedexperiencing physical abuse during pregnancy;46 (8.5%) reported experiencing it within the12 months preceding the second interview.Of the 31 women, 20 (63.3%) reported thatthe perpetrator was her husband, boyfriendor ex-husband. Although all ethnic groups ofwomen suffered abuse, Aboriginal womenwere at greater risk than non-Aboriginal women(adjusted odds ratio 2.8, 95% confidenceinterval [CI] 1.0-7.8). Women whose partnerhad a drinking problem were 3.4 times (95%CI 1.2-9.9) more likely to have been abusedthan women whose partner did not have adrinking problem. Perceived stress and numberof negative life events in the preceding yearwere also predictors of abuse. Abused womentended to report having fewer people withwhom they could talk about personal issues orget together; however, they reported socializingwith a larger number of people in the monthbefore the second interview than did thewomen who were not abused. Interpretation:Physical abuse affects a significant minority ofpregnant women and is associated with stress,lack of perceived support and a partner with adrinking problem (Journal Abstract).79. Mandamin, J. (1994). Breaking Free:The Viewpoint of Aboriginal Women. The SocialWorker/Le Travailleur Social, 62, 137-139.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/ AboriginalWomen/Adequate Power/Family Violence/Healing/ Life-Sustaining Values, Morals, andEthicsAbstract: This article discusses a project thatattempts to bring out issues of family violence,together with proposals for action to changeso that Native people can be instrumentalin making changes toward healing. Thirteenrecommendations are provided that offersuggestions on how to make changes and howto prevent family violence in communities andin the home. It acknowledges that federaland provincial governments must supportthe implementation of the inherent right ofAboriginal peoples to self-determination.80. Maracle, L. (1993). Racism, Sexism andPatriarchy. In H.Bannerji (Ed.), Returning theGaze: Essays on Racism, Feminism and Politics(pp. 148-158). Toronto, ON: Sister Vision, BlackWomen and Women of Colour Press.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ Racism/Sexism/Patriarchy81. Marsden, N. & Newmann, S. (2001).The Aboriginal Female Condom Pilot Project: AReport on the Experiences of Aboriginal WomenLiving in Two BC Communities with the FemaleCondom: Report BC Aboriginal AIDS AwarenessProgram, BC Centre for Disease Control, HealingOur Spirit BC Aboriginal HIV/AIDS Society.Available Online: http://www.linkup-connexion.ca/catalog/prodImages/053102030335_121.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Women/ British Columbia/Healing/Health/ HIV/AIDS/Pregnancy/Prevention Abstract: The goals of the Projectwere to: (1) introduce the female condom tosmall participatory groups of Aboriginal women;(2) provide Aboriginal women with condomsto try; and (3) document their experiences ofusing the female condom. The male partnersof these Aboriginal women were also offeredopportunities to share their experiences ofusing the female condom. The introductionof a female-controlled prevention methodin Aboriginal communities, through culturallyappropriate ways, has significant potentialto reduce the risk of women contractingSTDs, including HIV/AIDS and unplannedpregnancies.

82. McEvoy, M. & Daniluk, J. (1995).Wounds to the Soul: The Experiences ofAboriginal Women as Survivors of Sexual Abuse.Canadian Psychology, 36, 223-235.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ British Columbia/Canada/Sexual AbuseAbstract: The author used a phenomenologicalapproach to capture the lived experiencesof childhood sexual abuse of 6 Aboriginalwomen (aged 29-53 years). Five of the subjectswere born and raised on reserves in Ontario orBritish Columbia, while the other subject wasraised in a non-Native community in Alberta,Canada. The aim of the analysis was to identifycommon experiential themes that accuratelyand fully represented the lived experiences ofthe subjects. Feelings of shame, guilt, acutevulnerability, internal fragmentation, invalidationand cultural shame, a need to make sense ofthe abuse, and the experience of reintegrationwere found to be the representative themes(Journal Abstract).83. McGillivray, A. & Comaskey, B. (1996).Intimate Violence, Aboriginal Women andJustice System Response: A Winnipeg Study.Winnipeg, MB: Research and Education forSolutions to Violence and Abuse (RESOLVE).Keywords: Aboriginal Women/women/Justice/Winnipeg/Manitoba/Research/Family Violence/Violence Against Women/Education/OffendersAbstract: This study reflects Aboriginal women’sperceptions of how Aboriginal offenderswho abuse intimates should be dealt withand evaluates the women’s responses to aproposed urban diversion project based onthe Toronto model. Central to this study arethe experiences of 26 Aboriginal women fromManitoba, their views of the justice system andtheir ideas about offender disposition. Using anopen-ended, semi-structured interview format,both childhood and adult experiences ofintimate violence and justice system responseswere investigated. The results indicate that 24participants experienced some form of childabuse and all but one also witnessed abuse. Allparticipants report experiencing different typesof abuse in adult-hood. Respondents expressoverwhelming support for the punishment ofabusers with jail terms, stiffer sentences andabuser treatment programs. Contrary to otherresearch findings, the women in this study donot prefer counselling or mediation to jail, nordo they reject the justice system on culturalgrounds. Many participants give thoughtfulconsideration to diversion and suggestedimportant conditions. Recommendations areprovided in the final section of the report.84. McGillivray, A. (1997). IntimateViolence, Aboriginal Women and JusticeSystem Response: An Annotated Bibliography.Winnipeg, MB: Research and EducationSolutions to Violence and Abuse (RESOLVE).Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Australia/Canada/Education/Family Violence/Justice/Manitoba/Research/Sexual Assault/ViolenceAgainst Women/Winnipeg/WorkAbstract: McGillivray’s bibliography is acollection of literature specifically concernedwith Aboriginal women and their experiencewith domestic violence. It is intended to beused by Aboriginal women, their families andservice providers. Although some earlier worksare cited, the bibliography highlights currentresearch on Aboriginal women from 1990 to1994 in four countries - Canada, Australia, NewZealand and the United States. The bibliographyis divided into three parts: an introduction,resources listed by subject, and the annotationof the resources. Resources reflect a varietyof disciplines and a diversity of issues. Thesubject areas include sociological issues, crime,policing, justice, treatment, homicide, sexualassault, cycle of violence and other research.Most of the resources listed in the bibliographyare avail-able from the University of Manitobalibrary system. The preparation of thisbibliography indicates the need for localizedqualitative research and has led to anotherstudy exploring Aboriginal women’s experiencesof intimate violence and the justice systemresponse, Intimate violence, Aboriginal womenand justice system response: a Winnipeg study.85. McGillivray, A. & Comaskey, B. (1999).Black Eyes All of the Time: Intimate Violence,Aboriginal Women, and the Justice System.Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Gender/Manitoba/Social Justice and EquityAbstract: This book originates in an openinvitation from Original Women’s Network ofManitoba to design and conduct a study thatwould ascertain the opinions of Aboriginalwomen violated by partners on the question ofwhether Aboriginal men charged with domesticviolence-related offences should be divertedfrom the criminal justice system. Data from thereport, Intimate Violence, Aboriginal Womenand Justice System Response: A WinnipegStudy, is presented along with an expandedlook at the justice system, as well as the impactof colonialism on gender, childhood, andintimate violence.86. McIvor, S. D. & Nahanee, T. A. (1998).Aboriginal Women: Invisible Victims of Violence.In K. Bonnycastle & G. S. Rigakos (Eds.),Unsettling Truths: Battered Women, Policy,Politics and Contemporary Research in Canada(pp. 63-69). Vancouver, BC: Collective Press.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ Canada/Safetyand Security/Social Justice and Equity87. McIvor, S. & Johnson, E. C. (2003).Detailed Position of the Native Women’sAssociation of Canada on the ComplaintAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing167

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing168Regarding the Discriminatory Treatmentof Federally Sentenced Women by theGovernment of Canada filed by the CanadianAssociation of Elizabeth Fry Societies on May 05,2003 Ottawa, ON: Native Women’s Associationof Canada.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ British Columbia/Canada/Healing/ Health/Human Rights/Nativewomen/Prevention/RacismAbstract: This document summarizes the NativeWomen’s Association of Canada’s concernsfor federally incarcerated Aboriginal women.Concerns evolved around: 1. Decarcerationof Aboriginal women in the federal prisonsystem. Because of rampant racism within thecriminal justice system at all levels leading to theincrease in the numbers of Aboriginal womenincarcerated federally from 15% in 1984 to 23%today, NWAC is asking for the decarceration ofAboriginal women within Canada’s penitentiarysystem. NWAC would like to explore with CSCand other interested parties alternatives toincarceration, including the use of section 81to establish community-based healing facilitiesfor all Aboriginal women prisoners, includingthose classified as “maximum security”; 2.Capacity building in Aboriginal communitiesto facilitate reintegration of Aboriginalwomen prisoners back into Aboriginal society.If Aboriginal women prisoners within theCanadian penitentiary system are to bedecarcerated beginning in the near futureand over a period of years -- the shorter thebetter --Canada needs to invest financialresources at the Aboriginal community level tobuild the capacities of those communities toreintegrate Aboriginal women prisoners withtheir communities and families. Such capacitybuilding can use federal dollars alreadytargeted for Aboriginal community use includingjob creation, training, employment, economicdevelopment, social services, health, and soon. Crime prevention dollars and Departmentof Justice grants and contributions have alsobeen made available to community projects.NWAC requests that some of these funds, anda new special fund aimed at Aboriginal femalereintegration and community capacity building,be aimed at Aboriginal women’s representativeorganizations to facilitate this process; 3.Facilitation and implementation of ss. 81 and84 of the Corrections and Conditional ReleaseAct [the “CCRA”] for the benefit of Aboriginalwomen prisoners. NWAC has worked with CSCto implement section 81 and section 84 of theCCRA unsuccessfully. NWAC proposes theestablishment of a joint “NWAC-CSC PlanningCommittee on Sections 81 and 84” to settarget dates for a plan of action to implementthese sections of CCRA aimed at bringingAboriginal women prisoners under Aboriginaljurisdiction for healing and reintegration backto their community roots. 4. Compensationfor Aboriginal women prisoners for CSC’sbreach of fiduciary obligations owing to them.NWAC proposes the establishment of an officeheaded by an Aboriginal woman lawyer/judge/criminologist, supported by CSC staff andAboriginal professionals to remedy the breachby CSC of its fiduciary duty’ to Aboriginalwomen prisoners with a final report to theMinister, the Solicitor General and the CanadianHuman Rights Commission for implementation;5. Standardization of the treatment of federalAboriginal women prisoners in British Columbia.The incarceration of federal Aboriginalwomen prisoners in B.C. facilities needs to bestandardized with the treatment of federalwomen prisoners elsewhere within the federalsystem to ensure they receive adequateand meaningful programming and humanetreatment without discrimination based onfederal or Aboriginal status. Although this isnot yet happening elsewhere in Canada, asevidenced by this human rights complaint, thereturn of federal women prisoners in B.C. tothe jurisdiction of CSC and the planned movefrom BCCW to Sumas Centre provides a uniqueopportunity in B.C. to remedy the situationand provide an improved implementationmodel for the rest of the country. Those wereNWAC’s preliminary submissions. What followsis an elaboration on the NWAC proposals andposition with respect to the Elizabeth Fry HumanRights Complaint.88. McKeown, I., Reid, S., & Orr, P. (2004).Experience of Sexual Violence and Relocationin the lives of HIV-Infected Canadian Women.International Journal of Circumpolar Health, 63,399-404.Keywords: Canadian Women/ Ethnicity/FamilyViolence/First Nations/Sexual Abuse/SexualViolence/YouthAbstract: Objectives: to investigate the role,if any, that violence and physical relationmay play in the acquisition of HIV infection inCanadian women. Study Design: The presentstudy is qualitative. Methods: Using in-depthopen-ended interviews conducted among HIVpositivewomen volunteers as a method. Results:Twenty women were interviewed. Eighteenof the 20 were of Aboriginal (First Nations)ethnicity. All participants reported experiencesof isolation and violence in childhood (sexualabuse, domestic violence, emotional abuse).Half of those who experienced childhoodsexual abuse reported being afraid todisclose the events to adults at the time dueto fear of reprisal and/or shame. The majorityreported running away from home to escapeviolence with subsequent involvement in thesex trade and drug abuse as economic andemotional survival/coping strategies. Halfreported previous incarceration in jail. Themajority reported that they currently lookedto community social programs for guidanceand support. Conclusion: Early interventionprograms must be implemented in partnershipwith communities to reduce family violence andcreate support networks for children, youth andadults at risk (Journal Abstract).

89. McKeown, I., Reid, S., Turner, S., & Orr,P. (2002). Sexual Violence and Dislocation asSocial Risk Factors Involved in the Acquisitionof HIV among Women in Manitoba. (Rep. No.25). Winnipeg, MB: Prairie Women’s Centre ofExcellence.Available Online: http://www.pwhce.ca/pdf/sexualViolenceComplete.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Women/ Education/Sexual Violence/Social Justice and EquityAbstract: The incidence of HIV infectionamong women is growing steadily, particularlywithin the Aboriginal community. AlthoughAboriginal persons comprise only 2.8% of thegeneral population, they accounted for 5.5%of all prevalent infections and 8.8% of all newinfections in Canada in 1999. However, fewstudies directly address the needs of Aboriginalwomen in Canada. This project provides amore comprehensive understanding of socialfactors and environment on HIV risk behavioursamong Manitoba women. Research is neededto develop a better understanding of whyAboriginal women migrate to urban centres,how and whether they connect with servicesupon arrival and how these patterns areinfluenced by victimization, substance abuseand reliance on income from the sex trade. It iswithin this context that the authors focused onthe experience of violence, economic hardshipand relocation/dislocation as they relate to HIVrisk. The specific objectives of this study were:(1) To describe a group of women who areHIV-positive in Winnipeg with respect to age,source of income, education, risk behavioursfor HIV infection, ethnicity, and residence; (2)To describe any past experience of violence orthreat of violence in the home and communityof HIV-positive women in Winnipeg, and howthis contributes to negotiating abilities; and(3) To describe the economic circumstancesof HIV-positive women in Manitoba and howthese circumstances contribute to behavioursassociated with the acquisition of HIV, and (4)to describe the role of relocation/dislocationof Aboriginal women in the acquisition andtransmission of HIV (Introduction).90. Meloche, M. A. (1997). Partner Abuse inTwo-Spirited Relationships.Keywords: Family Violence/Two-Spirited/EducationAbstract: Unavailable91. Mill, J. E. (1996). HIV Infection inAboriginal Women. Thesis (M.N.) -- University ofAlberta, 1996. Edmonton, AB.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ HIV/AIDSAbstract: Aboriginal women areoverrepresented in the number of new clientsattending HIV clinics in a large urban centreserving northern Alberta. This thesis presents thefindings of a qualitative research study designedto explore the cultural factors that relate toHIV infection in these women. Two topics arecovered. The first presents findings related tothe etiology and treatment of HIV illness whichare divergent from common biomedical viewsof the disease. In the second paper, a model isdeveloped to conceptualize the relationshipsthat exist between the women’s formativeyears, their self-esteem and survival techniquesthey used prior to becoming HIV-positive. Thesesurvival techniques may have placed them insituations that increased their risk of infectionwith the HIV virus (Author Abstract).92. Mill, J. E. (1997). HIV Risk BehaviorsBecome Survival Techniques for AboriginalWomen. Western Journal of Nursing Research,19, 466-489.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/Adequate Power/ Basic Physical NeedsAbstract: In northern Alberta, the Aboriginal(Native) female population appears tobe overrepresented in the HIV statistics. Aqualitative research study was designed toexplore the cultural factors that relate tothe high HIV infection rate in these women.Eight HIV-positive women were interviewedfor the study, representing about one third ofthe population. A model was developed toexplain the relationships that exist between thewomen’s formative years, their self-esteem,and the survival techniques they used priorto becoming HIV-positive. These survivaltechniques may have placed them in situationsthat increased their risk of infection with the HIVvirus.93. Mill, J. E. (2000). Describing anExplanatory Model of HIV Illness amongAboriginal Women. Holistic Nursing Practice, 15,42-56.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/Canada/Health/ Health Care/HIV/AIDS/WorkAbstract: This article describes the explanatorymodel of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)illness used by Aboriginal women in northernAlberta. Using Kleinman’s explanatory modelframework, eight women who were HIVpositivewere interviewed to determine theirperspectives on the etiology, pathophysiology,symptomology, course of illness, and methodsof treatment for HIV. A comparative analysiswas done between the explanatory modelof HIV illness as described by participants andthe conventional biomedical paradigm of HIVdisease. As described by Aboriginal women,several aspects of the explanatory model of HIVwere congruent with the biomedical paradigm.It was also found that the findings relatedto etiology and treatment of HIV illness wasAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing169

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing170incongruent with the conventional biomedicalparadigm of HIV disease. These findingshighlight the relevance of knowing models ofillness for health care professionals, particularlynurses who work in communities with a highincidence of HIV/AIDS. These models make careplanning of patients with HIV and AIDS morefocused and directed (Journal Abstract).94. Millon, D. (2000). Telling Secrets: Sex,Power and Narratives in Indian ResidentialSchool Histories. Canadian Woman Studies, 20,92-104.Keywords: History/Sexuality/ Residential SchoolsAbstract: Examination of records fromresidential schools designed to train CanadianIndians to survive in white society shows a longhistory of physical, mental and sexual abuse.Hundreds of such schools were establishedbeginning in the late 19th century and run bythe federal government and various Christiandenominations.95. Mitchell, M. & Franklin, A. (2005). WhenYou Don’t Know the Language, Listen to theSilence: An Historical Overview of Native IndianWomen in BC.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ History/BritishColumbia/ChildrenAbstract: In order to describe and understandthe history of Native Indian women in BritishColumbia, the hiding places of the history mustfirst be discovered. There was a time, beforeEuropean conquest of North America, whenthe voices of Native women were strong andclear. As they raised their children, taught theirdaughters the traditional roles and skills forliving, shared daily events with their sisters andhusbands, and captivated their grandchildrenwith tales of mythical heroines -- of Bear Mother,Mouse Woman, Sun’s Daughter, The WomanWho Gave Birth to Puppies, and Tzonoqua,the Cannibal Ogress -- Native women of thisprovince spoke and were listened to.96. Monture-Angus, P. (1995). OrganizingAgainst Oppression: Aboriginal Women andthe Canadian State for First Nations Women.In P. Monture-Angus (Ed.), Thunder in My Soul:A Mohawk Woman Speaks. Halifax: FernwoodPublishing.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/First Nations/FirstNations Women/ womenAbstract: Unavailable97. Monture-Angus, P. (1995). Thunder inMy Soul: A Mohawk Woman Speaks. Halifax:Fernwood Publishing.Keywords: Canada/Education/ History/Justice/Racism/WorkAbstract: This collection of works thatdeveloped over time is aimed atcommunicating the Aboriginal experiencewithin Canada. The history of oppression,racism and colonialism are presented in theMohawk traditional methodology of storytelling.Issues of society, such as law, politics, justiceand change, are included. The author’s own“intellectual evolution” is shared through theinclusion of personal and academic writings.Aboriginal experiences with education, racism,the criminal justice system and feminismare discussed and traditional knowledge ispresented as essential to Aboriginal survival ashuman beings.98. Monture-Angus, P. (2002). The LivedExperience of Discrimination: Aboriginal WomenWho Are Federally Sentenced. Elizabeth FrySociety.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ women/Canada/Violence/Discrimination/Women inPrisonAbstract: The author reviews the statistics andprovides a human perspective on the livedexperience of Aboriginal women who arefederally sentenced and overrepresentationwithin the prison system in Canada. The authornotes that the ongoing failure to rigorouslyconsider the structure and impact of the systemon Aboriginal women results in continueddisadvantage and discrimination beyond thetravesty of overrepresentation. It is no surprisethe statistics regarding overrepresentationhave continued to increase, as it remains truethat there is a continuing need to advanceour understanding of culturally appropriateopportunities and to make real those options.The continued failure to do so reinforcescultural, racial and gender barriers, whichare causally related to overrepresentation.Equally, this failure impedes access to the verygoals that the Correctional Service of Canadaespouses of “safe and humane custody andsupervision” while offering opportunities for“rehabilitation.”99. Monture-Okanee, P. (1992). DiscussionPaper: Aboriginal Women and the JusticeSystem. Paper submitted to the RoyalCommission on Aboriginal PeoplesKeywords: Aboriginal Peoples/ AboriginalWomen/Gender/womenAbstract: This report examines the values andconcepts which shape and underlie Aboriginalwomen’s relationship with the Canadian justicesystem. Exploring the meaning of such wordsas “criminal,” “justice” and “violence” from anAboriginal perspective, the author concludesnot only that there is a pressing need for theincorporation of the Aboriginal world viewinto the justice system, but that the latter’sunderstanding of violence as it pertains toAboriginal women must be reconstructed so

that it better reflects such women’s day-to-dayrealities (Dion Stout, 1997).100. Monture-Okanee, P. A. (1992). TheViolence We Women Do: A First Nations View. InC. Backhouse & D. Flaherty (Eds.), ChallengingTimes: The Women’s Movement in Canada andthe U.S. (pp. 193-200). Montréal, QC: McGill-Queen’s University Press.Keywords: Canada/First Nations Women.Abstract: Monture - Okanee’s writes as aMohawk woman, and does not claim torepresent anyone but herself. We learn fromHoffman - Nemiroff’s summary that Monture- Okanee’s paper is actually a statement thatshe read to explain why she could not speakto the conference, as she had been asked,on the topic of violence against women. In amoving and forceful passage, she describesthe relationship of race and gender as sheexperiences it: It is out of my race that myidentity as a woman develops. I cannot andwill not separate the two. They are inseparable.I cannot separate the two because you needto ignore race, because it challenges andconfronts your conceptions of the world. ... Icannot stand up here and just be a woman foryou. I cannot stand up here, therefore, and justbe a feminist for you. I cannot and will not do it.I do not know how to do it. And it hurts me (andthat hurt is violence) that you keep asking me tosilence my race under my gender. Silencing meis the hurt which is violence (194).101. Moses, S., Mestery, K., Kaita, K. D., &Minuk, G. Y. (2002). Viral Hepatitis in a CanadianStreet-Involved Population. Canadian Journal ofPublic Health, 93, 123-138.Keywords: Ethnicity/Health/ Manitoba/Medicine/WorkAbstract: Background: Data on the prevalenceand compliance with management of viralhepatitis in the street-involved population arelimited. Method: Hepatitis A (HAV), B (HBV) andC (HCV) serology and compliance with HBVvaccination were documented in 533 streetinvolvedindividuals. Results: The mean age ofthe study population was 25.7 years (range: 11-65) and 53% were female. Serologic evidenceof HAV infection was present in 53%; HBV, 12%(3% ongoing infection); and HCV, 17%. HAVinfections were associated with Aboriginal/Métis ethnicity and age over 25 years; HBV withinjection drug use (IDU); and HCV with IDU, sextrade work and age over 25 years. Compliancewith three-step HBV vaccination was 98%, 77%and 63%. Conclusions: HAV, HBV and HCV arecommon infections in urban street-involvedpersons. Successful HBV (and presumably HAV)vaccination can be achieved in the majorityof this population, but concerns exist regardingcompliance with more long-term, parenterallybased antiviral therapies (Journal Abstract).102. Mosher, J., Morrow, E., Boulding, J.-A., &VanderPlaats, N. (2004). Walking on Eggshells:Abused Women’s Experiences of Ontario’sWelfare System. York University, OntarioAssociation of Interval and Transition Houses,and the Ontario Social Safety Network.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ Canada/Disabilities/ Poverty/ Research/Welfare/WorkAbstract: The primary research undertakingwas 64 in-depth qualitative interviews of 1.5-3 hours in length with women who are, orhave ever been, in an abusive adult intimaterelationship and are at present, or have beenat some point since 1995, in receipt of socialassistance benefits through Ontario Works orthe Ontario Disability Support Program. Of theseinterviews, five were conducted in Tamil, five inBengali, six in Spanish and three through culturalinterpreters in other languages. Of the 64women interviewed, 38 (60%) had immigratedto Canada and seven identified as Aboriginal.A small chapter highlights the experiences ofAboriginal women with respect to the violenceand poverty in their lives. The interviews wereconducted between November, 2001 andMarch, 2003. The main geographic regionsof the province covered were: Ottawa,Kingston, Toronto, London, Muskoka, Peel andTyendinaga Reserve, Mohawk Territory.103. Murdock, L. (2001). Aboriginal Womenand Violence: Standpoint Analysis. In J.Oakes, R.Riewe, B. Chisholm, & M. Bennett (Eds.), Pushingthe Margins: Native and Northern Studies (pp.212-217). Winnipeg, MB: Native Studies Press.Keywords: Children/Fetal Alcohol Syndrome/Effects/First Nations/ Pregnancy/ AboriginalWomen/ womenAbstract: While much attention has beendevoted to the issue of violence againstwomen, feminist writers have neglectedthe issue of violence by women themselvesspecifically. Consequently, there has beena negative impact on theory development,research, and the provision of services towomen who engage in violent behaviour. Thispaper argues the need to redirect our attentionto women’s intimate violence from thestandpoint of Aboriginal women who engage inviolent behaviour.104. Murdock, L. A. (2001). AboriginalWomen and Violence: A Standpoint Analysis.Thesis (M.A.) -- University of Manitoba, Winnipeg,MB.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ AdequatePower/Manitoba/ Poverty/Safety and Security/Social Justice and EquityAbstract: Thesis explores the issue of women’sintimate violence by taking a standpointapproach. Three focus-group discussions and12 in-depth interviews were conducted withAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing171

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing172Aboriginal women in order to understandhow these women made sense of their ownuse of violence. The author points out thatthe failed assimilation of Aboriginal people bythe Canadian government and its residentialboarding school policies has led to familiesbeing broken up and thus causing environmentswhere alcohol, violence, and poverty are thenorm. Much of the women’s intimate violenceis blamed on the long history of oppressionand victimization from trying to survive in apredominantly white society. In order to reduceviolence, the author states that issues such aspoverty, communications skills, support systems,and most importantly, the women’s need forattention, understanding, and community voicemust be addressed.105. Nahanee, T. (1994). Sexual Assault ofInuit Females: A Community on “Cultural Bias”.In J. Roberts & R. Mohr (Eds.), Confronting SexualAssault: A Decade of Legal and Social Change.Toronto, On: University of Toronto Press.Keywords: Sexual Assault/Sexual AssaultReportingAbstract: Unavailable106. Nahanee, T. A. (1995). The Violencein Aboriginal Women’s Lives. Winnipeg, MB:Canadian Medical Association.Available Online: http://www.cwhn.caKeywords: Aboriginal Women/ AdequatePower/Healing/Safety and Security/Social ClassAbstract Physical violence against Aboriginalwomen comes in many forms; it permeatesAboriginal women’s lives; and it impacts uponthe mental well-being of Aboriginal women.In the majority of cases, Aboriginal womenkeep the secret of violence to themselvesand report it only after sustained abuse. Somewomen born into violence suffered at thehands of institutional masters and mistresses,suffered when they returned to their familiesfrom residential schools and then married intoviolence. Many go through their entire lives inviolence, drugging and drinking their way toa safe place in their minds. Some leave andseek a life of self-worth and dignity. Othersturn violence and commit the ultimate crimeof murder or violent assault. This is a discussionof the violence that permeates Aboriginalwomen’s lives. It attempts to explain the effectsof colonialism, such as disempowerment,oppression and changes in social structure. Itdescribes the cyclic nature of violence whichencourages women to be silent and fearful.Structural factors, such as poverty and therole of residential schools and Elders, act tosustain the violence in Aboriginal women’s lives.Women must end their silence; men must endtheir denial; and communities and their leadersmust make a commitment to protect women.Everyone is responsible for ending the silenceand denial and beginning a process of healingfrom within (CWHN Abstract).107. Native Women’s Association ofCanada & Canadian Council on SocialDevelopment (1991). Voices of AboriginalWomen: Aboriginal Women Speak Out aboutViolence. Ottawa, ON: Canadian Council andSocial Development and Native Women’sAssociation of Canada.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ AdequatePower/Canada/Culture/ Family Violence/Healing/Safety and Security/Social Justice andEquity/womenAbstract: In 1987, members of the FamilyViolence Program at the Canadian Councilon Social Development conducted interviewswith women who had been abused by theirhusbands or boyfriends. Some were Aboriginalwomen who wanted others to hear aboutand learn from their stories. This documentcontains a descriptive overview of what it islike to be abused as an Aboriginal woman.It contains testimonials from five women whohave survived the violence in their lives. Italso contains an interview with Liza, a drugand alcohol counselor, and an Elder whotalks about her process of healing. Finally, itdescribes new directions and initiatives thatare being developed to help family violencevictims and offenders. This booklet providesfirsthand accounts of six Aboriginal women’sexperience with abuse, both of themselvesand their families, and of their culture andsociety. They are survivors of a violence bornof despair and loss of hope all too widespreadin Native communities. But they are alsostories of personal strength and courage, asthe concluding section on the healing processdemonstrates.108. Neron, C. (2000). HIV, Sexual Violenceand Aboriginal Women. Native Social WorkJournal, 3, 57-72.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ Health/HealthCare/Sexual Violence/women/WorkAbstract: This article addresses the connectionsbetween HIV and sexual violence amongAboriginal women. It offers suggestions as tohow health care workers and organizationscan connect these issues in their work withAboriginal women.109. Nguyen, M., Laframboise, S., Archibald,C. P., Patrick, D., Houston, S., Romanowki, B., etal. (1997). HIV/AIDS among Aboriginal Womenin Canada: An Increasing Concern. In 10thAnnual British Columbia HIV/AIDS Conference,Vancouver, B.C., October 1997 Vancouver, BC.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ British Columbia/Canada/HIV/AIDS

Abstract: Unavailable110. Nixon, K., Tutty, L., Downe, P., Gorkoff,K., & Ursel, J. (2002). The Everyday Occurrence:Violence in the Lives of Girls Exploited throughProstitution. Violence against Women, 8, 1016-1043.Keywords: Health/Prostitution/ Sexual AbuseAbstract: This article reports the results ofqualitative interviews with 47 women involvedin prostitution from three western Canadianprovinces. More than two-thirds of the womenhad become involved at the age of 15 oryounger. The respondents described highrates of violence perpetrated against them.They reported considerable childhood sexualabuse, most often by a family member or bycaretakers while they were living in foster careor group homes. The young women continuedto experience violence as prostitutes, socommonplace that it almost seemed “normal.”They were victimized by pimps, johns, otherprostituted women, intimate partners, andrepresentatives from mainstream society andmembers of the police. This article describestheir experiences of violence, the associatedhealth problems, the protective strategies theyused, and their attempts to leave the streets.The conclusion suggests ways in which agenciesand policies could better address the violenceexperienced by these young women.111. Normιn, L., Chan, K., Braitstein, P.,Anema, A., Bondy, G., Montaner, J. S. G., etal. (2005). Food Insecurity and Hunger ArePrevalent among HIV-Positive Individuals inBritish Columbia, Canada. Journal of Nutrition,135, 820-827.Keywords: British Columbia/ Canada/Health/Men/Children/ Education/History/Housing/ResearchAbstract: Hunger and food insecurity areimportant factors that may affect anindividual’s nutritional state and shouldtherefore be assessed in nutrition surveillanceactivities. The objective of this study was todetermine the level of food insecurity andhunger among HIV-positive persons accessingantiretroviral therapy in British Columbia. Across-sectional study was performed in the BCHIV/AIDS drug treatment program, a provincewidesource of free-of-charge antiretroviralmedications. In 1998-1999, participantscompleted a questionnaire focusing onpersonal information, health, and clinical status,Food and hunger issues were evaluated withthe Radimer/Cornell questionnaire. Overall,1,213 responding men and women wereclassified as food secure (52%), food insecurewithout hunger (27%), or food insecure withhunger (21%). In both categories of foodinsecurity, individuals were significantly morelikely to be women, Aboriginals, living withchildren, and to have less education, a historyof recreational injection drug and/or alcoholabuse, and an unstable housing situation (P

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing174completed. Individuals working in AboriginalAIDS service organizations were also contacted.The review is organized into three sectionslooking at: (1) burden of illness; (2) determinantsand risk factors; and (3) interventions. Eachsection identifies the research that has beenundertaken in the area, the impact of thosestudies if any, gaps where further researchis required and recommendations for thedevelopment of a new Aboriginal HIV/AIDSresearch agenda. Much of the literature as itpertains to the experience of HIV/AIDS in thefemale population of Aboriginal peoples is alsoincluded.115. O’Neil, J. D., Moffatt, M. E. K., Tate, R.B., & Young, T. K. (1993). The Social Context ofSexual Abuse in the Keewatin Region, N.W.T. InG.Pιtursdσttir, S. B. Sigurπsson, M. M. Karlsson,& J. Axelsson (Eds.), Circumpolar Health 93:proceedings of the 9th International Congresson Circumpolar Health, Reykjavik, June 20-25,1993 (53 ed., pp. 555-557).Keywords: Health/Research/Inuit Women/SexualAbuse/Housing/ AdolescentsAbstract: As part of the Keewatin HealthAssessment a representative sample of 263Inuit adolescent and adult women were askedwhether they had ever been sexually abused.Responses were confidential and the responserate was remarkably high (85%), only 15% didnot respond to this question. Fourteen percent of Keewatin Inuit women reported anexperience of sexual abuse, evenly distributedacross all age groups. There was no statisticallysignificant variation by community althoughthe rate ranged from 0% to 20% across eightcommunities. Univariate analysis indicatedthat abuse was more frequent among womenliving in private/government housing (p=048);in uncrowded housing (p=.015); with at leastone fully employed male in the house (p=.035);and among women who did not speakInuktitut (p=.088). These associations wereconsistent between adolescents and adults,with adolescent experience of sexual abusealso highly associated with drug use (p=.006).The picture that emerges is that sexual abuseof Inuit women occurs more often in relativelywell-off, single-family, westernized homes.Alternative explanations are that these womenreported the experience more accurately; orthat these women perceive abuse differentlyand are more likely to report it. These dataalso describe the current living environment ofabused women, not the context in which abuseoccurred. However, if the data are accuratein characterizing sexual abuse as a problemof the more “westernized” Inuit in Keewatincommunities, the implications are profoundfor targeting and designing appropriatepreventative programs.116. Ontario Federation of Indian FriendshipCentres (2002). Tenuous Connections: UrbanAboriginal Youth Sexual Health and Pregnancy.Toronto, ON: Ontario Federation of IndianFriendship Centres.Keywords: Health/Pregnancy/ Research/SexualHealth/YouthAbstract: This study was set up to investigatethe following questions: What are the sexualand contraceptive practices of Aboriginalyouth today?; What are some of the reasonsthat Aboriginal youth are getting pregnant?;What are the feelings and practices aroundabortion among Aboriginal youth?; What arethe attitudes of Aboriginal youth towards sex,sexuality and family matters?; Are the youthinfluenced by Native traditional knowledgeand ethics that influence their approach tosex and parenting?; What types of situationsare teen parents living in, and how do theyfeel about teen pregnancy and parenting?Research was conducted through provincewidequestionnaires (255 questionnaires werecompleted); interviews with female and maleyouth parents, front line workers and Elders (for atotal of 52 key informant interviews), and youthfocus groups. Includes background materialdrawn from literature, extensive material aboutthe findings and recommendations.117. Ontario Native Women’s Association(1989). Breaking Free: A Proposal for Changeto Aboriginal Family Violence. Thunder Bay:Ontario Native Women’s Association.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ Family Violence/Native women/ womenAbstract: This report examines the complexitiesof Aboriginal family violence from theperspective of Aboriginal women. Thereport includes: an analysis of the cycles ofAboriginal family violence; review of servicesavailable to the battered Aboriginal woman;a discussion of the Canadian justice system;a survey of community care and socialworkers; and a summary of the extent of theproblem in Ontario. The report also makesrecommendations for action.118. Orozco, M. E. (1991). Domestic Violenceand Inuit Women.Keywords: Inuit Women/Research/ Safety andSecurity/Social Justice and Equity/WorkAbstract: The researcher will work with the BaffinRegional Agvvik Society, a transition house forbattered women, and the Tuvvik Alcohol andDrug Counselling Centre, which has a programfor batterers. Interviews will be conductedwith RCMP, Department of Social Servicesand Department of Justice to evaluate theinstitutional response to domestic violence (Au).119. Orozco, M. E. (2005). Conjugal Violenceand the Inuit of Baffin Island, N.W.T.

Keywords: Research/Safety and Security/SocialJustice and EquityAbstract: In liaison with the Baffin RegionalAgvvik Society, the researcher will investigatethe context of violence and the meanings andinterpretations that women and men attachto these events. Additional research as to thehistorical rate of incidence of this phenomenonwill also be examined.120. Orr, P., Sherman, E., Blanchard, J.,Fast, M., Hammond, G., & Brunham, R. (1994).Epidemiology of Infection due to ChlamydiaTrachomatis in Manitoba, Canada. ClinicalInfections and Diseases, 19, 876-883.Keywords: Canada/Health/ Manitoba/PreventionAbstract: In a study of the epidemiology ofChlamydia trachomatis infection in Manitobaduring 1981-1990, we retrospectively reviewedlaboratory and clinical case notification recordsas well as hospital and health insurance dataconcerning pelvic inflammatory disease andectopic pregnancy. After implementationof a control program in 1987, the annualincidence of Chlamydial infection was highestamong females aged 15-24 years (3,418 casesper 100,000 residents). Recurrent infection,which occurred in 13.4% of patients, wasmore common in women (P < .001), patientsaged 15-24 years (P < .001), registered NorthAmerican Indians (P< .001), and personswith concomitant gonorrhea (P < .001). Riskfactors for dual (Chlamydial and gonococcal)infection included male sex (P < .001) andyoung age (P < .001). Although the incidenceof hospitalization and outpatient visits for pelvicinflammatory disease decreased (P < .001) from1981 to 1990, the annual incidence of ectopicpregnancy increased from 10 to 16 cases per1,000 reported pregnancies (P < .001). Controlactivities focusing on the primary preventionof C. trachomatis infection are presented.Strategies for improving secondary prevention(through case detection and treatment oflower genital infection) include the targeting ofindividuals with recurrent and multiple sexuallytransmitted diseases (Journal Abstract).121. Parsons, D. (1999). Sexual Abuse ofChildren: “Spirit Murdering.” Thesis (LL.M) --University of Ottawa, 1999, Ottawa, ON.Available Online: http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk1/tape9/PQDD_0007/MQ45244.pdfKeywords: Canada/Sexual Abuse/ ChildWelfare/WelfareAbstract: Thesis compares and contrasts thecurrent legal protections to sexually abusednon-Aboriginal children with that affordedto Aboriginal children of Canada. In part 1,the main findings and recommendations ofthe Badgley Committee are examined alongwith the federal government’s subsequentenactment of Bill C-15. In part 2, the inequitiesthat Aboriginal people have suffered as aresult of the imposed circuit court system arediscussed. As background to a discussionof alternative Aboriginal justice systems,a critique is provided on the case of R. vs.Moses [1992], in which the first sentencingcircle was used. A description and criticalanalysis of various Aboriginal justice projectsacross Canada are provided. The author hasmade recommendations to revise the rulesof evidence and procedure regarding childsexual abuse victims and to provide protectionto women and children living in Aboriginalcommunities.122. Pauktuutit Inuit Women’s Association(1995). More Than They Say: Unreported Crimein Labrador. Ottawa: Pauktuutit Inuit Women’sAssociation.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Inuit Women/Research/CrimeAbstract: Pauktuutit is a leader amongAboriginal women’s organizations withrespect to gender-based research directed topolicy implications and social change. In thisparticipatory research project, Pauktuutit buildson Inuit traditional knowledge and values andfeminist praxis to record, report and analyzecriminal behaviours endangering Inuit women inremote communities.123. Pauktuutit Inuit Women’s Association(1999). Part 6 - Sexually Transmitted Diseasesand HIV: A Series on HIV/AIDS for InuitCommunities. Ottawa, ON: Pauktuutit InuitWomen’s Association.Available Online: http://www.pauktuutit.ca/hiv/hiv-part6.pdfKeywords: Health/HIV/AIDS/ Newborns/SexuallyTransmitted DiseasesAbstract: Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs)are infections caused by bacteria or germsthat are most often caught when peoplehave unprotected sex. Although most STDscan be cured, many of them create problemsthat can last a long time, sometimes theseproblems are lifelong. Sometimes people haveno idea that they have an STD and pass it onto other people without knowing it. Anyonewho is having sex should learn the signs of STDsso they can get treated by a doctor or at thehealth center or nursing station. People whohave STDs that are not treated have a greaterchance of catching HIV than other people.Different STDs need different treatment. Whenyou are given medication to treat an STD, it isimportant that you finish taking it. If you don’t,the infection is likely to return and you will likelygive the infection to your sexual partner. Whileyou are taking the medication, it is importantAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing175

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing176that you do not drink alcohol. Alcohol will makethe medication less effective in curing your STD.When you have finished the medication, youmust go back to the doctor or nursing stationfor a follow-up exam to make sure the infectionis completely gone. Newborn babies can beinfected with some STDs while they are in thewomb or during delivery. Severe eye infections,blindness and pneumonia are only a few of thecomplications that can affect babies born withan STD. In the north many people have STDs, soit especially important for Inuit to understandhow to tell if they have an STD.124. Pauktuutit Inuit Women’s Association(2003). There is a Need So We Help: Services forInuit Survivors of Child Sexual Abuse. Ottawa,ON: Pauktuutit Inuit Women’s Association.Available Online: http://206.191.37.17/pdf/publications/abuse/ChildSexualAbuseReport_e.pdfKeywords: Adequate Human Services andSocial Safety Net/ Healing/Inuit Children/InuitWomen/ Sexual Abuse/Sexual Violence/ StrongFamilies and Healthy Child DevelopmentAbstract: This report is based on an awarenessof the healing and program support needsof survivors of child sexual abuse in Inuitcommunities.125. Pauktuutit Inuit Women’s Association(2005). National Inuit HIV/AIDS and STDs TrainingWorkshop: Final Report. In National Inuit HIV/AIDS & STDs Training Workshop (1995: Iqaluit,N.W.T.) Ottawa, On: Pauktuutit Inuit Women’sAssociation.Keywords: Education/Health/HIV/ AIDS/Prevention/WorkAbstract: This report has been prepared tooutline the proceedings which occurred atthe National Inuit HIV/AIDS and STDs TrainingWorkshop in Iqaluit. This document reportson the issues identified as related to HIV/AIDS and STDs and includes the solutions/recommendations made at the conclusionof the workshop. It demonstrates the degreeof urgency for more AIDS activity includingeducation, awareness, prevention andacceptance of those who are infected withthe virus. Although this paper is submitted to theMedical Health Services Branch, it will also beuseful for those working in the health professionor in AIDs-related work such as the CommunityHealth Representatives and Workers whoattended the workshop.126. Pelletier, C. (1998). National Inuit HIV/AIDS and STDs Training Workshop: Final Report.Montréal: Quebec Native Women = Femmesautochtones du Quebec.Keywords: Education/Healing/ Health/HIV/AIDSAbstract: Presents reflections on several aspectsof sexuality: wounding and healing, education,sexual identity, self-affirmation, self-esteemand communication. Includes analysis of theimpact of the residential school system oncontemporary Native sexuality, interviewswith women about their attitudes towardssexual health, and workshop materials for sexeducation and counselling for healthy sexuality.127. Pelletier, C. (1998). Respectingour Human Dignity: Justice in AboriginalCommunities. Montréal: Femmes autochtonesdu Quebec = Quebec Native Women.Keywords: Family Violence/Justice128. Proulx, J. & Perrault, S. (1996). AnEvaluation of the Ma Mawi Wi Chi Itata Centre’sFamily Violence Program Stony MountainProject: The Complete Report. Winnipeg,MB: Research and Education for Solutions toViolence and Abuse.Keywords: Winnipeg/Family Violence/Research/Education/Men/Medicine/Healing/ PreventionAbstract: This report describes the evaluation ofthe Family Violence Program Stony MountainProject, a treatment program developed torespond to the high percentage of Aboriginalmen incarcerated in correctional facilitiesfor crimes related to family violence. Theprogram, consisting of 29 sessions to changeviolent behaviour patterns, is based on theMedicine Wheel and includes a combination ofeducation, counselling, healing and prevention.The evaluation covers the three-year periodwhen the program was delivered. Using bothqualitative and quantitative methodology,64 inmates were interviewed to evaluate: 1)satisfaction with the program; 2) perceptionof its effectiveness and applicability; and 3)thoughts on the cultural aspects. Participants’general satisfaction with the program is veryhigh. As well, a very high level of satisfactionwith the cultural aspects of the program isexpressed. Supplementary information fromcase management officers and guards showsa moderate change in inmates’ behaviourtoward others in the institution. The authorsconclude that there is both a need and adesire for Aboriginal family violence programs incorrectional facilities.129. Proulx, J. & Perrault, S. (2001). MaMawi Wi Chi Itata Family Violence Program. InJ. Oakes, R. Riewe, M. Bennett, & B. Chisholm(Eds.), Pushing the Margins (pp. 204-211).Winnipeg, MB: Native Studies Press, University ofManitoba.Keywords: Family Violence/ Manitoba/Safetyand Security/ Social Justice and EquityAbstract: Aboriginal teachings and traditionsare blended with mainstream content andtheory to formulate the Ma Mawi Wi Chi Itata

Family Violence Program. This program offersservices to children, women, and men withinthe community and at Stony Mountain FederalCorrectional Facility. This article describes theservices offered, the philosophy of the program,and the constant efforts to expand servicesto fit the changing needs of the community,including research partnerships.130. Proulx, J. & Perrault, S. (2000). No Placefor Violence: Canadian Aboriginal Alternatives.Halifax, N.S.: Fernwood.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ AdequatePower/Family Violence/ Safety and Security/Social Justice and EquityAbstract: Family violence has become an issueof significant concern within the Aboriginalcommunity. One of the unique aspects offamily violence within this community is itslink to the history of colonization. This volumepresents a number of studies on the effects ofcolonization, the need for programming specificto and by Aboriginal people and the effortsmade by the Aboriginal community to meetthat need. The success and respect that theseprojects have elicited from the community willbuild confidence and pave the way for theirdevelopment and the pursuit of alternativeapproaches to family violence prevention in theAboriginal community.131. Razack, S. (1994). What Is to Be Gainedby Looking White People in the Eye? Culture,Race, and Gender in Cases of Sexual Violence.Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society,19, 894-923.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ AdequatePower/Culture/ Empowerment/Gender/Life-Sustaining Values, Morals, and Ethics/Racism/Safety and Security/ Sexual Violence/SocialJustice and EquityAbstract: Razack expertly examines the usesto which culture is put in the courts when theissue is violence against racialized women.Both women of color and Aboriginal womenare obliged to talk about culture and violencewithin the context of white supremacy, acontext in which racism and sexism and theirintersections are denied. White judges andwhite lawyers seeking neat, culturally sensitive,ungendered solutions to justice have not oftenstopped to question their right to interpretAboriginal culture, history, and contemporaryreality. Cross-cultural sensitivity training of thejudiciary will be of little use unless it is pursuedin the context of the greater empowerment ofthe subordinate group. Cultural considerationsmight be effectively deployed if they remaingrounded in the realities of domination. Inthe courtroom, the cultural background ofracialized women can be used to explain thestructural constraints of their lives.132. Razack, S. (2000). Gendered RacialViolence and Spatialized Justice: The Murder ofPamela George. Canadian Journal of Law andSociety, 15, 91-130.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ AdequateIncome and Sustainable Economies/AdequatePower/ Cultural Integrity and Identity/ Culture/Empowerment/History/Racism/Safety andSecurity/Social Justice and Equity133. Razack, S. H. (1998). Looking WhitePeople in the Eye: Gender, Race, and Culturein Courtrooms and Classrooms. Toronto, ON:University of Toronto Press.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ Canada/CulturalDifferences/ Culture/Disabilities/ Education/Gender/History/Research/women/SexualAssaultAbstract: This book challenges the widelyheld view that relations between dominantand subordinate groups can be unmarkedby histories of oppression, as many culturaldiversity theorists, educators, and legalpractitioners presume. In this view, problems ofcommunication are mere technical glitchescaused by cultural and other differences,and educators and legal practitioners needonly learn various “cross-cultural” strategies tomanage these differences. What makes thecultural differences approach so inadequatein the classroom is not that it is wrong, becausepeople in reality do have culturally specificpractices that must be taken into account, butthat its emphasis on cultural diversity too oftendescends to a superficial reading of differencesthat makes power relations invisible and keepsdominant cultural norms in place. This bookexamines how relations of domination andsubordination stubbornly regulate encountersin the classroom and courtroom and shapewhat can be known, thought, and said. Essaysfocus on intertwining systems of domination-- capitalism, patriarchy, and white supremacy--as they affect the experiences of CanadianAboriginal women, other Canadian minoritygroups, and women with developmentaldisabilities in college classrooms and in courtcases involving sexual assault and immigrationissues. In Looking White People in the Eye:Gender, Race and Culture in Courtroomsand Classrooms, Razack addresses the failureof feminist theory and of feminist lawyers,academics, educators, and adjudicators,as well as non-feminist judges, to addressdifference. Razack explores the hierarchicalrelations implicit in feminist theory and suggeststhe means by which we can explore andredress our complicity in “relations of ruling.”This review places Looking White People in theEye at the centre of a discussion of the needfor feminism to journey from a “here” in whichdifference and hierarchical relations are notsufficiently acknowledged by feminists to a“there” in which difference is at the core ofAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing177

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing178feminism. It concludes that Razack’s analysisis an integral part of the evolution of feministtheory.134. Reinke, D. C. (1997). A HumanEcological Systems Perspective on FamilyViolence in Canada’s North. Thesis (M.SC.) --University of Alberta, 1997.Keywords: Family Violence/ Canada/Education/Sexual Abuse/ womenAbstract: Guided by a human ecologicalsystems perspective, this thesis sought todescribe the nature and extent of familyviolence in Canada’s Northwest Territories andto place it in its social, historical, cultural, andgeographic contexts. Analysis of shelter intakedata revealed that over 80 per cent of shelterclients were Aboriginal, most experiencedmultiple forms of abuse by their partners,nearly 90 per cent reported injuries, and manyrequired medical attention or hospitalization.Many reported little support from medical staffor law enforcement officers. Lack of education,low incomes, unemployment, substance abuse,violence and substance abuse in families oforigin, and physical and sexual abuse duringchildhood were common characteristics ofabused women and their abusive partners.Placing violence in the north in its social,historical, cultural, and geographic contextslends understanding to the problem and revealsthe inappropriateness of many mainstreamapproaches to dealing with family violence.Initiatives consistent with a human ecologicalsystems perspective are suggested.135. Roach, K. & Rudin, J. (2000). Gladue:The Judicial and Political Reception of aPromising Decision. (Canada Supreme Courtcase Gladue) (Changing Punishment at theTurn of the Century). Canadian Journal ofCriminology, 42, 355.Keywords: Adequate Power/ Canada/Safetyand Security/Social Justice and Equity/YouthAbstract: This paper examines the SupremeCourt’s decision in R. v. Gladue whichinterpreted the requirement in s. 718.2(e) ofthe Criminal Code that judges at sentencingexamine alternatives to imprisonment “withparticular attention to the circumstancesof Aboriginal offenders.” The authors arguethat Gladue is promising in its recognition ofAboriginal over-incarceration as a pressingproblem and of the disadvantages suffered byall Aboriginal offenders including those livingin an urban environment. The authors examinethe relation between s. 718.2(e) and restorativeand retributive principles of sentencing. Theyalso explore the relevance of s. 718.2(e) incases of serious crimes and the role that Gladuemay play in a process of net widening throughextensive use of conditional sentences in caseswhere imprisonment would not normally havebeen imposed. The reception of Gladue in thecriminal justice system, including the SupremeCourt’s subsequent six decisions concerningconditional sentences, is also examined. Finally,the authors explore the negative reception thatGladue received in the popular media and theinitial decision to exclude s. 718.2(e) from the billto enact a new Youth Criminal Justice Act. Theauthors conclude that although it is a promisingdecision, Gladue is not likely to reduce the overincarcerationof Aboriginal people in Canada(Authors’ abstract).111. Roberts, R. (2005). Voices outside Law:Canada’s Justice System in the Lives of Survivorsand Victims of Sexual Violence. Thesis (M.W.S.)-- Memorial University of Newfoundland.Available Online: http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk1/tape10/PQDD_0018/MQ54956.pdfKeywords: 7/Canada/Healing/ Justice/SexualViolenceAbstract: This study examines the experiencesof survivors and victims of sexual violencewith the Canadian criminal justice system.The existing literature about the laws and thelegal processing of sexual violence indicatesthat most cases of sexual violence are notreported, and that few of those reportedend in conviction. The literature addressingthe emotional impact of sexual violenceon survivors, and the process of healing,indicates that legal proceedings are not seenby most survivors or therapists as a positiveor even safe experience for survivors. Eightpeople who self-identified as survivors and/or victims of sexual violence participated inunstructured personal interviews, of which anumber of participants were of Aboriginaldescent. Grounded theory methodology wasused to identify three main ways in which thecriminal justice processing of sexual violencewas felt to be hurtful to these survivors andvictims: denial of victims’ experiences ofabuse, blaming of victims for having beenabused, and violation of victims’ privacy andautonomy. Participants’ experiences and/orfears of each of these injuries are described.The relationship between these experiencesand the initial harms to respondents fromsexual violence are also explored. Discussionfocuses on the roles of abusers, societalresponses to victims and Canada’s laws onsexual violence in creating and aggravatingthe injuries common to survivors and victims.Some possible recommendations for improvingvictims’ and survivors’ perceptions andexperiences of the criminal justice process areaddressed. However, the most pressing needis for a widespread consultation of survivorsand victims, to expand on the findings from thissample (Author Abstract).137. Romanow, C.G. HIV/AIDS and AboriginalWomen in Saskatchewan: Colonization,Marginalization and Recovery.

Keywords: Aboriginal Women; Education;Gender; Health; Hepatitis C; History; HIV/AIDS; Poverty; Prostitution; Research; RiskFactors; Sexual Abuse; Social Class; SubstanceAddictions; Treatment; ViolenceAbstract: This research was conducted inan attempt to understand why Aboriginalwomen in Saskatchewan remain marginalizedin their continuing struggle against HIV/AIDSand Hepatitis C. Through the use of indepthethnographic profiles and personalhistories, twenty-two Aboriginal women fromSaskatchewan candidly shared their lifehistories. The women were asked a range ofquestions, including their knowledge about HIV/AIDS and Hepatitis C, and their attitudes andbehaviours concerning sexual activities, alcoholand drug use, education, health, and lifestyle.138. Ryan, S. A. (2000). The Many Directionsof Four Stories: Aboriginal Women’s ExperiencesLiving with Addictions and HIV/AIDS. Thesis(M.A.) -- Simon Fraser University, Dept. ofSociology and Anthropology, Vancouver, BC.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ Critical LearningOpportunities/ Health/HIV/AIDS/Life-SustainingValues, Morals, and Ethics/ Women’s HealthAbstract: This exploratory study involvedlistening, observing, analyzing, documenting,and better understanding “things as they are”for four street-involved, HIV-positive Aboriginalwomen from Vancouver’s Downtown Eastside..The thesis highlights the circumstances thatcontribute to the women’s vulnerability, not justto HIV/AIDS, but to a number of constrainingsocial factors that affect their overall health,safety, and quality of life. The narrative natureof the four women’s stories is used to gain agreater understanding of Aboriginal women’shealth issues. Historical issues, along with social,cultural, economic, and physical factors thatimpinge on the health of Aboriginal women areenhanced when combined with the four storiesof the study group.139. Samson, A. (1992). Childhood SexualAbuse: A Booklet for First Nations Adult Survivors.Victoria, BC: Victoria Women’s Sexual AssaultCentre.Keywords: First Nations/Sexual Abuse/TraumaAbstract: Offers information to First Nationsadult survivors of childhood sexual abuse aboutwhat to do to help themselves recover from thetrauma of sexual abuse and where to get thesupport.140. Sauve, J. (1997). Healing the Spirit fromthe Effects of Abuse: Spirituality and FeministPractice with Women Who Have Been Abused.Thesis (M.S.W.) -- Carleton University, 1997.Available Online: http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/ftp04/mq22148.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Women/ Abuse/Canada/Healing/WorkAbstract: The purpose of this study is to openthe field of feminist social work practice tospiritual healing. I conducted interviews witheleven women, from various cultural andspiritual traditions, to see how they integratedspiritual healing into their work with women whohave been abused. The findings identified theparticipants’ views on effects of abuse on thespirit, characteristics of healing and harmfulspiritualities, and how spiritual healing mightbe beneficial for women who are healing fromabuse. The women shared personal stories,ideas, approaches, and tools which could behelpful in integrating spirituality into practicewith abused women. The findings also exploredconflict between spirituality and feminism,ways that spirituality could be introduced intothe curricula of schools of social work, nursing,or psychology, and ideas for improvement toservices for abused women.141. Scott, H. S. & Beaman, R. L. (2003).Sexual Assault among Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal Peoples in a Western Canadian City:A Case for Including Race when CollectingCrime Data. Online Journal of Justice Studies, 1.Available Online: http://ojjs.icaap.org/issues/1.1/scott-beaman.htmlKeywords: Sexual Abuse/Sexual AssaultReporting/Sexual ViolenceAbstract: Statistics on race are not collectedin the Canadian Uniform Crime Reports, apractice that has sparked an ongoing debateregarding their utility. This paper comparesAboriginal and non-Aboriginal sexual assaultsand suggests there is a need for the collectionof race-based statistics. Using police reports ofsexual assault (N=110), we compare precursor(social and demographic) and transactional(incident) variables for Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal victims. The analysis reveals thatAboriginal complainants were significantlymore likely to report being unemployed andwere significantly more likely to be identified ashaving consumed alcohol and/or drugs prior tothe offence. Given the importance of witnesscredibility in sexual assault cases, these findingsmay signal unique problems for sexual assaultreporting and processing among the Aboriginalpopulation.142. Ship, S. J. & Norton, L. (1998). TripleJeopardy: The Dynamic of Gender, Raceand Class Discrimination, Aboriginal Womenand HIV/AIDS. Kahnawake, Quebec: TheNational Indian and Inuit Community HealthRepresentatives Organization.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ Gender/HIV/AIDS/Racism/Class Discrimination/HIV/AIDSAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing179

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing180143. Ship, S. J. & Norton, L. (2001). HIV/AIDSand Aboriginal Women in Canada. CanadianWoman Studies, 21, 25.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/ AboriginalWomen/Adequate Human Services and SocialSafety Net/Canada/Canadian Women/Gender/Health/HIV/AIDS/Well-beingAbstract: Dramatic and rapid increases in HIVand AIDS rates among Aboriginal peoples inCanada, particularly among Aboriginal women,have been recorded despite underreportingand the small number of documented AIDScases. The patterns of HIV and AIDS amongAboriginal women are markedly differentfrom those observed for Canadian women ingeneral. Epidemiological data for 1998-1999shows that Aboriginal women constituted49.6 per cent of newly diagnosed HIVcases among Aboriginal people while non-Aboriginal women comprise 20 per cent ofnewly diagnosed non-Aboriginal HIV cases.Injection drug use is the major mode of HIVtransmission among Aboriginal women,followed by heterosexual sexual contact.HIV infection occurs at a younger age forAboriginal women than for non-Aboriginalwomen. Young women constitute thelargest proportion of Aboriginal AIDS cases.Consequently, the risk of HIV transmission frommothers to infants is increasing. Despite thesefacts, Aboriginal women continue to remaininvisible in HIV/AIDS research and policy aswell as face numerous barriers in accessingservices. A focus on Aboriginal women andHIV/AIDS necessarily raises the issue of genderand women’s subordination in addition tothe unique historical and socioeconomicfactors that shape Aboriginal women’s lives.Gender refers to the social construction ofmen’s and women’s social roles that arehistorically shaped, culturally contextualized,and class-specific. Understanding how HIV/AIDSaffects women entails analysis of the sociallyconstructed differences between men andwomen and how this shapes distinct femaleand male experiences. Women’s subordinationor gender inequality among Aboriginal peoplesis largely a consequence of European contactand colonialism. The imposition of Europeannotions of women’s social position resultedin the dispossession of Aboriginal women’srights and the devaluation of women’s socialroles. In addition to the legacies of multipledisadvantages and multi-generational abusethat affected Aboriginal communities, families,and individuals, cultural disruption servedto deepen women’s subordination to men.Isolation is the biggest problem caregiversface that negatively affects their own healthand well-being, the person with HIV/AIDS andwhere pertinent, the family living with HIV/AIDS.Isolation of caregivers is a consequence ofthe continuing stigma attached to HIV/AIDSin Aboriginal communities and the resultingdilemmas of disclosure. Lack of services,counselling and supports for the caregiver, theloved one living with HIV/AIDS and in somecases the family, particularly those living inAboriginal communities and smaller urbancentres, serves to reinforce their isolation.144. Ship, S. J., Norton, L., Sterling, D., &Roussil, A. (1999). Keepers of the Earth: Women,Health and HIV/AIDS. Kahnawake, QC:National Indian and Inuit Community HealthRepresentatives Organization.Keywords: Adequate Human Services andSocial Safety Net/ Education/Health/HIV/AIDSAbstract: Presents a training package, whichincludes a manual, video, public serviceannouncement and training workshop. Theauthors provide information to help enhancecommunity health representatives’ capacitiesin HIV/AIDS prevention and in communityeducation with women, emphasizing culturallyappropriate models of healthy sexuality andthe reduction of high risk behaviours. Thispublication also addresses the multiple andspecific needs of First Nations and Inuit womenliving with HIV/AIDS or who are caregivers ofpeople living with HIV/AIDS.145. Ship, S. J. (2000). “It’s Hard to be aWoman!” First Nations Women Living with HIV/AIDS. Native Social Work Journal, 3, 73-89.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/First Nations/First Nations Women/ Health/HIV/AIDS/Men/Research/womenAbstract: This paper focuses on the experiencesand perspectives of First Nations womenliving with HIV/AIDS and explores how HIV/AIDS affects their lives differently from men’slives. It is based on original research carriedout as part of a larger project on Aboriginalwomen and HIV/AIDS for the National Indianand Inuit Community Health RepresentativesOrganization in which the experiences andperspectives of female caregivers of peopleliving with HIV/AIDS and women in “hard-toreach”communities were explored.146. Simoni, S. S. & Walters, K. L. (2004).Triangle of Risk: Urban American IndianWomen’s Sexual Trauma, Injection DrugUse, and HIV Sexual Risk Behaviors. AIDS andBehavior, 8, 33-45.Available Online: http://journals.kluweronline.com/article.asp?PIPS=479717Keywords: HIV/AIDS/Injection Drug Use/Research/TraumaAbstract: A community-based mail survey of155 urban American Indian women revealed91% engaged in at least one lifetime HIV sexualor drug risk behavior, including 19% who hadsex with an injection drug user and 7% whohad traded sex. Sixty-eight per cent of therespondents were sexually active in the last

year, with more than half never using condoms.Six per cent had ever injected nonprescriptiondrugs; 62% drank alcohol in the last year,with 28% reporting at least one occasionof consuming six or more drinks containingalcohol. Respondents reported high rates oflifetime physical (37%) and sexual (39%) assault,which was generally associated with lifetimebut not more recent indicators of sexual anddrug risk behavior. Injection drug use mediatedthe relationship between non-partner sexual(but not physical) trauma and high-risk sexualbehaviors. Findings underscore the need for theintegrated assessment and treatment of abuseand substance use as well as more researchon the risk behaviours of this understudied andunderserved population (Journal Abstract).147. Sioui Wawanoloath, C., Pelletier, C.,Sioui Wawanoloath, C., & Association desfemmes autochtones du Québec (1996).Highlights of the Conference “This is Dawn.”In Conference: This is Dawn (1995: Montréal,Quebec).Keywords: Canada/Health/ Montreal/SocialConditionsAbstract: Contents include: (1) ViolenceCanada; (2) Native peoples Crimes againstCanada Congresses; (3) Indians, NorthAmerican Canada; (4) Domestic ViolenceCanada; (5) Battered Women Canada; (6)Native women Abuse of Canada Congresses;(7) Native peoples Canada social conditionsCongresses.148. Smith, C. P. (2002). RegulatingProstitution in British Columbia, 1895-1930. Thesis(M.A.) -- University of Calgary, 2001. Calgary, AB.Keywords: British Columbia/ Canada/Men/womenAbstract: At the local, daily level, the regulationof prostitution was a plural process; onein which moral and sociolegal regulationsoverlapped and were influenced by competingdiscourses. In this context, the debate over theregulation or suppression of prostitution wasan arena of struggle that was complicated bythe resistance and negotiation tactics of thewomen themselves. Prostitutes were importantcontributors to the economies of fledglingresource towns in the BC interior, such asRossland, Nelson, Princeton, Revelstoke, andKelowna. In the urban centres of Vancouverand Victoria, prostitutes’ experiences suggesta constant process of re/negotiation tothe rhetoric surrounding the social reformmovements of the first two decades of the20th century. As part of a community network,prostitutes had some protection within the lawand did not hesitate to bring charges againstmen who abused them, and damaged orstole their property. When prostitutes becameincreasingly marginalized and forced to existoutside the law, they lost any protection theymight have had, and turned to men whoseactions were no longer constrained. Whatevereconomic benefit women might have gainedfrom engagement in the trade increasinglywent to those men who gave them somemeasure of security from the streets and fromthe law. Over the period, control of the sextrade in British Columbia clearly shifted. Thisstudy examines the social, legal, and economiccircumstances that led to that shift, by using acase-study, regionally driven approach throughan examination of primary archival sourcesfrom local museums and archives across theprovince (Author Abstract).149. Spittal, P. M., Craib, K. J. P., Wood,E., Laliberte, N., Li, K., Tyndall, M. W. et al.(2002). Risk Factors for Elevated HIV IncidenceRates among Female Injection Drug Users inVancouver. Canadian Medical AssociationJournal, 166, 894-899.Keywords: Adequate Human Services andSocial Safety Net/ PreventionAbstract: Background: In 1997, we founda higher prevalence of HIV among femalethan among male injection drug users inVancouver. Factors associated with HIVincidence among women in this setting wereunknown. In the present study, we sought tocompare HIV incidence rates among maleand female injection drug users in Vancouverand to compare factors associated withHIV seroconversion. Methods: This analysiswas based on 939 participants recruitedbetween May 1996 and December 2000who were seronegative at enrolment with atleast one follow-up visit completed, and whowere studied prospectively until March 2001.Incidence rates were calculated using theKaplan-Meier method. The Cox proportionalhazards regression model was used toidentify independent predictors of time toHIV seroconversion. Results: As of March 2001,seroconversion had occurred in 110 of 939participants (64 men, 46 women), yielding acumulative incidence rate of HIV at 48 monthsof 13.4% (95% confidence interval [CI] 11.0%-15.8%). Incidence was higher among womenthan among men (16.6% v. 11.7%, p = 0.074).Multivariate analysis of the female participants’practices revealed injecting cocaine once ormore per day compared with injecting less thanonce per day (adjusted relative risk [RR] 2.6, 95%CI 1.4-4.8), requiring help injecting comparedwith not requiring such assistance (adjustedRR 2.1, 95% CI 1.1-3.8), having unsafe sex witha regular partner compared with not havingunsafe sex with a regular partner (adjusted RR2.9, 95% CI 0.9-9.5) and having an HIV-positivesex partner compared with not having an HIVpositivesex partner (adjusted RR 2.7, 95% CI1.0-7.7) to be independent predictors of time toHIV seroconversion. Among male participants,injecting cocaine once or more per daycompared with injecting less than once per day(adjusted RR 3.3, 95% CI 1.9-5.6), self-reportingAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing181

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing182identification as an Aboriginal compared withnot self-reporting identification as an Aboriginal(adjusted RR 2.5, 95% CI 1.4-4.2) and borrowingneedles compared with not borrowingneedles (adjusted RR 2.0, 95% CI 1.1-3.4) wereindependent predictors of HIV infection.Interpretation: HIV incidence rates amongfemale injection drug users in Vancouverare about 40% higher than those of maleinjection drug users. Different risk factors forseroconversion for women as opposed to mensuggest that sex-specific prevention initiativesare urgently required (Journal Abstract).150. Status of Women Council of the NWT(1996). Keeping Women and CommunitiesStrong: Women, Substance Abuse and FAS/FAE,an NWT Needs Assessment. Yellowknife, NWT:Status of Women Council of the NWT.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ Basic PhysicalNeeds/Family Violence/Fetal AlcoholSyndrome/ Effects/Substance AddictionsAbstract: Examines the special needs of womenand teen girls who abuse alcohol or drugs andthe influence of poverty, family violence andsexual abuse on substance abuse. The authorsof this publication argue that in dealing withwomen’s substance abuse we can deal withFAS/FAE. The experiences of women and girlswho have abused alcohol and drugs is alsoexplored, what happened when they tried toget help or treatment, and what Aboriginalwomen know about FAS/FAE. Included is a lookat what supports and resources there are forFAS kids, for kids who might have FAE, and forpeople who take care of them.151. Status of Women Council of the NWT.(2002). Untold Stories 2. Status of WomenCouncil of the NWT and Northwest Territories,Health and Social Services.Available Online: http://www.hlthss.gov.nt.ca/content/Publications/Reports/untoldstories/PDF/UNTOLDSTORIES.pdfKeywords: Family ViolenceAbstract: This is the second book of stories fromvictims of families affected by violence. The firstbook was published in 1990 and was a usefulresource for addressing the need for communityunderstanding of family violence. Untold Stories2 is a compilation of stories about women whotook steps to find help and support in leavingor resolving the violent relationships. Photosof front line workers, women listening and ofwomen sharing and laughing are included.Children’s drawings show the fear and sadnessthey experience in witnessing violence againstthis loved one. A song and a poem are alsoincluded to illustrate the different forms ofexpressing or telling one’s story.152. Steenbeek, A. (2004). EmpoweringHealth Promotion: A Holistic Approach inPreventing Sexually Transmitted Infectionsamong First Nations and Inuit Adolescents inCanada. Journal of Holistic Nursing, 22, 254-266.Keywords: British Columbia/ Canada/Empowerment/First Nations/Health/HealthCare/ Prevention/YouthAbstract: Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)such as gonorrhea and Chlamydia, amongothers, are significant health concerns forCanadian Aboriginal (i.e., First Nations, Inuit)adolescents. This is further compounded byineffective prevention and promotion strategiesthat were designed to lessen the incidence ofSTIs in this population. Structure and contentof health service programs are crucialconsiderations in STI prevention because evenwell-constructed and carefully implementedprograms may have very little impact onAboriginal youth if these programs are notculturally sensitive and specific to individualadolescents’ needs. Furthermore, becausecomponents of sexual and reproductive healthare inextricably linked to empowerment andequality between the sexes, holistic healthnurses need to develop strategies that increaseself-esteem, self-advocacy, and healthychoices among Aboriginal adolescents (JournalAbstract).153. Stevenson, J. (1999). The Circle ofHealing. Native Social Work Journal, 2, 8-21.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/ Healing/TraumaAbstract: The author contends that manyAboriginal communities and urban Aboriginalpeoples in the field of social services are utilizinghealing circles, talking circles and sharingcircles as a way of providing a group supportfor people who are dealing with issues such asaddictions, violence, grief, and trauma. In thisarticle, the author identifies some of the helpfulaspects of a healing circle.154. Stewart, W., Huntley, A., & Blaney, F.(2001). The Implications of Restorative Justicefor Aboriginal Women and Children Survivorsof Violence: A Comparative Overview of FiveCommunities in British Columbia. Ottawa, ON:Law Commission of Canada.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ British Columbia/Social Justice and EquityAbstract: This paper provides a comparativeoverview of five Aboriginal communities inBritish Columbia and the possible implicationsof initiating restorative justice reforms in casesof violence against Aboriginal women andchildren in these particular communities.The document examines the ways in whichAboriginal women’s experience of colonizationis mediated by gender and attempts to locatethe effects of violence against women andchildren within this trajectory. The paper looksat the conditions of women’s lives within the

community, and provides a frame of referenceand context should restorative reforms becomemore commonly used in cases of violenceagainst women and children. The paper alsoattempts to articulate numerous concerns,taking both women’s voices and currenttheory around restorative justice such as JohnBraithwait’s ideas on reintegrative shaming intoconsideration.155. Stoker, S. L. (1998). An Examination ofthe Ability of Mainstream Institutions to Meetthe Needs of Aboriginal Victims of DomesticViolence. Thesis (M.A.) -- University of Manitoba,Spring 1998, Winnipeg, MB.Available Online: http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/tape15/PQDD_0012/MQ32255.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Women/ Manitoba/Research/Domestic ViolenceAbstract: Past theory and research in the areaof domestic violence in Aboriginal communitieshave argued that mainstream institutions arenot meeting the needs of Aboriginal womenbecause their mandates do not incorporateAboriginal traditions and philosophies. However,no research has examined if Aboriginal victimsof domestic violence are dissatisfied withmainstream institutions because of this culturalinconsideration. This research examined thistheoretical question by conducting exploratoryresearch in two communities in northernManitoba. Two non-probability conveniencesamples of Aboriginal and non-Aboriginalvictims of domestic violence were interviewedin person. The variables that were examinedwere: utilization of mainstream services,satisfaction with mainstream services and theability of mainstream services to meet theneeds of victims of domestic violence. Thisresearch found that Aboriginal women hadhigh rates of service utilization and servicesatisfaction. It further discovered that whenmainstream services failed to meet the needsof Aboriginal women, it was the result of failureto provide safety and support to the victimsand not because of a lack of incorporatedAboriginal values and customs. Furthermore,when the results were compared to a smallsample of non-Aboriginal women, no substantialdifferences could be found. The results ofthis research failed to support the theoreticalargument that mainstream institutions are notmeeting the needs of Aboriginal victims ofdomestic violence because they are not basedupon traditional Aboriginal philosophies andcustoms.156. Sugar, F. & Fox, L. (1995). Survey ofFederally Sentenced Aboriginal Women in theCommunity. Ottawa, ON: Correctional Servicesof Canada.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ AdequatePower/Family Violence/ Racism/ViolenceAgainst Women/ women/Women OffendersAbstract: Summarizes interviews with federallysentenced Aboriginal women all of whomhave served time in federal prison. Intervieweesreflect on issues of brutality, violence, racism,and oppression. This publication reveals that themajority of these women have been subjectedto childhood violence, sexual assault, domesticviolence and/or rape. This report summarizesand discusses implications of interviews with39 Aboriginal women who have served timein federal prisons. Each woman was asked totell how she grew up, how she came to bein prison, and what happened to her afteremerging from prison. Themes revealed in theinterviews include family violence, violent crime,and maltreatment by prison authorities, racism,and the need for Aboriginal support services.157. Supernault, E. (1993). Family Violence IsNot Just a Crime against the Crown, It’s a FamilyAffair. It Involves the Entire Family and so Mustthe Healing. Edmonton, AB: Native CounsellingServices of Alberta.Keywords: Family Violence/ Healing/Safety andSecurity/Social Justice and EquityAbstract: Unavailable158. Sutherland, P. (2002). A Group TherapyProgram for Aboriginal Women and ChildrenWho Have Been Exposed to Family Violence.Practicum (M.S.W.) -- University of Manitoba,Winnipeg, MB.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/ChildWelfare/ Children/Family Violence/ Manitoba/Safety and Security/ Trauma/Welfare/women/WorkAbstract: This practicum consisted of a twophasegroup approach to working withAboriginal women and children who had beenexposed to partner abuse. The families wereall headed by women who were parentingalone and who had been out of their abusiverelationships for approximately a year or more.The women in the group had experiencedmany losses in their own childhood as a resultof colonial systems such as residential schoolsand the child welfare system. The groupgoals included enhancing the parent andchild relationship and breaking the secretof the family violence within and betweenfamilies. A total of five parent-child dyads wereinvolved with this practicum and three familiescompleted the group. The treatment modalityincluded an initial eight-week parent group thatfocused on adult play and information relatedto theraplay, as well as information related tothe effects of exposure to family violence ontheir children. Another eight weeks was spentin a multi-family group with both the parentsAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing183

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing184and their children. Puppets were utilized as ameans to present relevant themes and thefamilies participated in theraplay activitiestogether. Clinical impressions suggest that whilethe women’s lives remained extremely stressful,they were able to support their children todiscuss their feelings about the family violence.Families also expressed enjoyment in relationto the play time together and did demonstratesome improvements within their parent-childrelationships.159. Tanner Spence, M. (1996). SexuallyTransmitted Diseases in Aboriginal Women.Aboriginal Nurse, 11, 30-32.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ SexuallyTransmitted Diseases/ HIV/AIDSAbstract: The long-awaited report, HIV/AIDSand its Impact on Aboriginal Women in Canadawas published by ANAC in March 1996. Thisreport summarizes some of the findings.160. Tayler, D. & Watters, M. K. (1994). WhoOwns counselling? A Community-Based Answer:A Community-Based Approach with StrongLinkages across the Territory Is a Model for SocialService Provision Which We Think Will Work in theNorth. Canadian Woman Studies, 14, 108.Keywords: Healing/Sexual Abuse/ Trauma/WorkAbstract: After the boys left, all too familiaranger bubbled up. Tears sprung into our eyes.“It’s genocide.” Strong words, strong feelings.Reliance on centrally located “experts” andthe lack of local counselling services can meanthat emotional wounds are left unattended.The scars left from trauma easily develop intosubstance abuse, depression, promiscuity,violence, and suicide -- this in kids who haveyet to see their eighteenth birthday. EveryFriday from October to February, a foster familytraveled two hours into the city for counselling.From the safety of their foster home, three- andfive-year old sisters disclosed sexual abuse. Theydescribed many incidents of other violence andneglect. In February a crisis occurred, fundingfor travel and subsistence was withdrawn.Someone somewhere had decided that thegirls should be cured after ten sessions andthat the foster parents were simply takingadvantage of counselling for a free trip intotown. In a flurry of strongly worded telephonecalls, facsimiles, and letters a contract foran additional eight sessions was negotiated.We take a different position. Counselling is aprocess between people. It can happen acrossthe kitchen table, hiking through the bush,sitting in an office, with teachers, doctors, Elders,parents, coaches, and yes, sometimes evenwith professionals like ourselves. Communitybasedresources are typically the people towhom others go for comfort, advice, and help.These natural helpers, para-professionals, Elders,family, and friends are allies in the process ofcommunity healing. Compassionate caring,basic counselling skills, and knowledge oftrauma will go a long way to facilitate thehealing of children in the North. Too manychildren have been victims of institutional abuseand neglect for too long. It’s time to look atservices for traumatized children with a view tocreating a network of listeners who will supporttheir healing.161. Thomas, Kim (2002). HIV Study amongPregnant Aboriginal Women Raises Concerns.Canadian HIV/ AIDS Policy Law Review.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ HIV/AIDS/PregnancyAbstract: An unlinked HIV seroprevalencestudy among pregnant Aboriginal women inBC reveals an alarming trend and raises ethicalquestions about certain types of research inAboriginal communities (Newspaper Abstract).162. Thomlinson, B., Erickson, N., & Packo,R. (1996). A Determination of Reported Casesof Family Violence and Violence againstWomen. In J. Oakes & R. Riewe (Eds.), Issues inthe North (pp. 17-20). Winnipeg, MB: CanadianCircumpolar Institute.Keywords: Family Violence/ Research/Violence/Violence Against WomenAbstract: This short article details a researchproject undertaken by the Swampy Cree TribalCouncil, which serves seven member bands,with respect to the problem of members whohave been abused and who are abusing.The articles includes how data was collectedincluding definitions of family violence andviolence used by the agencies providing childand family services to these communities as wellas a discussion on the benefits of this researchproject and how information and data wouldbe shared and disseminated.163. Thomlinson, E., Erickson, N., & Cook,M. (2000). Could This Be Your Community?In J.Proulx & S. Perrault (Eds.), No Place forViolence: Canadian Aboriginal Alternatives (pp.22-38). Halifax, NS: Fernwood & RESOLVE.Keywords: Violence/Family Violence/FirstNations/First Nations Communities/ManitobaAbstract: The authors look at the lack of accessto resources used by victims of abuse and familyviolence in seven First Nations communities innorthern Manitoba.164. Thomlinson, E., Erickson, N., & Cook,M. (2000). Family Violence: How Can We TellWhat Is Happening? In J. Oakes, R. Riewe, & S.Koolage (Eds.), Aboriginal Health, Identity andResources (pp. 71-82). Winnipeg, MB: NativeStudies Press.Keywords: Family Violence/ Health/Identity/Winnipeg

165. Tyagi, S. V. (2001). Incest and Womenof Color: A Study of Experiences and Disclosure.Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 10, 17.Keywords: Culture/Life-Sustaining Values, Morals,and Ethics/Safety and Security/TraumaAbstract: Clinical literature on incest traumaassumes a homogeneity of experience of allincest survivors, including women of color.Experiences relating to community, culture,and family need to be acknowledged assalient aspects of the experiences of womenof color who are also incest survivors. Twelveparticipants were interviewed regardingtheir experiences related to disclosure andcoping. Participants described value systems,community mindedness, social attitudes, andnegative consequences amongst other socialand cultural issues as factors affecting incestdisclosure. Participants described cognitivereframing, determination and separation fromthe perpetrator as ways of coping with incest.166. Unknown (1995). The journey from Darkto Light. Herizons, 9, 24.Keywords: Healing/Status of Women/Wellbeing/womenAbstract: Features the Status of WomenCouncil of the NWT’s set of workshop facilitatorguidebooks entitled `From Dark to Light:Regaining a Caring Community.’ Discussion onwomen and violence, healing and well-being;Use as a tool for facilitators from Aboriginalcommunities to raise community awareness andconduct self-help or educational groups167. Urbanoski, K. H. (2001). Counselling inShelters for Aboriginal Women. Thesis (M.S.W.)-- University of Calgary, 2001.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ SuicideAbstract: Thesis studies the experiences ofAboriginal women who have been abusedby their intimate partner and reside in shelters.The need for support groups that are morepsycho-educational in nature is pointed outas a way for Aboriginal women to deal withthe abuse, court system, and social services.The counselling in the shelters should include:foresight as to what to expect upon leaving theshelter, a focus on feelings of grief due to theloss of the relationship, and an understandingof the detrimental effects of cultural erosion(suicide, alcoholism, homicide, and domesticviolence). A holistic approach that focuses oncommunity problems in general is mentioned asa possible solution to curb abuse of Aboriginalwomen.168. Walters, K. & Simoni, J. (1999). Trauma,Substance Use and HIV Risk among UrbanAmerican Indian Women. Cultural Diversity andEthnic Minority Psychology, 5, 236-248.Keywords: Trauma/women/ Prevention/SexualAssault/ ResearchAbstract: A survey of 68 American Indianwomen in New York City --aimed to informcommunity-based HIV prevention approaches--revealed that respondents indicated generallyhigh levels of HIV knowledge and self-efficacyfor safer behavior and low levels of perceivedrisk. Few had ever injected drugs, and 54%had been tested for HIV. However, 38% hadused alcohol or other drugs in the last sixmonths, and among the 59% who reportedsexual activity in this period, 80% had hadunprotected sex. Alarmingly, 44% reportedlifetime trauma, including domestic violence(25%) and physical (27%) or sexual (27%) assaultby a family member or stranger. Consistent witha postcolonial theoretical framework, traumawas a better predictor of HIV risk behavior thansocial cognitive variables. Moreover, preliminarylogistic regression analyses indicated the useof alcohol or other drugs may mediate therelationship between non-partner sexual assaultand sexual risk behaviors. Implications for futureresearch and culturally relevant communitybasedinterventions are considered.169. Wapass, C. (1992). Indigenous Womenand 500 Years of Oppression. Briarpatch, 21, 15-16.Keywords: Aboriginal WomenAbstract: Unavailable170. Weber, A. E., Tyndall, M. W.,Spittal, P. M., Li, K., Coulter, S., O’Shaughnessy,M. V. et al. (2003). High Pregnancy Rates andReproductive Health Indicators among FemaleInjection-Drug Users in Vancouver, Canada.The European Journal of Contraception andReproductive Health Care, 8, 52-58.Keywords: Canada/Ethnicity/ Health/HealthCare/Strong Families and Healthy ChildDevelopment/ Pregnancy/Substance Misuse/Drug InjectionAbstract: Objective: To determine theincidence of pregnancy among activeinjection-drug users and to identify factorsassociated with becoming pregnant. Methods:The Vancouver Injection Drug User Study(VIDUS) is a prospective cohort study thatbegan in 1996. Women who had completeda baseline and at least one follow-upquestionnaire between June 1996 and January2002 were included in the study. Parametricand non-parametric methods were usedto compare characteristics of women whoreported pregnancy over the study periodwith those who did not over the same timeperiod. Results: A total of 104 women reporteda primary pregnancy over the study period.The incidence of pregnancy over the follow-upperiod was 6.46 (95% confidence interval (CI)5.24-7.87) per 100 person-years. The averageAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing185

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing186age of women who reported pregnancy wasyounger than that of women who did notreport pregnancy (27 vs. 32 years, p < 0.001).Women of Aboriginal ethnicity were more likelyto report pregnancy (odds ratio 1.6, 95% CI1.0-2.5). Comparison of drug use showed nosignificant differences in pregnancy rate withrespect to the use of heroin, cocaine or crack(p > 0.05). In examining sexual behavior, womenwho reported having had a regular partner inthe previous six months were three times morelikely to have reported pregnancy. Despite thefact that 67% of women in this study reportedusing some form of contraception, the use ofreliable birth control was low. Only 5% of womenin our study reported the use of hormonalcontraceptives. Conclusion: There were a highnumber of pregnancies among high-risk womenin this cohort. This corresponded with very lowuptake of reliable contraception. Innovativestrategies to provide reproductive healthservices to at-risk women who are injectingdrugs are a public health priority (JournalAbstract).171. Weibe, R. & Johnson, Y. (1998). StolenLife: The Journey of a Cree Woman. Toronto,ON: Alfred A. Knopf Canada.Keywords: Healing/Social Justice and Equity/Violence/CrimeAbstract: This is a wonderful collaborationbetween a white man and a Native woman. Itspeaks in both voices with power, control andpoignant, devastatingly honest emotion. Writtenwith the help of award winning author RudyWiebe, this acclaimed novel tells of YvonneJohnson’s experience while imprisoned forfirst-degree murder in 1991, and the spiritualstrength she eventually found. A compellingstory of murder, morality, justice and injustice,Stolen Life: The Journey of a Cree Woman isJohnson’s account of the troubled society welive in. Powerful and eloquent, this is a bookabout Indian life, of stolen land and stolen liveswhich eloquently chronicles one woman’s pathtoward healing.172. Williams, L. (2001). Sheway: An Oasis forWomen in Vancouver’s Downtown Eastside. InTouch, 21.Keywords: Child Welfare/Children/ Health/Homelessness/Men/Poverty/ Pregnancy/SocialSupport/ Welfare/women/WorkAbstract: The Sheway centre was createdthrough a partnership between fourorganizations-Vancouver/Richmond HealthBoards, Vancouver Native Health Society, andthe Ministry of Child and Family Development.Sheway is an appropriate name for this dropincentre -- it means “growth” in Coast Salish.It started in 1993 in response to the needs ofpregnant and parental women living in orfrequenting this impoverished area -- womenentrenched in the way of life of the Eastside.Walking through its streets becomes a lessonin urban poverty: it is common to see drugdealers and addicts, drunken street brawlers,beggars, people passed out on the sidewalksin broad daylight, and men and womensoliciting “customers” to support drug andalcohol addictions. With an average of 100female clients at any given time who arepregnant or have a child under the age of 18months, Sheway works to promote a healthierpregnancy and positive parenting experience.Before the program was started, most of thesewomen were not receiving prenatal careand babies were apprehended immediatelybecause of their mother’s substance abuse.Sadly, their statistics show that 75 per cent ofthese women are Native. Some of the issuesthat women faced back then and now are:homelessness, food and nutritional deficiencies,lack of social support, violence from a partner,working on the street, unplanned pregnancy,involvement with the law, mental illness, andfinally, their children being apprehended bychild welfare because of an unstable home life.173. Wilson, S. V. J. (2000). Hopes andDreams: Learning from the Perceptions of “High-Risk” Pregnant Aboriginal Women. Thesis (M.Sc.)-- University of Saskatchewan, 2000.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ Canada/Health/Health Care/Strong Families and Healthy ChildDevelopment/WorkAbstract: A qualitative study was conductedto identify perceptions of high-risk pregnantAboriginal women during pregnancy. Fivewomen were interviewed by the researcherwho is identified as an Aboriginal woman. Eachwoman was a client of the Healthy MotherHealthy Baby pregnancy outreach program inSaskatoon, and was considered to be at highriskfor poor pregnancy outcomes. Interviewswere conducted utilizing a phenomenologicallybased model of research, from which emergedthemes or commonalities of thought betweeneach woman during this time of their lives.The themes were discussed with Aboriginalwomen Elders who worked with Aboriginalfamilies in Saskatoon, for further insight anddiscussion of the findings. The themes werecollated under one general theme called‘hopes and dreams.’ Each theme includedthe interest of these women to ‘want to’ moveahead with their lives in the area of improvingtheir relationships with their offspring, theirpartners, and within themselves. Though eachwoman talked about these areas as beingimportant, all except one did not manifestthem in their lives. The implications for thedelivery of health care services include theneed for health care workers to gain furtherunderstanding of the positive motivationalfactors of high-risk pregnant Aboriginal womenthat work towards achieving long-term positivebehavioural changes, and thus reduce therisks of poor pregnancy outcomes. Otherrecommendations from this research for health

promotion programs include the developmentof a partnership with the urban Aboriginalcommunity in delivering culturally basedservices and teachings to complement theeducative and supportive model of programdelivery.174. Young, T. K., McNicol, P., & Beauvais,J. (1997). Factors Associated with HumanPapillomavirus Infection Detected byPolymerase Chain Reaction Among UrbanCanadian Aboriginal and Non-AboriginalWomen. Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 24, 293-298.Keywords: Adequate Human Services andSocial Safety Net/ Basic Physical Needs/Health/Manitoba/Sexual AbuseAbstract: This article was written to determinethe prevalence and correlates of humanpapillomavirus (HPV) infection among womenattending an ethnically mixed, predominantlylow-income, inner-city primary care clinic.175. Young, T. K. & Katz, A. (1998). Survivorsof Sexual Abuse: Clinical, Lifestyle andReproductive Consequences. CanadianMedical Association Journal, 159, 329-334.Available Online: http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/abstract/159/4/329.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Women/ Canada/EthnicGroups/Health/ Health Determinants/SexualAbuse/Social Justice and EquityAbstract: Background: In recent years, anincrease in the prevalence of sexual abuse ofwomen has been reported in Canada andelsewhere. However, there are few empiricaldata on the extent of the problem in CanadianAboriginal populations. The authors investigatedthe presence of a reported history of sexualabuse and other health determinants in asample of women attending a communityhealth centre with a substantial Aboriginalpopulation. This allowed determinationof whether reported sexual abuse and itsassociated demographic and health-relatedeffects were different for Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal women. Methods: A sample of 1,696women was selected from women attendinga community health centre in a predominantlylow-income inner-city area of Winnipeg for across-sectional survey designed to study theassociation between sexual behaviour andcervical infections. The survey was conductedbetween November 1992 and March 1995 andinvolved a clinical examination, laboratory testsand an interviewer-administered questionnaire.A sub-study was conducted among 1,003women who were asked two questions aboutsexual abuse. Results: The overall responserate for the main study was 87%. Of the 1,003women who were asked the questions aboutsexual abuse, 843 (84.0%) responded. Amongthe respondents, 368 (43.6%) were Aboriginal.Overall, 308 (36.5%) of the respondents reportedhaving been sexually abused, 74.0% of theincidents having occurred during childhood.The prevalence was higher among Aboriginalwomen than among non-Aboriginal women(44.8% v. 30.1%, p < 0.001). Women who hadbeen sexually abused were younger when theyfirst had sexual intercourse, they had multiplepartners, and they had a history of sexuallytransmitted diseases. In addition, non-Aboriginalwomen who had been sexually abused weremore likely than those who had not beenabused to have been separated or divorced,unemployed and multiparous and to haveused an intrauterine device rather than oralcontraceptives. Aboriginal women who hadbeen sexually abused were more likely thanthose who had not been abused to have hadabnormal Papanicolaou smears. The proportionof smokers was higher among the abusedwomen than among the non-abused women inboth ethnic groups. Interpretation: A history ofsexual abuse was associated with other clinical,lifestyle and reproductive factors. This suggeststhat sexual abuse may be associated withsubsequent health behaviours, beyond specificphysical and psychosocial disorders (JournalAbstract).176. Zellerer, E. (1996). Violence againstAboriginal Women. Ottawa, ON: RoyalCommission on Aboriginal Peoples.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ women/Violence/History/Violence Against Women/Aboriginal Peoples/Healing/Men/JusticeAbstract: The paper is divided into six mainsections. The author discusses definitions andforms of violence. Although there does not exista clear consensus for a definition of violence,it has been recognized that violence includesphysical, sexual, emotional/ psychologicaland financial abuse. There are similarities inwomen’s experiences of violence but there arealso unique aspects to violence in Aboriginalcommunities.The second section looks at the extent ofviolence. Available information clearly showsthat the extent of violence against Aboriginalwomen is extraordinarily high, more so thanfor non-Aboriginal women. The third sectionprovides historical information. It is argued thatthe history of colonization must be taken intoaccount in order to understand violence incontemporary Aboriginal communities. Thefourth section explores theoretical insightsinto violence against women. In order tobetter understand violence against Aboriginalwomen, various theories are presented. Thehistorical colonization of Aboriginal peoplesis continually raised in documents seeking toexplain violence. The impact of residentialschooling is of particular importance. Thissection includes a discussion of the role ofalcohol. The largest section of the paper is onintervention and healing. For clarity, this sectionAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing187

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healingis subdivided into community responses, servicesfor women, programs for men, and the criminaljustice system. One theme which emerges fromthe literature is a call for holistic, communitybasedapproaches. Programs, resources andsupport specifically for Aboriginal women areclearly needed. Issues surrounding sheltersand safe houses are examined. It is necessaryto confront the violence by men. Treatmentprograms for men and the use of the criminaljustice system are discussed. The experiencesof women with the criminal justice system aswell as the controversies surrounding the use ofthe legal system are highlighted. One recurringrecommendation is that men who are abusivebe given treatment and counselling as partof their sentence. The paper’s conclusionhighlights some of the areas that could befurther explored.177. Zellerer, E. (1999). Restorative Justicein Indigenous Communities: Critical Issuesin Confronting Violence against Women.International Review of Victimology, 6, 345-358.Keywords: Canada/Culture/ Education/InuitWomen/Violence Against WomenAbstract: This article discusses restorative,community-based responses to violenceagainst indigenous women in northern Canada,including wife abuse, marital rape, andviolence. The author argues that restorativejustice holds great promise, but there aresignificant challenges to ensuring that violenceis effectively confronted and women areprotected. Six critical issues are examined: (1)breaking the silence and education; (2) theneeds of victims; (3) power relationships; (4)Elders; (5) cultural values; and (6) resources.Data are provided from a study of violenceagainst Inuit women in the Canadian easternArctic. Although the focus is on indigenouscommunities, these issues are viewed aspertinent to many other communities andcultures (Journal Abstract).178. Zellerer, E. (2003). Culturally CompetentPrograms: The First Family Violence Program forAboriginal Men in Prison. The Prison Journal, 83,171-190.Keywords: Canada/Family Violence/Manitoba/Social Justice and EquityAbstract: Given the severity and extent ofwoman abuse, calls are being made tomandate treatment for abusive men. Attentionhas focused on Caucasian populations; fewprograms are culturally competent. This articlediscusses the first Aboriginal family violenceprogram for inmates within the federalcorrectional system in North America. TheCorrectional Service of Canada funded aproject operated by a community agency, MaMawi Wi Chi Itata Centre, for offenders at StonyMountain Institution in Manitoba. Numerousissues, including cultural competence, training,and evaluation, are highlighted.188

7. DiabetesThis area looks primarily at the impactof diabetes in the female Aboriginalpopulation. The literature in this areais extensive as the prevalence ofdiabetes mellitus amongst the Aboriginalpopulations within Canada is significantlygreater than among the generalpopulation (Bruce, 2000). The focus in theliterature has been primarily on First Nationsgroups within Canada and excludes theexperience of Inuit and Métis. Diabetesis not yet an important health problemamong the Inuit, although some authors(Bruce, 2000) have noted the situation maychange (Young, Reading, Elias & O’Neil,2000). Little data are available for Métiswomen specifically, although they indicatethat this group is at an increased riskrelative to the overall Canadian population(Bruce, 2000). Also this section does notreview the massive literature on NativeAmerican women in the United StatesIt is widely recognized that type 2diabetes mellitus has become a serioushealth problem among many Aboriginalpopulations in North America (Young, etal, 2000; and Hegele, Cao, Harris, Zinman,Hanley & Anderson, 2000). The “thriftygenotype” is often invoked to explainwhy diabetes is so prevalent today inmany Aboriginal populations. In timesof food shortage, it enables the rapidproduction of insulin in response to risingblood glucose levels, which facilitatesthe storage of glucose in the form oftriglycerides in fat cells. With the assuranceof a continuous and ample food supply,the quick insulin trigger results in hyperinsulinemia,hyperglycemia, obesity anddiabetes. Critics of the theory note thatit assumes a nutritional environment inwhich carbohydrate intake exceeds dailyenergy requirements. The early occupantsof North America lived in an arctic orsub-arctic environment on a protein- andfat-based diet with little carbohydrates.Young, et al, 2000) state that manyAboriginal people consider diabetes anexample of “white man’s illness,” a new,introduced disease similar to smallpox andtuberculosis from the past. The adoptionof modern foods and the decline ofhunting and fishing are widely believedto be the underlying causes of theepidemic. Also, it has been reported thathigher rates of diabetes are associatedwith lower income and socioeconomicstatus, higher unemployment, poorerenvironmental quality, and poorer lifestylesamong Aboriginal and non-Aboriginalindividuals in Manitoba, Canada (Green,Hoppab, Young, & Blanchard, 2003). Thesefindings have led Green et al. (2003) tosuggest that diabetes incidence is ‘tightlyembedded within a context of povertyand disempowerment’ (p. 558).A large proportion of the literature ondiabetes with respect to Aboriginalwomen’s health centers on thedevelopment of gestational diabetesmellitus (GDM or gestational diabetes)at the pregnancy stage. The onset ofgestational diabetes during pregnancy ishigh in the Aboriginal female population.Gestational diabetes is a temporarycondition and in most cases goes awayafter the pregnancy (Kelly & Booth,2004). But even if gestational diabetesgoes away after pregnancy, the risk toAboriginal women and their offspring ofgetting diabetes later in life increasessubstantially (Young, Dean, Flett, & Wood-Steiman, 2000; Hanley, Harris, Gittelsohn,Wolever, Saksvig, & Zinman, 2000; Kelly &Booth, 2004). Mohamed & Dooley (1998)for instance, documented in their studythat 70% of the Aboriginal women in thenorthwestern part of Ontario who hadGDM went on to develop non-insulindependentdiabetes mellitus (NIDDM),or Type 2 Diabetes. Similar results werefound with the Oji-Cree women of northernOntario (Hegele, et al, 2000). Quite anumber of studies in the United States onpregnancy risk factors for Native Americanwomen in Montana and North Dakotahave also come to the same conclusions(e.g. Moum, Holzman, Harwell, Parsons,Adams, Oser, et al., 2004). This same studyalso stated that the rate of diabetes inpregnancy among Native Americanwomen had increased from previous years,indicating that education, screening andfollow-up on this specific population wasnecessary. Women with a history of GDMneed careful postpartum screening forglucose intolerance with active outreach,not only to detect diabetes promptlybut also to prevent any deterioration ofglucose tolerance. It is now obvious thatAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing189

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing190lifestyle interventions are important for theirchildren as well (Harris, Caulfield, Sugamori,Whalen, & Henning, 1997).Some of the risk factors for women gettinggestational diabetes that have beenidentified in the research include:• being overweight (both before andafter pregnancy);• being over 35 years of age at time ofpregnancy;• if family members or first-degreerelative (i.e. parents, brothers andsisters) have diabetes;• if the woman gave birth to largerbabies in the past (identified as a“macrosomia” or as having a highbirth weight in the literature); and• if she has high blood pressure orhigh cholesterol (Harris, et al., 1997;Caulfield, 1998; Rodrigues, 1999;Godwin, Muirhead, Huynah, Helt, &Grimmer, 1999; and Dedyna, 2005).Another risk factor not in the list aboveand that is not so prevalent in this body ofliterature is the lower socioeconomic statusof Aboriginal women, especially if theyreside on reserve (Gray-Donald, Robinson,Collier, David, Renaud & Rodrigues, 2000).These risk factors are not readily amenableto change especially when looked at fromthe context of poverty and unemployment(Iwasaki, Barlett, O’Neil & Blanchard, 2005).Subsequent research by Rodrigues &Robinson (1999) supports the fact thatwomen with gestational diabetes orimpaired glucose tolerance tended tobe older, have had more pregnancies,weigh more before pregnancy and haveheavier babies than those with a normalglycemic status. Macrosomia was foundto be elevated among births in the Creepopulation from the James Bay, Quebecregion. Colleagues Rodrigues & Robinson(2000) indicate that this may be dueto differential impact and treatmentstrategies of GDM on macrosomiapregnancies.Obesity among Aboriginal women is acrucial factor, especially if obesity is afactor when they are young (Hengele,et al., 2000; Hanley, et al., 2000). Severalstudies have noted a higher rate of obesityamong Aboriginal women at all ages(Young, et al., 2000; and Hanley, et al.,2000). Rodrigues & Robinson (1999a) foundthat overweight Cree women in particularfrom James Bay, Quebec had a higherrisk of developing gestational diabetesthan did overweight non-Cree women.Furthermore, later research revealed thatgestational diabetes among this groupappeared to be twice as high as that ofwomen in the general North Americanpopulation and the second highestreported in an Aboriginal group worldwide(Rodrigues & Robinson, 1999b).Research aimed at improving dietaryintake during pregnancy, optimizinggestational weight gain, glycemiclevels and birth weight, and avoidingunnecessary postpartum weight retentionwas done by Gray-Donald, et al. (2000),however their intervention had only aminor impact in reducing type 2 diabetesamong women who previously hadgestational diabetes in pregnancy. Otherresearch that has looked at preventing orat least reducing the impact of gestationaldiabetes and NIDDM on Aboriginal womenhas produced a body of literature onthe benefits of increasing activity levelsin Aboriginal women. Dyck, Sheppard,Cassidy, Chad, Tan & Van Vliet for instancebelieved that exercise held some promisefor reducing the rate of disease amongAboriginal people. They wrote threearticles in the years 1998, 1999 and 2000,documenting the feasibility of conductingexercise programs for pregnant Aboriginalwomen.Aboriginal women, as all Aboriginalpeoples, are therefore at high risk ofdeveloping additional health problemsrelated to type 2 diabetes (often calledco-morbidity in the literature), such as:• Hypertension• Heart disease and stroke• Eye disease and blindness• Kidney disease• Amputation• Foot ulcers• Problems with teeth and gums(Dressler, 2004).

The economic burden caused by diabetesand its complications include increasedhealth care utilization, disability, work lossand premature death (Health Canada,1999a). For example, Saskatchewan’sAboriginal women were 24 times morelikely to be hospitalized due to diabetes in1996-97 than other women in the province(Saskatchewan Women’s Secretariat,1999).Education is the cornerstone of diabetestreatment. Innovative educationalprograms do exist and can be found inmany Aboriginal localities across Canada.These programs have produced manuals,videos, posters and board games, usethe local media (community radio, TV,newspapers) extensively, and organizecommunity events such as feasts, schoolvisits, Elders’ teas, etc. However not allindividuals with diabetes are benefitingfrom the educational resources availablein diabetes clinics or education centres.Young, Elias, Reading, O’Neil, Leader &McDonald (1998) indicate that youngwomen with diabetes have the lowestparticipation rate and note that it is notknown whether such young women havereceived care at prenatal clinics if theirdiabetes is associated with pregnancy (13).A smaller body of research on diabetesand Aboriginal women which is notepidemiologically based can be foundin the works of Dressler (2004) and theFirst Nations of Quebec and LabradorHealth and Social Services Commission(2000). Dressler’s research focuses onthe outcomes of a monthly outreacheducation program for Aboriginal womenwith diabetes who wanted to learn moreabout meal planning and diabetesmanagement. The First Nations of Quebecand the Labrador Health and SocialServices Commission, with the assistance ofAboriginal women, prepared a manual forwomen to speak out about life, health anddiabetes issues.Lastly, Iwaski, Bartlett & O’Neil (2004)examined the nature of stress experiencedby Aboriginal peoples living withdiabetes. In their research with Aboriginalpeople, specific attention was given tothe meanings Aboriginal peoples withdiabetes attach to their lived experiencesof stress, and the major sources orcauses of stress in their lives. Althoughthere appear to be common ideologies,shared histories, perceptions of illness andhealth, and specific health-related issuesthat constitute an Aboriginal viewpoint,Iwasaki, et al., stressed the importanceof recognizing that there is diversity in theAboriginal groups with respect to culturaldifferences in language, values, lifestyles,and perspectives. Thus, in Iwasaki, et al.’sstudy, the composition of focus groupsparticipants represented two of the majorAboriginal groups in Canada—First Nationsand Métis people. Furthermore, it has beensuggested that it is important to recognizegender issues within a multicultural contextin Aboriginal research. Consequently, thereis a need to identify stress and traumaticfactors unique to Aboriginal women, incomparison to their male counterparts.One source of stress unique to Aboriginalwomen in comparison to males may bethat these women must fulfill multiple socialroles, including responsibility for child andelder care and household work. Accordingto Iwasaki, et al., (2004) in describingethnic minority women’s health from acultural perspective, key ‘crosscuttingfactors’ are that ‘these women are oftenthe sole support of families with a povertylevelincome’ and that they have ‘thepotential for increased exposure to sexismand racism in society’. Therefore, gender,ethnicity, and poverty ‘place minoritywomen at “triple jeopardy” when it comesto health status’ (Demas, 1993).Iwasaki, et al., (2004, 2005) identifieda number of key common concernsexpressed by the individuals whoparticipated in their study that wentbeyond health-related concerns butpointed to stress with living in marginalizedeconomic conditions (e.g. poverty,unemployment); trauma and violence(e.g. abuse, murder, suicide, missingchildren, bereavement); and cultural,historical, and political aspects linkedto the identity of being Aboriginal (e.g.‘deep-rooted racism’, identity problems).Iwasaki, et al., note that these themes areintertwined and not mutually exclusive. Thisresearch is important to understanding thestress experienced by Aboriginal womenand men with diabetes and has importantimplications for policy and programmeAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing191

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healingplanning to help eliminate or reduce at-riskstress factors, prevent stress-related illnessesand enhance their health and life quality(Iwasaki, et al., 2004, 2005).Until Iwasaki, et al.’s research, very little wasknown about the specific, stressful, and/oreven the traumatic aspects of living withdiabetes among Aboriginal peoples, or thegender-specific implications of diabetes,as well as about how broader contextualfactors (i.e. social, economic, cultural,historical, and political) are implicated inthese stressors/traumas. Consequently, animportant research agenda is to holisticallyidentify the sources of stress and traumathat are implicated in the incidence ofdiabetes among the different Aboriginalfemale populations. More research ofthis kind would be useful to the averageindividual.The majority of the research done todate on diabetes has focused primarilyon the experiences of First Nationswomen, especially in the James BayCree community in northern Quebec.Additional research needs to be doneto determine the risk factors for otherAboriginal women across Canada,especially among non-status Aboriginal,Inuit and Métis women and the prevalenceof the disease among urban Aboriginalwomen. Research specific to diabetesand its rate of prevalence in otherAboriginal female populations may wellexist but may be buried in the extensivegender-neutral research that currentlyexists in abundance.The list below contains an alphabeticallyarranged annotated bibliography onAboriginal women and Diabetes. As notedin other sections, and due to the medicalcomplexity of the research, original journalabstracts for the most part were reliedupon in compiling the material for thissection.Bibliography of Resources1. Atkinson, J. & Ober, C. (1995). WeAl-Li ‘Fire and Water’: A Process of Healing.Hazlehurst, Kayleen. Popular Justice andCommunity Regeneration: Pathways ofIndigenous Reform. [11]. Westport, Conn.,Praeger. 1-26-2005.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/ AdequatePower/Canada/Culture/ Healing/Justice/Nativewomen/ Offenders/Prevention/women/YouthAbstract: Reports on innovations in theadministration of justice, social reintegration ofoffenders, administration of justice alternatives,and in the recovery of damaged communities.The authors provide descriptions of programs,assessment of their impact, and advocacy forfurther change.2. Auger, J. (2005). Walking Through Fireand Surviving: Resiliency among AboriginalPeoples with Diabetes. Edmonton, AB, Thesis(M.Sc.) -- University of Alberta, 1999.Available Online: http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/ftp01/MQ40026.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Peoples/ Canada/Diabetes/Gender/Health/Health Care/ResearchAbstract: The purpose of the evaluation of theAboriginal Diabetes Wellness Program (ADWP)in Edmonton is to determine whether or notindividuals attending the ADWP are healthieras a result of the services that the programprovides. The research is quantitative based. Alimitation of the study is that it does not includequalitative data to assess what causes somepeople to improve their health and others not.This thesis utilized explanatory models as a guideto interview a total of twelve Aboriginal peoplewith diabetes, their family members, and ahealth care professional from the ADWP tounderstand the lived experience of Aboriginalpeople with diabetes. The Aboriginal peoplewere of Cree, Ojibway, and Métis heritage.In addition to the twelve explanatory models,a focus group with staff members and twosemi-structured interviews with an Elder andcultural helper were obtained. There was abroad range of explanatory models due tothe age, gender, and geographic locationof the people interviewed. Twelve themeswere extrapolated, including causes of type2 diabetes, impact of prior knowledge aboutdiabetes, levels of exercise, the consumption offatty foods, support systems, caregiving, Nativespirituality, humor, residential school experience,alcohol consumption, socioeconomic status,grieving and fears related to complications.These results reflect the experience of resiliencyamong Aboriginal peoples living with diabetes.This research complements an evaluation of theAboriginal Diabetes Wellness Program that wasoutcome based (Author Abstract).3. Bruce, S. G. (2000). The Impact ofDiabetes Mellitus among the Métis of WesternCanada. Ethnicity and Health 5[1], 47-57.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/ Canada/Diabetes/Health/Manitoba/Work192

Abstract: Bruce examines the impact ofdiabetes mellitus on the lives of the Métisof western Canada, and tries to determinethe extent of co-morbidity among Métiswith diabetes by looking at the data fromthe Aboriginal Peoples Survey conductedby Statistics Canada in 1991. The survey wasadministered to a representative sampleof Aboriginal peoples throughout Canada.Analysis was completed on self-identified Métisparticipants from the Canadian Provinces ofManitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta. Métisparticipants with diabetes were more likelythan those without diabetes to report theirhealth status as poor. Significantly greaternumbers of Métis with diabetes reportedactivity limitations at work, at home and inleisure activities, the need for assistance withactivities of daily living and difficulties withambulation than did those without diabetes.The extent of co-morbidity was also significant.Métis with diabetes were almost three timesmore likely to report hypertension and heartproblems and twice more likely to report sightimpairments than were those without diabetes.This research represents the first account of theeffects of diabetes on the lives of the Métis.The APS data have provided a clear pictureof the impairments in physical functioningexperienced by the Métis with diabetes andthe impact upon their quality of life. In addition,the strong associations between diabetesand hypertension, heart problems and sightimpairments suggest profound morbidity inthis population that warrants prompt attention(Journal Abstract).4. Bruyere, J. (1998). Understanding aboutType II Diabetes Mellitus among the Nehinaw(Cree). Thesis (M.Sc.) -- University of Manitoba,1998.Available Online: http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/tape17/PQDD_0010/MQ32066.pdfKeywords: Canada/Cree Nation/ Culture/Diabetes/Manitoba/Medicine/ResearchAbstract: Understandings about diabetesamong the Nehinaw of the Opaskwayak CreeNation of northern Manitoba are examinedfrom an emic perspective. Diabetes is animportant issue for the Nehinaw as prevalenceof diabetes has doubled each decade since1976. This investigation focuses on the role ofculture and language in these perspectives.This was facilitated with use of Kleinman’sExplanatory Model for the open-endedinterview questions. The questions used byLinda Garro, who has done extensive researchamong the Anishinaabeg of Manitoba, weretranslated into Nehinawawin (Cree language).The results indicate that the animate-inanimateconcept within this language impacts theunderstanding that Nehinaw have regardingdiabetes. As well, hunter terminology plays arole in these understandings. The informantsdraw upon their knowledge of the life wayswhich existed prior to development andsubsequent environmental disruptions aroundthem. Resort to treatment is pragmatic, butalso draws on previous understandings aboutIndian medicine and these vary considerablyamong the informants. The change from thetrapping and hunting way of life witnessed bythis generation of Nehinaw contributes to theunderstandings about causation. Diabetes isdefined in a broad political perspective (AuthorAbstract).5. Caulfield, L. E., Harris, S. B., Whalen, E.A., & Sugamori, M. E. (1998). Maternal NutritionalStatus, Diabetes and Risk of Macrosomiaamong Native Canadian Women. Early HumanDevelopment 50[3], 293-303.Keywords: Canada/Canadian Women/Diabetes/HealthAbstract: Multivariate methods were usedto identify risk factors for macrosomia (birthweight > 4,000 g) among 741 singleton births toNative Canadian women from Sioux LookoutZone, Ontario, Canada, in 1990-1993. Theaverage birth weight was 3,691 +/- 577 g, and29.2% of infants weighed more than 4,000 g atbirth. Macrosomic infants were born at latergestational ages and were more likely to bemale. Women delivering macrosomic infantswere taller, entered pregnancy with higherbody mass indexes (BMI) and gained moreweight during pregnancy, but were less likelyto smoke cigarettes. They were more likelyto have previously delivered a macrosomicinfant and to have had gestational diabetesmellitus (GDM). Risk of macrosomia wasassociated with maternal glycemic status;women with pre-existing diabetes were atgreatest risk, followed by those with GDM A2(fasting glucose > or = 6 mmol/l). Women withGDM A1 (fasting glucose < 6 mmol/l) were notat increased risk for delivering a macrosomicinfant, but glucose-tolerant women with highglucose concentrations one hour after the50 g challenge were at somewhat increasedrisk. Maternal glycemic status and maternalnutritional status before and during pregnancyare important determinants of macrosomia inthis Native population (Journal Abstract).6. Chodirker, B. N., Erdile, L. B.,MacDonald, K. M., Harman, C. R., Cheang,M. S., & Evans, J. A. (1994). MSAFP Levels inAboriginal Canadian Women. CanadianJournal of Public Health 85[6], 424-426.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/BasicPhysical Needs/ Canada/Canadian Women/ManitobaAbstract: Maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein(MSAFP) levels in 529 non-diabetic AboriginalCanadian women were compared with levelsin 13,285 non-diabetic non-Aboriginal women.Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing193

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing194A woman was considered to be Aboriginal ifshe was listed on the Indian Registry of Canada.After controlling for the gestational age on thedate at which the sample was drawn and formaternal weight, MSAFP levels appeared tobe approximately 4 to 5% higher in Aboriginalwomen. The possible implications of this findingon an MSAFP screening program are discussed(Journal Abstract).7. Cosby, J. L. & Houlden, R. L. (1996).Health Beliefs toward Diabetes Mellitus in TwoOntario First Nations Populations. CanadianJournal of Diabetes Care 20[2], 12-19.Keywords: Diabetes/Education/ Health/HealthBeliefsAbstract: Diabetes education programsdesigned for non-Natives have not always beenoverly effective in the Canadian Aboriginalpopulation. Several studies have shown thatillness education programs must be culturallyrelevant to the participants. The objective ofthis study was to assess the health beliefs oftwo Ontario First Nations populations towardsType II diabetes. Thirty-five adults from tworeserves were asked open-ended questionsbased on the Health Belief Model (HBM)about significant experiences dealing withdiabetes and the incidents recounted wereanalyzed using Strauss and Corbin’s groundedtheory approach. All the Natives interviewedexpressed the belief that the increasedprevalence of diabetes on their reserves wasrelated to the loss of traditional lifestyle. The roleof family caregiver was believed to stronglyinfluence adherence with nutritional therapy.Adherence with glucose-lowering medicationwas reportedly enhanced if it relieved physicalsymptoms. Blood glucose self-monitoring wasused mostly to investigate symptoms ratherthan on a routine basis. Subjects were less likelyto attend diabetes education programs if theyhad a strong faith in the competence of theirphysician. Social relationships and physicalfactors impacted adherence with componentsof the diabetes management regimen. Chisquareanalysis found no differences in beliefsbetween Natives living on the urban and themore remote reserve studied. In addition, nodifferences were seen between younger adults(20 to 60 years) and older adults (over 60 years)living with diabetes, or between men andwomen (Journal Abstract).8. Dedyna, K. (2005). Diabetes, Pregnancya Bad Combo: Aboriginal Women at GreatestRisk, Doctor Says. Edmonton Journal, C.3.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ Diabetes/Health/Manitoba/Pregnancy/Prevention/womenAbstract: Developing diabetes duringpregnancy is bad news for mothers andtheir babies. Even though almost all cases ofgestational diabetes disappear after childbirth,babies born to these mothers are five timesmore likely to develop full-fledged diabetesin adulthood. Moreover, 70 per cent of themothers will also end up with diabetes and itsfearsome risk of complications such as blindnessand amputation.That makes gestational diabetes a majorhealth issue for Aboriginal women who face fargreater risk of developing gestational diabetesthan the average Canadian mother, Womenwith diabetes in their immediate family, thosewho have had gestational diabetes before,and women who have borne babies with birthdefects or a weight of more than four kilos areconsidered most at risk. Maternal obesity isalso a factor, but McKinney doesn’t want tofocus on the body-mass index as the key toprevention.9. Dressler, M. P. (2004). Aboriginal WomenShare Their Stories in an Outreach DiabetesEducation Program. Saskatoon, SK, Community- University Institute for Social Research,University of Saskatchewan.Available Online: http://tinyurl.com/4uo5oKeywords: Aboriginal Women/ Diabetes/Education/Health/Research/Well-beingAbstract: Compared to other Canadians,Aboriginal people suffer disproportionatelyfrom manageable Type 2 diabetes and itscomplications. In an attempt to help bettermanage the disease, the West Side CommunityClinic launched a monthly outreach educationprogram for Aboriginal people with diabetesusing an informal hands-on approach tolearning about meal planning and looking atother forms of diabetes management. Thepurpose of this qualitative research projectis to determine the impact that participantsperceive the program has had on their healthand well-being through group and individualinterviews. Preliminary results reveal that theprogram’s impact on participants’ health andwell-being is embedded within the context oftheir lives. Possible outcome indicators for theprogram are suggested (Author Abstract).10. Durst, D. & Bluechardt, M. (2004).Aboriginal People with Disabilities: A Vacuum inPublic Policy. SIPP Briefing Note January [6], 1-7.Saskatchewan Institute of Public Policy.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/ DisabilitiesAbstract: Aboriginal people with disabilities arecaught in a public policy vacuum with littlehope for amelioration. Aboriginal persons areindividuals who identify themselves as havingindigenous or North American Indian ancestryand may or may not have status under thefederal Indian Act (1876). If they hold “status”as “First Nations” people they may be living onreserve or off reserve in an urban community.In recent years, Canadian Aboriginal peopleshave been assuming greater control over

social services programs, including disabilityservices in their communities, and someorganizations have been providing importantservices to persons of Aboriginal ancestry inurban communities. However, little is knownabout Aboriginal persons who have a disabilityand are living in urban communities (Durst andBluechardt, 2001).11. Dyck, R., Sheppard, S., Cassidy, H.,Chad, K., Tan, L. K., & Van Vliet, S. H. (1998).Preventing NIDDM among Aboriginal People:Is Exercise the Answer? Description of a PilotProject Using Exercise to Prevent GestationalDiabetes. International Journal of CircumpolarHealth 57[Suppl 1], 375-378.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/ Diabetes/Diet/HealthAbstract: Rates of diabetes and itscomplications have reached epidemicproportions among North American Aboriginalpeoples. This appears largely due to changesin diet and activity levels associated with ashift away from traditional lifestyles. Sinceexercise has been shown to be effective inpreventing non-insulin-dependent diabetesmellitus (NIDDM), Aboriginal communities maybe able to reduce their rates of the diseaseby incorporating exercise programs into theirpublic health programs. We describe a pilotproject in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, whoseultimate purpose is to evaluate the effect ofexercise in preventing gestational diabetes.If successful, this would reduce the risk ofdeveloping NIDDM for both women and theiroffspring (Journal Abstract).12. Dyck, R., Klomp, H., Tan, L. K., Turnell,R. W., & Boctor, M. A. (2002). A Comparisonof Rates, Risk Factors, and Outcomes ofGestational Diabetes between Aboriginal andNon-Aboriginal Women in the Saskatoon HealthDistrict. Diabetes care 25[3], 487-493.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ AdequateIncome and Sustainable Economies/BasicPhysical Needs/ Diabetes/Ethnicity/Health/History/Prevention/womenAbstract: Objective: To determine possibledifferences in gestational diabetes mellitus(GDM) between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginalpeople in the Saskatoon Health District.Research Design and Methods: This was aprospective survey of all women admitted forchildbirth to the Saskatoon Royal UniversityHospital between January and July 1998. Wecompared prevalence rates, risk factors, andoutcomes of GDM between Aboriginal andnon-Aboriginal women. Results: Informationwas obtained from 2,006 women, of whom 252Aboriginal and 1,360 non-Aboriginal subjectshad been tested for GDM. The overall ratesof GDM were 3.5% for women in the generalpopulation and 11.5% for Aboriginals. For thoseliving within the Saskatoon Health District,GDM rates were 3.7 and 6.4%, respectively.Multivariate analysis demonstrated thatAboriginal ethnicity, most notably whencombined with obesity, was an independentpredictor for GDM. Pregravid BMI greaterthan or equal to27 kg/m(2) and maternal agegreater than or equal to 33 years were the mostimportant risk factors for GDM in Aboriginalwomen, whereas previous GDM, family historyof diabetes, and maternal age greater than orequal to38 years were the strongest predictorsfor GDM in non-Aboriginal women. Conclusions:There may be fundamental differences in GDMbetween Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal people.Because GDM contributes to an increasedrisk for type 2 diabetes in Aboriginal womenand their offspring, the impact of preventionand optimal treatment of GDM on the type 2diabetes epidemic in susceptible populationsare important areas for further investigation(Journal Abstract).13. Dyck, R. F., Sheppard, M. S., Klomp, H.,Tan, L. K., Chad, K., Van-Vliet, S. H., et al. (1999).Using Exercise to Prevent Gestational Diabetesamong Aboriginal Women -- Hypothesis andResults of a Pilot. Canadian Journal of Diabetes23[3], 32-38.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ DiabetesAbstract: Hypothesis: An exercise programinitiated in early pregnancy may preventgestational diabetes among Aboriginalwomen and thereby reduce rates of type 2diabetes mellitus in their offspring. Objective:To determine the feasibility of conductingan exercise program for pregnant Aboriginalwomen with previous gestational diabetes.Method: Over two years, we attempted torecruit project-eligible women to participatein up to three exercise sessions per week,initiated before gestational diabetes recurredand continued until late pregnancy. Results:Referral rates were poor, but recruitment rateswere excellent; seven of eight referred womenentered the study. Participation rates were over40% in five women, and all women consistentlyreached at least 80% of target heart rates; therewere no maternal/fetal adverse effects; threewomen did not develop recurrent gestationaldiabetes. Conclusions: We have demonstratedthe feasibility of conducting a controlled studyto determine if physical activity can preventgestational diabetes among Aboriginal women.If so, exercise programs could reduce ratesof type 2 diabetes in succeeding generations(Journal Abstract).14. Dyck, R. F., Klomp, H., & Tan, L. K.(2001). From “Thrifty Genotype” to “Hefty FetalPhenotype”: The Relationship between HighBirth Weight and Diabetes in SaskatchewanRegistered Indians. Canadian Journal of PublicHealth 92[5], 340-344.Keywords: Diabetes/Health/MedicineAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing195

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing196Abstract: BACKGROUND: Intrauterine factorshave been implicated in the pathogenesis ofType 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). METHODS:In a 1:1 matched pairs case-control study,high and low birth weight (HBW, LBW) rates inSaskatchewan Registered Indian (RI) diabeticcases were compared with corresponding ratesin RI without diabetes, and non-RI people withand without diabetes. RESULTS: Birth weightswere available for 73% of the 1,366 cases and3 x 1,366 controls. A greater proportion of RIdiabetics were born with HBW (> 4,000 grams)compared to RI non-diabetics (16.2% vs 10.7%;p < 0.01). There was a significant associationbetween HBW (but not LBW [< 2,500 grams])and diabetes for RI people (OR 1.63 [95% CI1.20, 2.24]), which was stronger for RI femalesand strengthened progressively from mid tolate 20th century. INTERPRETATION: Certaincauses of HBW may predispose to subsequentdevelopment of T2DM in Canadian Aboriginalpeople (“hefty fetal phenotype” [“hefty fetaltype”] hypothesis). Programs that optimizehealthy pregnancies could reduce T2DMincidence in future generations (JournalAbstract).15. First Nations of Quebec and LabradorHealth and Social Services Commission. (2000).Empowering Words of First Nations Women:Manual for Speaking Out About Life, Healthand.... Diabetes. Wendake, Quebec, FirstNations of Quebec and Labrador Health andSocial Services Commission.Keywords: Canada/Critical LearningOpportunities/Diabetes/First Nations/Health/Women’s HealthAbstract: This project is an initiative of the FirstNations of Quebec and Labrador Health andSocial Services Commission. Partially funded byHealth Canada. Also available in French underthe title: Paroles et pouvoir de femmes desPremières Nations -- Manuel pour une prise deparole sur la vie, la santé... le diabète.16. Godwin, M., Muirhead, M., Huynah,J., Helt, B., & Grimmer, J. (1999). Prevalence ofGestational Diabetes Mellitus among SwampyCree Women in Moose Factory, James Bay.Canadian Medical Association Journal 160[9],1299-1302.Available Online: http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/reprint/160/9/1299.pdfKeywords Canada/Diabetes/History/ MedicineAbstract: Background: Although high ratesof gestational diabetes mellitus have beendocumented in Native populations, fewstudies have examined rates of the diseaseamong Native Indians in Canada. The authorsconducted a study to estimate the prevalenceof gestational diabetes among Swampy Creewomen, to identify factors predictive of theoccurrence of gestational diabetes, and toidentify delivery and infant outcomes relatedto the presence of the disease. Methods:Information on Swampy Cree women who gavebirth at Weeneebayko Hospital, Moose Factory,James Bay, Ont., between 1987 and 1995 wasobtained from medical charts. Patients with andwithout gestational diabetes were compared.Logistic regression analysis was used to identifyindependent predictors of gestational diabetes.Delivery and infant outcomes that occurredsecondary to gestational diabetes were alsoidentified by means of logistic regression.Results: A total of 1.401 deliveries occurred atWeeneebayko Hospital over the study period,of which 1,298 were included in the study.Gestational diabetes was diagnosed in 110(8.5% [95% confidence interval (CI) 6.9%-9.9%])of the 1,298 pregnancies. Factors predictive ofgestational diabetes were age 35 years or more(relative risk [RR] 4.1, 95% CI 1.5-11.7), a historyof gestational diabetes in a previous pregnancy(RR 6.4, 95% CI 3.5-11.7), diastolic blood pressureof 80 mm Hg or higher at the first prenatal visit(RR 1.7, 95% CI 1.1-2.8), weight greater than80 kg at the first prenatal visit (RR 4.9, 95% CI1.8-12.9) and having a first-degree relativewith diabetes (RR 3.0, 95% CI 1.4-6.1). The onlydelivery outcome independently associatedwith the presence of gestational diabetes wasan increased likelihood of needing assisteddelivery (forceps or vacuum extraction) (RR 2.8,95% CI 1.1-7.0). Shoulder dystocia was indirectlyassociated with gestational diabetes owing toincreased infant birth weight. Infant outcomesassociated with the presence of gestationaldiabetes were birth weight greater than 4,500g (RR 2.4, 95% CI 1.4-3.8), hyperbilirubinemia(RR 2.9, 95% CI 1.4-6.1), hypoglycemia (RR 7.3,95% CI 3.7-14.4) and hypocalcemia (RR 8.9,95% CI 2.3-33.7). Interpretation: Gestationaldiabetes occurred in a significant minority ofSwampy Cree women and was associatedwith a number of adverse outcomes (JournalAbstract).17. Gray-Donald, K., Robinson, E., Collier,A., David, K., Renaud, L., & Rodrigues, S. (11-14-2000). Intervening to Reduce Weight Gain inPregnancy and Gestational Diabetes Mellitusin Cree Communities: An Evaluation. CanadianMedical Association Journal 163[10], 1247-1251.Available Online: http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/abstract/163/10/1247Keywords: Basic Physical Needs/Diabetes/Diet/womenAbstract: Background: A high prevalenceof gestational diabetes mellitus and type2 diabetes has been observed among theCree of James Bay, Quebec. To address thisproblem, a diet and activity intervention duringpregnancy, which was based on social learningtheory, was initiated in four Cree communities.Methods: A prospective intervention compareddietary, weight and glycemic indicators for107 control subjects and for 112 women who

eceived the intervention during the courseof their pregnancy. A control period in fourcommunities (July 1995-March 1996) wasfollowed by an intervention period (April 1996-January 1997) when subjects were offeredregular, individual diet counselling, physicalactivity sessions and other activities related tonutrition. Results: The intervention and controlgroups did not differ at baseline regarding theirmean age (24.3 years [SD 6.29] v. 23.8 years[SD 5.86]), mean pre-pregnancy weight (81.0kg [SD 19.46] v. 78.9 kg [SD 17.54]) and meangestational age at recruitment (17.1 weeks [SD7.06] v. 18.5 weeks [SD 6.92]). The interventiondid not result in differences in diet measuredat 24-30 weeks’ gestation, rate of weight gainover the second half of pregnancy (0.53 kg perweek [SD 0.32] v. 0.53 kg per week [SD 0.27])or plasma glucose level (50 g oral glucosescreen) between 24 and 30 weeks (7.21 mmol/L[SD 2.09] v. 7.43 mmol/L [SD 2.10]). Mean birthweights were similar (3741 g [SD 523] v. 3686 g[SD 686]), as was maternal weight at six weekspostpartum (88.1 kg [SD 16.8] v. 86.4 kg [SD19.0]). The only changes in dietary intake werea reduction in caffeine (pregnancy) and anincrease in folate (postpartum). Interpretation:This intervention had only a minor impact ondiet; finding ways of encouraging appropriatebody weight and activity levels remains achallenge (Journal Abstract).18. Hanley, A. J., Harris, S. B., Gao, X.J., Kwan, J., & Zinman, B. (1997). SerumImmunoreactive Leptin Concentrations in aCanadian Aboriginal Population with High Ratesof NIDDM. Diabetes Care 20[9], 1408-1415.Keywords: Canada/DiabetesAbstract: Objective: To better understandthe relationship between leptin and theanthropometric and physiological variablesassociated with diabetes, we measured thisprotein in an isolated Canadian Aboriginalpopulation with very high rates of NIDDM.Research Design and Methods: There were 728individuals aged 10-79 years who participatedin a population-based survey to determinethe prevalence of NIDDM and its associatedrisk factors. Fasting blood samples for glucose,insulin, triglyceride, and leptin were collected;a 75-g oral glucose tolerance test wasadministered and a second blood sampledrawn after 120 min. Height, weight, and waistand hip circumference were determined, andpercentage of body fat was estimated usingbiological impedance analysis. Fitness levelwas assessed in a sub-sample of individualsusing a validated sub-maximal step test. Therelationship between serum leptin and theother variables was assessed using Spearman’scorrelation coefficients and multiple linearregression. Results: Serum leptin concentrationwas strongly correlated with adiposity, andlevels were substantially higher in femalesubjects in all age groups. For male subjects,percentage of body fat, fasting insulin level,and waist circumference were significantindependent predictors of log serum leptinconcentration in a multiple linear regressionmodel (R2 = 0.582). For female subjects, thesevariables plus glucose tolerance status wereincluded in the final model (R2 = 0.633). Fitnesslevel, when included with the main effects ofthe above models, was a significant predictorfor male subjects only. Conclusions: In anisolated Aboriginal community with high ratesof diabetes, we found significant independentrelationships between leptin and percentage ofbody fat and between leptin and fasting insulin.As documented in other populations, the higherleptin concentration among female subjectsmay reflect differential leptin productionfrom different adipose tissue beds, or leptinresistance. Independent relationships alsoexisted among leptin and glucose tolerancestatus in female subjects and fitness level inmale subjects (Journal Abstract).19. Harris, S. B., Caulfield, L. E., Sugamori,M., Whalen, E. A., & Henning, B. (1997). TheEpidemiology of Diabetes in Pregnant NativeCanadians. A Risk Profile. Diabetes Care 20[9],1422-1425.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Basic PhysicalNeeds/Canada/ Diabetes/PreventionAbstract: Objective: The purpose of this studywas to determine the prevalence of diabetes inpregnancy (gestational diabetes mellitus [GDM]and NIDDM) and to identify risk factors in thedevelopment of GDM in a Native populationin northwestern Ontario, Canada. ResearchDesign and Methods: A retrospective analysisof 1,305 singleton deliveries among Ojibwa-Cree women from northwestern Ontario,Canada, was conducted from 1990 to 1993inclusive. GDM was diagnosed using a threehouroral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) anddefined according to standard guidelines.Results: The overall prevalence of diabetes inpregnancy (NIDDM and GDM) was 11.6% (152of 1,305) with a GDM prevalence of 8.4% (110of 1,305). Among 741 women with completedata, prevalence rates increased with age,peaking at 46.9% in the age group > or = 35years. Significant risk factors for GDM includedolder maternal age, multiparity, pre-pregnancyobesity, a family history of diabetes, anda history of GDM in previous pregnancies.Conclusions: Diabetes in pregnancy amongOjibwa-Cree reported here represents thehighest rates reported to date in a Canadianpopulation. The high rates of maternal obesityand relative young age of this populationfurther highlight the urgent need for diabetesscreening and prevention in this population(Journal Abstract).20. Hegele, R. A., Cao, H., Harris, S. B.,Zinman, B., Hanley, A. J., & Anderson, C. M.(2000). Gender, Obesity, Hepatic NuclearFactor-1Alpha G319S and the Age of Onsetof Type 2 Diabetes in Canadian Oji-Cree.Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing197

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing198International Journal of Obesity-RelatedMetabolic Disorders 24[8], 1062-1064.Keywords: Canada/Diabetes/GenderAbstract: Among the Oji-Cree of northernOntario, women have both a higherprevalence and an earlier onset of type 2diabetes compared to men. We studied therelationship between HNF1A S319 and boththe presence of and the age of onset of type2 diabetes in women and men separately. Wefound that: 1) in women, there was a significantdifference in the mean age of onset of type 2diabetes according to HNF1A genotype; and2) in men, there was no difference in the meanage of onset of type 2 diabetes accordingto HNF1A genotype. The findings indicatethat HNF1A S319 is associated with increasedsusceptibility to type 2 diabetes in both menand women, but with earlier age of onset inwomen only. One factor that might accountfor the gender difference in the onset of HNF1AS319-associated type 2 diabetes is the greaterprevalence and severity, and earlier onsetof, obesity among female Oji-Cree (JournalAbstract).21. Iwasaki, Y., Bartlett, J., & O’Neil,J. (2004). An Examination of Stress amongAboriginal Women and Men with Diabetes inManitoba, Canada. Ethnicity and Health 9[2],189-212.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/ AboriginalWomen/Adequate Human Services and SocialSafety Net/Basic Physical Needs/Canada/Diabetes/ Health/Life-Sustaining Values, Morals,and Ethics/Manitoba/ Poverty/Racism/Safetyand Security/ Suicide/TraumaAbstract: In this study, a series of focus groupswere conducted to gain an understandingof the nature of stress among CanadianAboriginal women and men living withdiabetes. Specifically, attention was givento the meanings Aboriginal peoples withdiabetes attach to their lived experiencesof stress, and the major sources or causes ofstress in their lives. The key common themesidentified are concerned not only with healthrelatedissues (i.e. physical stress of managingdiabetes, psychological stress of managingdiabetes, fears about the future, sufferingthe complications of diabetes, and financialaspects of living with diabetes), but also withmarginal economic conditions (e.g. poverty,unemployment); trauma and violence (e.g.abuse, murder, suicide, missing children,bereavement); and cultural, historical, andpolitical aspects linked to the identity ofbeing Aboriginal (e.g. ‘deep-rooted racism’,identity problems). These themes are, in fact,acknowledged not as mutually exclusive, butas intertwined. Furthermore, the findings suggestthat it is important to give attention to diversityin the Aboriginal population. Specifically, Métisspecificstressors, as well as female-specificstressors, were identified. An understanding ofstress experienced by Aboriginal women andmen with diabetes has important implicationsfor policy and programme planning to helpeliminate or reduce at-risk stress factors, preventstress-related illnesses, and enhance their healthand life quality.22. Iwasaki, Y., Bartlett, J., & O’Neil, J.(2005). Coping with Stress among AboriginalWomen and Men with Diabetes in Winnipeg,Canada. Social Science & Medicine 60[5], 977.1-17-2005.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/ AboriginalWomen/Adequate Human Services and SocialSafety Net/ Canada/Diabetes/First Nations/Healing/Health/Manitoba/Métis Women/Safetyand Security/TraumaAbstract: Many Aboriginal peoples arewidely exposed to stress in their lives. Thisexposure to stress appears linked not onlyto their contemporary and immediate lifecircumstances (e.g., marginal economicand at-risk living conditions) but also to theirhistorical, cultural, and political contexts.Recently, diabetes has become prevalentin many Aboriginal communities worldwide.The purpose of the present study was to gaina better understanding of the ways in whichAboriginal peoples with diabetes cope withstress. The study used a series of focus groupsamong First Nations and Métis women andmen with diabetes in Winnipeg, Manitoba,Canada. Based on our cross-thematic analysesof the data, three overarching themes wereidentified: (1) individual and collective strengthsof Aboriginal peoples with diabetes must berecognized and utilized to facilitate healingfrom or coping with the experience of stressand trauma; (2) healing must be accomplishedholistically by maintaining balance or harmonyamong mind, body, and spirit; and (3) effectiveways of coping with stress and healingfrom trauma potentially promote positivetransformations for Aboriginal peoples andcommunities at both individual and collectivelevels. Also, sub-themes of stress-coping andhealing that underlie and further describe theabove three overarching themes emerged fromthe data. These include: (a) interdependence/connectedness, (b) spirituality/transcendence,(c) enculturation/facilitation of Aboriginalcultural identity, (d) self-control/selfdetermination/self-expression,and (e) the roleof leisure as a means of coping with stress andhealing from trauma. Accordingly, our deeperanalyses resulted in the development of anemergent model of stress-coping and healingamong Aboriginal peoples with diabetes, whichis presented as a dynamic system in which thethree overarching themes are embedded inthe five specific themes of coping/healing. Thisevidence-based emergent model appearsto provide some important insights into healthpolicy and program planning for Aboriginal

peoples with diabetes and their communities(Journal Abstract).23. Jaccoud, M. (2005). The Marginalizationof Aboriginal Women in Montreal. Newhouse,David and Peters, Evelyn. Not Strangers in TheseParts: Urban Aboriginal Peoples. 131-145.Available Online: http://policyresearch.gc.ca/doclib/AboriginalBook_e.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Peoples/ AboriginalWomen/Diabetes/First Nations/Health/MontrealAbstract: This article is based on a case studyof ten Aboriginal women living in Montreal(eight were First Nations and two were Inuit)under conditions that fall within a theoreticalframework of exclusion and marginalization. Theprimary purpose of the article is on the processof exclusion and marginalization experiencedby these women who had temporarily orpermanently migrated to Montreal, using a lifenarratives methodology. The living conditionsof the women at the time of the study revealedthat they had children placed in care, werereceiving income security payments, weredependent on drugs and alcohol at some pointin their lives and three indicated that they hadhealth problems such as diabetes, anemiaand HIV. The article discusses the migrationpatterns and the lure of Montreal on the livesof these women and the resulting processes ofmarginalization faced by each one.24. Kelly, C. & Booth, G. L. (2004). Diabetesin Canadian Women. BMC Women’s Health4[Suppl 1], s16.Available Online: http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/pdf/1472-6874-4-S1-S16.pdfKeywords: Canada/Canadian Women/Diabetes/Health/Health Care/Well-beingAbstract: Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a chronichealth condition affecting 4.8% of Canadianadults >/= 20 years of age. The prevalenceincreases with age. According to the NationalDiabetes Surveillance System (NDSS) (1998-1999), approximately 12% of Canadians aged60-74 years are affected. One-third of casesmay remain undiagnosed. The projectedincrease in DM prevalence largely resultsfrom rising rates of obesity and inactivity.Key Findings: DM in Canada appears to bemore common among men than women.However, among Aboriginal Canadians,two-thirds of affected individuals are women.Although obesity is more prevalent amongmen than women (35% vs. 27%), the DM riskassociated with obesity is greater for women.Socioeconomic status is inversely related to DMprevalence but the income-related disparitiesare greater among women. Polycystic ovariansyndrome affects 5-7% of reproductive agewomen and doubles their risk for DM. Womenwith gestational diabetes frequently developDM over the next 10 years. Data Gaps andRecommendations: Studies of at-risk ethnic/racial groups and women with gestationaldiabetes are needed. Age and culturallysensitive programs need to be developed andevaluated. Studies of low-income diabeticwomen are required before determiningpotential interventions. Lifestyle programsin schools and workplaces are needed topromote well-being and combat obesity/inactivity, together with lobbying of the foodindustry for needed changes. High depressionrates among diabetic women influence selfcareability and health care expenditures.Health professionals need further training in theuse of effective counseling skills that will assistpeople with DM to make and maintain difficultbehavioural changes (Journal Abstract).25. LaVallie D. L., Gabbe S. G., Grossman,D. C., Larson, E. B., Baldwin, L. M., & Andrilla,C. H. (2003). Birth Outcomes among AmericanIndian/Alaska Native Women with Diabetes inPregnancy. Journal of Reproductive Medicine48[8], 610-616.Keywords: Diabetes/Health/MedicineAbstract: Objective: To describe perinataloutcomes and maternal characteristicsamong American Indian/Alaska Native (AI/AN) women with diabetes in pregnancy.Study Design: A retrospective analysis oflive births to AI/AN, African-American andwhite women with diabetes (242,715) duringpregnancy for the 1989-1991 period (latestavailable at the time of study) was conductedutilizing a linked birth/infant death databasefrom the National Center for Health Statistics.AI/AN perinatal outcomes and maternalcharacteristics were compared to those ofAfrican-American and white women. Similaranalyses compared urban and rural AI/ANpopulations. Results: AI/AN women were morelikely than white women to receive inadequateprenatal care (10.4%), to have higher rates ofpregnancy-induced hypertension (9.1%) andto have significantly lower rates of primarycesarean delivery (16.9% vs. 22.3%). The rateof macrosomia among births to AI/AN women(24.2%) was notably higher as compared tothat in the white population (17.9%). Rates ofmusculoskeletal and chromosomal anomalieswere also higher among AI/AN women, nineand four, respectively, per 1,000 live births, ascompared to six and two per 1,000 for the whitepopulation. Conclusion: Multiple maternal riskfactors and birth outcomes demonstrate theneed for further research to evaluate methodsof improving care in this population (JournalAbstract).26. Martin, D. (2002). Diabetes Mellitus inthe First Nations Population of British Columbia,Canada. Part 2. Hospital Morbidity. InternationalJournal of Circumpolar Health 61[3], 254. 1-17-2005.Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing199

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing200Keywords: Adequate Human Services andSocial Safety Net/Basic Physical Needs/BritishColumbia/Canada/ Diabetes/First NationsAbstract: Objectives: To describe hospitalizationrates from diabetes mellitus or its complicationsamong residents of the Province of BritishColumbia, Canada during the five-yearperiod 1993 to 1997, comparing people withIndian status to the rest of the population.Study Design: A database of all acute-carehospital discharges with diabetes mellitusanywhere among the discharge diagnoseswas created. Case definitions of diabetesrelatedhospitalization were based on logicalcombinations of ICD-9 coded dischargediagnoses. Indirect standardization was usedto adjust for age differences between the twopopulations. Results: Among persons aged35 years or older, status Indian males andpregnant females were twice more likely to behospitalized for diabetes-related illness thanother males or pregnant females. Status Indiannon-pregnant females were three times as likelyto be hospitalized as their non-status Indiancounterparts. Under age 35 years there wasno difference in risk. Older First Nations womenhave a higher risk of diabetes during pregnancybut this analysis cannot distinguish gestationaldiabetes from pre-existing Type 2 diabetes.27. Mohamed, N. & Dooley, J. (1998).Gestational Diabetes and SubsequentDevelopment of NIDDM in Aboriginal Women ofNorthwestern Ontario. International Journal ofCircumpolar Health 57[1], 355-363.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/BasicPhysical Needs/ Canada/Diabetes/Health/History/Pregnancy/womenAbstract: Objectives: To determine (1) the riskof development of non-insulin-dependentdiabetes mellitus (NIDDM) in women with aprevious history of gestational diabetes mellitus(GDM), (2) the average duration betweendiagnoses of GDM and NIDDM, (3) variousmodes of presentation, and (4) adequacy offollow-up post diagnosis of GDM. Methods: Aretrospective chart review of women diagnosedwith GDM in the Sioux Lookout Zone between1985 and 1995. There were 4,211 pregnanciesand 332 women with a diagnosis of GDM.Sixty-one charts were randomly selected. BothGDM and NIDDM were defined according toWorld Health Organization standards. Results:Seventy per cent of the women with GDM wenton to develop NIDDM. The average durationbetween diagnosis of GDM and diagnosis ofNIDDM was three years. Greater than 70% ofthe women developed NIDDM within four yearspost diagnosis of GDM. The majority presentedwith asymptomatic hyperglycemia (88%); 3%presented with acidosis; 6% presented withsymptoms of polydipsia and polyuria; and 3%presented with abnormal weight gain. Specificphysician-requested follow-up after six weekspostpartum occurred in only 38% of the cases.However six-week follow-up occurred in 41%, ayearly follow-up occurred in 61% of the womenand 81% of the women had some sort of followuppost diagnosis of GDM. Conclusions: The riskof developing NIDDM after GDM is very high inAboriginal women of the Sioux Lookout Zone.There is an urgent need for a structured followupprogram for this group of high-risk women.Furthermore, the offspring of these pregnanciesshould be a focus for follow-up and preventiveprograms (Journal Abstract).28. Moum, K. R., Holzman, G. S., Harwell,T. S., Parsons, S. L., Adams, S. D., Oser, C. S.,et al. (2005). Increasing Rate of Diabetes inPregnancy among American Indian and WhiteMothers in Montana and North Dakota, 1989-2000. Maternal and Child Health Journal 8[2],71-76.Keywords: Adequate Human Services andSocial Safety Net/Basic Physical Needs/Diabetes/Health/History/Prevention/womenAbstract: The purpose of this study was to assesstrends in diabetes in pregnancy in AmericanIndian and whites mothers in Montana andNorth Dakota. Methods: Montana andNorth Dakota birth records were utilized toassess trends in any diabetes in pregnancyin American Indians and whites from 1989 to2000. Results: From 1989 through 2000, therewere 133,991 and 102,232 births in Montanaand North Dakota, respectively. The majority ofmothers were American Indian (11%) or white(87%). The rate of any diabetes in pregnancyincreased significantly in Montana Indian (3.1-4.1%, p = 0.04) and white mothers (1.8-2.6%, p

to the severity of illness -- in particular, diabetes,alcoholism, and arthritis -- in this group today.If comprehensive health care is to be offered,coordination of services between healthand mental health practitioners is needed.Gathering together to support each other hasbeen a traditional custom for Native women. Anintegrated health care model is discussed thatoffers Native women an opportunity to dealwith the challenge of mental health and healthissues through traditional activities, enhancingtheir physical and spiritual health and receivingeducation while creating an atmosphere ofempowerment and mutual support (JournalAbstract).30. Ray, J. G., Vermeulen, M. J., Meier,C., Cole, D. E. C., & Wyatt, P. R. (8-17-2004).Maternal Ethnicity and Risk of Neural TubeDefects: A Population-Based Study. CanadianMedical Association Journal 171[4], 343-345.Available Online: http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/abstract/171/4/343Keywords: Adequate Human Services andSocial Safety Net/Basic Physical Needs/Diabetes/EthnicityAbstract: Background: Maternal body massand the presence of diabetes mellitus areprobable risk factors for neural tube defects(NTDs). The association between maternalethnicity and the risk of NTDs remains poorlyunderstood, however. Methods: We performeda retrospective population-based study andincluded all women in Ontario who underwentantenatal maternal screening (MSS) at 15to 20 weeks’ gestation between 1994 andlate 2000. Self-declared maternal date ofbirth, ethnicity and weight and the presenceof pregestational diabetes mellitus wererecorded in a standardized fashion on theMSS requisition sheet. NTDs were detectedantenatally by ultrasonography or fetal autopsyand postnatally by considering all live andstillborn affected infants beyond 20 weeks’gestation. The risk of open NTD was evaluatedacross the five broad ethnic groups used forMSS, with white ethnicity as the referent. Results:Compared with white women (n = 290 799),women of First Nations origin (n = 1551) were atincreased associated risk of an NTD-affectedpregnancy (adjusted odds ratio [OR] 5.2, 95%confidence interval [CI] 2.1-12.9). Women ofother ethnic origins were not at increasedassociated risk compared with white women(women of Asian origin [n = 75 590]: adjustedOR 0.9, 95% CI 0.6-1.3; black women [n = 25966]: adjusted OR 0.6, 95% CI 0.3-1.1; womenof “other” ethnic origin [n = 10 009]: adjustedOR 0.1, 95% CI 0.02-0.9). Interpretation: Theassociated risk of NTD-affected pregnancieswas higher among women of First Nations originthan among women of other ethnic origins.The mechanisms for this discrepancy should beexplored31. Rodrigues, S. & Robinson, E. (1999).Interaction of Body Weight and Ethnicity onRisk of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus. CanadianMedical Association Journal 160[9], 1293-1297.Keywords: Canada/Diabetes/ Ethnicity/MontrealAbstract: Background: The James Bay Cree ofCanada have one of the highest recorded ratesof gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) amongAboriginal people worldwide; the reasons forthis elevated risk remain to be documented.Objective: Our objective was to comparepredictors and risk of GDM between the JamesBay Cree and non-Native Canadians. Design:Risk for GDM was compared between Cree andnon-Native women by 1) adjusting statisticallyfor differences in age, parity, pregravid weight,and smoking status (n = 402 Cree, 7,718 non-Natives), and 2) matching Cree women withnon-Native women for age and pregravidweight (n = 394 Cree, 788 non-Natives). Dietaryand physical activity information was availablefor a subset of Cree women (n = 152). RESULTS:Age and pregravid weight were independentpredictors of GDM in both Cree and non-Native women. After these predictors werecontrolled for, normal-weight (

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing202northern Quebec. Women who were not Cree,had pre-existing diabetes, had spontaneousabortion or were receiving glucocorticoidtreatment were excluded. Results: Data on654 pregnancies that met the inclusion criteriawere available. Results of the screening oralglucose challenge test were available for579 of the pregnancies; the remaining 75were excluded. The mean gestational age atscreening was 28.3 (standard deviation 2.6)weeks. The prevalence of gestational diabeteswas 12.8% (74/579) (95% confidence interval[CI] 10.1%-15.5%). The prevalence in the inlandcommunities was twice as high as that in thecoastal communities (18.0% v. 9.3%, p = 0.002).Women with gestational diabetes or impairedglucose tolerance tended to be older, havehad more pregnancies, weigh more beforepregnancy and have heavier babies than thosewith a normal glycemic status. Interpretation:The prevalence of gestational diabetes amongJames Bay Cree women in northern Quebecis twice as high as that among women in thegeneral North American population and thesecond highest reported in an Aboriginal groupworldwide.33. Rodrigues, S., Robinson, E. J., Kramer, M.S., & Gray-Donald, K. (2000). High Rates of InfantMacrosomia: A Comparison of a CanadianNative and a Non-Native Population. Journal ofNutrition 130[4], 806-812.Keywords: Diabetes/Ethnic Groups/ EthnicityAbstract: The Cree of James Bay have thehighest ever reported mean birth weight anda high prevalence of infant macrosomia. Thisstudy was designed to examine independentrisk factors for infant macrosomia among theCree, to compare these to risk factors amongnon-Native Canadians and to determine ifethnic differences persist after adjusting fordifferences in the distribution of other riskfactors. Macrosomia was defined as birthweight >90(th) percentile for gestational ageof a reference population. Independentdeterminants of macrosomia were examinedin 385 Cree and 5,644 non-Native women.The potential effect of ethnicity (Cree vs.non-Native) was determined after statisticallyadjusting for age, parity, pregravid weight,height, net rate of weight gain, gestationaldiabetes mellitus (GDM) and smoking status.The prevalence of macrosomia among theCree was 34.3% vs. 11.1% among non-Natives.Although GDM significantly increased the riskfor macrosomia among the Cree (odds ratio:4.46, 95% CI: 2.24-9.26), it was not a significantrisk factor among non-Natives (odds ratio: 1.15,95% CI: 0.79-1.65). The risk for infant macrosomiaremained elevated among the Cree comparedwith non-Natives after adjusting for other riskfactors (odds ratio: 3.64, 95% CI: 2.69-4.90). Inconclusion, the Cree have a high prevalenceof macrosomia despite controlling for importantdifferences in pregravid weight and GDM.Some of this variation may be due to geneticdifferences in fetal growth. The differentialimpact of GDM on macrosomia in the twoethnic groups may be due to differences intreatment strategies for GDM (Journal Abstract).34. Rodrigues, S. (1999). Epidemiologyof Gestational Diabetes Mellitus and InfantMacrosomia among the Cree of James Bay.Montreal, QC, Thesis (Ph.D.) -- McGill University,1999.Available Online: http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk1/tape9/PQDD_0025/NQ50248.pdfKeywords: Diabetes/Ethnicity/womenAbstract: The objectives of this research wereto determine the prevalence of gestationaldiabetes mellitus (GDM) among the Cree ofJames Bay, identify independent risk factorsfor GDM and infant macrosomia in thispopulation and compare the risk for GDM andinfant macrosomia among Cree women withCanadian non-Native women. The prevalenceof GDM using the National Diabetes DataGroup criteria among the Cree was 12.8%(95% CI: 10.1-15.5), among the highest everreported for an Aboriginal group. Independentrisk factors for GDM among the Cree wereadvanced age, pregravid overweight andprevious GDM. A comparison of risk of GDMbetween Cree and non-Native womenrevealed a significant interaction betweenethnicity and pregravid weight. OverweightCree women were at an elevated risk for GDMcompared with overweight non-Native women(OR: 2.3, 95% CI: 1.3-3.8), whereas the risk forGDM was not statistically different betweennormal weight Cree and non-Native women(OR: 1.4, 95% CI: 0.7-2.7) after adjusting forage, parity, and smoking status. Mean birthweight among Cree infants was 3,859 ± 519g, the highest reported for any ethnic groupin the world. Macrosomia prevalence wasalso high at 34.3%. Independent risk factors formacrosomia among the Cree were advancedage, pregravid overweight and GDM. Asignificant interaction was noted betweenethnicity and GDM on risk for macrosomia.GDM increased the risk for macrosomia 4.5-fold among the Cree but had no significanteffect among non-Natives. After adjustingfor age, parity, pregravid weight, gestationalweight gain, GDM, gestational duration andsmoking status, Cree infants remained heavierthan non-Native infants by 235 g. The resultsof this research indicate the need to controlpregravid obesity through culturally acceptabledietary modifications and exercise in order tominimize the risk for GDM among Cree women.The significant impact of GDM on risk formacrosomia among the Cree calls for the reevaluationof the existing treatment strategiesfor GDM (Author Abstract).35. Rodrigues, S., Robinson, E. J., Kramer, M.S., & Gray-Donald, K. (2000). High Rates of Infant

Macrosomia: A Comparison of a CanadianNative and a Non-Native Population. Journal ofNutrition. 2000; 130:806-812 130, 806-812.Keywords: Canada/Diabetes/Ethnic Groups/Ethnicity/Health/MontrealAbstract: The Cree of James Bay have thehighest ever reported mean birth weight anda high prevalence of infant macrosomia. Thisstudy was designed to examine independentrisk factors for infant macrosomia among theCree, to compare these to risk factors amongnon-Native Canadians and to determine ifethnic differences persist after adjusting fordifferences in the distribution of other riskfactors. Macrosomia was defined as birthweight >90th percentile for gestational ageof a reference population. Independentdeterminants of macrosomia were examinedin 385 Cree and 5,644 non-Native women.The potential effect of ethnicity (Cree vs.non-Native) was determined after statisticallyadjusting for age, parity, pregravid weight,height, net rate of weight gain, gestationaldiabetes mellitus (GDM) and smoking status.The prevalence of macrosomia among theCree was 34.3% vs. 11.1% among non-Natives.Although GDM significantly increased the riskfor macrosomia among the Cree (odds ratio:4.46, 95% CI: 2.24-9.26), it was not a significantrisk factor among non-Natives (odds ratio: 1.15,95% CI: 0.79-1.65). The risk for infant macrosomiaremained elevated among the Cree comparedwith non-Natives after adjusting for other riskfactors (odds ratio: 3.64, 95% CI: 2.69-4.90). Inconclusion, the Cree have a high prevalenceof macrosomia despite controlling for importantdifferences in pregravid weight and GDM.Some of this variation may be due to geneticdifferences in fetal growth. The differentialimpact of GDM on macrosomia in the twoethnic groups may be due to differencesin treatment strategies for GDM (JournalAbstract).36. Wein, E. E., Basualdo, T. K., Johnson,P. A., & Basu, T. K. (1996). Nutrient Intakes of aSample of First Nations Adults with and withoutDiabetes Mellitus in Central Alberta. Journal ofthe Canadian Dietetic Association 57[4], 153-161.Keywords: First Nations Women/ Diabetes/DietAbstract: In recent decades the prevalenceof non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus(NIDDM) has increased dramatically amongmany Aboriginal groups. This paper examinesnutrient intakes of 110 Plains Cree First Nationsadults, with and without diabetes, in centralAlberta, from three repeated 24-hour recalls.Vitamin A intakes were also estimated from avitamin A food frequency questionnaire. Meanintakes per megajoule (MJ) indicated that dietsof women with diabetes were lower in fat andsugar and higher in many nutrients, than dietsof women without diabetes (P

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healingthe patients were correlated with bacteriuria.The overall prevalence of bacteriuria was 7.9%(85 cases per 1,072 women). Absolute urinaryleukocyte (white blood cell) counts were > or= 10/mm3 in 77.6% (66) of the 85 bacteriuricwomen vs. 23.7% (234) of the 987 nonbacteriuricwomen (P < .001). Bacteriuric women weresignificantly more likely than nonbacteriuricwomen to have non-insulin-dependentdiabetes mellitus, longer duration of diabetes,neuropathy, and heart disease. Aboriginals hadbacteriuria at a significantly higher prevalencerate than non-Aboriginals (19.7% [15 of 76]vs. 7.0% [70 of 996], respectively; P < .0001),were more likely to have occult upper urinarytract infection (antibody-coated bacteriapositivity: 53% [8 of 15] vs. 20% [10 of 50],respectively; P = .016), and had significantlylower urinary leukocyte counts, whether theywere bacteriuric or not (P < .05). Multivariateanalysis identified duration of diabetes andAboriginal origin as independent risk factors forthe presence of bacteriuria (Journal Abstract).204

8. Body Image and DietThe research in this area includesresearch touching upon issues ofdiet and eating disorders, obesity,weight gain, and lack of exercise aswell as body and weight perspectives, andfood procurement by Aboriginal women.Dietary Intake in NorthernCommunitiesThe majority of the research underthis theme area focuses on dietaryconsumption of Aboriginal women andcommunities in the northern Arctic regionsof Canada. Kuhnlein, Soueida, Receveur(1995) focused on food use by age,gender and season in the communityof Baffin Island. Traditional foods werestill a daily dietary source of energy butthe authors noted that younger peoplein the community tended to eat moremarket food and less traditional foodsin comparison to the elders within theircommunity. Sugar intake is especially highas well as tea and coffee consumption byall age and gender categories accordingto this study. Similarly, the daily foodpatterns and nutrient intakes of adults inthe Inuit community of Sanikiluag wereexamined by Wein, Freeman & Makus(1998). The most frequent Inuit foods Wein,et al. (1998) noted were reindeer, sealand arctic char, while most market foodsconsumed were tea, sugar and bannock.Arbour, Christensen, Delormier, Platt, Gilfix,Forbes, et al, (2002) conducted researchon the impact of low dietary intake offolate (salt) with Aboriginal people in thesubarctic region of Eastern James Bay,Quebec.Other research on dietary intake hasbeen carried out by colleagues Receveur,Boulay & Kuhnlein (1997) who expressedconcern at the decrease in traditional foodconsumption which threatens the currenthealth status of people in the 16 Dene/Métis communities in the Canadian Arctic.In this population, the shift away fromtraditional food toward a diet composedof market food resulted in absolute energyintake and an increase in carbohydrates,fat and saturated fat. Research conductedlater by Blanchet, Dewailly, Ayotte,Bruneau, Receveur & Holub (2000) supportsthe results of the earlier study conductedby Receveur, et al (1997). Blanchet,et al. focused their attention on thetraditional and market food consumed by226 Inuit women in Nuavik. Their analysisrevealed, among other things, that Inuitwomen’s nutrient intake showed that thecontribution of traditional food was greaterin the older group of women than in theyounger group of women, who had agreater level of market food consumption.The women in this study also had lowervitamin A and calcium intakes as most ofthe traditional food had low calcium andvitamin A concentration. Inuit womeninfrequently consumed market food suchas milk, dairy products, and yellow andgreen vegetables. This study shows thattraditional food is still the major source ofmany nutrients in the Inuit diet of olderwomen.Gender-specific consumption of food bychildbearing Inuit women was the foci ofLawn, Langner, Brule, Thompson, Lawn& Hill’s (1998) dietary study. Countryfood (or traditional food) was the majorsource of protein and iron while storeboughtfoods were the major source ofcalories, calcium, folacin and vitamin A.The authors also noted that lactating andpregnant Inuit women had low intakes offolacin, calcium and vitamin A and thatgenerally women on social assistance werenutritionally vulnerable. Similar researchwas carried out in a dissertation publishedby Smith (2000) who looked at vitaminD deficiencies in children and pregnantwomen of three northern communitieswithin Manitoba. Rickets and baby-bottledecay were quite high for the women andchildren in these communities. A lack ofvitamin D intake can produce defectiveteeth (or baby-bottle tooth decay) andrickets, among other effects, which aremore prevalent among darker skinnedpeople. A diet adequate in calcium isimportant for sufficient levels of vitaminD intake. Women’s prenatal dietaryreflections were also investigated byTait Neufield (2003). Her study providesa reflection of young mothers andgrandmothers’ beliefs surrounding foodduring pregnancy in the First Nationcommunity of Peguis, Manitoba. Theirreflections center on cultural idea systemsAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing205

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healingrelated to maternal diet, the importanceof traditional foods, local food security aswell as the extent to which diabetes is aconcern to women in the community.Lawn & Harvey (2001) studied the FoodMail Program by evaluating the foodconsumption, nutrition, food security,and health of Inuit women aged 15-44 (anutritionally high-risk group) in Repulse Bayand Pond Inlet. The Food Mail Program,also known as the Northern Air StageProgram, pays part of the cost of shippingnutritious, perishable food by air to isolatedcommunities. In 2003, Lawn & Harveyfollowed up with similar evaluations of theFood Mail Program with the communityof Kugaaruk, Nunavut and then againin 2004 with the Fort Severn First Nationcommunity in Ontario. Because pregnantAboriginal women constitute a nutritionallyhigh-risk group, the surveys to evaluatethe effectiveness of this program wereprimarily directed at them. All threestudies are useful for understandingwomen’s perceptions about their healthby assessing their dietary intake. All thestudies conducted by Lawn & Harveyrevealed dietary concerns in each ofthe communities that participated inevaluating the Food Mail Program. Forinstance, the majority of First Nationswomen in the 2003 study rated their healthas poor. Lawn & Harvey (2003) note thatthis self-assessment by Aboriginal womenwas considered six times higher thanamong women in similar age groups in theCanadian population. These evaluationsalso highlight extreme concern aroundabout the ability of northern populationsto afford healthier food. The studies alsoreveal that the self-rated health of womenof childbearing age in Fort Severn haddeteriorated and concern over food costsincreased as well as the smoking rateamong pregnant women. Also, a healthydiet becomes less affordable, particularlyfor families on social assistance. Similarresearch on these same factors weredone earlier by University of Manitobaresearcher Moffat (1989) who focusedon the nutritional problems faced byAboriginal mothers and children on reservecommunities in Manitoba.Body Image, Obesity andExercise among AboriginalWomenThe World Health Organization reports thatoverweight and obesity are increasingworldwide at an alarming rate, in bothdeveloped and developing countries,and this trend is seen among adultsand children alike. Although geneticsusceptibility may explain up to 40% of theobesity phenotype, technological, lifestyleand cultural changes over the past 50years are being implicated as the mostlikely cause of the recent obesity epidemic.The most important factors associatedwith increased risk of overweight andobesity is physical inactivity and highenergy,dense diets over the mediumor long term. It is becoming increasinglyclear that maintenance of a healthy adultweight through proper balance of caloricintake and regular physical activity is akey factor in chronic disease prevention(Bryan & Walsh, 2004). Maintenanceof a healthy weight in adulthood mayalso decrease a woman’s risk of manyadverse health outcomes. Bryan & Walsh(2004) indicate that overweight andobesity are associated with an increasedrisk of type 2 diabetes, coronary heartdisease, hypertension, some cancersand premature mortality. Epidemiologicstudies have also noted a decreasedrisk of ischemic stroke, sleep apnea andhypoventilation syndrome, gallbladderdisease and osteoarthritis among adultswho have undergone weight loss(p.2). Bryan & Walsh also note that theprevalence of both overweight and obeseCanadian women has increased 7% since1985. Obesity they say is highest amongwomen who report low and lower middleincomes and lower levels of education.The implications for Aboriginal women areastounding as Bryan & Walsh’s study putsAboriginal women at the highest level.The above facts can no doubt affectAboriginal women’s perceptions abouttheir current body shapes. A recent on thatvery topic was discussed by Gittlesohn,Thonrne-Lyman, Hanley, Barnie & Zinman(2005). Their study indicates that FirstNations people in particular face increased206

obesity-related health problems as outlinedby Bryan & Walsh above. Their studyexamined the body shape perceptionsof Ojibway-Cree people in a northernOntario community. Sixteen per cent ofthe individuals in that study were satisfiedwith their current body shape. Those whohad a higher Body Mass Index (BMI) wereless satisfied with their body and thoughtthat they were less healthy than peoplewith a lower body mass index. Their studyalso indicates that the females in thecommunity had significantly greater BMIthan males in the community. Interestinglyenough, older people chose significantlylarger healthy body shapes than didyounger people. Also, in comparison toother Anglo populations, Ojibway-Creepeople tend to prefer larger body shapes.Marchessault (2003) also found this to betrue among the Aboriginal women in herstudy who selected drawings to representtheir current shape. Her research revealedthat Aboriginal women selected largerdrawings than non-Aboriginal womenfor their desired shape which they feltwere most attractive and healthiest forgirls. Fleming’s (2004) dissertation for herMasters of Science focused on the bodyrelatedemotional experiences of youngAboriginal women. Through the use ofmultiple methods (focus groups, one-ononeinterviews, and artwork), Fleming wasable to extrapolate from the findings thatthe young women in her study possessmany positive attributes (i.e. confidence,optimism) that are associated withresiliency. In addition, Fleming notes thatthe body-related emotions as experiencedby these young women were verycomplex and dependent upon specificcontexts. Furthermore, Fleming notes thatthe findings suggest that body-relatedemotional experiences of young Aboriginalwomen are not as negative as previousresearch has led us to believe.Other research conducted on the issue ofbody weight among Aboriginal mothersand daughters done by Marchessault(2001) indicates that Aboriginal girlsare more at risk for an eating disorderthan their non-Aboriginal counterparts.Marschessault stressed that both weightand weight preoccupation needs tobe considered in health messages toAboriginal girls and women living in orclose to urban centres (2001). Researchon the issue of eating disorders amongAboriginal women has also been noted inresearch conducted by Geller (1996). Shenotes that previous research in this areahas tended to neglect Native Americanwomen. Geller found that a significantcorrelation between marginalization andbulimic eating disorders among the sampleof 79 Manitoba and Ontario Native womenwho participated in her study.Other research also indicates thatFirst Nations women have significantlymore endomorphic (a body buildcharacterized by relative prominence ofthe abdomen and other soft body partsdeveloped from embryonic endodermallayers) bodies than Anglo individuals ofEuropean ancestry (1999). Unfortunately,Aboriginal women who have a higherBMI or who are characterized as obeseare more susceptible to both a higherprevalence and an earlier onset of type2 diabetes compared to men (Hegele,et al, 2000; and Giuliano, 1995). This wasalso confirmed for Cree women fromthe James Bay Cree community, whomRodrigues & Robinson (1999) state have,among Aboriginal peoples worldwide,one of the highest rates of gestationaldiabetes mellitus recorded. A similarstudy looking at the socioeconomic statusfactors of obesity among Inuit peoplein the central Canadian Arctic revealsthat non-smoking Inuit women with lowerlevels of educational attainment havevarious obesity indices in comparison toInuit men who, conversely, are more highlyeducated and who smoke (Young, 1996).Obesity is also equated with a lackof exercise (Klomp & Sheppard, 2003;Hegele, et al., 2000) and appears largelydue to changes in diet and activitylevels associated with a shift away fromtraditional lifestyles (Dyck, 1998, 1999, and2002). Exercise was also found to playa role in the prevention and treatmentof gestational diabetes mellitus and toa smaller extend a reduction of obesityamong the urban Aboriginal womenwho participated in a weekly fitnessprogram (Klomp & Sheppard, 2003). Dyck,Sheppard, Cassidy, Chad, Tan, and VanVliet’s (1999 and 2002) preliminary findingssuggest that Aboriginal women who haveAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing207

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing208higher levels of activity had the lowestprevalence of diabetes mellitus. Theresearch by Dyck, et al. (1999 and 2000)demonstrated that physical activity ofpregnant Aboriginal mothers can preventgestational diabetes among them andthat exercise might also be instrumentalto reducing Type 2 Diabetes in successivegenerations. The role of exercise in thelife of elders was the focus of McLintock’s(1999) study with Aboriginal Elders in sixFirst Nations communities in Alberta. TheConcept of Active Living was introduced inthe community to improve the functionalindependence of the seniors, allowingthem to live more independently, bemore fully involved in the activities oftheir communities, and to rebuild theirtraditional roles as Elders.Food Security/ProcurementThere are relatively few articles that lookspecifically at food security and foodprocurement issues for Aboriginal womenalthough much research on this topiccould also be found in the literaturethat looks at the low socioeconomicstatus of women and the child povertystatistics and research that have beenconducted by numerous academics. Thesocioeconomic status of Aboriginal womensignificantly impacts Aboriginal women’sperceptions around food security andthe procurement of affordable healthyfood. Food security and the ability toprocure healthy food is a factor for singleAboriginal mothers specifically (Sinclaire,1997). Food insecurity has both a physicaland psychological impact on Aboriginalchildren and their parents and is directlyconnected to school performance inAboriginal children and youth. Foodinsecurity also has a significant impacton child welfare intervention amongAboriginal families in Ontario as wasnoted by the Ontario Federation of IndianFriendship Centres (2003) in their reportentitled, Child Hunger and Food Insecurityamong Urban Aboriginal Families. Sinclaire(1997) stated in her research that it wasimportant to understand Aboriginalwomen’s food choices because ultimatelythe dietary practices of a mother affectthe health of her children. Her studyrevealed that in addition to financialinsecurity, Aboriginal women experiencedunique barriers that were associated withthe “obligation” system imbedded intheir culture. According to the findings ofher study, barriers imbedded in financialinsecurity were: geographical distanceand the need for improved housing,transportation and child care. Themethods exercised by women in this studyto obtain more food or money were to usefood banks, borrow money, pawn durablegoods such as a video cassette recorder,develop credit with a local neighbourhoodgrocery store and/or receive country foodsfrom family or friends.For almost every Aboriginal woman wholives in poverty, there are children who alsolive in poverty. On the fifteenth anniversaryof the Canadian Parliament’s vow to endchild poverty, Campaign 2000’s ReportCard on Child Poverty in Canada for 2004states that 1,065,000 children (nearly onein six of Canada’s children), still remain inpoverty (Campaign 2000 & Hubberstey,2004). Child and family poverty isworsening with more than one millionchildren living in poverty. Campaign 2000indicates that child poverty is up for thefirst time in six years, higher than it wasin 1989. This means that approximatelyone-third of all children in Canada havebeen exposed to poverty for at least oneyear since 1996. The poverty rate forcouples with children does not appearto have changed, however low incomecouples with children are still on averagebelow the poverty line. The financialsituation of lone-mother families is alsoworsening. Campaign 2000 indicatesthat child poverty rates for female loneparentfamilies rose above 50% for the firsttime in three years. The gap between therich and the poor continues with deepinequality entrenched through economicboom. Canada’s top 10% richest familieswith children had average incomes thatwere more than 11 times higher than thebottom 10% low income families. Foodbank use and social exclusion is worsening,especially the poverty rates for Aboriginal,immigrant and children in visible minoritygroups – the child poverty rates are morethan double the average of all childrenand the child poverty rate among childrenwith disabilities is at 27.7% (Campaign 2000et al., 2004). Single Aboriginal mothers withdependent children figure prominently

among this large minority of Canadiansexperiencing poverty.More research needs to be continued interms of eating disorders among Aboriginalgirls and women. The psychologicalimpact on mothers who live in povertyand who are expected to ensure they andtheir families are adequately fed while ona limited income also needs to be furtherstudied.References cited in this section on bodyweight and diet issues for Aboriginalwomen are set out alphabetically below.Bibliography of Resources1. Arbour, L., Christensen, B., Delormier,T., Platt, R., Gilfix, B., Forbes, P., et al. (2002).Spina Bifida, Folate Metabolism, and DietaryFolate Intake in a Northern Canadian AboriginalPopulation. International Journal of CircumpolarHealth 61[4], 341-351.Keywords: Diet/First Nations/Health/ QuebecAbstract: Objectives: Inhabitants of the sub-Arctic region of the Eastern James Bay ofnorthern Quebec consume a diet low infolate. This is largely secondary to poor accessto plant foods and a preferred diet high inmeat, fowl, and fish as in many other northernpopulations. Furthermore, there is a highfrequency of spina bifida in the Cree of theregion. It was hypothesized that geneticallyaltered folate metabolism as well as low folateintake contributes to the high frequency ofspina bifida. Methods: A case control studyevaluating folate metabolism and the common677C-T polymorphism of the gene for methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) in mothersof children with spina bifida, and controls (n=23)of Cree descent from the Eastern James Bayregion. These results were compared to a similarMontreal cohort (n=152) who were not of FirstNations descent. Dietary intake of folate of 219women of the Eastern James Bay region wasalso determined. RESULTS: No Cree mothers ofchildren with spina bifida were homozygous forthe 677C-T polymorphism of MTHFR. Althoughserum cobalamin was significantly higher inCree mothers, RBC folate was significantlylower than in the Montreal cohort. In addition,plasma homocysteine was significantly lowerin the Cree. Dietary intake of folate of womenin the same region was substantially lower (100microg/day) than widely recommended dailyintakes. CONCLUSIONS: In this remote CanadianAboriginal community there is no evidenceof altered folate metabolism in the mothersof children with spina bifida. Nonetheless, itremains essential that culturally appropriatepublic health efforts be continued to increasethe intake of folic acid in the hope of reducingthe high frequency of spina bifida in thispopulation (Journal Abstract).2. Atkinson, J. & Ober, C. (1995). WeAl-Li ‘Fire and Water’: A Process of Healing.Hazlehurst, Kayleen. Popular Justice andCommunity Regeneration: Pathways ofIndigenous Reform. [11]. Westport, Conn.,Praeger. 1-26-2005.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/ AdequatePower/Canada/Culture/ Healing/Justice/Nativewomen/ Offenders/Prevention/YouthAbstract: Reports on innovations in theadministration of justice, social reintegration ofoffenders, administration of justice alternatives,and in the recovery of damaged communities.Provides descriptions of programs, assessment oftheir impact, and advocacy for further change.3. Blanchet C., Dewailly, E., Ayotte, P.,Bruneau S., Receveur, O., & Holub B. J., (2000).Contribution of Selected Traditional and MarketFoods to the Diet of Nunavik Inuit Women.Canadian Journal of Dietetic Practice andResearch 61[2], 50-59.Keywords: Diet/Health/Inuit WomenAbstract: Food composition data weredetermined for food consumed by 226 Inuitwomen in Nunavik, estimating the relativecontribution of traditional and market foodfor energy, protein, lipid, carbohydrate,vitamin A, vitamin D, iron, calcium,magnesium, phosphorus, selenium, zinc, andeicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoicacids. Traditional Inuit food was an importantsource of protein, vitamin D, iron, selenium,and phosphorus, as well as the main sourceof eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoicacids. The mean contribution of traditionaland market food to energy and nutrientswas analyzed according to age groups(18-39 and 40-74). Analysis of Inuit women’snutrient intake showed that the contributionof traditional food was greater in the oldergroup than in the younger group, for whomthe contribution of market food was greater.Market food contributed the most to Inuitwomen’s energy intake, while 40% of the intakeof several nutrients, including protein, vitaminD, iron, phosphorus, and zinc, was derived fromtraditional food. Inuit women had low vitaminA and calcium intakes. Traditional food hadlow calcium and vitamin A concentrations,and the Inuit infrequently consumed marketfood such as milk, dairy products, and yellowand green vegetables. Thus, even though thepresent study showed that traditional foodwas the major source of many nutrients in theInuit diet, market food was also importantfor the nutritional status of this population,particularly young women. In promoting safenutritional habits among the Inuit, dietitiansmust help them maintain traditional food use,which has provided some health advantagesAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing209

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing210(e.g., a lower incidence of cardiovasculardisease); encourage consumption of nutritiousmarket foods; and consider the societal valuesreflected in the traditional diet.4. Brown, J. S. H. (1983). Woman asCentre and Symbol in the Emergence of MétisCommunities. The Canadian Journal of NativeStudies 3[1], 29-46.Available Online: http://www.brandonu.ca/Library/CJNS/3.1/brown.pdfKeywords: Métis Women/HistoryAbstract: The author suggests that Métis life wascharacterized by matriorganization. Daughterswere more likely than sons to remain in theWest, marrying there and contributing to therapid population growth of the Métis. Sheproposes that more detailed family historiescould bring out important conclusions regardingthe development of Métis society in the 19thcentury (Journal Abstract).5. Bryan, S. & Walsh, P. (2004). PhysicalActivity and Obesity in Canadian Women. BMCWomen’s Health 25 [4, Suppl 1].Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ Canada/Canadian Women/Education/ Ethnicity/Health/Prevention/WorkAbstract: Health Issue: Overweight and obesityhave been recognized as a major publichealth concern in Canada and throughoutthe world. Lack of physical activity, through itsimpact on energy balance, has been identifiedas an important modifiable risk factor forobesity. Physical activity and obesity are alsoimportant risk factors for a variety of chronicdiseases. This chapter provides an overviewof the current state of physical activity andoverweight/ obesity among Canadian women.Key Findings: For all ages combined morewomen (57%) than men (50%) are physicallyinactive (energy expenditure /= 30 kg/m2) Canadian womenhas increased 7% since 1985. Obesity increaseswith age and is highest among womenreporting low and lower middle incomes andlower levels of education. The prevalence ofobesity is highest among Aboriginal womenand men (28% and 22% respectively). DataGaps and Recommendations: There is currentlyno surveillance system in Canada to monitorthe level of physical activity among children,those performing activity at work, at school orin the home. There is a gap in the knowledgesurrounding sociocultural and ecologicaldeterminants of physical activity and obesityand the associations of these to chronic diseaseamong women and minority populations.Multisectoral policy interventions that actto decrease the broad systemic barriers tophysical activity and healthy weights among allwomen are needed (Journal Abstract).6. Dyck, R. F., Sheppard, M. S., Klomp, H.,Tan, L. K., Chad, K., Van-Vliet, S. H., et al. (1999).Using Exercise to Prevent Gestational Diabetesamong Aboriginal Women -- Hypothesis andResults of a Pilot. Canadian Journal of Diabetes23[3], 32-38.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ GestationalDiabetes/ExerciseAbstract: Hypothesis: An exercise programinitiated in early pregnancy may preventgestational diabetes among Aboriginalwomen and thereby reduce rates of Type 2diabetes mellitus in their offspring. Objective:To determine the feasibility of conductingan exercise program for pregnant Aboriginalwomen with previous gestational diabetes.Method: Over two years, we attempted torecruit project-eligible women to participatein up to three exercise sessions per week,initiated before gestational diabetes recurredand continued until late pregnancy. Results:Referral rates were poor, but recruitment rateswere excellent; seven of eight referred womenentered the study. Participation rates were over40% in five women, and all women consistentlyreached at least 80% of target heart rates; therewere no maternal/fetal adverse effects; threewomen did not develop recurrent gestationaldiabetes. Conclusions: We have demonstratedthe feasibility of conducting a controlled studyto determine if physical activity can preventgestational diabetes among Aboriginal women.If so, exercise programs could reduce rates ofType 2 diabetes in succeeding generations(Journal Abstract).7. Eppers, K. D., Lynch, W. C., & Sherrodd,J. R. (2004). Eating Attitudes of Native Americanand White Female Adolescents: A Comparisonof BMI- and Age-Matched Groups. Ethnicity andHealth 9[3], 253-266.Available Online: http://journalsonline.tandf.co.uk/openurl.asp?genre=article&eissn=1465-3419&volume=9&issue=3&spage=253Keywords: Adolescents/Diet/ Ethnicity/FirstNations/Health/ women/YouthAbstract: The article explores the differencesin eating attitudes between groups of NativeAmerican and white female adolescents basedon data derived from the Eating Attitudes Test(EAT-26).8. Fleming, T.-L. (2004). Body-RelatedEmotional Experiences of Young AboriginalWomen. Saskatoon, SK, Thesis (M.Sc.) --University of Saskatchewan, 2004.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ Culture/Research

Abstract: The purpose of this qualitative casestudy was to provide insight into the bodyrelatedemotional experiences of youngAboriginal women. Four young womentook part in this study; three who identifiedthemselves as Aboriginal (one l4-year-old, two18-year-olds) and one who identified herselfas non-Aboriginal (18-year-old). An importantstrength of this study was that the youngwomen were part of an intact group. The youngwomen were members of a mentorship groupat their local high school and this mentorshipgroup was for young women who had facedadversity in their lives. The intent of this studywas to listen to the stories and experiences ofyoung women in order to better understand thecomplex nature of their body-related emotion.Feminist perspective was used to guide thestudy because it is a voice-centered approachbased on listening to women’s experiences.Cognitive-Motivational-Relational Theory wasused to ground the study because it recognizesthat emotion is a complex and context-drivenprocess. Through the use of multiple methods(i.e., focus group, one-on-one interviews,artwork) the young women were able toprovide an in-depth view of their experiences.Stake’s (1995) guidelines for case study dataanalysis were followed, and the collectivestory of the young women’s body-relatedemotional experiences has been described.This study contributes to the literature on thebody-related emotional experiences of youngAboriginal women in a number of ways. Theyoung women in this study possess many of thepositive attributes (i.e., confidence, optimism)that have been associated with resiliency.Also, the emotions that were experienced bythe young women were very complex anddependent upon specific contexts. The fivethemes that emerged from the data wereconflicting cultures, need to belong, personalidentity, journey to acceptance, and the bodyaffects everything. Overall, the young womenin this study noted a general level of bodysatisfaction, which is inconsistent with previousresearch surrounding young women’s bodyrelatedemotion. One of the most importantfindings from this study is that the body-relatedemotional experiences of young Aboriginalwomen are not as negative as previousresearch has led us to believe.9. Geller, G. (1999). Prevalence andExpression of Bulimic Symptoms amongAboriginal and Non-Aboriginal Women. Thesis(M.A.) -- University of Windsor, 1999.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ Canada/Manitoba/Native women/ Prevention/Research/womenAbstract: Previous cross-cultural research inthe area of eating disorders has, for the mostpart, neglected Native American women.The purpose of this study was to determinethe prevalence and expression of eatingdisorderedattitudes and behaviours amongCanadian Native women. It was expectedthat a higher percentage of Native womenwould be classified as potential bulimics thannon-Native women. It was also expected thatNative women, on average, would score higheron measures of eating-disordered attitudes andbehaviours (i.e., body dissatisfaction, bingeingand purging behaviour) than their non-Nativecounterparts. A secondary goal was todetermine the correlation between the degreeand type of acculturation and the severity ofeating-disordered symptoms among Nativewomen. The sample consisted of 79 womenranging in age from 17 to 50 years (mean agewas 23.6 years) recruited from urban areas inManitoba and Ontario. Measures includedthe Bulimia Test-Revised (BULIT-R; Thelen et al.,1991), The Multidimensional Body-Self RelationsQuestionnaire (MBSRQ; Cash & Prozinsky,1990), the Figure Ratings Scale (Fallon & Rozin,1985) and the Relational Attitudes Scale (RAS;Restoule, 1994). Results indicated that 25.9%of Aboriginal women, 8.1% of Caucasianwomen, and 28% of women not born in NorthAmerica were classified as potentially bulimic.The women’s scores on multiple measures ofbody image did not differ significantly betweengroups. For Aboriginal women a significantpositive correlation was found betweenmarginalization and severity of reported bulimicsymptoms. These findings are discussed inthe context of previous comparative studies.Implications for the development of preventionand intervention programs targeting Aboriginalwomen are also addressed.10. Gittelsohn J., Thorne-Lyman, A. L.,Hanley, A. J., Barnie, A., & Zinman, B. (2005).Body Image Concepts Differ by Age and Sexin an Ojibway-Cree Community in Canada.Journal of Nutrition 126, 2990-3000.Keywords: Canada/Diabetes/ Diet/First Nations/HealthAbstract: Community-based studies of bodyimage concepts can be useful for developinghealth interventions to prevent obesity-relateddiseases such as diabetes and cardiovasculardisease in specific populations. First Nationspeoples, in particular, face increasedobesity-related health problems as a result ofacculturative changes in diet and activity. Thisstudy examined body shape perception in anOjibway-Cree community in northern Ontario,Canada. A set of figure outline drawingsranging from very thin to very obese wereused to examine perceived body shape, bodyshape satisfaction and ideals of healthinessacross sex and age groups. Overall, only 16%of the population were satisfied with theircurrent body shape. People with a higher bodymass index (BMI) were less satisfied with theirbodies and thought they were less healthythan people with a lower BMI. While femaleshad a significantly greater BMI than males,males and females did not differ significantly inperception of current body shape. On the otherAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing211

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing212hand, females desired relatively smaller bodyshapes than males (P < 0.05). Older peoplechose significantly larger healthy body shapesthan did younger people (P < 0.05). Differencesbetween our results and those reported forAnglo populations indicate that while bothgroups prefer body shapes smaller than thosethey have currently, the Ojibway-Cree tend toprefer relatively larger body shapes. Knowledgeof age and sex-related patterns of bodyimage concepts in communities can assist inthe design of obesity-reducing interventionstargeting specific groups.11. Giuliano, P. E. (1995). AnishnawbeWomen and the Meaning of Food: AQualitative Study. Thesis (M.Sc.) -- University ofGuelph, 1995.Keywords: Canada/Health/Health Care/Anishnawbe Women/FoodAbstract: This thesis is an investigation of themeaning of food for nine Anishnawbe womenin Pic River, Ontario. The women’s experiencesand perspectives are the focus in this feminist,participatory action research process.Unstructured and semi-structured interviews,group story writing and discussions encouragedthe women to reflect on, and analyze food andeating. The main findings discuss the impact ofacculturation on food consumption, the highprevalence of obesity and the impact of ethnostress.Ten implications for health care providersare provided.12. Hay, J. & Shepard, R. J. (1998).Perceptions and Patterns of Physical Activity:A Comparison of Mohawk/Cayuga and Non-Native Adolescents. American Journal ofHuman Biology 10[5], 629-635.Keywords: Canada/Children/ Education/Health/YouthAbstract: This study examined the relationshipsbetween habitual physical activity and selfreferentthought among Native and non-Nativegrade 9 students in southern Ontario. TheHabitual Activity Estimation Scale (HAES) andthe Children’s Self-perception of Adequacyin and Predilection for Physical Activity(CSAPPA) Scale were administered to 74% ofeligible Native students (13M, 13F) and 87%of eligible non-Native students (65M, 65F). Allwere attending the same secondary school,adjacent to the Six Nations (Mohawk/Cayuga)reservation. Natives and non-Natives differed(P < .01) with respect to physical activitylevels, predilection for physical activity, andenjoyment of physical education, with Nativestudents reporting less physical activity than thenon-Native group. There were no significantdifferences in perceived adequacy betweenthe two groups. Further investigations areneeded to determine how far these resultscan be generalized to less prosperous Nativebands in other parts of Canada and the U.S.Nevertheless, it appears that physical educatorsshould develop culturally appropriateinterventions to increase physical activityamong Native youth, in consultation with Nativeleadership (Journal Abstract).13. Hegele, R. A., Cao, H., Harris, S. B.,Zinman, B., Hanley, A. J., & Anderson, C. M.(2000). Gender, Obesity, Hepatic NuclearFactor-1Alpha G319S and the Age of Onsetof Type 2 Diabetes in Canadian Oji-Cree.International Journal of Obesity-RelatedMetabolic Disorders 24[8], 1062-1064.Keywords: Canada/Diabetes/ GenderAbstract: Among the Oji-Cree of northernOntario, women have both a higherprevalence and an earlier onset of Type 2diabetes compared to men. We studied therelationship between HNF1A S319 and boththe presence of and the age of onset of Type2 diabetes in women and men separately. Wefound that: 1) in women, there was a significantdifference in the mean age of onset of Type 2diabetes according to HNF1A genotype; and2) in men, there was no difference in the meanage of onset of Type 2 diabetes accordingto HNF1A genotype. The findings indicatethat HNF1A S319 is associated with increasedsusceptibility to Type 2 diabetes in both menand women, but with earlier age of onset inwomen only. One factor that might accountfor the gender difference in the onset of HNF1AS319-associated Type 2 diabetes is the greaterprevalence and severity, and earlier onsetof, obesity among female Oji-Cree (JournalAbstract).14. Katzmarzyk, P. T. & Malina, R. M. (1999).Body Size and Physique among Canadians ofFirst Nations and European Ancestry. AmericanJournal of Physical Anthropology 108[2], 161-172.Keywords: Men/First Nations Women/Youth/Body Mass Index/PhysiqueAbstract: The purpose of this study was tocompare body size and physique amongCanadians of Aboriginal (First Nations [FN])and European ancestry (EA) from the northernOntario communities of Temagami and BearIsland. The sample consisted of 130 FN and 494EA participants including adults (20-75 years:214 men, 234 women) and youth (5-19 years:97 boys, 79 girls). Indicators of body size andphysique included stature, the sitting height-tostatureratio (SSR), body mass, BMI, estimatedupper-arm muscle area, biacromial, bicristal,biepicondylar, and icondylar breadths, andthe Heath-Carter anthropometric somatotype(endomorphy, mesomorphy, and ectomorphy).There were few differences in body sizebetween FN and EA, with the exception of adultfemales. Adult FN females were significantlyheavier and had greater bone breadths thanEA women (P, 0.001). On the other hand,

somatotype differed significantly betweenEA and FN by age and sex, except for 5-19-year-old females. Among boys and men, FNhad greater endomorphy (P, 0.03), whereasFN men also had lower ectomorphy (P, 0.01).Among women, FN were significantly moreendomorphic and mesomorphic and lessectomorphic (P, 0.001). Although results for 5-19-year-old females were not significant, theywere in the same direction as the other groups(greater endomorphy). Forward stepwisediscriminant function analyses indicatedthat endomorphy was the most importantdiscriminator between FN and EA by age andsex (Journal Abstract).15. Klomp, H. & Sheppard, S. (2003).Description and Evaluation of a PrenatalExercise Program for Urban Aboriginal Women.Canadian Journal of Diabetes 27[3], 231-238.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Basic PhysicalNeeds/Canada/Critical Learning Opportunities/Diabetes/ Education/PreventionAbstract: Objective: Exercise has been shownto prevent Type 2 diabetes mellitus and couldplay a role in the prevention and treatmentof gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), Thispaper describes the process and outcomeof a prenatal exercise program for urbanAboriginal women in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan,Canada. Method: The authors developeda weekly fitness program with incentivesaimed at accommodating the needs ofthe target population. Fifty-one per cent ofparticipants completed a program evaluationquestionnaire. Results: During its two-yearcourse, the program attracted 69 participantsof various ages, stages of pregnancy andeducation and fitness levels. Water aerobicsand walking were the most preferred activities.Snacks and designated social time proved tobe important incentives for attendance. Whileengaged in the program, 91% of participantsreported improved fitness levels and 89%reported heightened self-esteem. Conclusions:Although exercise programs for urbanAboriginal prenatal women are challengingto design, they are necessary and feasible.Factors that influenced participation in onesuch exercise program are identified (JournalAbstract).16. Kuhnlein, H., Soueida, R., & Receveur,O. (1995). Baffin Food Use by Age, Genderand Season. Journal of the Canadian DieteticAssociation 56[4], 175-183.Keywords: Gender/Traditional FoodsAbstract: Analyses of 24-hour diet recalls andhousehold frequencies of use of traditionalfood investigate the use of traditional andmarket food during six bi-monthly seasons ina community of Baffin Island (Qikiqtarjuaq).Data from 1,410 recalls from 366 individualsthree years of age and older are reported.Traditional food contributes 30-40% of averagedaily energy intake with sea mammals providingthe greatest quantity and variety of traditionalfood, followed by land animals, fish, birds andeggs, berries, and shellfish. Traditional foodintake varies by season, gender and mostimportantly by age. Younger people tendto eat less traditional food than their eldersand conversely more market food. Sucroseintake in the younger age groups is high, aswell as tea/coffee consumption in all age andgender categories. Concerns are raised on thenutritional implications of the observed shift fromtraditional food toward market food (JournalAbstract).17. Lawn, J., Langner, N., Brule, D.,Thompson, N., Lawn, P., & Hill, F. (1998).Food Consumption Patterns of Inuit Women.International Journal of Circumpolar Health 57[Suppl 1], 198-204.Keywords: Canada/Diet/Health/Inuit WomenAbstract: To evaluate nutrient intake andfood consumption patterns of Inuit womenof childbearing age, a 24-hour diet recalland general health and food frequencyquestionnaire was administered to 688 Inuitwomen aged 15-44 in six isolated communities.Data were analyzed using the 1991 CanadianNutrient File. Mean intakes of essential nutrientswere expressed as percentages of HealthCanada’s 1990 Recommended Nutrient Intakes(RNI). Chi-square tests were used to determinerelationships between categorical variables.Folacin intake ranged from 49% to 95% of theRNI in most communities (median = 76%) andwas only 37% of the RNI for pregnant and 54%for lactating women. Mean calcium intakefor pregnant and lactating women averaged55% and 47% of the RNI, respectively. Averagevitamin A intakes ranged from 26% to 87% of theRNI (median = 65%), with intake for pregnantInuit women and lactating women 79% and54% of the RNI, respectively. Country food wasthe major source of protein and iron, and storefoods the major source of calories, calcium,folacin, and vitamin A. Low intakes of folacin,calcium, and vitamin A, especially amongpregnant and lactating women, place Inuitwomen of childbearing age at risk. Women onsocial assistance are nutritionally vulnerable(Journal Abstract).18. Lawn, J. & Harvey, D. (2001). Changein Nutrition and Food Security in Two InuitCommunities, 1992-97. Ottawa, ON, Indian &Northern Affairs Canada.Keywords: Canada/Health/Inuit WomenAbstract: This report describes and presentsresults of a survey to evaluate the impact ofthe Food Mail Program on food consumption,nutrition, food security, and health of Inuitwomen aged 15-44 (a nutritionally high-riskgroup) in Repulse Bay and Pond Inlet. The surveyAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing213

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing214included a food frequency questionnaire,questions regarding food security and changesin food affordability compared to five yearsago, and a questionnaire on health, lifestyle,and socioeconomic conditions. The results arediscussed along with lessons learned and waysto improve the effectiveness of the Food MailProgram.19. Lawn, J. & Harvey, D. (2003). Nutritionand Food Security in Kugaaruk, Nunavut:Baseline Survey for the Food Mail Pilot Project.Ottawa, ON, Indian Affairs & NorthernDevelopment.Keywords: Canada/Health/Inuit Women/women/Women’s HealthAbstract: The Kugaaruk (formerly Pelly Bay)Food Mail Pilot Project was initiated to promotehealthy eating and improve food securityby reducing the postage rate for priorityperishables such as fruit and vegetables andmost fresh dairy products and eggs. This reportdescribes a survey conducted to obtainbaseline data required to measure the impactof the project. Survey objectives were: toevaluate the food purchasing patterns andfood security status of households in Kugaarukprior to project implementation; and to assessnutrient intakes and the general status of Inuitwomen of childbearing age in Kugaaruk atthat time. After sections describing the surveymethodology, results are presented with regardto household characteristics (including size andcomposition, source and amount of incomeand expenditure on food, and food purchasingpractices) and nutrition (consumption patternsof country food and store-bought food, foodpreparation methods, women’s health andlifestyle, energy and nutrient intake, andenergy and nutrient contribution by foodmail category). The results highlight a numberof nutrition concerns for Kugaaruk residents.Copies of the survey questionnaires areappended.20. Lawn, J. & Harvey, D. (2004). Nutritionand Food Security in Fort Severn, Ontario:Baseline Survey for the Food Mail Pilot Project.Ottawa, Indian and Northern Affairs Canada.Available Online: http://dsp-psd.pwgsc.gc.ca/Collection/R2-350-2004E.pdfKeywords: Canada/Diet/Health/ AboriginalWomenAbstract: The Fort Severn Food Mail Pilot Projectwas initiated by Indian and Northern AffairsCanada with the support of Health Canada,the Ontario Ministry of Health and Long-TermCare, Canada Post and the Fort Severn FirstNation council. Its aim was to promote healthyeating and improve food security by reducingthe rate for shipping “Priority Perishables.” Toobtain baseline data required to measurethe impact of the pilot project, trainedlocal interviewers administered a householdquestionnaire to 121 First Nations householdsand a nutrition questionnaire to 66 First Nationswomen aged 15 to 44 in December 2002.The household questionnaire asked aboutfood purchasing practices, opinions aboutthe quality, variety and cost of certain foods,reasons for not buying more fresh fruit andvegetables and milk, demographic informationand household food security, using a modifiedversion of the United States Department ofAgriculture Food Security Module. The nutritionquestionnaire included a 24-hour diet recall, afood frequency questionnaire, and questionson food preparation, health and lifestyle. Asecond 24-hour recall was completed by 45women. Both questionnaires had an excellentparticipation rate (98% of available householdsand available eligible women). Forty-four percent of First Nations women rated their healthas fair or poor, a level six times higher thanamong women of this age in the Canadianpopulation. Extreme concern about beingable to afford enough food was associatedwith poor or fair self-rated health. Since 1992,the self-rated health of women of childbearingage in Fort Severn has deteriorated, theirconcern about food costs has increased andthe smoking rate has increased from 48% to56%. For families on social assistance, a healthydiet became less affordable over this period.Over half of the respondents rated the qualityof fruits, vegetables and milk as only fair or poor,and cited cost, poor quality, low availabilityand lack of variety as the major barriers topurchasing more fresh fruit and vegetables andpoor quality as a barrier to purchasing moremilk. First Nations women in Fort Severn wereeating only about one and a half servings offruit and vegetables and about two-thirds ofa serving of dairy products per day. However,Priority Perishable foods were an importantsource of essential vitamins and minerals andfiber. It appears, therefore, that the Food MailPilot Project is appropriately focused andshould help to increase the consumption ofmore nutritious store foods, thereby improvingthe nutrition of women of childbearing age aswell as the food security situation of Fort Severnfamilies.21. Marchessault, G. (2003). Body ShapePerceptions of Aboriginal and Non-AboriginalGirls and Women. Canadian Journal of DieteticPractice and Research 64[2], S114.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Health/Manitoba/Research/womenAbstract: Aboriginal participants selectedlarger drawings to represent their current shape(Mann-Whitney U Test, p = 0.0008 for girls; 0.005for women). There were no other significantdifferences between the girls’ selections. Therewas a trend for Aboriginal women to selectlarger drawings than non-Aboriginal women fortheir desired shape and the shapes they saidwere most attractive and healthiest for girls.

Body dissatisfaction was greater in Aboriginalparticipants (66% and 36% for girls; 83% and62% for women; logistic regression, p = 0.0001).More women than girls wanted to lose weight(84.8% and 63.6%; chi square test, p = 0.004).The frequency of dieting was 25.2%, with nosignificant differences between groups (chisquare tests).22. Marchessault, G. (1994). How Mothersand Daughters Talk about Weight. Winnipeg,MB, Thesis (M.Sc.) -- University of Manitoba, 1994.Keywords: Canada/Health/ Manitoba/womenAbstract: In-depth qualitative interviewswere conducted with a random sample of20 mother-daughter pairs from primarily lowincomeand ethnically diverse backgroundsin an urban setting. The purpose was toexplore how middle-aged women and theirteenaged daughters talk about weight issues.Girls talked about the following as influenceson their attitudes toward weight: a desire tobe attractive to friends and boys; a desire toavoid being teased about being too fat or tooskinny; the example of models; the importanceof looking good; and avoiding weight-relatedhealth problems, especially those associatedwith being underweight. They emphasizedthe impact of teasing. The mothers discussedsimilar themes, adding the influence of weighton employment opportunities. Health andsocial impacts of weight were discussed largelyin terms of overweight. They emphasized theinfluence of health and the media more thantheir daughters. Some girls and many mothersindicated disagreement with the ultra-thinstandard for weight. Greater resistance wasoften accompanied by less expressed concernabout weight. A standardized questionnaire,the Eating Attitudes Test, was also administered.There was no evidence of a significantdifference between mothers’ and daughters’scores, nor of any association between theirscores. Both methods indicated extensivevariability within each group (Author Abstract).23. Marchessault, G. (2001). Talking AboutWeight with Aboriginal Women. CanadianWomen’s Health Network 4/5 [4/1], 18.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/womenAbstract: A short article on the issue of weightpreoccupation in the population of Aboriginalwomen.24. Marchessault, G. D. M. (2001). Far FromIdeal: Talking about Weight with Mothers andDaughters from Winnipeg, Southern Manitobaand a First Nations Community. Winnipeg, MB,Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University of Manitoba.Available Online: http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk3/ftp04/NQ62653.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Women/ AdequateIncome and Sustainable Economies/Canada/First Nations/ Health/Manitoba/WeightPerceptions/ Well-beingAbstract: This research compared body weightperceptions of Aboriginal and non-Aboriginalgirls and their mothers. Families were randomlyselected based on the class lists of grade 8students from two urban and two rural schools.The sample consisted of 80 mother-daughterpairs that were interviewed separately. Thenon-Aboriginal women almost unanimouslydiscussed strong societal pressures that madeweight more important to women than to men.Most of the Aboriginal women suggested thatweight was not central to female identity. Theresearch indicated that Aboriginal girls aremore at risk for an eating disorder than theirnon-Aboriginal counterparts. In conclusion,the author feels that both weight and weightpreoccupation need to be considered in healthmessages to Aboriginal girls and women living inor close to an urban centre.25. McLintock, M. J. (1999). FunctionalIndependence and Active Living: An ActionResearch Study with First Nations Elders. Thesis(M.A.) -- University of Alberta, 1999.Available Online: http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/ftp01/MQ40014.pdfKeywords: 11/14/Canada/ Empowerment/Exercise/First Nations Communities/Healing/Health/ResearchAbstract: The health of Canada’s First Nationspeople is ranked among the lowest in thecountry. And while a great deal of attentionhas been given to the means of improving thehealth of the younger members of this culturalgroup, almost nothing is either known about,or has been done for, its elderly members. Withfunding provided through Health Canada, NewHorizons/Partners in Aging, the Elders and HealthCentre staff of six rural First Nations communitiesin Alberta were introduced to the concept ofActive Living. An Action Research methodologywas used to assist each community to developand implement a physical activity programfor volunteer participants over the age of 50.The aim of these programs was to improve thefunctional independence of the seniors allowingthem to live more independently, be more fullyinvolved in the activities of their communities,and to rebuild the traditional role of Elders.Within the three-month time limit of this study,the Health Centre staff of the participating FirstNations communities demonstrated that theywere willing and able to take the necessaryAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing215

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing216steps to get their elderly members morephysically active. Initiatives were culturallyappropriate and designed and delivered inthe spirit of promoting community responsibility,autonomy, local control, and the rebuildingof the traditional role of Elders in Aboriginalcommunities. Although more pressing healthissues were identified as the primary obstaclesto a more physically active lifestyle, there isunanimous agreement that the best solutionto the sedentary lifestyle of Aboriginal Elderslies in the restoration of traditional values andpractices. Physical activity is acknowledged ashaving an important part to play in the healingand control of many of the health problems ofAboriginal Elders (Author Abstract).26. Moffat, M. E. K. (1989). NutritionalProblems of Native Canadian Mothers andChildren. Canadian Family Physician 35, 377-382.Keywords: Children/Nutrition/Native MothersAbstract: Unavailable27. Ontario Federation of Indian FriendshipCentres. (2003). Child Hunger and FoodInsecurity among Urban Aboriginal Families.Toronto, ON, Ontario Federation of IndianFriendship Centres.Keywords: Aboriginal Children/ Poverty/Hunger/Food InsecurityAbstract: The objectives of this study were: todetermine the prevalence of food insecurityamong urban Aboriginal families; to look atthe physical and psychological impact offood insecurity on Aboriginal children and theirparents; to examine the relationship betweenfood security and school performance inAboriginal children and youth; and to examinethe relationship between food insecurity andchild welfare intervention among Aboriginalpeoples. The study employed literature,questionnaires, and key informant interviews,drawing on a total of 508 participants from 23cities in Ontario. Includes recommendations for“federal and provincial government; immediateprogram enhancements; “Aboriginalorganizations and First Nations”; and “CooperativePolicy Responses.”28. Receveur, O., Boulay, M., & Kuhnlein,H. V. (1997). Decreasing Traditional Food UseAffects Diet Quality for Adult Dene/Metis in16 Communities of the Canadian NorthwestTerritories. The Journal of Nutrition 127[11], 2179-2186.Keywords: Diet/Health/Métis WomenAbstract: We assessed diets in 16 Dene/Métiscommunities in the Canadian Arctic. Wedescribed nutrient intakes and identifiednutrients at risk among adult Dene/Métis,evaluated the influence of traditional food ondiet quality, and examined the direction ofdietary change by comparing intergenerationaland between-community differences indietary intake. Diet varied according to sex,age and community. Nutrients of possiblyinadequate intake (irrespective of subject sex,age or community) included calcium, vitaminA and folic acid. Dietary fiber intake was alsoof concern. Traditional food (animals andplants harvested from the local environment)was consumed on 65.4% of interview days; onthose days intakes of iron, zinc and potassiumwere higher (P. 0.05) and those of sodium,fat, saturated fat and sucrose were lower (P .0.05) than on days when market food only wasconsumed. In this population, the shift awayfrom traditional food towards a diet composedexclusively of market food was characterizedby an increase (P. 0.05) in absolute energyintake and an increase (P . 0.01) in the relativecontributions of carbohydrate (particularlysucrose), fat and saturated fat. This patternof change calls for initiatives to documentthe current health status of this populationand to prevent potential negative healthconsequences of dietary change (JournalAbstract).29. Rodrigues, S. & Robinson, E. (1999).Interaction of Body Weight and Ethnicity onRisk of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus. CanadianMedical Association Journal 160[9], 1293-1297.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Cree/ Diabetes/Ethnicity/MontrealAbstract: Background: The James Bay Cree ofCanada have one of the highest recorded ratesof gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) amongAboriginal people worldwide; the reasons forthis elevated risk remain to be documented.Objective: Our objective was to comparepredictors and risk of GDM between the JamesBay Cree and non-Native Canadians. Design:Risk for GDM was compared between Cree andnon-Native women by 1) adjusting statisticallyfor differences in age, parity, pregravid weight,and smoking status (n = 402 Cree, 7,718 non-Natives), and 2) matching Cree women withnon-Native women for age and pregravidweight (n = 394 Cree, 788 non-Natives). Dietaryand physical activity information was availablefor a subset of Cree women (n = 152). RESULTS:Age and pregravid weight were independentpredictors of GDM in both Cree and non-Native women. After these predictors werecontrolled for, normal-weight (

Procurement: The Experience of UrbanAboriginal Women in Winnipeg. Winnipeg, MB,Thesis (M.Sc.) -- University of Manitoba, Fall 1997.Available Online: http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/ftp04/mq23497.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Women/ Culture/Health/Housing/Manitoba/ Single ParentsAbstract: In-depth qualitative interviews wereconducted with a snowball or reputationalsample of 19 Aboriginal women who weresingle parents. The purpose was to explore thewomen’s experiences of grocery shopping andto document possible impact of the culturalnorm of obligation on their shopping patterns.Unstructured interviews with key informants,participant observations and cognitivemapping were used as the primary methodsof data collection. These methodologies wereselected to facilitate an in-depth study ofexperiences, attitudes, and perceptions of theparticipants, as they related to food selection.The Aboriginal women in this research notonly experienced barriers related to financialinsecurity, they experienced the unique barrierof the “obligation” system imbedded in theAboriginal culture. In Aboriginal culture theextended family, composed of immediaterelatives and close friends, functioned as aco-operative unit to create and obtain thenecessities of life such as food, shelter, andclothing (Nagler, 1970). The barriers imbeddedin financial insecurity were: (a) geographicaldistance, and the need for improved (b)housing, (c) transportation, and (d) childcare. In this study the methods women usedto obtain more food or money were: (a)using food banks; (b) borrowing money; (c)pawning of durable goods, such as a videocassette recorder; (d) development of creditwith the local neighbourhood grocery stores;(e) and receiving country foods from family orfriends. Whereas the cultural barrier intensifiedtheir financial insecurity since the copingmechanisms involved methods that meantspending additional money or further mentalstress, if a woman did not want the visitingrelatives to stay at her home the woman would,for example, move to a new location withoutnotifying her relatives. This method meantthe woman had to use her limited incomefor moving. It is important to understand thewoman’s food choices because ultimately thedietary practices of a mother affect the healthof her children.31. Smith, P. J. (2000). Vitamin D Deficiencyin Three Northern Manitoba Communities.http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk1/tape4/PQDD_0025/NQ51667.pdf . Thesis(Ph.D.) -- The University of Manitoba, 2000.Keywords: Canada/Education/ Manitoba/Prevention/Risk Factors/First Nations WomenAbstract: Background: The remote Aboriginalcommunities in the Island Lake area ofManitoba have high rates of rickets, unlikeother seemingly similar communities. Two IslandLake communities (Garden Hill and St. TheresaPoint) and Norway House, a community withoutknown rickets, were chosen for this study.Clinical rickets in children, vitamin D deficiencyin pregnant women, and risk factors for vitaminD deficiency and rickets were hypothesizedto be greater in the Island Lake area than inNorway House. From a review of the literaturefrom several disciplines, I hypothesized thatvitamin D deficiency was prevalent in NorwayHouse, despite the absence of known rickets.Methods : A historical prospective study ofthe incidence of clinical rickets in treaty-statusAboriginal children born in 1993 and 1994 (aretrospective chart review of birth cohorts) wasconducted. A cross-sectional serum surveywas conducted to determine the prevalenceof vitamin D deficiency (25-hydroxyvitaminD

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing218to which diabetes is a concern to women in thecommunity. A sample of 12 young mothers and12 grandmothers was used for the study. Familialcultural teachings associated with maternaldiet and behavior patterns were found to be ofdecreasing influence to young mothers.33. Thompson Godard, B. (1985). Talkingabout Ourselves: The Literary Productions ofNative Women of Canada.Keywords: CanadaAbstract: These are the best essays aboutbody image by young women aged 13-19from across Canada. You name it, these youngwomen have a personal experience with it,ranging from: eating disorders, depression andanxiety attacks, developing breasts, shoppingfor a first bra, body hair, body piercing, tattoos,hair dyes, driving Mom insane, dancing, selftorture,dealing with unwanted touching,discovery of the body’s secret places, livingwith disabilities, the body in relation to culturaltraditions, feeling ugly, feeling beautiful, feelingwhole, gaining confidence and self-awareness,the ecstasy of sport, being strong. Along withthe artwork and substantial resource section onyoung women and body image, this is a bookof great interest to young women, parents,teachers and all those who care about women.34. Wein, E. E., Basualdo, T. K., Johnson,P. A., & Basu, T. K. (1996). Nutrient Intakes of aSample of First Nations Adults with and withoutDiabetes Mellitus in Central Alberta. Journal ofthe Canadian Dietetic Association 57[4], 153-161.Keywords: Canada/Diabetes/Diet/ First Nations/womenAbstract: In recent decades the prevalenceof non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus(NIDDM) has increased dramatically amongmany Aboriginal groups. This paper examinesnutrient intakes of 110 Plains Cree First Nationsadults, with and without diabetes, in centralAlberta, from three repeated 24-hour recalls.Vitamin A intakes were also estimated from avitamin A food frequency questionnaire. Meanintakes per megajoule (MJ) indicated that dietsof women with diabetes were lower in fat andsugar and higher in many nutrients than dietsof women without diabetes (P

9. Environmental FactorsImpacting On Women’s HealthWomen are the first environment.Indigenous women haveunderstood this concept forgenerations. Women shapethe future, not only through reproduction,but also as keepers of culture and thetraditional healing knowledge of thegrandmothers. This section focuseson research that has identified thecollision between healthy and pollutedenvironments and the impact on women.It includes research that has lookedprimarily in the context of northern andInuit women and at the link between dietand pregnancy in Aboriginal women.The gender implications of free trade onAboriginal women, particularly as it relatesto forestry, were examined by Rude andDeiter (2004) in their report From the FurTrade to Free Trade: Forestry and FirstNations Women in Canada. Many of theAboriginal women in this report indicatethat they were uncertain of how free tradebenefits their communities. They have inmany cases responded with resistance tothe imposition of economic developmenton their traditional lands and are deeplyconcerned about the pace, manner andeventual impact this may have on theirtraditional lands. This article highlights theenvironmental factors that have directoutcomes on the health of the Aboriginalwomen and community members.Aboriginal women researchers argue thatgender-inclusive analysis by itself doesnot take into consideration the uniquehistorical and cultural circumstances ofAboriginal women (Sayers and McDonald2001). In the authors’ gendered analysis ofthis issue they particularly note that healthissues facing humans have rarely beenan important aspect of environmentalassessments in the forestry industry. Theoutcomes, specifically for women, will bedevastating, especially with respect to theloss of traditional ecological knowledge(TEK) or Indigenous Traditional Knowledge(ITK) possessed by Aboriginal women inthese communities, noting that:The gender dimensions of TEK arecomplex, far-reaching and yet to befully explored. Writers such as VandanaShiva have argued that women’s biologygives them a “special” relationship withnature. Others have advocated for amore systematic study of gender roles,and issues of ownership and control ofresources and land, though often in thecontext of settled, agricultural societies(Agarwal 1994). However, in regards toAboriginal communities, both womenand men are considered stewards of theland and have gender-specific roles andrelationships to aspects of the naturalworld. This would vary so much over timeand across different tribes in Canadathat generalization is difficult. Perhapsone certainty, as the women’s stories inthis study will illustrate, is that the workof women that draws on indigenousknowledge — gathering food, pickingmedicines and raising children — isrendered all but invisible within the worldof logging and international trade (Rude &Deiter, 2004, p.12).Rude & Deiter (2004) also noted thatFirst Nations people depended on trees— timber for shelter, firewood for warmth,bark and other parts for medicine — fortheir very survival. The women in this studyspoke of health impacts on their peoplebecause of the logging in their area. Theloss of traditional foods together withcommercialization of resources from withinthe area are increasingly forcing peopleto live off store-bought foods, whichcreate significant health problems such asdiabetes and dental concerns. Some ofthe women’s comments include:When you look at our life, we never neededhospitals, we never had jails, because welived right. We were doing something right.…The food that we ate that grew on themountains had a lot of antibiotic. Now thatvery same food is disappearing.… What weeat today is poisonous as compared to whatwe ate a long time ago (Neskonlith Elder).We used to eat everything, berries, fruit.We used to have good meals then in theold days. Everybody was healthy. The foodwe eat all the time today, the food to eat,we get sick of eating. Everybody has sugareverything (Flying Dust Elder).Such health issues are not included aspart of environmental assessments, whichconsider wildlife and other aspects ofAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing219

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing220the ecosystem, but not the impact onpeople who live on the land. When askedto consider the impacts of forestry ontheir lives, the women clearly stated thatlogging did not improve their well-being. Infact, it threatened their very existence.Canada’s Far North was commonlyperceived to be too remote to be affectedby contaminants resulting from industrialand agricultural activities elsewhere in theworld; however, a report published in 1985indicated that contaminants were beingfound in several Arctic locations. Sincethen, evidence from multiple sources hasconfirmed the presence of environmentalcontaminants in many species traditionallyconsumed by northerners and hasindicated that many of these contaminantsare being transported over long distancesto the Arctic atmospherically and in watersflowing northward. These contaminantsinclude metals, radionuclides andorganochlorines. Organochlorines, alsoreferred to as persistent organic pollutants(POPs), include pesticides and industrialcompounds including polychlorinatedbiphenyls (PCBs), dioxins and furans. Thesecompounds are resistant to degradation,are lipophilic (fat soluble), and biomagnifyin the food chain (Butler Walker, Seddon,McMullen, Houseman, Tofflemire,Corriveau, Weber, Mills, Smith, & Oostdam(2003).Comprehensive research regardingenvironmental factors specificallyexamining the health impacts onAboriginal women was, until recently,rather scarce. Nevertheless what doesexist is an indication of a growing problemthat has failed to take into considerationgender implications to Aboriginal femalepopulations. Baikie (1992) in discussinga wide-ranging review of health-relatedconcerns facing Labrador Inuit womenidentified a concern for the growingevidence of contamination in Labradorand the need for more appropriateresponses from the health care profession.Most of the recent research since hasnow begun to look at contaminationfrom a gender-specific standpoint. Theliterature published in this area is mostlymedically based and rather complexfor the layman reader. This research hasrecognized the problem of pollution andhas documented the growing exposureto environmental contaminants betweenmothers and newborns in the northernArctic areas of Canada. Dallaire,Dewailly, Lalibert, Muckle, Ayotte (2002)looked at the time trends of PCBs and11 chlorinated pesticides in the umbilicalcord plasma of newborns in a remoteCanadian coastal population. Theygathered information from mothersover a seven- year period looking attheir age, past and present residence,ethnic group, use of tobacco duringpregnancy and breastfeeding duringprevious pregnancies. Similarly, colleaguesButler Walker, Seddon, McMullen,Houseman, Tofflemire, et al. (2003) alsolooked at maternal and umbilical cordblood plasma organochlorine levels forInuit, Métis, Caucasian and other non-Aboriginal women over a five- year period.Approximately 523 women volunteered toparticipate in that study. Generally, whatthese studies indicate is that the presenceof multiple chlorinated organic substanceshave been confirmed in Dene/Metis, Inuitand non-Aboriginal women and theirnewborns in the Northwest Territories andNunavut.The literature also focuses on the exposureof children to these contaminants throughtheir mothers’ breast milk. Three Canadianspecificarticles addressing environmentallyrelated chemical contamination in breastmilk were found, although all the authorsof these studies note that research in thisspecific topic spans several decades anddozens of countries (Solomon & Weiss,2002). An assessment of the PCB levels inthe breast milk of lactating Inuit womenfrom the Hudson Bay region of northernQuebec and of women from southernQuebec was the focus of research byDewailly, Nantel, Weber & Meyer (1989).The results of a self-administered surveydetermining dietary intake of select foods,number of previous pregnancies andduration of past breastfeeding revealedthat the level of PCBs in the breast milk ofInuit women was almost five times higherthan in that of Caucasian women. Ayotte,Carrier & Dewailly’s (1996) research lookedat the impact of breastfeeding on thebody burden of Inuit from birth to age 75years. Prenatal exposure of northern Inuitinfants to environmental contaminants was

again conducted by research colleaguesMuckle, Ayotte, Dewailly, Jacobson &Jacobson (2001). Solomon & Weiss’(2002) research indicates that PCBs andother dioxins have declined in the breastmilk in countries where these chemicalshave been banned or regulated.Other chemicals such as PBDEs or PBBs(Polybrominated diphenyl ethers) aremanufactured chemicals. They are addedto the plastics used to make products likecomputer monitors, televisions, textiles,plastic foams, etc., to make them difficultto burn. PBBs can leave these plastics andfind their way into the environment. PBBsare usually colorless to off-white solids.PBBs (mixtures of brominated biphenylcompounds known as congeners) are onthe rise. Diet, Solomon & Weiss say thisis a major factor influencing breast milklevels of persistent organic pollutants,with patterns of fish consumption playinga particularly significant role. Solomon &Weiss also point out that improved globalbreast milk monitoring programs wouldallow for more consistent data on trendsover time, detection of new xenobioticsin breast milk, and identification ofdisproportionately exposed populations.Van Oostdam, Gilman, Dewailly, Usher,Wheatley, Kuhnlein, et al. (1999), in anextensive report published in the journalScience of the Total Environment, alsolooked at the harvesting, sharing andconsumption of traditional foods in thenorthern diet as an integral component togood health among Aboriginal people,influencing both physical health andsocial well-being. Van Oostdam, et al.,concluded that risk determination forcontaminants in country food involved aconsideration of the type and amountsof food consumed and the sociocultural,nutritional, economic and spiritual benefitsassociated with country foods.Research on pollution and its impact onAboriginal women is not restricted to thenorthern hemisphere only. Fitzgerald(1995) looked at the concentration ofPCBs in the fish consumption patterns ofMohawk women in the Akwesasne regionof Quebec. The women in this studyresided near three industrial hazardouswaste sites. Ninety-seven Mohawk womenwere interviewed over a six- year periodwithin one month in the period shortlyafter childbirth. A comparison groupof 154 nursing Caucasian mothers werealso included. The Mohawk mothersconsumed more fish the year beforetheir pregnancies than the comparisongroup. The consumption of fish eventuallydeclined over time with Mohawk motherswho ate the most local fish initially. Thisdietary change, the author posits, maybe the result of advisories that havebeen issued over the past decaderecommending against the consumptionof fish by pregnant and nursing Mohawkmothers. Fitzgerald (2005) again lookedat PCB exposure and In Vivo CYP1A2activity among Native Americans, primarilyat the Mohawk Nation in Akwesasne (inNew York and in Ontario and Quebec,Canada). CYP1A2 is reported as aconsequence of cigarette smoking, theconsumption of certain foodstuffs suchas charbroiled meat and cruciferousvegetables, and therapeutic drugssuch as rifamin, carbamazepine, andOmeprazole. One of the findings from thisstudy indicates that Caffeine Breath Tests(CBTs) are higher among smokers and menand lower among women who use oralcontraceptives. Fitzgerald, et al., state thatthe results support the notion that CYP1A2activity may be a marker of an earlybiological effect of exposure to PCBs inhumans and that CBT may be a useful toolto monitor such effects.The Inuvik Regional Health and SocialServices Board (IRHSSB) did a studylooking at the presence of environmentalcontaminants in the blood and hairof local women and their newborns.Substances such as metals (e.g. lead) andorganochlorines (e.g. PCBs) are found insmall amounts in the North. The concernwas focused on long-range contaminants,which are carried northwards by marine(water) and atmospheric (wind) paths,and find their way into the food chain.Sampling of blood and hair continueduntil June 1999. The 104 participants in thestudy were asked to complete a dietaryand lifestyle questionnaire. Of these,102 completed questionnaires and 73provided hair samples. A total of 185 bloodsamples (95 maternal and 90 umbilicalcord) were collected. The samples wereshipped to participating laboratories forAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing221

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing222testing and the results returned to theprogram coordinator for statistical analysis,to compare our results to other regions,and possibly see if there is any relationshipbetween diet and contaminant exposure.Much of the research on the environmentalimpacts to Inuit women in this area isgenerated primarily for a specific westernscientifically oriented audience. Veryfew of these types of studies are gearedtoward a simplified understanding ofthe environmental factors and impactsfor Aboriginal women. It is highly unlikelythat any of this research is helpful to thesubjects concerned. However, more downto-earthqualitative research does exist,but it too is very scant. Hawkes (1993),using a qualitative narrative account,documented Cree women’s experiencesand participation in an EnvironmentalAssessment and Review Processconducted as part of the Phase I and IIJames Bay hydroelectric project in theVillage of Chisasibi, Quebec. Eagan (1998,1999) also wrote about Inuit women’sperceptions of pollution. Eagan, usingfeminist methodology, conducted in-depthinterviews with 47 Inuit women in an effortto highlight their voices and to contrasttheir perspectives with the scientificdiscourse and the discourse generatedthrough popular media regarding pollutionin the North. Egan’s research providesa richer understanding of the culturalconcern and perception of pollution in theNorth through these women’s narrativesand is a welcome alternative to themedical discourse currently available.An annotated list of resources obtainedfor this thematic area (Environmentalfactors impacting the health of AboriginalWomen) is alphabetically arranged below.Bibliography of Resources1. Ayotte, P., Carrier, G., & Dewailly, E.(1996). Health Risk Assessment for Inuit NewbornsExposed to Dioxin-Like Compounds throughBreastfeeding. Chemosphere 32[3], 531-542.Keywords: Breastfeeding/Diet/Health/ NewbornAbstract: Inuit people living in the Arctic receivean unusually high dose of dioxin-like compoundsthrough their traditional diet, which compriseslarge amounts of fatty tissues from varioussea mammal species. During breastfeeding,the mother transfers part of her body burdento her newborn. We estimated the impact ofbreastfeeding on the body burden of Inuit frombirth to age 75 years. Simulations performedwith a toxicokinetic model revealed thatbreastfeeding strongly influences body burdenduring childhood but not after age 20. Liverand adipose tissue concentrations expected inInuit are well below those which induced severeadverse health effects in laboratory animals,e.g. cancer and reproduction. However, theseconcentrations approach levels generatingsubtle effects on reproductive systems (JournalAbstract).2. Baikie, M. (1992). Health and HealthServices for the Labrador Inuit.Keywords: Family Violence/Health/Methylmercury/women/Women’s HealthAbstract: During the course of presenting awide-ranging review of health-related issuesfacing the Labrador Inuit, Baikie identifies anumber of challenges and gaps in relation towomen’s health. Specifically, she notes thatvery little is known either about the prevalenceof family violence in Labrador, or about thedegree to which women and children are atrisk from the methylmercury and other airbornecontaminants. However, with regard to thelatter problem in particular, she argues thatstudies conducted in Northern Quebec inrecent years provide a useful guide to the likelylevel of contamination in Labrador, and henceto appropriate responses on the part of healthpersonnel and policy makers (Dion Stout, 1997).3. Butler Walker, J., Seddon, L., McMullen,E., Houseman, J., Tofflemire, K., Corriveau, A.,et al. (2003). Organochlorine Levels in Maternaland Umbilical Cord Blood Plasma in ArcticCanada. The Science of the Total Environment302[1-3], 27-52.Keywords: Canada/Ethnic Groups/Ethnicity/Newborn/Umbilical Cord BloodAbstract: A baseline for exposure toorganochlorines and metal contaminants hasbeen established for mothers and newbornsin the Northwest Territories and Nunavut areasof Arctic Canada. Maternal and umbilicalcord blood plasma organochlorine levels aredescribed for Inuit, Dene, Metis, Caucasianand other non-Aboriginal participants. Overall,523 women volunteered to participate bygiving their written informed consent betweenMay 1994 and June 1999, resulting in thecollection of 386 maternal blood samples,407 cord blood samples and 351 maternal/cord pairs. Nearly half of all the participantsregularly smoked cigarettes, including 77%of the Inuit participants. Maternal and cordresults are presented for PCBs (as Aroclor1260 and 14 congeners) and organochlorinepesticides, including p,p’-DDT, p,p’-DDE,beta-exachlorocyclohexane (beta-HCH),

hexachlorobenzene (HCB), cis and transnonachlor, heptachlor epoxide, oxychlordane,mirex, dieldrin and toxaphene. Maternal PCBlevels (as Aroclor 1260) averaged 4.42 (+/-9.03) microg/l in Inuit, which was 3.3 timeshigher than those found in Dene/Metis, and3.4 times higher than levels in Caucasians.Mean DDE levels were 2.8 times higher in theother non-Aboriginal group (Chinese, Filipino,East Indian and multiple ethnicity) than in theInuit group, at 3.99 microg/l and 1.42 microg/l,respectively. Cord blood PCB levels (as Aroclor1260) averaged 1.16 (+/-2.42) microg/l for Inuitparticipants, which was 3.3-4-fold higher thanfor the other ethnic groups. PCBs, p,p’-DDEand hexachlorobenzene were detected in allmaternal samples, and p,p’-DDE was detectedin all cord samples. Regression coefficients formaternal/cord pairs are presented for selectedorganochlorines. Other results from this study,including maternal and cord metals data, willbe presented elsewhere (Journal Abstract).4. Dallaire, F., Dewailly, E., Laliberté, C.,Muckle, G., & Ayotte, P. (2002). Temporal Trendsof Organochlorine Concentrations in UmbilicalCord Blood of Newborns from the Lower NorthShore of the St. Lawrence River (Québec,Canada). Environmental Health Perspectives110[8], 835-838.Available Online: http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/members/2002/110p835-838dallaire/EHP110p835PDF.PDFKeywords: Canada/Chlorinated Pesticides/Environmental Exposure/Ethnic Groups/FoodContamination/Health/PolychlorinatedBiphenyls/Pregnancy/Seafood/Umbilical CordBloodAbstract: This study describes the time trendsof organochlorines [OCs; 14 polychlorinatedbiphenyls (PCBs) and 11 chlorinated pesticides]in umbilical cord plasma of newborns in aremote Canadian coastal population. Weanalyzed 408 cord blood samples collectedbetween 1993 and 2000 for PCBs, chlordanes,dichlorodiphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT),dichlorodiphenyl-trichloroethylene (DDE),hexachlorobenzene (HCB), and n-3 fatty acids.We also gathered information on the mothers(age, past and present residence, ethnicgroup, use of tobacco during pregnancy, andbreastfeeding during previous pregnancies).From 1993 to 2000, mean concentrationsof PCBs, chlordanes, DDT/DDE, and HCB incord blood decreased by 63%, 25%, 66%,and 69%, respectively (p < 0.0001). Multipleregression analysis with the year of birth asthe main independent variable yielded astrong significant exponential decrease for allcontaminants (in all age and ethnic groups).We detected no monthly or seasonal pattern.We used n-3 fatty acids concentration as asurrogate of maternal fish consumption. Fishconsumption declined only slightly between1993 and 2000, but this decrease did notcontribute significantly to the reduction ofOCs. These results show that prenatal exposureto persistent OCs has declined significantlybetween 1993 and 2000 in this population(Journal Abstract).5. Dallaire, F., Dewailly, E., Muckle, G.,& Ayotte, P. (2005). Time Trends of PersistentOrganic Pollutants and Heavy Metals inUmbilical Cord Blood of Inuit Infants Born inNunavik (Québec, Canada) between 1994and 2001. Environmental Health Perspectives111[13], 1660-1664.Available Online: http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/members/2003/6269/6269.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Women/Canada/Chlorinated Pesticides/Diet/EnvironmentalExposure/Food Contamination/Health/HeavyMetals/Lead/Mercury/Newborn/PolychlorinatedBiphenyls/Umbilical Cord BloodAbstract: Inuit inhabitants of Nunavik (northernQuébec, Canada) consume great quantities ofmarine food and are therefore exposed to highdoses of food chain contaminants. In this study,we report the time trends of persistent organicpollutants, mercury, and lead in umbilical cordblood of infants from three communities ofthe east coast of Hudson Bay in Nunavik. Weanalyzed 251 cord blood samples collectedfrom 1994 through 2001 for polychlorinatedbiphenyls (PCBs), dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE), hexachlorobenzene(HCB), chlordanes, lead, and mercury. Using anexponential model, we found strongly significantdecreasing trends for PCBs (7.9% per year, p

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing224of PCBs in the breast milk of Inuit womenwas found to be almost fives times that ofthe Caucasian women, a highly statisticallysignificant difference. In the North, no significantdifference was seen between settlements(Journal Abstract).7. Egan, C. (1998). Points of View: InuitWomen’s Perceptions of Pollution. InternationalJournal of Circumpolar Health 57[Suppl 1], 550-554.Keywords: Health/Health Risks/Inuit WomenAbstract: Inuit women’s perceptions of healthrisks from potential contamination in theArctic food chain were investigated in 1995through in-depth interviews with 47 women ina Canadian Arctic community. This numberrepresents 34% of the eligible participants in thepopulation of the research community. Manyof these Inuit women suggest that pollution canappear in a variety of forms, from drug andalcohol consumption to visible air and watercontaminants to possible invisible contaminantsin Arctic wildlife. Concepts of pollution--startingwith the individual body and extending to thebody politic--are influenced by a complexof sociocultural factors arising from historicaland contemporary community life (JournalAbstract).8. Egan, C. (1999). Inuit Women’sPerceptions of Pollution. Thesis (Ph. D.) --University of Manitoba, 1999.Available Online: http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk1/tape9/PQDD_0016/NQ44995.pdfKeywords: Canada/Health/Heavy Metals/InuitWomen/Manitoba/Pollutants/ PolychlorinatedBiphenylsAbstract: Inuit women’s perceptions ofpollution are examined through a qualitativeethnographic study conducted in CoralHarbour, Nunavut. Pollution is evident in theArctic food chain through the presence ofsuch substances as polychlorinated biphenyls(PCBs) and heavy metals. This study examinesthe cultural construction of Inuit women’sperceptions of pollution. A broad culturalconception of pollution was utilized in whichpollution is understood as the culturallyconstructed disintegration of social boundaries.Using a feminist methodology, in-depthinterviews were conducted with 47 Inuit womenin order to highlight women’s voices and tocontrast their discourse with the scientificdiscourse and the discourse of the popular pressregarding pollution in the North. For many Inuit,cultural identity is linked to the procurementand consumption of traditional foods. Thepossibility of access to their foods being limitedby pollution or perceptions of pollution in theArctic food chain concerned Inuit womenas this would pose a threat to their culturalidentity. Many women stated a willingness toconsume their foods despite the potential riskof contaminants. Inuit women are aware of thediscourses on contaminants but their concernsfocus on pollution and the social aspects ofpollution. Their perceptions of pollution focuson the invasion of pollutants, such as drugs andalcohol which have been brought into theircommunities from the outside and which arecausing disruptions.9. Fitzgerald, E. F. (1995). Fish PCBConcentrations and Consumption Patternsamong Mohawk Women at Akwesasne. Journalof Expo Anal Environmental Epidemiology 5[1],1-19.Keywords: Health/Polychlorinated BiphenylsAbstract: A study was conducted to determineconcentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls(PCBs) in local fish and to establish patterns offish consumption of nursing Mohawk womenresiding near three industrial hazardous wastesites. From 1986 to 1992, 97 Mohawk womenwere interviewed within one month postpartum.A comparison group consisted of 154 nursingCaucasians. Samples of 348 local fish wereanalyzed for PCBs. The results indicated thatfish in the Mohawk area, especially thosecollected offshore from the waste sites, hadbeen contaminated with PCBs. The dietary datashowed a greater past prevalence of local fishconsumption among Mohawk mothers, withan overall annual mean of 23.5 local fish mealsmore than one year before the pregnancy,compared with 14.1 for the control women (p< 0.001). The prevalence of consumption bythe Mohawks, however, declined over time,resulting in overall mean rates of 9.2 local fishmeals one year or less before pregnancy,and 3.9 meals per year during pregnancy (p< 0.001 for linear trend). Compared to theMohawks, significantly fewer control womenstopped eating local fish, and their ratesdeclined less sharply. A secular trend was alsoobserved in the overall rate of consumptionduring pregnancy for the Mohawks, withthose who gave birth in 1986-1989 having amean of 10.7 local fish meals per year duringpregnancy, compared with means of 3.6 and0.9 respectively for women who delivered in1990 and 1991-1992 (p < 0.05 for linear trend).No such trend was apparent for the controls. Nobackground variable was significantly relatedto the rate of local fish consumption amongthe Mohawks, but a decrease over time inthe rate of local fish consumption was greateramong those Mohawks who ate the most localfish initially (r = -0.76, p < 0.001), or who alsoreduced their alcohol intake during pregnancy(r = 0.35, p < 0.05). Mohawks were also morelikely than the controls to trim the fat, removethe skin from, and fry and fish they ate duringthe past year. These dietary changes may bethe result of advisories that have been issuedover the past decade recommending againstthe consumption of local fish by pregnant and

nursing Mohawk women. Such changes, ifsustained, should reduce their exposure to PCBsand correspondingly the potential for adversehealth effects (Journal Abstract).10. Fitzgerald, E. F., Hwang, S.-A., Lambert,G., Gomes, M., & Tarbell, A. (2005). PCBExposure and In Vivo CYP1A2 Activity amongNative Americans. Environmental HealthPerspectives 113[3], 272-277.Available Online: http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/members/2004/7370/7370.pdfKeywords: Canada/Environmental Exposure/Health/Medicine/Native Americans/Polychlorinated BiphenylsAbstract: Cytochrome P-450 1A2 (CYP1A2) is anenzyme involved in the metabolic activationof some carcinogens and is believed to beinduced by xenobiotics. Very few studies,however, have investigated the associationbetween environmental exposures and invivo CYP1A2 activity in humans. To addressthis issue, a study was conducted of CYP1A2activity among Native Americans exposedto polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) from theconsumption of fish from the St. Lawrence River.At the Mohawk Nation at Akwesasne (in NewYork and in Ontario and Quebec, Canada),103 adults were interviewed, and they donatedblood for serum PCB analysis and underwentthe caffeine breath test (CBT), a safe andnoninvasive procedure that uses caffeineas a probe for CYP1A2 activity in vivo. Theresults supported the findings of other studiesthat CBT values are higher among smokersand men and lower among women whouse oral contraceptives. Despite a relativelylow average total PCB body burden in thispopulation, the sum of serum levels for ninemono- or di-ortho-substituted PCB congenersshowed positive associations with CBT values(p = 0.052 wet weight and p = 0.029 lipidadjusted), as did toxic equivalent quantities(TEQs; p = 0.091 for wet weight and 0.048 forlipid adjusted). Regarding individual congeners,serum levels of PCB-153, PCB-170, and PCB-180were significantly correlated with CBT values.The results support the notion that CYP1A2activity may be a marker of an early biologicaleffect of exposure to PCBs in humans and thatthe CBT may be a useful tool to monitor sucheffects. Key words: cytochrome P-450 1A2,hazardous waste, Indians, North American, PCB,polychlorinated biphenyls (Journal Abstract).11. Hawkes, S. (1993). EARP and theAboriginal Women of James Bay: A StructuralBias? Canadian Environmental AssessmentResearch Council.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/First Nations/Gender/Lead/Hydroectric Project/James Bay/CreeAbstract: This study examines the relationshipbetween First Nations and the environmentaland social impact assessment of large resourcedevelopments in the North, particularly whetherthere is a gender bias in the scoping provisionsof the federal Environmental Assessment andReview Process (EARP).The study examinedPhases I and II of the James Bay hydroelectricproject in the Village of Chisasibi, thecommunity most directly affected by PhaseI. It also identified those impacts particular towomen; where there is a detectable genderbias within Cree society that may have led towomen experiencing different effects or thesame effects differently; whether the structureof the Cree society limits the extent to whichwomen participated in public consultationefforts to identity potential impacts; andwhether there is a bias in EARP against women.12. Kuhnlein, H. V., Receveur, O., Muir, D.C., Chan, H. M., & Soueida, R. (1995). ArcticIndigenous Women Consume Greater thanAcceptable Levels of Organochlorines. Journalof Nutrition 125[10], 2501-2510.Keywords: Health/Health Risks/ PolychlorinatedBiphenylsAbstract: Exposure to polychlorinatedbiphenyls and organochlorine pesticidesthrough traditional food resources wasexamined for Arctic indigenous women livingin two cultural and environmental areasof the Canadian Arctic -- one communityrepresenting Baffin Island Inuit in eastern Arcticand two communities representing SahtuDene/Metis in western Arctic. Polychlorinatedbiphenyls, toxaphene, chlorobenzenes,hexachlorocyclohexanes, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, chlordane-related compounds anddieldrin were determined in local food resourcesas normally prepared and eaten. Quantifieddietary recalls taken seasonally reflected normalconsumption patterns of these food resourcesby women in three age groups: 20-40 y, 41-60 y and > or = 61 y. There was wide variationof intake of all organochlorine contaminantsin both areas and among age groups forthe Sahtu. Fifty per cent of the intake recallscollected from the Baffin Inuit exceeded theacceptable daily intake for chlordane-relatedcompounds and toxaphene, and a substantialpercentage of the intake records for dieldrinand polychlorinated biphenyls exceeded theacceptable or tolerable daily intake levels.Primary contributing foods to organochlorinecontaminants intake for the Baffin Inuit weremeat and blubber of ringed seal, blubber ofwalrus and mattak and blubber of narwal.Important foods contributing organochlorinecontaminant to the Sahtu Dene/Metis werecaribou, whitefish, inconnu, trout and duck. Thesuperior nutritional benefits and potential healthrisks of traditional food items are reviewed, asare implications for monitoring organochlorinecontaminant contents of food, clinicalsymptoms and food use (Journal Abstract).Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing225

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing22613. Muckle, G., Ayotte, P., Dewailly, E.,Jacobson, S. W., & Jacobson, J. L. (2001).Determinants of Polychlorinated Biphenylsand Methylmercury Exposure in Inuit Womenof Childbearing Age. Environmental HealthPerspectives 109[9], 957-963.Available Online: http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/members/2001/109p957-963muckle/muckle.pdfKeywords: Canada/Health/Inuit Women/Methylmercury/Polychlorinated BiphenylsAbstract: The objectives of this study were toidentify maternal characteristics associated withtraditional food consumption and to examinefood items associated with polychlorinatedbiphenyls (PCBs) and mercury body burdenin pregnant Inuit women from northernQuebec. We interviewed women from threecommunities at mid-pregnancy and at oneand eleven months postpartum. We measuredPCBs, Hg, and selenium in maternal blood;Hg was also measured in maternal hair. Thewomen reported eating significant amountsof fish, beluga muktuk/fat, seal meat, and sealfat. Although consumption of fish and sealwas associated with lower socioeconomicstatus, consumption of beluga whale wasuniform across strata. Fish and seal meatconsumption was associated with increasedHg concentrations in hair. Traditional foodintake during pregnancy was unrelated toPCB body burden, which is more a function oflifetime consumption. This study corroboratedprevious findings relating marine mammal andfish consumption to increased Hg and seleniumbody burden. Despite widespread knowledgeregarding the presence of these contaminantsin traditional foods, a large proportion of Inuitwomen increased their consumption of thesefoods during pregnancy, primarily becauseof pregnancy-related changes in foodpreferences and the belief that these foods arebeneficial during pregnancy (Journal Abstract).14. Muckle, G., Ayotte, P., Dewailly, E.,Jacobson, S. W., & Jacobson, J. L. (2001).Prenatal Exposure of the Northern QuébecInuit Infants to Environmental Contaminants.Environmental Health Perspectives 109[12],1291-1299.Available Online: http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/members/2001/109p1291-1299muckle/EHP109p1291PDF.PDFKeywords: Canada/Chlorinated Pesticides/Health/Health Risks/Lead/Mercury/Methylmercury/Newborn/PolychlorinatedBiphenylsAbstract: The Inuit population residing inNunavik (northern Quebec, Canada) relieson species from the marine food web forsubsistence and is therefore exposed to highdoses of environmental contaminants such aspolychlorinated biphenyls and methylmercuryand to a lesser extent lead. In view of theneurotoxic properties of these substancesfollowing developmental exposure, weinitiated a study on infant development in thisremote coastal population. Here we reportthe magnitude of prenatal exposure to thesecontaminants and to selective nutrients in Inuitmothers who were recruited on the HudsonBay coast and their newborns. We conductedinterviews during the women’s pregnanciesand at one and eleven months postpartumand collected biological samples for mercury,lead, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), andchlorinated pesticides analyses as well asselenium and N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids(n3-PUFA). Cord blood, maternal blood,and maternal hair mercury concentrationsaveraged 18.5 µg/L, 10.4 µg/L, and 3.7 µg/g,respectively, and are similar to those foundin the Faroe Islands but lower than thosedocumented in the Seychelles Islands andNew Zealand cohorts. Concentrations of PCBcongener 153 averaged 86.9, 105.3, and 131.6µg/kg (lipids) in cord plasma, maternal plasma,and maternal milk, respectively; prenatalexposure to PCBs in the Nunavik cohort is similarto that reported in the Dutch but much lowerthan those in other Arctic cohorts. Levels ofn3-PUFA in plasma phospholipids and seleniumin blood are relatively high. The relatively lowcorrelations observed between organochlorineand methylmercury concentrations may makeit easier to identify the specific developmentaldeficits attributable to each toxicant. Similarly,the weak correlations noted betweenenvironmental contaminants and nutrientswill facilitate the documentation of possibleprotective effects afforded by either n3-PUFAor selenium against neurotoxic contaminants(Journal Abstract).15. Muldrew, F. (1995). Indigo Girls andIndigenous Women Honour the Earth. Herizons9[2], 8-10.Keywords: womenAbstract: The author of this article reports onIndigenous Women’s Network and SeventhGeneration Fund’s `Endangered Peoples,Endangered Species Campaign’. Indigo Girls’`Honour the Earth 1995’ benefit tour; Purpose ofthe campaign; Previous benefit tours by IndigoGirls.16. O’Neil, J., Elias, B., & Yassi, A. (1998).Situating Resistance in Fields of Resistance:Aboriginal Women and Environments. Lock, M.and Kaufert, P. Pragmatic Women and BodyPolitics. 260-286. Cambridge, University ofCambridge Press.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/Adequate Power/Healthy Eco-System andSustainable Relations Between Human Beingsand the Natural World

17. Pereg, D., Dewailly, E., Poirier, G. G.,& Ayotte, P. (2002). Environmental Exposureto Polychlorinated Biphenyls and PlacentalCYP1A1 Activity in Inuit Women from NorthernQuebec. Environmental Health Perspectives110[6], 607-612.Available Online: http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/members/2002/110p607-612pereg/EHP110p607PDF.PDFKeywords: Canada/Health/Inuit Women/Placenta/Polychlorinated Biphenyl/TobaccosmokeAbstract: Some polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB)congeners are CYP1A1 inducers, and inductionof this enzyme in the placenta has been linkedto adverse effects on fetal development. Theobjective of this study was to determine if thebody burden of PCBs is related to placentalCYP1A1 activity in Inuit women from Nunavik(northern Quebec), a population highlyexposed to organochlorines. Placenta andcord blood samples were obtained from 35Inuit women and 30 women from a southernQuιbec community exposed to backgroundlevels of organochlorines. We measured PCBconcentrations in all cord plasma samplesand in a subset of placenta samples fromthe Nunavik group and assessed CYP1A1activity (ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase; EROD)in placental microsomes from all participants.Concentrations of PCBs in cord plasma werestrongly correlated to those in placenta(Pearson’s r = 0.77-0.97, p < 0.001) and wereon average fourfold higher in Inuit womenthan in southern Quιbec women [for PCB 153,the geometric means (geometric SDs) were83.3 (1.9) ng/g lipid vs. 16.9 (1.6) ng/g lipid,respectively]. Despite this difference in PCBbody burden, both study groups had similarEROD activities when data were stratifiedaccording to tobacco smoking. Althoughsimple correlation analysis first showed thatplacental EROD activity was correlatedwith PCB 153 plasma concentration in theNunavik group, a multivariate analysis failedto demonstrate a significant contribution ofPCBs to EROD activity when tobacco smokingwas included in the analysis. We conclude thatdietary exposure to PCBs in Inuit women fromNunavik does not significantly influence ERODactivity in the placenta, implicating tobaccosmoking as the major modulating factor(Journal Abstract).18. Redbird, E. B. (1998). Honouring NativeWomen: The Backbone of Native Sovereignty.Hazlehurst, Kayleen. Popular Justice andCommunity Regeneration: Pathways ofIndigenous Reform. Pp.121-141. Westport,Praeger.Keywords: Justice/Native women/womenAbstract: Redbird deconstructs the term“sovereignty” through a holistic lens. Tracinghistoric violation of Native women throughAmerican colonization, she reveals howcontemporary American Indian policycontinues to constrain women. Her remedy isto develop policy that will place true power- authority and responsibility - in the handsof women’s organizations to ensure therevitalization of society grounded in traditionalknowledge and “the genuine sovereignty,which comes from the family and clan - thebasic institutions of Native society.”19. Rude, D. & Deiter, C. (2004). Fromthe Fur Trade to Free Trade: Forestry and FirstNations Women in Canada. Ottawa, ON, Statusof Women Canada.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequateIncome and Sustainable Economies/ AdequatePower/British Columbia/ Canada/Diabetes/FirstNations/Free Trade/ Gender/Health/HealthyEco-System and Sustainable Relations BetweenHuman Beings and the Natural World/Status ofWomenAbstract: The gender implications of freetrade on Aboriginal women, particularly asit relates to forestry, was examined by theauthors in this study commissioned by Status ofWomen Canada. The report focused on theexperiences of First Nations women in WesternCanada who were taking a lead in advocatingfor Aboriginal title and rights, to protect theenvironment and preserve traditional lifestyles.Thirty-four First Nations women living on ornear three reserves in British Columbia andSaskatchewan were interviewed. Sharingcircles were held to gather their stories andperspectives on the effects of forestry and freetrade. The women were deeply concernedabout the pace and manner in which tradein timber has been undertaken in Canada.Their study indicates that forestry initiativescontrolled by Aboriginal people have notconsistently included the voices of women.Women are uncertain of how their communitiesare benefiting from free trade and many haveorganized to resist the economic developmentthat is springing up on their traditional landswithout their input and consent. While the focusof this article is on forestry, it does highlightfactors that have a direct outcome on thehealth of Aboriginal women and communitiesmembers. The loss of traditional foods togetherwith commercialization is increasingly forcingpeople to live off store-bought foods whichcreate health problems, such as diabetes anddental concerns. Health issues, the authors note,are rarely included as part of environmentalassessments when looking at the impact towildlife and other aspects of the ecosystem.This perspective is gender specific as womentend to look at the human impacts ratherthan the financial and economic returns ofsuch endeavours. This report contributes to thediscussion of women and trade agreements bymaking the connections between First Nationswomen, forestry and free trade. It begins withAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing227

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing228a literature review on the following subjects:gender and Aboriginal women, traditional roles,the fur trade, Aboriginal title and rights, and freetrade and logging in First Nations communities.It then summarizes interviews with 34 women onor near three reserves in British Columbia andSaskatchewan on the environmental, cultural,economic and social impacts of logging. Thereport concludes with recommendations onsuch matters as public education, naturalresource management and trade agreements.20. Sandau, C., Ayotte, P., Dewailly,E., Duffe, J., & Norstrom, R. J. (2002).Pentachlorophenol and HydroxylatedPolychlorinated Biphenyl Metabolites inUmbilical Cord Plasma of Neonates fromCoastal Populations in Québec. EnvironmentalHealth Perspectives 110[4], 411-417.Available Online: http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/members/2002/110p411-417sandau/EHP110p411PDF.PDFKeywords: Canada/Health/HydroxylatedMetabolites/Lead/Newborn/PolychlorinatedBiphenyls/Umbilical Cord PlasmaAbstract: Concentrations of polychlorinatedbiphenyls (PCBs), hydroxylated metabolites ofPCBs (HO-PCBs) and octachlorostyrene (4-HO-HpCS), and pentachlorophenol (PCP) weredetermined in umbilical cord plasma samplesfrom three different regions of Quebec. Theregions studied included two coastal areaswhere exposure to PCBs is high because ofmarine food-based diets -- Nunavik (Inuitpeople) and the Lower North Shore of the Gulfof St. Lawrence (subsistence fishermen) -- anda southern Quebec urban centre where PCBexposure is at background levels (Quebec City).The main chlorinated phenolic compound inall regions was PCP. Concentrations of PCPwere not significantly different among regions(geometric mean concentration 1,670 pg/g,range 628-7,680 pg/g wet weight in plasma).The ratio of PCP to polychlorinated biphenylcongener number 153 (CB153) concentrationranged from 0.72 to 42.3. Sum HO-PCB (HO-PCBs) concentrations were different amongregions, with geometric mean concentrationsof 553 (range 238-1,750), 286 (103-788), and234 (147-464) pg/g wet weight plasma for theLower North Shore, Nunavik, and the southernQuébec groups, respectively. Lower NorthShore samples also had the highest geometricmean concentration of sum PCBs (sum of49 congeners; PCBs), 2,710 (525-7,720) pg/gwet weight plasma. PCB concentrationsfor Nunavik samples and southern sampleswere 1,510 (309-6,230) and 843 (290-1,650)pg/g wet weight plasma. Concentrations(log transformed) of HO-PCBs and PCBs weresignificantly correlated (r = 0.62, p < 0.001), aswere concentrations of all major individual HO-PCB congeners and individual PCB congeners.In Nunavik and Lower North Shore samples, freethyroxine (T4) concentrations (log transformed)were negatively correlated with the sum ofquantitated chlorinated phenolic compounds(sum PCP and HO-PCBs; r = -0.47, p = 0.01, n= 20) and were not correlated with any PCBcongeners or PCBs. This suggests that PCP andHO-PCBs are possibly altering thyroid hormonestatus in newborns, which could lead toneurodevelopmental effects in infants. Furtherstudies are needed to examine the effects ofchlorinated phenolic compounds on thyroidhormone status in newborns (Journal Abstract).21. Solomon, G. M. & Weiss, P. M. (2002).Chemical Contaminants in Breast Milk: TimeTrends and Regional Variability. EnvironmentalHealth Perspectives 110[6], A339-A347.Available Online: http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/members/2002/110pA339-A347solomon/EHP110pA339PDF.PDFKeywords: Breastfeeding/Breast Milk/ ChemicalContaminants/Diet/Dioxins/ Pesticides/Health/Pollutants/Polychlorinated BiphenylsAbstract: Research on environmentallyrelated chemical contaminants in breastmilk spans several decades and dozens ofcountries. The ability to use this research asan environmental indicator is limited becauseof a lack of consistent protocols. Data onxenobiotics in breast milk are influenced bychoices in sample selection, sample pooling,analysis, and reporting. In addition, moststudies have focused only on a small panelof persistent organic pollutants, despiteindications that a wide range of additionalchemical contaminants may also enter breastmilk. Despite these limitations, however, it ispossible to draw some generalizations. In thispaper we review available data on levels oforganochlorine pesticides, polychlorinatedbiphenyls (PCBs), polychlorinateddibenzodioxins (PCDDs), polybrominateddiphenyl ethers (PBDEs), metals, and solventsin breast milk. Examples drawn from aroundthe world illustrate the available data and thepatterns that have appeared in various areasover time. Over the past few decades, levelsof the organochlorine pesticides, PCBs, anddioxins have declined in breast milk in countrieswhere these chemicals have been banned orotherwise regulated. In contrast, the levels ofPBDEs are rising. Regional differences in levelsof xenobiotics in breast milk are related tohistorical and current local use patterns. Diet is amajor factor that influences breast milk levels ofpersistent organic pollutants, with patterns in fishconsumption playing a particularly significantrole. Improved global breast milk monitoringprograms would allow for more consistentdata on trends over time, detection of newxenobiotics in breast milk, and identification ofdisproportionately exposed populations (JournalAbstract).22. Van Oostdam, J., Gilman, A., Dewailly,E., Usher, P., Wheatley, B., Kuhnlein, H., et

al. (1999). Human Health Implications ofEnvironmental Contaminants in Arctic Canada:A Review. The Science of the Total Environment230[1-3], 1-82.Keywords: Canada/Diet/Health/Lead/ Mercury/Well-beingAbstract: This paper assesses the impact onhuman health of exposure to current levels ofenvironmental contaminants in the CanadianArctic, and identifies the data gaps that needto be filled by future human health researchand monitoring. The concept of health inindigenous groups of the Arctic includes social,cultural, and spiritual dimensions. The harvesting,sharing and consumption of traditional foodsare an integral component to good healthamong Aboriginal people, influencing bothphysical health and social well-being. Traditionalfoods are also an economic necessity in manycommunities. Consequently, the contaminationof country food raises problems which go farbeyond the usual confines of public healthand cannot be resolved by health advisories orfood substitutions alone. The primary exposurepathway for the contaminants considered inthis paper is through the traditional northerndiet. For the Inuit, the OCs of primary concern atthis time from the point of view of exposure arechlordane, toxaphene, and PCBs. Exposures arehigher in the eastern than in the western regionof the North. For Dene/Métis, exposure to OCs isin general below a level of concern. However,estimated intake of chlordane and toxaphenehas been found to be elevated for certaingroups and is a cause for concern if exposuresare elevated on a regular basis. The developingfoetus and breastfed infant are likely to be moresensitive to the effects of OCs and metals thanindividual adults and are the age groups atgreatest risk in the Arctic. Extensive sampling ofhuman tissues in the Canadian North indicatethat a significant proportion of Dene, Creeand Inuit had mean maternal hair mercurylevels within the 5% risk-range proposed bythe WHO for neonatal neurological damage.Based on current levels, lead does not appearto pose a health threat while cadmium is likelyonly a major risk factor for heavy smokers orconsumers of large amounts of organ meats.Consumers of traditional foods are exposed toan approximately sevenfold higher radiationdose than non-consumers of traditional foodsdue predominantly to the bioaccumulationof natural radionuclides in the food chain. Riskdetermination for contaminants in countryfood involves a consideration of the typeand amounts of food consumed and thesociocultural, nutritional, economic, and spiritualbenefits associated with country foods. Riskmanagement options that minimize the extentto which nutritional and sociocultural aspectsof Aboriginal societies are compromised mustalways be considered (Journal Abstract).23. Van Oostdam, J. C., Dewailly, E.,Gilman, A., Hansen, J. C., Odland, J. O.,Chashchin, V., et al. (2004). CircumpolarMaternal Blood Contaminant Survey, 1994-1997Organochlorine Compounds. The Science ofthe Total Environment 1[330 (1-3)], 55-70.Keywords: Canada/Pollutants/PolychlorinatedBiphenylsAbstract: During the past 20 years a numberof studies have found neurological andimmunological effects in the developing fetusand infants exposed to background or onlyslightly elevated levels of persistent organicpollutants (POPs) such as polychlorinatedbiphenyls (PCBs). To address concerns arisingfrom possible increased human exposurein the Arctic and possible effects of POPs,all circumpolar countries agreed in 1994to monitoring of specific human tissuesfor contaminants in the Arctic under theArctic Monitoring and Assessment Program(AMAP). Mothers in eight circumpolarcountries contributed blood samples thatwere analysed at a single laboratory for 14PCB congeners (IUPAC No. 28, 52, 99, 105,118, 128, 138, 153, 156, 170, 180, 183, 187)and 13 organochlorine pesticides (aldrin,beta-hexachlorocyclohexane (beta-HCH),dichlordiphenyltrichloroethane (p,p’-DDT),diphenyldichloroethylene (p,p’-DDE), dieldrin,heptachlorepoxide, hexachlorobenzene (HCB),mirex, and the chlordane derivatives alphachlordane,gamma-chlordane, cis-nonachlor,oxychlordane and trans-nonachlor). Inuitmothers from Greenland and Canada havesignificantly higher levels of oxychlordane,transnonachlor and mirex than mothers fromNorway, Sweden, Iceland and Russia. Inuitmothers from Greenland also have significantlyhigher levels of these contaminants than Inuitmothers from Canada and Alaska. Thesedifferences among Inuit groups may representregional dietary preferences or differentcontaminant deposition patterns acrossthe Arctic. Levels of PCBs are also elevatedamong some Arctic populations due to theirconsumption of marine mammals and are inthe range where subtle effects on learning andthe immune system have been reported. TheRussian mothers who consume mainly foodimported from southern Russia have elevatedlevels of DDT, DDE, beta-HCH and a higherproportion of lower chlorinated PCB congeners.This study has allowed an assessment ofthe variation of contaminants such as PCBsand various organochlorine pesticides (DDT,chlordane, etc.) in human populations aroundthe circumpolar north (Journal Abstract).Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing229

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing23010. Health of SpecificGroups of Aboriginal WomenThis area will focus on the healthexperiences of women in prison,women living within an urbancontext, and the physical, cognitiveand learning disabilities of Aboriginalwomen who have disabilities. Issuesfor older Aboriginal women, such asmenopause, will also be a factor examinedin this section. It includes health issuesfor lesbian women involved in samesexrelationships. Research examiningthe distinct health needs of First Nations,Métis, and Inuit women is also reviewed. Inaddition research looking at a wide varietyof health factors for other indigenouswomen from the United States, Australiaand other countries is also reviewed.This section identifies numerous researchmaterial that has looked at health amongdifferent Aboriginal groups that has beenfurther categorized into nine subcategorieslooking at: (1) Urban Aboriginal women;(2) Elderly women; (3) First Nations women;(4) Métis women; (5) Inuit women andother northern Aboriginal women; (6)women in prison; (7) Two-spirited women;(8) Aboriginal women in Quebec; (9) andDisabled Aboriginal women. Each subsectionhas focused on a wide varietyof health issues pertaining to Aboriginalwomen. Further, while the material hasbeen subdivided into different areas itmust be noted that a good majority of theresearch here can easily cross over anddo in fact appear in other areas that areidentified in this review of the literature.Urban Aboriginal WomenAbbott (2003) documents the experiencesof Aboriginal women and children wholeave the reserve upon marital breakdown.Her research details some of the wellbeingissues that impact Aboriginal womenand children specifically and that are notappropriately addressed by the IndianAct. The marginalized voices of Aboriginalwomen on health concerns were thefocus of research by Benoit, Carroll, Lawrand Chaudhry (2001). Urban perspectiveson health meanings, dynamics andgovernance issues were also the point ofinterest in research conducted by Garteig(1995), Goldenberg (2001) and Hooperand Hagey (1994). Jaccoud (2005)provides a detailed examination of theexperience of ten urban Aboriginal womenin Montreal and how each experiencedmarginalization. Jaccoud’s study revealsthat many of the women had children whohad been apprehended by child welfare,received income security payments, andexperienced dependency on drugs andalcohol at some point in their lives and thatthree out of the ten women experiencedhealth problems such as diabetes, anemiaand HIV. The strong resourcefulness ofurban Aboriginal women rooted in theirtraditional Aboriginal beliefs systemswas documented by Silver (2004) in hisexamination of Winnipeg’s inner city.Elderly WomenThe aim of this section is on the healthissues explicitly connected to theexperiences of older Aboriginal women.Unfortunately very little research actuallyexists in this area. However, there aresnippets of research where issues relevantto elderly persons can provide insightinto the experience of older Aboriginalwomen. One such example is found in theresearch on the needs of Aboriginal Eldersconducted by the National Indian andInuit Community Health RepresentativesOrganization (2002) on programs andservices for frail elderly people. This study,while not academically based, providessome of the most up-to-date informationon the health needs of the older Aboriginalpeople. As noted in other sectionsthroughout this paper, this research doesnot provide a gender analysis of thehealth realities for older Aboriginal women;however, regardless of its lack of genderanalysis, many of the issues highlightedwithin it can be just as easily be construedas applicable to older Aboriginal womenas well.The report by the Indian and InuitCommunity Health RepresentativesOrganization (2002) indicates that thereare many factors affecting the healthand level of involvement in communityprograms by the Aboriginal elderly acrossCanada. Briefly, some of the factors thatcan impact the health of Aboriginal Elders,

as outlined in the report, include: (1) theneed for more opportunities for socialinteraction, exercise, recreation and leisuretime activities that are culturally specific;(2) that isolation from family, friends andresources is a barrier to Elders becomingmore physically active; (3) physical activityprograms for the frail elderly must considerisolation, depression and loneliness factors.Some elderly people feel much fear aboutlosing their independence. Programsmust boost self-esteem and promote thefeeling of self-reliance as well as supportthe elderly and help them understandthe pleasures they will gain from activity;(4) Transportation issues are importantconsiderations when developing programsfor the elderly to keep them physicallyactive. Many Elders with disabilities alsohave no available public transportation.Lack of adequate transportation is alegitimate health concern of Elders.Access to medical escort/transportationservices is an essential and critical healthservice need for all Elders both on and offreserve; (5) Elders are often compromisedfinancially, making the purchase of fresh,attractive food more difficult, with resultantimpacts on their health. People whoare poorer are less likely to be physicallyactive. Poverty can mean that olderpeople may suffer nutritionally and havefewer opportunities to remain active.Some older people could therefore benefitfrom a meal delivery program similar to“meals on wheels”; (6) Families play ahuge role in ensuring that Elders retain asense of dignity and independence. MostAboriginal Elders desire to remain in theirown homes and in their own communitiesfor as long as they possibly can. Toensure that can happen, family membersentrusted with their care should benefitfrom caregiver training and family support;(7) Community and family members needto increase their efforts to educate Eldersabout the benefits of active living andhealthy eating, including their essentialrole in maintaining independence. Manyfrail Elders - especially those who do notspeak English as a first language – mayhave trouble reading and understandingmedical instructions. Consideration must begiven to those elderly who speak English asa second language and must be inclusiveof those who speak their native languages.Sometimes barriers exist in terms of readingand comprehension but also in terms offailing eyesight or hearing. Physical activityprograms must also consider all readinglevels and also those who have difficultyseeing and hearing, as this may be abarrier to following instructions. The abilityto solve problems, read and comprehendself-care messages also improves thelikelihood that a person will practicehealthy lifestyle behaviours. Those whocan read or at least understand feel moreindependence and have higher selfesteem;and lastly, (8) Elders need to bemore involved with youth as they have alot to teach. The traditions and stories thatElders carry are invaluable to maintainingindigenous knowledge and culture.A significant proportion of older Aboriginalpeople were forced to attend residentialschools as children. Residential schoolabuses, and the impact of these abuseson the individual as well as on multiplegenerations of family and community isevident from the large body of researchwhich examines the residential schoolexperiences of Aboriginal people. It isdifficult to quantify the specific healtheffects of residential school on long-termhealth outcomes since the impact wason entire communities, and there aremajor cofounders such as employment,education level, and income. The FNIHSdid find that 39 per cent of respondentsidentified themselves as residential schoolsurvivors: likely an underestimation, asparticipants were advised to skip thisquestion if it was viewed as a sensitive issuethat they did not want to discuss. Sixty-fiveper cent of those who attended residentialschool reported fair or poor health. Thepervasive impact of the residential schoolexperience on individuals, families, andcommunities needs to be taken intoconsideration when examining healthstatus.Aside from the source above, examplesof research focusing on the role ofolder Aboriginal women in communityoutreach programs with youth can befound in the research conducted byVicq, Dufour, Keewatin, Arcand andWhitecalf (1995). Project staff visitedgrandmothers in their homes and broughtAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing231

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing232them together to talk about their ownhealth as well as that of their families andcommunity. The authors note that thissharing was instrumental to the women’shealth and well-being but also playeda part in strengthening the continuity ofknowledge and knowledge transfer withinand between community youth andmembers. Dickson and colleague Green(2001) conducted a two-year researchproject with older Aboriginal women usingparticipatory action research involvingolder Aboriginal women in studyingAboriginal women’s health needs. JulieCruikshank, well-known for her researchin oral history, provided commentary ona Yukon Elder and member of the Crownclan who was born more than 100 yearsago (1994). Other research based onthe compelling collection of first personnarratives of Aboriginal Elders includesKulchyski, McCaskill and Newhouse’s(1999) work, who interviewed male andfemale Elders on a range of topics suchas: life history, creation stories, importantaspects of Native culture, using traditionstoday, traditional dwellings, Elders, humour,work, grieving, ceremonies, time, relationbetween language and culture, traditionalmedicines and foods, education, lifeon the land, traditional justice, attainingbalance, relations with non-natives,dreams and prophecies. Other researchersthat focused on storytelling and olderAboriginal women include, Stories fromKohkom: Sharing our Values, Teaching ourYoung, compiled by research colleaguesVicq, Dufour, Keewatin, Arcand andWhitecalf (1995), noted earlier.Research that has considered healthaspects specific to older Aboriginalwomen, such as menopause and itsimpact on co-existing diseases includingcardiovascular disease, hypertension,and diabetes mellitus, include Webster(2002), and Stern and Condon’s (1995)research on elderly Inuit women’sknowledge regarding reproductivehealth. Pregnancy complications of olderAboriginal women received small focusin Chalmers and Wen’s (2004) researchwhile the Aboriginal Nurses Association ofCanada (2002) also provided some insightinto reproductive issues for older Aboriginalwomen specifically. Chester, Robin, Koss,Lopes and Goldman (1994) focused onthe violence against older Aboriginalwomen, noting that gender relations areunderstood and enacted in culturallyspecific ways, and that this understandingmust inform analysis and policy strategiesthat are solution oriented. Kinch andJakubec (2004) explored the meaning ofolder women’s experiences in negotiatinghealth care, while at the same time,inspired consciousness raising, activism andreflection by the women participants inunderstanding the multiple margins (e.g.being older, being a woman, being amember of a visible minority) that constrainand challenge their ability to access healthcare. Research on bone fracture ratesby colleagues Leslie, Derksen, Metge, Lis,Salamon, Wood Steiman and Ross (2004)indicates that older First Nations womenhad significantly higher rates of hip, wristand spine fractures than other non-FirstNations women born in the same year.Other research on exercise and Aboriginalpeoples was the focus of McLintock’s(1999) study with Aboriginal Elders in sixFirst Nations communities in Alberta. TheConcept of Active Living was introduced inthe community to improve the functionalindependence of the seniors, allowingthem to live more independently, bemore fully involved in the activities oftheir communities, and to rebuild theirtraditional roles as Elders. McLintock statesthat physical activity is acknowledged ashaving an important part to play in thehealing and control of many of the healthproblems experienced by Aboriginal Elders.First Nations WomenThe research under this sub-categorylooks specifically at health concerns forFirst Nations women recognized underthe Indian Act. First Nations women’sexperiences of dual relationships withalcohol and drug abuse counselorsindigenous to their communities wereexplored by Badine (2003) who notes thatcounselling among this group can be veryeffective if the therapeutic relations cangrow into an enduring relationship whereclients trust the counselor and eventuallyview the counselor as role model. Williams,Lange, Bayfield, Beardy, Lindsay, Cole,et al. (1992) focused on the outcomeof a one-year study to review the SiouxLookout Zone’s health care system, which

interprets discourse on the Native womenof the Nishnawbi-Aski Nation regardingtheir experience of health and health care.Innovative research on the role of placeand geography in shaping experiences ofhealth among Aboriginal people was thefocus of Wilson’s (2005) dissertation. Wilsonparticularly notes that meanings of placeand the relationship between place andhealth have culturally specific dimensionsthat have been overlooked, especiallywith respect to First Nations people amongthe research conducted to date on healthand Aboriginal peoples.Métis WomenBartlett (2003), an Aboriginal scholar anddoctor, undertook research which eliciteddescriptions about what constitutes healthfrom the perspectives of Métis adultand Elder women and indicates thather findings should be included in futurehealth survey research with Métis groups.A more recent research article looking atthe perceptions of health and well-beingfrom a Métis sample of women was alsoconducted by Bartlett in 2005. Utilizing a“talking circle” methodology, the authorwas able to elicit a distinction betweenwhat it means to have health versus whatit means to have well-being. Métis womenindicated that for them health was morereflective of physical issues whereas wellbeingwas much broader and includedholistic and inclusive dimensions ofspirituality, emotional, physical and mental/intellectual aspects associated with theAboriginal Life Promotion Framework(similar to the medicine wheel teachings).Bruce (2000) provides insight into theimpact of diabetes mellitus on the livesof Métis women and people in westernCanada while Dunnigan (1997) reflectedon the life histories of Métis women whohave survived breast cancer. While notentirely gender specific to women, theMétis National Council (2000) looked atdeveloping a national education, trainingand employment strategy for and by Métispeople with disabilities. Sinclair (2000)documents the traditional role of Métiswomen in collective decision making in theLesser Slave Lake area of northern Alberta.Inuit and Other NorthernAboriginal WomenThe literature under this subcategorylooks at Inuit inmates’ perspectives onidentity, crime, rehabilitation, the role ofwomen and their future and how best tofacilitate the unique needs of the Inuitculture (2000). The health characteristicsamong Aboriginal women of northernQuebec compared to women in therest of the province were examined byLavallee and Bourgault (2000). Their studyindicates that the northern populationsin Quebec had a larger proportion ofyoung women that Aboriginal womenhave heavier family responsibilities thanother Quebec women and that Inuitwomen had a much higher prevalence oftobacco use. Lavallee and Bourgault alsonote that alcohol consumption was lessin northern women but that the quantityconsumed was higher compared to otherQuebec women. Other health indicatorsreveal that Cree women tended to bemore obese, had higher levels of bloodglucose and lower levels of cholesteroland that Inuit women tend to have lowerrates of hypertension and higher rates ofdeclared hearing problems and mentaldisorders. Lavallee and Bourgault statethat knowing about the similarities anddifferences among these Aboriginalwomen can assist decision makers insetting priorities with regard to maintainingand improving women’s health. Traditionalhealing approaches (such as midwiferyand attending to injuries) applied withinNunavut by Inuit people was examined byMelynchuk, Anawak, Idlout, Kanayk, Reedand Quirke (2000). Holistic world viewsof the Inuit are pointed out by Mailloux(2001) as an essential component of anInuit Health program. Mailloux suggeststhat using traditional Inuit knowledgewould be useful in developing manualsfor medical staff and social workers in theNorth and for Inuit going out on the land.Morrison (1988) interviewed Dene womenabout their educational, social, health andparticipation in traditional roles in orderto determine variables that contributemost to feelings of isolation. Rojas (2001)provides a subjective exploration of theimages of Inuit women in narrative textsAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing233

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing234about Inuit people. Rojas states thatimposed images of Inuit women can beseen as an oppressive force that presentlyconfines Inuit women who once held ahighly important decision-making role inInuit society. The gaps in the researchliterature surrounding the health concernsof Inuit and northern women werenoted by Wakewich and Parker (2000).Wachowich, et al. (1999) provides storiesabout the lives of three Inuit women whilethe Pauktuutit Inuit Women’s Association ofCanada (2002) and Sutherns, McPhedranand Haworth-Brockman (2005) morespecifically address the health concernsof rural, remote and northern women. Thechanges in the transmission of culturalinformation about life processes for threegenerations of Inuit women in a centralCanadian village was at the centre ofresearch conducted by Stern and Condon(1995) around Inuit women’s reproductivehealth and the historical and social roots ofchange regarding reproductive health inthe North.Aboriginal Women in PrisonSadly, a fairly large body of researchexists regarding the experiences ofprovincially and federally incarceratedAboriginal women. Aboriginal women areoverrepresented in correctional institutionsand in many cases have an even higheroverrepresentation than Aboriginal men(AJI, 1991) and are often incarcerateddue to the seriousness of their offences(La Prairie, 1987). LaPraire states that theoverincarceration of women lies with theeffect of colonization and assimilationon traditional lifestyles resulting in roleloss for Native males and the subsequentvictimization of women (1989). Lash (2000),writing on the justice system’s treatment ofAboriginal women, explored the SupremeCourt of Canada Gladue decision andargued that the court’s refusal to considerAboriginal women’s background andhistory of abuse constitutes judicial bias.Other research that has focused onAboriginal women in prison include that byChisholm-Smith (1995), who in the course ofconducting research on healing, looked atissues faced by incarcerated women in theNorthwest Territories, of which the majoritywere of Aboriginal descent. Monture-Okanee, an Aboriginal legal scholar, hasalso written extensively on Aboriginalpeople and the justice system and hasparticularly focused on that gaps that stillexist about Aboriginal women’s justicestruggles and the need to remedy thenegative experiences of Aboriginal womenin prison (1992 and 1999). Palumbo (1992),Nahanee (1995), Morin (1999), MacDonald(1999), MacDonald and Watson (2001)and the Native Women’s Associationof Canada (1996 and 2003) have allundertaken extensive research into issuesthat impact federally sentenced Aboriginalwomen.While not all the research under thissubcategory deals specifically with healthissues among incarcerated Aboriginalwomen, this body of research doesindicate that incarceration does impactsignificantly the well-being of Aboriginalwomen, their children and their familiesand communities. The long-term impactof incarceration on Aboriginal mothersand their children in particular has beeninadequately addressed in the research.Other research that looked at the impacton children of incarcerated mothers wasdone by Cunningham and Baker, whosummarized findings of a study conductedwith 45 women in the Ontario correctionalsystem (Cunningham & Baker, 2004).Their study indicates that not only arechildren invisible “collateral” victims of theirmothers’ crimes, but they too are incrediblyimpacted. Because of their mothers’incarceration, they become secondaryvictims of crime, experiencing residentialdisruptions, school changes, separationfrom siblings, foster care, or periods of timespent with convenient but inappropriatecaretakers. They feel shame, isolation,abandonment, confusion, grief, andloneliness. Moreover, Cunningham andBaker state that a mother’s imprisonmentoften affects families already challengedby poverty, inadequate housing, abusiveor exploitative partners, mental illness,substance abuse and the legacies ofchild abuse. Even after a mother returns,children are forever changed simply byknowing she could be gone again. Fewsocial services are designed to help themnavigate the period before, during andafter a mother’s absence. Of the 45women who were interviewed for theirstudy, it was found that among them,

they had 90 children, with the averageage of the children being 8 years old. Itis not known whether Aboriginal motherswere included in this study. Most of thechildren were age 6 or under and mosthad siblings (78%), from whom they wereseparated while their mother was in prison.Approximately half of these children livedunder an open child protection file andmany (43%) had no contact with theirbiological father (Cunningham & Baker,2003). For many of these youngsters, thestage is set for a troubled adolescence.Cunningham and Baker note that mothershave recognized disturbing trends in theirchildren as they become teenagers,seeing them re-live events from their ownyouth such as substance use, depression,survival crime, school drop-out, earlyemancipation from adult care, exploitationby others, and early childbearing.Mothers know this story better than most.Cunningham and Baker found that 40% ofthe women in their study had themselvesbeen separated from their own mothers,fathers, or both, when they were children,because of parental incarceration. Now,as mothers raising the next generation,half of their own teenaged childrenhave already been in youth custody(Cunningham et al., 2003). Similarstudies have not been implemented withAboriginal mothers and further researchinto this area would assist the child welfareand youth criminal justice sectors inunderstanding some of the trajectories andpathways that lead children and youthinto the youth justice system as well as theunique needs of Aboriginal mothers andtheir children. Similar research would go along way in developing supports to ensurean appropriate spectrum of services toaddress the needs of both women andchildren/adolescents who find themselvesin these circumstances (Cunningham et al.,2003).Two-Spirited WomenThe health concerns of Aboriginal womenin same sex relationships or with samesexorientation has not been effectivelyaddressed in the literature to date. Mostof the literature in this area is generated inthe United States. Brown (1997) has lookedat the issues of identity, gender and healthimplications among this group, includinga look at AIDS prevention and thedevelopment of AIDS services in both ruraland urban environments. The only otherarticle that looked at the concept of twospiritedpeople, gender, sexuality and howtwo-spirited, gay, lesbian, transgenderedand other “marked” Native Americans feelabout themselves was published in a cowrittenarticle by Jacob, Thomas and Lang(1997).Aboriginal Women in QuebecThe body of literature under this section,while not extensive, casts a glance atthe unique position and issues dealt withby Aboriginal women in various areasthroughout Quebec. Research specificallyon the health of Aboriginal women wasundertaken by Hannis (2001), while a moregeneral look at the health of Aboriginalpeople in Quebec as well as a discussionon the health determinants, Aboriginalwomen and the Canadian constitutionalframework with regard to federal andprovincial responsibility for Aboriginalhealth was done by O’Doherty (1997).Gill (1995) focused on the mobility ofAmerindian women to Quebec urbancentres while Jaccoud illustrated the livingconditions and marginality experienced byten Aboriginal women who were living inMontreal.Aboriginal Women andDisabilitiesThere is almost no information on Aboriginalwomen’s experiences regarding disabilitiesother than an article by Demas (1993)who specifically addresses the needs ofAboriginal women with disabilities and anon-line resource devoted to issues affectingAboriginal women with disabilities (TheNational Aboriginal Network on Disability,1992). Demas (1993, p. 55), an Aboriginalwoman with a disability herself, was oneof the first women to write about servicesto Aboriginal women with disabilities. Shenoted that Aboriginal women have specialneeds that have not been addressedunder existing health and communityservices both on and off reserve andthat issues and concerns as expressedby disabled Aboriginal women must beincorporated into the creation of anynew services or within the improvement ofexisting ones.Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing235

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and HealingThe National Aboriginal Network onDisability’s on-line resource providesan excellent down-to-earth, genderedperspective on disabilities for the femaleAboriginal population on reserve. Theirwebsite is the result of a review of theliterature on disabilities, discussionswith Aboriginal women, and a twoday“Aboriginal Women’s Circle onDisability” held in Ottawa in March1992. The resulting publication “Voicesin the Wilderness: Aboriginal Women andDisabilities” notes that while Aboriginalpeople with disabilities experiencesevere hardships, it is Aboriginal womenin particular who experience a tripleburden. Not only must Aboriginal womencope with problems directly associatedwith their disability, but they must alsoface added problems brought aboutby their gender and their membershipin an oppressed racial minority groupwithin Canada (The National AboriginalNetwork on Disability, 1992). This reporthighlights that Aboriginal women withdisabilities suffer from low self-esteem andare commonly considered unfit as sexualpartners, mothers or contributors to thecommunity and yet are sexually exploitedand victims of violence. Furthermore, awoman’s disability affects her chances ofgetting married and bearing children andcan therefore lower her status within theAboriginal community. Disabled Aboriginalwomen receive no counselling on eitherbirth control or sexuality. The testimonyfrom the women who took part in thistwo-day circle also report that young girlswith disabilities often isolate themselvesand furthermore, they lack exposure tosimilarly placed role models. Young womenwith disabilities rarely know of successfulAboriginal women with disabilities whohave and are achieving their goals (TheNational Aboriginal Network on Disability,1992). In addition, mothers with childrenwho are disabled must also contendwith poor housing conditions, a lack ofresources, respite services, programs andservices, with which to meet the needsof their disabled children, making themvulnerable to the child welfare authoritieswithin their communities (Valentine, 2001).The lack of and/or fragmented services,gender discrimination, poverty and accessto community resources are cited amongsome of the many concerns highlightedby the Aboriginal women in this report.Although cognizant of the discriminationfaced by Aboriginal women withdisabilities, the report’s recommendationsare gender neutral rather than specific. TheNational Aboriginal Network on Disabilityreport’s recommendations include theneed to: (1) increase Aboriginal communityunderstanding of the prevention ofdisabling conditions; (2) inform Aboriginalpeople with disabilities of their rights; (3)encourage and promote the integrationof Aboriginal people with disabilitiesinto the community; and (4) encourageand promote the development of selfhelpgroups of Aboriginal people withdisabilities.Other gender-neutral research onAboriginal people with disabilities includesa report commissioned by the Assemblyof Manitoba Chiefs in partnership with theManitoba First Nations Employment andTraining Centres to provide informationon Manitoba First Nations people with adisability for planning purposes under theAboriginal Human Resources DevelopmentStrategy. This document reports on thefindings of a needs assessment studyconducted in all Manitoba First Nationscommunities (Elias & Demas, 2001).Specific research on disabilities generallyfor Métis peoples includes a documentregarding the goals of an EmpowermentProject initiated by the Métis NationalCouncil in 1999. The goal of that projectwas to empower Métis people withdisabilities. The twofold objectives focusedon: developing a national education,training and employment strategy forand by Métis people with disabilities;and enabling Métis organizations toincrease the capacity of Métis peoplewith disabilities to develop and implementprograms and services addressing theirneeds (Métis National Council, 2000). Durst(2001) also looked primarily at disabilityissues for urban Aboriginal people. Histwo-year study examined the challengesfaced by urban First Nations people withdisabilities, many of whom leave theirreserve communities in order to accesshealth and social services and as a result,find themselves isolated, lonely andmarginalized. He concluded that urban236

First Nations individuals with disabilitiesrarely participate fully in meaningfuleconomic (employment), social andleisure activities. Other gender-neutralresearch on Aboriginal disabilities has beenconducted by Fricke (1998); Ng (1996);Durst and Bluechardt (2001 and 2004);and Valentine (2001). While this valuableresearch provides some understandingof the disabilities facing all Aboriginalgroups generally, they lack a genderedperspective of the complexities forAboriginal women and understanding asto how Aboriginal women cope with thedisability issues within their own lives andthe lives of those they nurture who havedisabilities.Gender-specific research on the livedexperience of Aboriginal women withdisabilities was examined by Wall (2000)in her thesis entitled “Disability and Wellbeing?The Story of an Aboriginal Woman.”Wall’s research essentially mirrors theconclusion found in the report completedby The National Aboriginal Network onDisability. That is, race, class, gender anddisability are interrelated issues for disabledAboriginal women, which can and dosignificantly impact and affect their qualityof life.There exists very little research exclusivelydirected at disability issues for CanadianAboriginal women (Durst, Bluechardt,Morin, & Rezinsoff, 2001; NationalAboriginal Network on Disability, 1992;Morris, 1999). Furthermore, there is apaucity of contemporary and currentresearch on this specialized topic. Thehealth resources which do exist generallyfocus on disability issues across the boardfor all Aboriginal people, Canadiansand/or women generally rather thannarrowly focusing on the gender realitiesfaced by differently-abled Aboriginalwomen (Christophers & N.W.T.Council forDisabled Persons, 1993; Durst et al., 2001;Elias et al., 2001). Not only are Aboriginalwomen with disabilities excluded frommainstream health research but whereresearch is performed about them,Aboriginal women largely participateonly as subjects rather than being fullyengaged as potential team membersof a diverse research population (Morris,1999). Most of the available literature in thisarea centres on the physical aspects ofwomen’s disabilities with very little attentiongiven to other additional and/or intangibledisabilities that may also be experiencedby Aboriginal women around cognitiveand/or learning disability factors (althoughthere is some attention given to alcoholabuse as another form of disability ashighlighted by the research done by TheNational Aboriginal Network on Disabilityin its 1992 report). More research must begenerated that focuses on the economicand health impacts to Aboriginal womenwith disabilities as their lives are marred bypoverty, unemployment, discriminationand lack of education opportunities foradvancement.An alphabetical and numerical annotatedlist of resources referred to in this section orrelated to this theme is set out below.Bibliography of Resources1. Abbott, K. L. (2004). Urban AboriginalWomen in British Columbia and the Impacts ofMatrimonial Real Property Rights. In J. White, P.Maxim, & D. Beavon (Eds.), Aboriginal PolicyResearch: Setting the Agenda for Change,Volume II (pp. 165-181). Toronto, ON: ThompsonEducational Publishing, Inc.Available Online: http://dsp-psd.pwgsc.gc.ca/Collection/R2-271-2003E.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Women/women/BritishColumbia/Matrimonial Real Property/ Research/Children/Violence/First Nations/ Poverty/FirstNations WomenAbstract: This study examines the economic,political and social impacts on Aboriginalwomen who are faced with marital breakdownand how these impacts affect their personaland family security. Using a qualitativeresearch methodology in conjunction withvarious assistance from governmental andNGO partners, Aboriginal women residing inurban areas of British Columbia were askedto share their experiences on how theirmarital breakdown on the reserve positivelyor negatively affected them and theirchildren. The author notes that there is a directconnection between domestic violence andlack of property rights for First Nations women.The vast majority of First Nations women whomust leave domestically abusive situationsleave without property and as a result, theyand their children are relegated to a life ofpoverty. When First Nations women leave anabusive relationship on-reserve, there are longtermimplications for their and their children’s’financial situation, which negatively impactsAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing237

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing238one or successive generations.2. Badine, T. (2003). First Nations WomenClients: Experiences in Dual Relationships.Thesis (M.S.W.) -- University of Northern BritishColumbia, 2003.Keywords: British Columbia/First Nations/ FirstNations WomenAbstract: Using a phenomenological approach,this study explores First Nations women clients’experiences of dual relationships with alcoholand drug abuse counselors indigenous to theclients’ communities. The goal of this studywas to provide a description of the natureof his experience from First Nations womenclients’ perspectives. Descriptive data for thestudy was gathered through conversationswith three First Nations women from rural BritishColumbia and Alberta. The thesis points outthat counseling can be very effective if thetherapeutic relationship can grow into anenduring relationship where clients trust thecounselor and eventually view the counseloras a role model. In order to even out the powerimbalance during the beginning phase of therelationship, the study recommends boundarymanagement initiatives that will allow theenduring relationship to form much quicker.3. Bartlett, J. (2004). Conceptions andDimensions of Health and Well-being for MétisWomen in Canada. International Journal ofCircumpolar Health, 63, 107-113.Available Online: http://ijch.oulu.fi/issues/63suppl2/ICCH12_Bartlett.pdfKeywords: Canada/Health/Métis Women/ Wellbeing/Research/womenAbstract: Because of the continuing poorhealth status of Aboriginal populations inCanada, along with increasing opportunityfor Aboriginal-designed health surveys, it isargued that policies and programs, and theresearch from which they are derived, shouldbe more solidly grounded within Aboriginalunderstandings of health and well-being. Surveyresearch for Aboriginal populations usuallydraws on questions developed by and formainstream Canadians. This paper stems fromthe author’s Master’s thesis study that elicitedadult and elder Métis women’s descriptions of‘what constitutes health’ and ‘what constituteswell-being’. Outlined are descriptions of Métiswomen’s conceptions of health and well-being,as well as dimensions of well-being that shouldbe included in health survey research (JournalAbstract).4. Bartlett, J. (2005). Health and Wellbeingfor Métis Women in Manitoba. CanadianJournal of Public Health, 96, 22-27.Keywords: Health/Manitoba/Métis Women/Well-beingAbstract: The purpose of this article is togain an understanding of the perception ofhealth and well-being for a sample of Métiswomen in Manitoba and to consider whetherthis perception might be used to developsurvey questions and to influence healthpromotion directed toward Métis women. Aquasi-phenomenological tradition of enquirywas employed to gain understanding of thelived experience of participants. Data wascollected from focus groups utilizing a ‘talkingcircle’ methodology. A participatory researchapproach involved three large Aboriginalorganizations. Conceptions of health andof well-being are different entities for theseMétis women. Health was most often morereflective of physical issues. Well-being wasmuch broader, holistic and inclusive of thedimensions of spirituality, emotional, physicaland mental/intellectual aspects of living,consistent with the first circle of the AboriginalLife Promotion Framework (which is a frameworktool for reflecting on life created by theauthor of this paper). The implications of thisstudy should be important to health providersand policy developers regardless of sector.Métis women in this study show significantstrengths in the spiritual, emotional andintellectual/mental aspects of life, areas thatcould be incorporated into health promotionapproaches. Physical health was focusedon ensuring a healthy diet and exercise, yetmost adult women in the study experiencedstress around goals that are seen as relativelyunattainable. The data produced in this studyshould be utilized to develop and test surveyquestions that can be applied to a largerportion of the Métis population. The AboriginalLife Promotion Framework is useful as anorganizing tool for systematically exploringelements of living (adapted from JournalAbstract).5. Bend, J. (1991). Native Women SurvivingPrison? Off Our Backs, 21, 15.Keywords: Canada/Native women/Corrections/Incarcerated Aboriginal WomenAbstract: In the past eighteen months sixNative women have hanged themselves inthe Federal Prison for Women in Kingston,Ontario. On March 4, 1991, nine women (mostof them Aboriginal) began a hunger strike. OnFebruary 4 a 23-year-old, Lorna Jones, wasfound hanging in her cell. Two days later aconfrontation with the staff erupted, and thewomen demanded to meet with Native Elder,Ellen Moves Camp. When this was refused andthe prison was put on a lock-down status, theprisoners exploded. Two days later membersof Through the Walls -- Prison Support & PrisonAbolition Working Group held a vigil outside theheadquarters of Correctional Services Canada.The prisoners demanded that one prisoner beallowed to visit her dying mother and that therebe an independent inquiry by the CanadianSociety for Prison System Improvement. The

first request was granted, the second denied.In 1990 a Task Force on Federally SentencedWomen had recommended that the prisonfor women at Kingston be closed. As a resultthe prison will be phased out over four years,replaced by five regional institutions (withone of the five to be a longhouse). Demandspresented by support groups include thereinstatement of Native programs, anindependent inquiry into prison conditions,the dropping of riot-related charges, and therelease of all women from segregation.6. Benoit, C., Carroll, D., Lawr, L., &Chaudhry, M. (2001). Marginalized Voices fromthe Downtown Eastside: Aboriginal WomenSpeak about Their Health Experiences. Toronto,ON: National Network on Environments andWomen’s Health (NNEWH).Available Online: http://www.yorku.ca/nnewh/english/pubs/report.march4.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Women/Basic PhysicalNeeds/Healing/Health/Meaningful Work andService to OthersAbstract: Research on general health servicedelivery in urban areas of Canada shows thatAboriginal people face formidable barriers inaccessing culturally appropriate and timelycare. Over the past decade, Urban AboriginalHealth Centres (UAHCs) have emergedto address the unmet health concerns ofAboriginal people living in metropolitan areasof the country. The purpose of this researchwas to address the gap in social scienceliterature on how the health care concernsof Aboriginal women are being met byUAHCs. The research aimed to give voice toAboriginal women by asking them whetherthe appropriate professional services andeducational programs they need to addresstheir health care needs were being providedin the inner city. A case-study approach wasused whereby three separate focus groupswere conducted with Aboriginal women whowere clients of the Vancouver Native HealthSociety (VNHS), its sister organization, Sheway,or residents of Vancouver’s Downtown Eastside(DTES). In addition, 25 semi-structured interviewswere conducted with VNHS staff, healthproviders, government representatives, andcommunity leaders in health care (total n = 61).The findings indicate that despite efforts fromvarious quarters to articulate the health andsocial concerns of the country’s marginalizedpopulations, such has not been the case forAboriginal women living in one of Canada’smost prosperous cities. Many Aboriginal womenexpressed a strong desire for a Healing Place,based on a model of care where their healthconcerns are addressed in an integratedmanner, where they are respected and giventhe opportunity to shape and influence decisionmaking about services that impact their ownhealing. (C) 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd.7. Brown, L. B. (1997). Two-Spirit People:American Indian Lesbian Women and GayMen. New York, NY: Haworth Press.Keywords: Gender/Health/Native Americans/Prevention8. Bruce, S. G. (2000). The Impact ofDiabetes Mellitus among the Métis of WesternCanada. Ethnicity and Health, 5, 47-57.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/Canada/Diabetes/Health/Manitoba/WorkAbstract: Objectives: To examine the impactof diabetes mellitus on the lives of the Métis ofwestern Canada, and to determine the extentof co-morbidity among Métis with diabetes.Design: The source of data was the AboriginalPeoples Survey (APS), conducted by StatisticsCanada in 1991. The survey was administeredto a representative sample of Aboriginalpeoples throughout Canada. Analysis wascompleted on self-identified Métis participantsfrom the Canadian Provinces of Manitoba,Saskatchewan and Alberta. Results: Métisparticipants with diabetes were more likely thanthose without diabetes to report their healthstatus as poor. Significantly greater numbers ofMétis with diabetes reported activity limitationsat work, at home and in leisure activities, theneed for assistance with activities of daily livingand difficulties with ambulation than did thosewithout diabetes. The extent of co-morbiditywas also significant. Métis with diabeteswere almost three times more likely to reporthypertension and heart problems and twicemore likely to report sight impairments thanwere those without diabetes. Conclusions: Thisresearch represents the first account of theeffects of diabetes on the lives of the Métis.The APS data have provided a clear pictureof the impairments in physical functioningexperienced by the Métis with diabetes andthe impact upon their quality of life. In addition,the strong associations between diabetesand hypertension, heart problems and sightimpairments suggest profound morbidity inthis population that warrants prompt attention(Journal Abstract).9. Bryne, N. & Fouillard, C. S. (2000).It’s Like the Legend: Innu Women’s Voices.Gynergy.Keywords: Innu women/Women’s VoicesAbstract: Aboriginals (Innu) -- personalnarratives; Sociology/Social issues.10. Burkhardt, K. J. (2000). Narratives of InuitInmates: Crime, Identity and Cultural Alienation.Thesis (M.A.) - University of Windsor, Windsor,Ont., 2000. Windsor, ON.Keywords: Inuit Women/Northern Communities/Justice/Prevention/Culture/Women’s VoicesAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing239

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing240Abstract: The rates and nature of Inuitcriminal activity are of great concern in theNunavut Territory. Substance abuse andthe victimization of women are particularlysalient issues in northern communities. Suchproblems are suggested to be a result ofcolonization processes, which have alienatedInuit individuals from their traditional knowledgeand imposed upon them an unfamiliar systemof justice. Presently, self-government strategieshave been created to empower the Inuit’scontrol of their own social structures. This isintegral within the realm of criminal justice, as inthe development of efficacious corrections it isimperative to understand the lived experiencesof the Inuit. The present study has utilizedgrounded methodology to formulate theoryderived from the Inuit inmates’ perspectives ofthe justice system and treatment objectives.Participants from the all-male inmatepopulation at the Baffin Correctional Centrewere interviewed to determine their beliefsregarding identity, crime, rehabilitation, the rolesof women, and their future. Recommendationsfor prevention and rehabilitation programmingare provided toward an understanding of howto best facilitate the unique needs of the Inuitculture.11. Caissie, M. A. (1999). The Okimaw OhciHealing Lodge for Eskwewuk: Is CorrectionalPractice Consistent with Healing Practice?Thesis (M.A.) -- Simon Fraser University, 1999.Available Online: http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk1/tape10/PQDD_0028/MQ51309.pdfKeywords: Canada/Culture/First Nations/ FirstNations Women/Healing/Women OffendersAbstract: The plethora of reports, Task Forcesand Royal Commissions to review the periloussituations of First Nations peoples and in thisinstance First Nations women, reached itsclimax in 1989 with ‘Creating Choices’: ‘TheTask Force on Federally Sentenced Women’.This report endorsed the need for a correctionalfacility based, in part, on the philosophies andcultures of First Nations peoples. As a result ofmany recommendations outlined in this report,the ‘Okimaw Ohci Healing Lodge’ for federallysentenced First Nations women (‘Eskwewuk’)located in Maple Creek, Saskatchewan wasconstructed. This prison opened its doors toFirst Nations female offenders in November1995 with the mandate to afford a culturallyappropriate atmosphere for incarcerationand (re)habilitation. The recognition given bycorrectional officials that something “different”was required to address the overrepresentationof First Nations peoples within penitentiarieswas a positive first step. A larger problematic,however, not fully addressed with the provisionof the ‘Healing Lodge’ continues to exist,that is, that the relationship between FirstNations peoples and non-First Nations peoplesis ingrained in colonialist and patriarchalattitudes. One must view the construction of acorrectional institution structured on the viewsof First Nations peoples with cautious optimism.Despite an ‘apparent’ increase in sensitivityto the needs of First Nations peoples -- andmore specifically women -- in Canada, the‘Lodge’ may instead prove to be an exemplarof “mock change” or “false generosity” whosepurpose is to tranquilize First Nations peoples.This thesis will provide a literature review of FirstNations women offenders and, using postcolonialand women’s standpoints theories,an exploratory analysis of ‘Okimaw Ohci’ itself.My purpose is twofold: first, I will examine somepolicy questions and issues that will need tobe considered as the ‘Lodge’ continues tooperate; and second, outline a “model ofhealing,” based upon First Nations philosophiesthat could be applied at the ‘Lodge’, andperhaps at other correctional institutions12. Chisholm-Smith, A. (1995). Healing as anAlternative to Incarceration.Keywords: Adequate Human Services andSocial Safety Net/HealingAbstract: The researcher, as part of a widerstudy on healing, used a particular researchmethod to gain insight into the issue ofincarcerated women in the NWT. Interviews tookplace with women presently incarcerated inthe North as well as with those directly involved(healers, correctional officers, government andinterest groups).13. Christophers, S. & N.W.T. Council forDisabled Persons. (1993). Needs Assessmentof Women with Disabilities in the N.W.T.Unpublished Work.Keywords: Adequate Human Services andSocial Safety Net/Basic Physical Needs/ Womenwith DisabilitiesAbstract: The N.W.T. Council for DisabledPersons contacted N.W.T. women’s groups andcommunity representatives to develop contactlists for women with disabilities. In addition, theCouncil will develop and distribute a survey toidentify issues and concerns for women withdisabilities. These issues will be summarized andrecommendations will be made. (Au)14. Crnkovich, L. A. M. (1999). If GenderMattered: A Case Study of Inuit Women, LandClaims and the Voisey’s Bay Nickel Project.Ottawa, ON: Status of Women Canada.Keywords: Gender/Inuit WomenAbstract: Unavailable15. Crnkovich, M. (1988). Northern Issues,Northern Women. Unpublished WorkKeywords: Adequate Human Services andSocial Safety Net/Family Violence/Social Justiceand Equity/women

Abstract: Objective: To investigate issuesaffecting women in the North from a woman’sperspective; to provide northern women withreference materials for issues affecting them;and, to make those outside the North awareof experiences of northern women. Summary:Mary Crnkovitch’s assistant, Angela Bernal,completed the interviews required to producea book on issues facing northern women. Thebook will cover topics ranging from giving birth,to women in politics, to special social problemssuch as family violence. The book is publishedby the Canadian Arctic Resources Committee(CARC) in Ottawa (Au).16. Cunningham, A. & Baker, L. (2003).Waiting for Mommy: Giving a Voice to theHidden Victims of Imprisonment. London, ON:Centre for Children and Families in the JusticeSystem.Available online: http://www.web.net/~efryont/WaitingForMommy.pdfKeywords: Adolescents/Children/HiddenVictims/Incarceration/ResearchAbstract: This is an exploratory study of theimpact of maternal incarceration on childrenand adolescents. Little is known about thecharacteristics of Canadian children whoare affected by parental incarceration. Thegoal of the study was to review the availableliterature, undergo preliminary data collection,and inform the next steps in research andprogram development. The study used severalmethodologies: Literature review, survey ofincarcerated mothers, survey of mothers afterrelease, interviews of children and adolescents,and a review of program models. Fortyfivewomen were surveyed to learn abouttheir 90 children and adolescents. Using theinformation collected from these sources,the authors made the following observations:parental separation triggered by incarcerationis different than separation for other reasons;separation because of maternal incarcerationis more destabilizing for children than paternalincarceration; the stresses and changesassociated with material incarceration oftenact on an already challenged family system;children of incarcerated mothers (and fathers)have an elevated vulnerability to criminalbehaviour themselves; and, impacts - bothemotional and practical - will vary dependingon many factors including the age of the child.Finally, certain features of the current systemexacerbate the negative impact on childrenbut there are ways to minimize the damage:assure children have safe placements andstable caregivers, find ways for meaningfulcontact between children and mothers,providing parenting programs, train keyprofessional groups to understand the uniquecontingencies of parental incarceration, fostermeaningful release planning, and help womenavoid recidivism (Adapted from the Study’sExecutive Summary).17. Cunningham, A. & Baker, L. (2004).Invisible Victims: The Children of Women inPrison. Toronto, ON: Voices for Children.Available Online: http://www.voicesforchildren.caKeywords: Canada/Children/ Incarcerations/Justice/Incarcerated WomenAbstract: Each year, at least 25,000 childrenacross Canada have a mother in prison. AllisonCunningham and Linda Baker of London’sCentre for Children and Families in the JusticeSystem present compelling evidence about whythese children are among the most vulnerablein our communities. Their groundbreaking studypaints a stark portrait of the lives of children whoare at higher risk for a troubled adolescenceand may increasingly turn to crime as theyget older. By understanding the factors thataffect how children deal with the experience ofhaving a mother in prison, we can reduce thechance that they will follow the same path. Theauthors provide thoughtful recommendationsfor the smaller and larger changes needed tominimize harm and proactively support childrenwhose mothers are in conflict with the law(Article abstract).18. Demas, D. (1993). Triple Jeopardy:Native Women with Disabilities. CanadianWoman Studies, 13, 53-55.Keywords: Native women/women/Women withDisabilities/Disabilities/Education/ HousingAbstract: People with disabilities aredisadvantaged in the areas of education,access, transportation, housing, employmentopportunities, recreation, cultural opportunities,etc. Women with disabilities speak of doublejeopardy. The author states that Native womenwho have a disability are in a situation of triplejeopardy. When disability in addition to beingfemale is added to the person’s experience,you have a situation of extreme disadvantage.I have my own personal example in this area.I was told by one worker at the CanadianInstitute for the Blind (CNIB), in response to myrequest for a closed-circuit TV reader, whichI needed for my education, that as a Nativeperson with status I was not eligible for VRDPallocatedequipment and that VRDP studentshad first priority to these devices. The workertold me that as a Native person I was noteligible for VRDP and as a status Indian I wasthe responsibility of Indian Affairs and it was tothem that I should make the request. However,not more than two days prior to that I hadbeen told by someone from the educationdepartment of Indian Affairs that there wasno money in their budget for these devicesand that I was registered with the CNIB andthat I should make my request to CNlB. This isjust one example of a situation where the lackof clarity and the bureaucratic run-aroundprevents Natives with disabilities from gettingAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing241

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healingadequate services. It is well known that the highrate of substance abuse leads to disabilities.For example, children born with fetal alcoholsyndrome can have learning disabilities. Peoplebecome disabled in accidents that are broughton by substance abuse. Furthermore, drugdependency does not end with disablement.Many treatment facilities are inaccessible. Thisis particularly true when it comes to women’streatment facilities. We need to work to see thatthese facilities become accessible and haveprograms which are culturally appropriate forNative women with disabilities.19. Dickson, G. (2000). AboriginalGrandmothers’ Experience with HealthPromotion and Participatory Action Research.Qualitative health research, 10, 188-213.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Cultural Integrityand Identity/Empowerment/Healing/ Health/Life-Sustaining Values, Morals and Ethics/Spirituality and A Sense of Purpose/ Research/womenAbstract: This article describes a case studyexamining the effects of participating in ahealth promotion project, one aspect of whichwas a health assessment conducted usingparticipatory action research. The study wascarried out over 2.5 years in a project for olderAboriginal women (hereafter known as thegrandmothers). Participation in the project andhealth assessment contributed to a number ofchanges in them, which were categorized ascleansing and healing, connecting with self,acquiring knowledge and skills, connectingwithin the group, and external exposure andengagement. This experience demonstrated anapproach to health promotion programmingand conducting a health assessment thatwas acceptable to this group of peopleand fostered changes congruent withempowerment.20. Dickson, G. (1997). ParticipatoryAction Research and Health Promotion:The Grandmothers’ Story. Thesis (PhD) -- TheUniversity of Saskatchewan, 1997.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Canada/Healing/Health/Research/women/14Abstract: This inquiry is a case study of the utilityand appropriateness of participatory actionresearch both as a research methodology andas an intervention for health promotion. In thestudy, I examined the effects of participatingin a health promotion project, one aspect ofwhich was a participatory health assessment. Ialso described in detail the experience of usingparticipatory action research to conduct thehealth assessment. The study was carried outover 2.5 years in a health promotion projectfor older, urban, Aboriginal women (hereafterknown as the grandmothers) sponsoredby the local community clinic. The overallpurpose of that project was to examine thehealth needs of these women and respondthrough health promoting programming. Thegrandmothers were the central participantsin the study. Participation in the project andhealth assessment contributed to a number ofchanges in them which I have categorized as:personal cleansing and healing; connectingwith self; acquiring knowledge and skills;connecting within the group; and externalexposure and engagement. ‘Participation’was identified as the central influenceon the outcomes, ‘action’ as a themeinterwoven throughout, and ‘opportunity’,‘encouragement’, and ‘mediation’ as keycharacteristics of the project and researchenvironment. This experience of usingparticipatory action research demonstratedits success as an approach to conducting ahealth assessment which was acceptable to thisgroup of people and congruent with the healthpromotion project in which it was embedded.The analysis of the experience highlights bothtensions and accomplishments. The findingsof the health assessment are published in aseparate document.21. Dickson, G. & Green Kathryn L. (2001).Participatory Action Research: Lessons Learnedwith Aboriginal Grandmothers. Health Care forWomen International, 22, 471-482.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Critical LearningOpportunities/Women’s HealthAbstract: Participatory action research isevolving as both a research methodologyand an intervention for health promotion.Here we describe its use in conducting ahealth assessment as part of a larger projectfor older Aboriginal women (hereafter knownas the grandmothers). The overall purposeof the project was to study the women’shealth needs and respond through healthpromotion programming. The experience ofusing participatory action research revealeda number of lessons, including challengesand points of tension, and determinants andindicators of success. The research teamidentified some implications for considerationby others interested in participatory actionresearch.22. Dunnigan, C. M. (1997). Life Histories: AMétis Woman and Breast Cancer Survivor.Keywords: Healing/Health/History/MétisWomen/women/5Abstract: Life histories of two women arepresented in this thesis. The life histories werecollected using oral history methods ofindividual open-ended interviews. All the storiespresented in this thesis are tied together by thefact that the women who were interviewed allhad the experience of being marginalized by awestern institution.242

23. Durst, D., Bluechardt, M., Morin, G., &Rezinsoff, M. (2001). Urban Aboriginal Personswith Disabilities: Triple Jeopardy! Regina, SK:Social Policy Research Unit, University of Regina.Available Online: http://www.uregina.ca/spr/pdfs/triple.pdfKeywords: Culture/First Nations Women/ Health/Housing//Disabilitiesand are living in urban communities (Durst andBluechardt, 2001).25. Elias, B. & Demas, D. (2001). First NationsPeople with a Disability Needs AssessmentSurvey Findings: A Profile of Manitoba FirstNations People with a Disability/Prepared forthe Assembly of Manitoba Chiefs. Winnipeg,MB: Northern Health Research Unit, University ofManitoba.Abstract: Full participation in community lifeincludes meaningful economic (employment),social and leisure activities. Unfortunately,many of these activities have been denied toAboriginal urban disabled persons becauseof numerous obstacles. This two-year studyexamines the challenges identified by FirstNations urban disabled persons and determinespractical solutions to eliminate or overcomethese obstacles. Interviews were conductedwith service providers in employment,recreational, social and health services. Thestudy is based upon a participatory researchmodel, often designated as “action research.”A “talking circle” was used to generate datafrom First Nations persons. This study found thatFirst Nations persons with disabilities usually lefttheir reserves in order to access health andsocial services. The option of moving backto the reserve, where there are few services,buildings are inaccessible, transportation isimpossible and independent housing unrealistic,gradually faded from memory. Leavingbehind their families, First Nations peoplefound loneliness and isolation. They now livein a “foreign” and hostile urban culture. Thepopulation of Aboriginal people with disabilitiesis severely marginalized in a number of ways:they have a disability; they are Aboriginalpersons; they are off reserve or urban andwomen are further marginalized (Adapted fromthe Executive Summary).24. Durst, D. & Bluechardt, M. (2004).Aboriginal People with Disabilities: A Vacuum inPublic Policy. SIPP Briefing Note, January, 1-7.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/DisabilitiesAbstract: Aboriginal people with disabilities arecaught in a public policy vacuum with littlehope for amelioration. Aboriginal persons areindividuals who identify themselves as havingindigenous or North American Indian ancestryand may or may not have status under thefederal Indian Act (1876). If they hold “status,”as “First Nations” people they may be living onreserve or off reserve in an urban community.In recent years, Canadian Aboriginal peopleshave been assuming greater control oversocial services programs, including disabilityservices in their communities, and someorganizations have been providing importantservices to persons of Aboriginal ancestry inurban communities. However, little is knownabout Aboriginal persons who have a disabilityAvailable Online: http://www.umanitoba.ca/centres/centre_aboriginal_health_research/researchreports Keywords: Basic PhysicalNeeds/Canada/ Health/Housing/ManitobaAbstract: The needs assessment of people withdisabilities living in First Nations communitiesin Manitoba identified socioeconomic issues,health services, housing and transportationissues and provides comparative analysisof data between northern and southerncommunities.26. Fey, C. (1998). Listening to Megan:Narratives of a Female Aboriginal Youthwith a Disability. M.A. Thesis - University ofSaskatchewan.Available Online: http://www.ssta.sk.ca/research/students/02-06.htmKeywords: Critical Learning Opportunities/Aboriginal Youth/Disability/VoicesAbstract: The study chronicles the decade-longfriendship between two unexpected friends: aresearcher/educator and an Aboriginal youth,who describes herself as an “adventurousteenager in spirit.” In a shared narrativebetween “Megan” and myself, I investigatedwhat it means to be a female youth witha disability. Using narrative methodology, Itaped conversations while the participantwas attending Grade 11 and Grade 12. Thetwo types of data that appear are text fromthe interviews themselves and the emergingstory from the participant’s reflections uponthe text. Through short stories, poems, songs,and plays, Megan conveys her realities andlife experiences. The themes arising include:resilience, freedom, and feminine desires,disabilities, and youth identity. The studyemphasizes self-determination of youth withdisabilities in both content and methodology asthe participant collaborated in co-editing andanalyzing her own words. A forum is providedfor a currently marginalized voice to be heardand empowered.27. Francis, J. (1985). Poverty,Discrimination, and Cultural Isolation: DisabledNative Women. Resources for Feminist Research,14, 12-14.Keywords: Native women/Poverty/ Research/Culture/DisabilitiesAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing243

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing24428. Fricke, M. W. (1998). First Nations Peoplewith Disabilities: An Analysis of Service Deliveryin Manitoba. Thesis (M.Sc.) -- University ofManitoba, 1998.Available Online: http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/tape17/PQDD_0001/MQ32110.pdfKeywords: Canada/First Nations/Health/ HealthCare/Housing/ManitobaAbstract: Equal access and participationissues are at the forefront of the currentdisability advocacy movement. People withdisabilities in the international communityare demanding a change in attitudes andpolicies which affect their inherent right ascitizens to full participation in society. Theinequalities in access to services experiencedby Aboriginal persons with disabilities in Canadaare magnified by the unique socioeconomic,political, environmental and cultural barriers.The existing infrastructure has often resultedin an ineffective, unaccountable andoccasionally inappropriate web of servicedelivery for Aboriginal persons with specialneeds. This document reviews the currentstructure of service delivery to First Nationspeople with disabilities, particularly those livingin remote areas of Manitoba. A description andcritical examination of rehabilitation services,home care services, housing issues, communityaccess, and mobility devices emphasizes thedisparities in access to services faced by FirstNations people with disabilities. Qualitativedata obtained through ethnographic casestudies provides a First Nations consumerperspective of current services. Key informantinterviews with health care planners andproviders offer inside perspectives of thesystem itself. Summary recommendations areprovided. It is crucial that health care providersgrasp the complexities surrounding Aboriginalhealth care if services are to be deliveredin a culturally sensitive fashion. Recognitionof these issues is equally important for thoseinvolved in current negotiations surroundingAboriginal self-government and health transferagreements. A more coordinated and sensitivemodel of service delivery to Manitoba’s FirstNations people with disabilities is essential if theequalization of opportunities is to be realized(Author Abstract).29. Garteig, J. L. (1995). Health Meaningsand Dynamics among Urban Residing NativeWomen. Thesis (M.N.) -- University of Alberta.Keywords: Health/Native women/Research/Urban Aboriginal WomenAbstract: Health meanings, in the form ofhealth conceptions, influence health actionsand health promotional activities. Usingthe strategies of in-depth interviewing andparticipant observation, health meanings areexplored among urban Native women. Analysisdemonstrates that for the women involved inthis study, their primary health conception is anintegrated understanding, of health as “howyou live your life.” Blended into the integratedconception are concepts of balance, ideal self,and shadow self. The latter two concepts areused as by the women in this study as measuresor indicators of health as they question theirhealth in relation to their bodies, their actions,their feelings, and their visions or goals. Inaddition, a number of contexts shape themeaning of health for the research participants.As such, multiple contexts are importantconsiderations in how the women enact theirhealth actions.30. Gill, L. (1995). From the Reserve tothe City: Amerindian Women in QuebecUrban Centres. Ottawa, ON: Status of WomenCanada.Keywords: Canada/Status of Women/ QuebecAbstract: “This study was commissioned by theformer Canadian Advisory Council on the Statusof Women (CACSW). It was finalized by Status ofWomen Canada, which assumed the AdvisoryCouncil’s research, public information andcommunications functions in April 1995.”31. Goldenberg, A. (2001). UrbanAboriginal Health and Governance: Rethinkingthe Paradigms, Policies and Politics ofCommunity. MA Thesis - York University.Keywords: Adequate Power/Health/UrbanAboriginal Health and Governance32. Greenough, J. M. (2000). Womencenteredcorrections [microform]: creatingchoices for federally sentenced women or acontinuation of paternalistic practices? Thesis(M.A.) -- Acadia University, 1999.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Canada/Corrections/Incarcerated Women/ Offenders/Men/ Incarceration/History/ ResearchAbstract: Since the inception of the penitentiaryin the 1800s, issues concerning federallyincarcerated women have tended to beignored relative to the problems facing thelarger population of male offenders. As a result,women have been generally dismissed as amajor concern, resulting in the creation ofcorrectional policies and practices that weredesigned for men and then applied to women.Creating Choices: The Report of the TaskForce on Federally Sentenced Women (1990)marked the beginning of the implementationof a correctional system that is recognized asfeminist and “women-centered.” A main areaof investigation for this thesis was to addressthe question of whether corrections for womenare or can be carried out in a feminist mannerwhile still employing the major elements of asystem of incarceration designed primarily formen. The implementation of the new policy

provided an ideal situation for investigatingthe possibility of leaving behind a legacy ofpatriarchy and embracing a future of freedom.This thesis reviews the history of Canadianfemale incarceration, the current philosophy ofchange, prison structures, the daily routines, theintent of corrections for women, the ideologybehind the programming and the programmingitself. Information was obtained through semistructuredinterviews of eight correctionalpersonnel at the Prison for Women in Kingston,Ontario and the Nova Institution for Womenin Truro, Nova Scotia. While the intent of the“feminist women-centered” philosophy was tobuild a bridge to a future of freedom for femaleoffenders and not a series of gentler fortressesin which to contain women, my researchsuggests that a legacy of patriarchy is evidentin the equation of “women-centered” to meanfulfillment of traditional gender roles as impliedby the current programming and goals of theRegional Facilities (Student Abstract).33. Guay, H. (1987). Inuit Women and theirDevelopment. Montreal, QC: Université Laval.Dιp. d’anthropologie.Keywords: Basic Physical Needs/Gender/ InuitWomen/ResearchAbstract: Objective: To study the situation ofwomen, both at the family level and at thecommunity level, engaged in the labour force.To trace the life story of individual womenfrom social gender identification to childhood,to marriage and to job experiences (AuthorAbstract).34. Hannis, P. (2001). The Health of NativeWomen in Quebec. Canadian Women’s HealthNetwork, 4/5, 13-15.Available Online: http://www.cwhn.ca/networkreseau/5-1/5-1pg7.htmlKeywords: First Nations Women/Health/ QuebecAbstract: Quebec Native Women (QNW) is anon-profit organization representing over 3,000women from Quebec First Nations, whether ornot they live on reserves. Since it was foundedin 1974, the QNW has worked extensively on thepolitical and socioeconomic fronts, focusingparticularly on justice, the promotion of nonviolence,employment and since January 2001,health.35. Hardy, S., Apaquash, L., & Butcher,M. (1999). Merging Traditional Aboriginal andWestern Health Practices to Meet the Needsof Urban Aboriginal People. Sudbury, ON,Shkagamik-Kwe Health Centre.Available Online: http://www.latrobe.edu.au/aipc/PDF%20Papers/Hardy_S_127.pdfKeywords: Canada/Healing/Health/HistoryAbstract: The health of Aboriginal people inCanada has been compared to that of healthin Third World countries. Shkagamik-Kwe HealthCentre, an Aboriginal-based primary healthcentre, was recently established to address theunique needs of the Aboriginal population inone area in Canada. The purpose of this paperis to describe the Shkagamik-Kwe Health Centrein terms of the history of its development withinthe Aboriginal Healing and Wellness Strategyand its current programs, with particularemphasis placed on how traditional Aboriginalhealing and health practices are being utilizedwithin a multidisciplinary team approach.36. Hooper, B. J. & Hagey, R. (1994). ControlIssues in Native Health Care: Perspectives of anUrban Community Health Centre. In B. Singh &H. D. Dickinson (Eds.), Health, Illness, and HealthCare in Canada (pp. 221-265). Toronto, ON:Harcourt Brace.Keywords: Canada/Health/Health Care/ UrbanPerspectivesAbstract: Anishnawbe Heath Toronto, anurban Native health centre, explicitly builds itspolicies and practices on a holistic foundationthat values the coexistence of conventionalbiomedical and traditional approaches. Theholistic view is presented diagrammaticallyin images of concentric circles depicting theorganizational structure of the centre. Holismis represented as a circle, “a control principlethrough balance,” that eschews oppositionand duality. The significance of gender-basedpolicy analysis is stressed and the power of thisapproach to have a direct impact on policy isillustrated.37. Howard-Bobiwash, H. (1999). “Like HerLips to My Ear”: Reading Anishnaabekweg Livesand Aboriginal Cultural Continuity in the City. InR. Bridgeman, S. Cole, & H. Howard-Bobiwash(Eds.), Feminist Fields: Ethnographic Insights.Peterborough, ON: Broadview Press.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Culture/UrbanPerspectives38. Jaccoud, M. (2005). The Marginalizationof Aboriginal Women in Montreal. In D.Newhouse & E. Peters (Eds.), Not Strangers inThese Parts: Urban Aboriginal Peoples (pp. 131-145).Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/AboriginalWomen/Diabetes/First Nations/Health/ MontrealAbstract: This article is based on a case studyof ten Aboriginal women living in Montreal(eight were First Nations and two were Inuit)under conditions that fall within a theoreticalframework of exclusion and marginalization. Theprimary purpose of the article is on the processof exclusion and marginalizational experiencedby these women who had temporarily orpermanently migrated to Montreal using a lifeAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing245

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healingnarratives methodology. The living conditionsof the women at the time of the study revealedthat they had children placed in care, werereceiving income security payments, weredependent on drugs and alcohol at some pointin their lives and three indicated that they hadhealth problems such as diabetes, anemiaand HIV. The article discusses the migrationpatterns and the lure of Montreal on the livesof these women and the resulting processes ofmarginalization faced by each one.39. Jacobs, S. E., Thomas, W., & Lang, S.(1997). Two-Spirit People: Native AmericanGender Identity, Sexuality and Spirituality.Urbana: University of Illinois Press.Keywords: Culture/Gender/Native Americans/Spirituality and A Sense of PurposeAbstract: This landmark book combines thevoices of Native Americans and non-Indians,anthropologists and others, in an explorationof gender and sexuality issues as they relateto lesbian, gay, transgendered, and other“marked” Native Americans. Focusing onthe concept of two-spirit people--individualsnot necessarily gay or lesbian, transvestiteor bisexual, but whose behaviors or beliefsmay sometimes be interpreted by others asuncharacteristic of their sex--this book is thefirst to provide an intimate look at how manytwo-spirit people feel about themselves, howother Native Americans treat them, and howanthropologists and other scholars interpretthem and their cultures.40. Johnny, J. (1994). Still a Long Way toGo (Native Women with Disabilities). CanadianWoman Studies, 14, 92.Keywords: First Nations/Native women/ Racism/Status of Women/Women with DisabilitiesAbstract: Just as there is racism in the feministmovement, there is also “ablism.” Able-bodiedwomen have not fully accepted womenwith disabilities. Often, we don’t feel thatwe fit. Although I am a First Nations womanwith a disability, I regularly feel like an alienfrom a different planet. Although there area few feminist women who will treat us withgreat care and love, “white/able-bodied”feminist practices persist in the Yukon. Otherequipment, deemed by the government tobe “non-essential,” I must pay for myself. MyTDD (Telecommunication Device for the Deaf)and the closed caption decoder for my TV aretwo such “luxury” items. Fortunately, the YukonStatus of Women Council was able to purchasethe TDD for me.41. Kenny, C. (2002). North AmericanIndian, Métis and Inuit Women Speak aboutCulture, Education and Work. Ottawa, ON:Status of Women Canada.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequateIncome and Sustainable Economies/ AdequatePower/Critical Learning Opportunities/Culture/Education/Healing/Inuit Women/MeaningfulWork and Service to Others/SocioeconomicDeterminants/WorkAbstract: Three researchers conducted focusgroups and interviews with 140 Aboriginalwomen in eight sites across Canada to studythe barriers created by policies which do notsupport Aboriginal women to maintain fullcultural lives while pursuing contemporaryeducation and work. Sites included rural andurban Manitoba; Toronto, Parry Sound andOttawa, Ontario; Vancouver and Merritt, BritishColumbia; Iqaluit, Nunavut; and rural and urbanNova Scotia. Researchers worked closely withadvisors and site liaisons in each community.Participants offered stories. These were tapedand/or transcribed and analyzed for values,themes and policy recommendations. A seriouscritique of the Indian Act and other policiesaffecting the lives of Aboriginal women isprovided by the participants and researchers’analysis of policy documents (Status of WomenCanada Abstract).42. Kinch, J. L. & Jakubec, S. (2004). Out ofthe Multiple Margins: Older Women ManagingTheir Health Care. Canadian Journal of NursingResearch, 36, 90-108.Keywords: First Nations/Health/Health Care/Older Women/PovertyAbstract: This feminist phenomenologicalstudy explores the meaning of older women’sexperiences as they negotiate health care.Several interviews with diverse groups of olderwomen (immigrant, First Nations, and Japanese-Canadian women and those involved incommunity and social clubs) reveal thatnegotiating to have their health needs met wasa challenging process requiring mutual support.Their health care experiences were influencedby issues surrounding access to services,power, and poverty. For many participants, theconversational interview format served to inspireconsciousness-raising, activism, and reflection.The findings suggest that such reflection mayhelp other women to understand the “multiplemargins” (being older, being a woman, being amember of a visible minority) that constrain andchallenge their access to health care (JournalAbstract).43. Jacko, M. (1995). Handbook for FirstNations Women: Domestic Abuse, Legal Rightsand Avenues to Services and Resources.Toronto: Native Women’s Resource Centre ofToronto and Native Child and Family Services ofToronto.Keywords: Native Women/Coping responses/violence/Two-spirited women246

Abstract: This handbook gives definitions ofabuse. Myths are explored as well as women’scommon experiences and feelings. It alsooutlines coping responses, both positive andnegative, and explores the legal issues andremedies, both civil and criminal. The potentialeffects on children are explained and why it isimportant to take protective action. Abuse inTwo-Spirited or Lesbian relationships is explored.Recommended for general public andprofessionals.44. La Prairie, C. (1987). Native Womenand Crime: A Theoretical Model. The CanadianJournal of Native Studies, 7, 121-137.Available Online: http://www.brandonu.ca/library/cjns/7.1/Laprairie.pdfKeywords: Native women/Corrections/Victimization/Colonization/Assimilation/JusticeAbstract: The disproportionate incarcerationof Native women in correctional institutionsand the seriousness of offences for which theyare incarcerated require explanation. Oneexplanation lies with the effect of colonizationand assimilation on traditional lifestyles, resultingin role loss for Native males and the subsequentvictimization of women. This explanationrecognizes the relationship betweenvictimization and possible future criminality(Dion Stout, 1997).45. La Prairie, C. (1989). Some Issues inAboriginal Justice Research: The Case ofAboriginal Women in Canada. Women andCriminal Justice, 1, 81-91.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Canada/JusticeAbstract: The author provides a review ofprevious research and official data is used todocument the overrepresentation of Aboriginalpeople in general in the Canadian criminaljustice system and that of Aboriginal womenin particular. An explanation is offered for theincidence and types of crime of Aboriginalwomen, pointing to the need to betterunderstand the theoretical and methodologicalissues in the relationship of Aboriginal people tothe broader society and to the criminal justicesystem.46. Lash, J. (2000). Case Comment: R.V.Gladue. Canadian Woman Studies, 20, 85-87.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Canada/ SocialJustice and EquityAbstract: This article examines the Canadianjustice system’s treatment of Aboriginal women,focusing on a Supreme Court case that dealswith an abused woman accused of murderingher spouse. The author argues that the court’srefusal to consider the Aboriginal woman’sbackground and history of abuse constitutesjudicial bias.47. Lavallee, C. & Bourgault, C. (2000).The Health of Cree, Inuit and Southern QuebecWomen: Similarities and Differences. CanadianJournal of Public Health, 91, 212-216.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/ BasicPhysical Needs/Health/Inuit Women/ Quebec/womenAbstract: Using the data from a number of thesurveys conducted over the last ten years byQuebec, this study examines the health andcharacteristics of two populations of Aboriginalwomen of northern Quebec compared tothose of women in the rest of the province. Thenorthern populations had a larger proportionof young women. Aboriginal women haveheavier family responsibilities than otherQuebec women. Inuit women had a muchhigher prevalence of tobacco use. Alcoholconsumption was less in northern women, butthe quantity consumed was higher comparedto other Quebec women. Cree women tendedto be more obese, had higher levels of bloodglucose and lower levels of cholesterol. Inuitwomen tended to have lower rates of hypertensionand higher rates of declared hearingloss, including such problems as mentaldisorders. The similarities and differencesobserved among these populations of womencan assist decision makers in setting prioritieswith regards to maintaining and improving theirhealth.48. Lisi, D. (2005). Found Voices: Women,Disability and Cultural Transformation. Womenand Therapy, 14, 195-209.Keywords: Disabilities/women/Women withDisabilities/CultureAbstract: This article explores the culturalconsequences of disability on women. Theauthor interviewed four women with disabilitiesand two mothers and shares some of her ownexperiences with disability. The relationshipbetween disability rights and feminism andethnic identity and the impact of disabilityon the sense of self and personal goals areconsidered, as is the transformative powerof speaking to the larger culture about howdisability experiences inform human perceptionsand social practices.49. MacDonald, M. & Watson, L. (2001).Creating Choices, Changing Lives: TheTransformation of Women’s Corrections inCanada. Corrections Today, 63, 70-75.Keywords: Canada/Corrections/AboriginalWomen/Correctional FacilitiesAbstract: Features the report ’Creating Choices’submitted in April 1990, which presentedrecommendations for federal women’scorrections in Canada. Estimated number ofAboriginal and non-Aboriginal women servingAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing247

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing248federal sentences in Canada as of October2000; Problems experienced by Aboriginal andnon-Aboriginal prisoners; Principles of changerecommended by the report; Regional prisonfacilities in Canada.50. MacDonald, M. (1999). Women’sImprisonment in Canada: A Shifting Paradigm?Thesis (M.A.) -- Carleton University.Keywords: women/Canada/Incarceration/HealingAbstract: This thesis will explore the major policyshift that has occurred in the area of federalwomen’s incarceration--women who havebeen sentenced to prison terms of over twoyears. The Task Force on Federally SentencedWomen was assembled in 1989 and submittedtheir report ‘Creating Choices’ in 1990.Since that time, the Correctional Service ofCanada has attempted to shift the paradigmof women’s incarceration from a traditionalpunitive model to a woman-centered modelof corrections. This model includes the creationof five new regional prisons and the (eventual)closure of the Prison for Women in Kingston,Ontario. These regionalized prisons were seen bysome as advancement in women’s correctionsbecause of their holistic, healing philosophy.Others view the construction of more prisons,even though they reduce the pains ofimprisonment, as a fundamental mistake thatwill result in the incarceration of more women.Even though there are some problems withthe model, I argue that they do not negate itspremise. The model has been realized.51. Mailloux, L. (2001). Inuit HealthInformation Initiative: Discussion Paper. (Rep.No. Prepared for the Inuit Women’s Associationand Inuit Tapirisat of Canada). EquilibriumConsulting.Keywords: Canada/First Nations/Inuit Women/HealthAbstract: This discussion paper addresses issuesfrom Health Canada’s decision to implementan autonomous First Nations and Inuit HealthInformation System that will be linked withthe Canada Health Infoway. Focus of paperis to assist Inuit Tapirisat of Canada (ITC) inpartnership with Pauktuutit, the RegionalInuit Associations, Inuit communities and theCanadian government in the developmentof an Inuit-specific health infostructure. TheInuit principle of “Inuuqatigiittiarniq,” whichencompasses the holistic world view of theInuit, is pointed out as an essential componentof an Inuit health program. The paper suggeststhat using traditional Inuit knowledge wouldbe usefeul in developing manuals for medicalstaff and social workers in the North and for Inuitgoing out on the land.52. Marshall, C. A. (1992). The Power ofInquiry as Regards American Indian Womenwith Disabilities: Divisive Manipulation or ClinicalNecessity? Journal of Applied RehabilitationCounselling, 23, 46-52.Keywords: Disabilities/women/Women withDisabilities53. McIvor, S. & Johnson, E. C. (2003).Detailed Position of the Native Women’sAssociation of Canada on the ComplaintRegarding the Discriminatory Treatmentof Federally Sentenced Women by theGovernment of Canada filed by the CanadianAssociation of Elizabeth Fry Societies on May 05,2003 Ottawa, ON: Native Women’s Associationof Canada.Available Online: http://www.elizabethfry.ca/submissn/nwac/nwac.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Women/British Columbia/Canada/Healing/Health/Human Rights/Nativewomen/Prevention/RacismAbstract: This document summarizes the NativeWomen’s Association of Canada’s concernsfor federally incarcerated Aboriginal women.Concerns evolved around: 1. Decarcerationof Aboriginal women in the federal prisonsystem. Because of rampant racism withinthe criminal justice system at all levels leadingto the increase in the numbers of Aboriginalwomen incarcerated federally from 15% in1984 to 23% today, NWAC is asking for thedecarceration of Aboriginal women withinCanada’s penitentiary system. NWAC wouldlike to explore with CSC and other interestedparties alternatives to incarceration, includingthe use of section 81 to establish communitybasedhealing facilities for all Aboriginal womenprisoners including those classified as “maximumsecurity”; 2. Capacity building in Aboriginalcommunities to facilitate reintegrationof Aboriginal women prisoners back intoAboriginal society. If Aboriginal women prisonerswithin the Canadian penitentiary system areto be decarcerated beginning in the nearfuture and over a period of years -- the shorterthe better -- Canada needs to invest financialresources at the Aboriginal community level tobuild the capacities of those communities toreintegrate Aboriginal women prisoners withtheir communities and families. Such capacitybuilding can use federal dollars alreadytargeted for Aboriginal community use includingjob creation, training, employment, economicdevelopment, social services, health care andso on. Crime prevention dollars and Departmentof Justice grants and contributions have alsobeen made available to community projects.NWAC requests that some of these funds,and a new special fund aimed at Aboriginalfemale reintegration and community capacitybuilding, be aimed at Aboriginal women’srepresentative organizations to facilitate thisprocess; 3. Facilitation and implementation ofss. 81 and 84 of the Corrections and ConditionalRelease Act [the “CCRA”] for the benefit

of Aboriginal women prisoners. NWAC hasworked with CSC to implement section 81and section 84 of the CCRA unsuccessfully.NWAC proposes the establishment of a joint“NWAC-CSC Planning Committee on Sections81 and 84” to set target dates for a plan ofaction to implement these sections of CCRAaimed at bringing Aboriginal women prisonersunder Aboriginal jurisdiction for healing andreintegration back to their community roots. 4.Compensation for Aboriginal women prisonersfor CSC’s breach of fiduciary obligations owingto them. NWAC proposes the establishmentof an office headed by an Aboriginal womanlawyer/judge/criminologist, supported by CSCstaff and Aboriginal professionals to remedy thebreach by CSC of its fiduciary duty to Aboriginalwomen prisoners with a final report to theMinister, the Solicitor General and the CanadianHuman Rights Commission for implementation;5. Standardization of the treatment of federalAboriginal women prisoners in British Columbia.The incarceration of federal Aboriginalwomen prisoners in B.C. facilities needs to bestandardized with the treatment of federalwomen prisoners elsewhere within the federalsystem to ensure they receive adequateand meaningful programming and humanetreatment without discrimination based onfederal or Aboriginal status. Although this isnot yet happening elsewhere in Canada, asevidenced by this human rights complaint, thereturn of federal women prisoners in B.C. tothe jurisdiction of CSC and the planned movefrom BCCW to Sumas Centre provides a uniqueopportunity in B.C. to remedy the situationand provide an improved implementationmodel for the rest of the country. Those wereNWAC’s preliminary submissions. What followsis an elaboration on the NWAC proposals andposition with respect to the Elizabeth Fry HumanRights Complaint.54. McLintock, M. J. (1999). FunctionalIndependence and Active Living: An ActionResearch Study with First Nations Elders. Thesis(M.A.) -- University of Alberta, 1999.Available Online: http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/ftp01/MQ40014.pdfKeywords: Canada/Empowerment/ Exercise/First Nations Communities/Healing/ Health/ResearchAbstract: The health of Canada’s First Nationspeople is ranked among the lowest in thecountry. And while a great deal of attentionhas been given to the means of improving thehealth of the younger members of this culturalgroup, almost nothing is either known about,or has been done for, its elderly members. Withfunding provided through Health Canada, NewHorizons/Partners in Aging, the Elders and HealthCentre staff of six rural First Nations communitiesin Alberta were introduced to the concept ofActive Living. An Action Research methodologywas used to assist each community to developand implement a physical activity programfor volunteer participants over the age of 50.The aim of these programs was to improvethe functional independence of the seniors,allowing them to live more independently,be more fully involved in the activities of theircommunities, and to rebuild the traditionalrole of Elders. Within the three-month timelimit of this study, the Health Centre staff ofthe participating First Nations communitiesdemonstrated that they were willing and ableto take the necessary steps to get their elderlymembers more physically active. Initiativeswere culturally appropriate and designed anddelivered in the spirit of promoting communityresponsibility, autonomy, local control, andthe rebuilding of the traditional role of Elders inAboriginal communities. Although more pressinghealth issues were identified as the primaryobstacles to a more physically active lifestyle,there is unanimous agreement that the bestsolution to the sedentary lifestyle of AboriginalElders lies in the restoration of traditionalvalues and practices. Physical activity isacknowledged as having an important part toplay in the healing and control of many of thehealth problems of Aboriginal Elders (AuthorAbstract).55. McNab, M. (1995). From the Bush to theVillage to the City: Pinehouse Lake AboriginalWomen Adapt to Change. In D. DeBrou & A.Moffat (Eds.), “Other” Voices: Historical Essayson Saskatchewan Women. Regina: CanadianPlains Research Centre, University of Regina.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ResearchAbstract: Unavailable56. Melnychuk, E., Anawak, C., Idlout,L., Kanayk, E., Reed, D., & Quirke, A. (2000).Workshop on Traditional Inuit Healing andWestern Science-Based Methodologies. InHealth for All in the Year 2000, Ottawa, Ontario,22 - 25 October 2000 Ottawa, ON: CanadianPublic Health Association.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/ Healing/Health/Health CareAbstract: The population of Nunavut isapproximately 27,000 people, of which 85% areInuit. Within the last three generations, therehave been tremendous changes at all levelsof Nunavut society. Traditional Inuit practicesfor healing are different than and separatefrom the healing practices of other Aboriginalpeoples in Canada. These traditional Inuitapproaches are currently being exploredwhile science-based approaches continueto be applied within Nunavut. This workshopwill present traditional Inuit practices byusing real life examples, e.g. midwifery andattending to injuries. Creative delivery of theworkshop material will create a stimulating andAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing249

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healingexperiential learning environment. This workshopwas designed to allow interaction with theaudience using traditional Inuit approaches tohealth and wellness.57. Meloche, M. A. (1997). Partner Abuse inTwo-Spirited Relationships. Unpublished Work.Keywords: Family Violence/Two-Spirited/Education58. Métis National Council (2000).Empowerment: The Key to Better Living for MétisPeople with Disabilities. Ottawa, ON: The MétisNational Council.Available Online: http://www.metisnation.ca/LINKS/pdf_downloads/empowerment.pdfKeywords: Disabilities/Education/ EmpowermentAbstract: This document presents the goals ofthe Empowerment Project initiated in 1999. Thegoal of the project is to empower Métis peoplewith disabilities. The objectives are twofold andfocus on: developing a national education,training and employment strategy for and byMétis people with disabilities; and enablingMétis organizations to increase the capacity ofMétis people with disabilities to develop andimplement programs and services addressingtheir needs.59. Mitchell, S. (1991). Raising the Issues: ADiscussion Paper on Aging Women in Ontario.Toronto, ON: Ontario Advisory Council onWomen’s Issues.Keywords: Disabilities/Health/ImmigrantWomen/Men/Native women/Older Women/Rural Women/women/Women with DisabilitiesAbstract: While becoming older presentsproblems for both men and women, thereare some aging concerns that are unique towomen, including life expectancy, society’sattitudes towards aging men and women,health status, access to health and socialservices, and economic status. This reportexamines the lives of older women in Ontariotoday. It discusses aging as a women’s issueand outlines the unique problems faced byolder women. It also highlights the key concernsof older women with special needs, i.e., womenwith disabilities, immigrant women, francophonewomen, Native women, and rural women.60. Moffitt, P. M. & Robinson Vollman,A. (2004). Photovoice: Picturing the Healthof Aboriginal Women in a Remote NorthernCommunity. Canadian Journal of NursingResearch, 36, 189-201.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Health/ RemoteCommunities61. Monture-Angus, P. (1995). Thunder inMy Soul: A Mohawk Woman Speaks. Halifax:Fernwood Publishing.Keywords: Canada/Education/History/ Justice/Racism/WorkAbstract: This collection of works thatdeveloped over time is aimed atcommunicating the Aboriginal experiencewithin Canada. The history of oppression,racism and colonialism are presented in theMohawk traditional methodology of storytelling.Issues of society, such as law, politics, justiceand change, are included. The author’s own“intellectual evolution” is shared through theinclusion of personal and academic writings.Aboriginal experiences with education, racism,the criminal justice system and feminismare discussed and traditional knowledge ispresented as essential to Aboriginal survival ashuman beings.62. Monture-Angus, P. (1999). Womenand Risk: Aboriginal Women, Colonialism, andCorrectional Practice. Canadian WomanStudies, 19, 24-20.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Canada/FirstNations/Justice/Aboriginal Peoples/Work/GenderAbstract: Although I do not disagree in principlewith this statement, it is not very realistic inpractical terms. As a result of the coloniallegacy of Canada, Aboriginal nations are notrepresented as nations in the way our politicalorganizations have been structured. Rather,these Aboriginal nations are organized aroundthe classifications which arise out of the IndianAct regime either because of registration as an“Indian” or the lack of such a legal recognition.This must be seen as a demonstration ofthe degree to which colonial policy andpractice has fragmented and restructuredAboriginal governing structures. For example,the Assembly of First Nations is an organizationwhich represents Indian Act Chiefs while theCongress of Aboriginal People representsthose who are not entitled to be registered ormaintain off-reserve residency which disentitlesthem from many of the benefits of the IndianAct. If the power to have justice relationships isnot maintained at the community level but atthe nation level, as the Royal Commission onAboriginal Peoples endorses, then the power forAboriginal persons to exercise their jurisdictionin justice matters is seriously compromised if notfully limited. Although this first recommendationis an eloquent statement of principle, it meansvery little in practical terms as our nationsno longer remain significantly organized inthis political way. Therefore, celebrating thewisdom of the Royal Commission which sawfit to acknowledge the self-governing powerof Aboriginal nations must be cautiously250

undertaken. The impact of colonialism wasdiscounted by the Commission, if not fullyignored, and as a result no real opportunityexists to transform the recommendationsfrom mere words into reality. Several of thesedimensions are particularly problematic forAboriginal “offenders.” Aboriginal people donot belong to communities that are functionaland healthy (and colonialism is significantlyresponsible for this fact). Therefore, constructinga “community functioning” category ensuresthat Aboriginal people will not have accessto scoring well in this category. This is not afactor for which individuals can be held solelyaccountable. Rather than measuring risk,this dimension merely affirms that Aboriginalpersons have been negatively impacted bycolonialism. The same kind of assessment canbe put forward for the dimensions of “marital/family” and “associates” as the incidence ofindividuals with criminal records is greater inAboriginal communities. It has been frequentlynoted that the issue of substance abuse inAboriginal communities is a symptom (f.14) ofa much larger problem. Therefore, this simpleanalysis demonstrates that scoring higher onthese categories is predetermined for Aboriginalprisoners because of the very structure of theinstruments. What is being measured is not “risk”but one’s experiences as part of an oppressedgroup. The work that assesses the validity ofthese risk prediction scales is also a problembecause it does not see race (Aboriginal)and gender (female) as categories that areinclusive (see [Motiuk]; [Blanchette Kelly]; Bonta;and Collin). The studies tend to examine thevalidity of these scales for Aboriginal peoplebut not for Aboriginal women. Despite this fact,prison administrators and senior bureaucratsremain committed to applying these “tests”and concepts to the structure of individualAboriginal women’s prison sentences as wellas to the manner in which the prisons in whichAboriginal women serve their sentence arestructured. In my opinion, this is a violation ofthe Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms’section 15 equality provisions. It also strains thecommon sense interpretation of section 28of the Corrections and Conditional ReleaseAct, which provides that persons confined ina penitentiary shall be confined in the leastrestrictive environment. If risk prediction scalesare not valid for Aboriginal women (and I havenot seen convincing documentation thatthey are), then security decisions based onthese scales cannot be reasonably applied toAboriginal women.63. Monture-Okanee, P. (1992). DiscussionPaper: Aboriginal Women and the JusticeSystem. Paper submitted to the RoyalCommission on Aboriginal PeoplesKeywords: Aboriginal Peoples/AboriginalWomen/Gender/womenAbstract: This report examines the values andconcepts which shape and underlie Aboriginalwomen’s relationship with the Canadian justicesystem. Exploring the meaning of such wordsas “criminal,” “justice” and “violence” from anAboriginal perspective, the author concludesnot only that there is a pressing need for theincorporation of the Aboriginal world viewinto the justice system, but that the latter’sunderstanding of violence as it pertains toAboriginal women must be reconstructed sothat it better reflects such women’s day-to-dayrealities (Dion Stout, 1997).64. Monture-Okanee, P. A. (1992). TheRoles and Responsibilities of Aboriginal Women:Reclaiming Justice. Saskatchewan Law Review,56, 237-266.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequatePower/JusticeAbstract: Unavailable65. Monture-Okanee, P. A. (1993).Reclaiming Justice: Aboriginal Women andJustice Initiatives in the 1990s. In AboriginalPeoples and the Justice System (pp. 105-132).Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/AboriginalWomen/Adequate Human Services and SocialSafety Net/Adequate Power/ Culture/FirstNations/Well-beingAbstract: This author of this paper is a Mohawkwoman, mother and wife. She is a strongbeliever in the tradition Aboriginal ways,both spiritually and through justice. Theauthor expresses concern for the well-beingof Aboriginal people who suffer under themainstream justice system. The author believesthat justice requires humanity. That there has tobe a true understanding of the culture, traditionand spirituality of Aboriginal peoples beforethere can be real justice. She notes that FirstNations peoples have celebrated 500 yearsof resistance to colonial oppression and thatthis resistance is rooted in the culture in whichFirst Nations peoples have survived. Monture-Okanee also notes that Aboriginal women havebeen subjected to discrimination due to thearrogance of many Aboriginal men becausecolonialism changed the views of Aboriginalmen and made them oppressors. Monture-Okanee is a strong believer that feministthought can inform Aboriginal women’s reality.66. Morin, S. (1999). Federally SentencedAboriginal Women in Maximum Security:What Happened to the Promises of “CreatingChoices”? Ottawa, ON: Correctional ServiceCanada.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Canada/Racism/Research/womenAbstract: This report reflects interviewsconducted between December 1997 andFebruary 1998 in Springhill Institution, Prisonfor Women, the Regional Psychiatric CentreAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing251

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing252(Prairies), and Saskatchewan Penitentiary,with federally sentenced Aboriginal womenand corrections staff. The report is divided intosections that focus on different areas relevantto Aboriginal women in prison. Backgroundinformation is provided on current legislationand policy as it applies to the Aboriginalwomen, and on the research methodology.Common themes emerging from the interviewsare then outlined and views of the womenand staff are summarized with regard tosuch issues as intake assessment, correctionalplanning, programs and delivery, barriers toreducing an individual’s security level, attitudestoward the staff and institution, and family andcommunity support. Findings and identifiedneeds are discussed with respect to racism,discrimination, and breaches of confidentiality.Finally, recommendations for improvement intreatment of Aboriginal women prisoners arelisted. Appendices include copies of interviewguides.67. Morrison, D. (1988). Dene Women andthe Experience of Isolation. Unpublished WorkKeywords: Adequate Human Services andSocial Safety Net/Adequate Income andSustainable Economies/Basic Physical Needs/Education/WorkAbstract: Objective: To interview Dene womenabout their educational levels and experiences,marriages, family background, religious training,and participation in traditional roles in orderto determine which variables contribute mostto feelings of isolation; to use the informationcollected to develop outlines for futureresearch. Summary: Debra Morrison interviewedDene women to find out which social factorscreate a feeling of isolation. She askedquestions about their education, marriages,family, religious involvement and work. Theinformation will help her identify future research(Au).68. Murphy, L. E. (2003). Public Mothers:Native American and Métis Women as CreoleMediators in the Nineteenth-Century Midwest.Journal of Women’s History, 14, 142-166.Keywords: Health/Health Care/Métis WomenAbstract: During the early 19th century, thelargely Francophone, mixed-ancestry residentsof the western Great Lakes region were facedwith massive immigration of Anglophonewhites who colonized the region, imposing anew U.S. government, economy, and legalsystem on the old Creole communities. Manyof these immigrants from different culturalbackgrounds in the eastern United Statesbrought their prejudices and fears with them,attitudes that had the power to alienateand marginalize the old residents. This articleexplores the ways in which some women ofcolor found techniques to mediate betweencultural groups, using hospitality, charity, andhealth care to negotiate overlapping idealsof womanhood common to both Anglos andNative-descended people. In so doing, theywon praise from both new and old neighbors,as they used Creole patterns of networkbuilding to smooth community relations (JournalAbstract).69. Nahanee, T. A. (1995). Gorilla in ourMidst: Aboriginal Women and the Inhumanityof the Canadian Criminal Justice System. Thesis(LL.M.) -- Queen’s University at Kingston, 1995,Kingston, ON.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Canada/ Justice/CorrectionsAbstract: This thesis explores the inhumanityof the Canadian criminal justice system as itengages with Aboriginal women as victimsand perpetrators of crime. I argue, along withrepresentatives of Aboriginal women, thatthe administration of criminal justice needs anAboriginal female sensitivity. The Aboriginalfemale voices of reason which are crying outin the wilderness need to be brought into theboardrooms of government. Aboriginal womenmust be given a meaningful role in redefiningthe everyday impact of criminal justice reformsin Aboriginal communities. The primarilypatriarchal system of criminal and constitutionallaws does not benefit Aboriginal women, and,in fact, harms them as these laws are appliedin the daily lives of Aboriginal women. I arguethere is a constitutional place for Aboriginalwomen to be involved, namely throughAboriginal self-government, whose jurisdictionmay include criminal justice administration. Onlywhen Aboriginal women exercise their rights toparticipate in shaping the future of Aboriginalcriminal justice administration will the violenceagainst them within and outside the systemstop.70. Napholz, L. (1998). Bicultural Resynthesis:Tailoring an Effectiveness Trial for a Group ofUrban American Indian Women. AmericanIndian and Alaska Native Mental HealthResearch, 9, 49-70.Keywords: Children/Culture/Healing/ Suicide/Trauma/Urban Aboriginal WomenAbstract: The purpose of this qualitative studyof a six-week effectiveness trial was to describeamong a group of urban American Indianwomen the process of successful traditionalismin the form of bicultural resynthesis. Biculturalresynthesis represents a major current attempton the part of the participants to integratetraditional and contemporary demands ina positive, culturally consistent manner. Thethemes of shame and isolation, adapting tosurvive, deculturation, ethnic switching/renewal,and bicultural resynthesis are discussed. Furthersupport is achieved for retraditionalizationof American Indian women’s roles as aneffective means of achieving American Indian

self-determination and as a potential way ofhelping women overcome problems.71. Napholz, L. (2000). Balancing MultipleRoles among a Group of Urban MidlifeAmerican Indian Working Women. Health Carefor Women International, 21, 255-266.Keywords: Health/Health Care/Urban AboriginalWomenAbstract: This six-week study draws on the roleconflict reduction intervention plays in the livesof eight urban American Indian women. Thebalancing of multiple roles and integratingtraditional and contemporary femininestrengths in a positive manner is the focus of thestudy.72. National Aboriginal Network onDisability (1992). Voices in the Wilderness:Aboriginal Women and Disabilities [Website].National Aboriginal Network on Disability.Available Online: http://www.schoolnet.ca/aboriginal/disable6/index-e.htmlKeywords: Aboriginal Women/Culture/Disabilities/Women with DisabilitiesAbstract: This paper identifies issues affectingAboriginal women with disabilities andAboriginal women who are primary caregiversof disabled relatives. It is the result of a literaturereview, discussions with Aboriginal womenand a two-day “Aboriginal Women’s Circleon Disability” held in Ottawa in March 1992.The paper also contains recommendationsbased on the Women’s Circle discussions aswell as discussions about: Aboriginal Cultureand Disability; Self-Image and Sexuality; AlcoholAbuse; Vocational Rehabilitation; Abuse; Lostto the System; Aboriginal Women as Caregivers;Voices in the Wilderness; Recommendations;Communication Plan.73. National Indian and Inuit CommunityHealth Representatives Organization (1999).Women & Health. In Touch, 13.Keywords: Adequate Human Services andSocial Safety Net/Canada/Women’s HealthAbstract: Looks at the heath of Aboriginalwomen in Canada.74. National Indian and Inuit CommunityHealth Representatives Organization & Kuran,H. J. (2002). Keeping Our Frail Elders Involved- Community Programs that Work. In Touch,Winter.Available Online: http://www.niichro.com/cfc/cfc_6.htmlKeywords: Canada/Culture/Depression/ Work/YouthAbstract: Many factors affect the level ofinvolvement in community programs by theAboriginal frail elderly across Canada. InOctober 2002, NIICHRO conducted surveyswith CHRs in communities across Canada andasked them about their programs for their frailelderly. Overall, the main points gathered fromthe surveys showed that to increase physicalactivity opportunities for the Aboriginal frail andelderly the focus should be on the following:(1) retaining culture in activities and programs;(2) reducing isolation, loneliness, depression;(3) getting Elders involved; ensuring accessto transportation/mobility; (3) ensuring theyhave the proper diet/nutrition; (4) adequatehome and community care; (5) provide morecaregiver training and family support; (6)carrying on traditions - involvement with youth;(7) making sure that there are goals for youthinvolvement with Elders.75. National Indian and Inuit CommunityHealth Representatives Organization & Kuran,H. J. (2002). The Barriers to Healthy Living andMovement for Frail Aboriginal Elders. In Touch,25.Available Online: http://www.niichro.com/cfc/cfc_3.htmlKeywords: Canada/Disabilities/Inuit WomenAbstract: NIICHRO started the Coming FullCircle project with a Literature Review. TheLiterature Review helped to uncover issuesthat affect frail elderly Aboriginal people inCanada. The information gathered helpedNIICHRO researchers develop questions forCommunity Consultations needs assessments inthree communities in Canada. For the ComingFull Circle training, NIICHRO used the followingdefinition of the word “frail”: “Frail” means anyperson at any age who is physically, emotionallyor spiritually unable to care for him/herself orcomplete daily activities without the assistanceof a family member or caregiver. Some of themain points from the literature review included:(1) Seniors (65 and over) are the fastest growingsegment of the Canadian population; (2)Aboriginal people are generally considered“seniors” at age 55 simply due to the chronicdiseases and disability issues that affect them ata younger age; (3) By 2016, it is estimated that7% of the Aboriginal population will be seniors,with many becoming frail or disabled; (4) Inthe future, the frail and disabled population willrequire higher levels of care and social services.We must keep our aging seniors active andmotivated so that they continue to contributetheir valuable knowledge to future generations.Physical activity must happen throughoutlife, not just when age, frailty, or disabilitiesbecome issues. The Aboriginal frail elderly aremore likely to have chronic illnesses. They arealso more likely to have activity limitations andphysical disabilities. The rate of disability amongAboriginal people is very high in Aboriginalcommunities. Thirty-one per cent report aAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing253

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing254disability compared to thirteen per cent inthe general population. Many frail or disabledelderly must leave their reserve to get the carethey need. Disabled Aboriginal seniors are oftendiscriminated against away from their reserves.76. Native Women’s Association ofCanada (1996). Proceedings of the Policingand Aboriginal Women Workshop, Winnipeg,June 22, 1996. Ottawa, ON: Native Women’sAssociation of Canada.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Policing/Corrections/JusticeAbstract: In this workshop report, policing issuesas they touch upon Aboriginal women arehighlighted and discussed. In the paper’s finalsection, the recommendations and concernsof workshop participants are presented. Theseinclude the need to promote the employmentof Aboriginal people, particularly women,within police forces, the desirability of exploringthe potential of alternative justice systems;and finally the importance of addressingthe problem of sexual harassment of femaleAboriginal police officers (Dion Stout, 1997).77. Nielsen, M. O. (2003). CanadianAboriginal Healing Lodges: A Model for theUnited States? The Prison Journal, 83, 67-89.Keywords: Aboriginal Incarceration/ AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/Correctional Programming/ Critical LearningOpportunities/Cultural Integrity and Identity/Healing/Spirituality and A Sense of Purpose/14Abstract: Native Americans areoverrepresented as incarcerated offenders, yetthere are few effective programs available tothem. Prisoners of Aboriginal ancestry are alsooverrepresented in the Canadian correctionalsystem. A number of culturally appropriate,innovative programs have been developedto effectively lower their recidivism rate in thatcountry. This article explores one such initiative,the Aboriginal-operated healing lodges, byfocusing on one institution: the Stan DanielsHealing Centre in Edmonton, Alberta, thelargest and oldest in Canada. The history of thecenter is presented as well as data about itsresidents, staff, mandate, ideology, programs,and recidivism rates. A number of potentialobstacles to the development of such acenter in the United States are discussed, butit is concluded that this model might be veryeffective in some states with a sufficiently highNative American population (Journal abstract).78. O’Doherty, C. (1997). Gender andHealth: From Research to Policy: Access toHealth Care Services for Aboriginal Women: TheCurrent Legal Framework. Halifax, NS: AtlanticHealth Promotion Research Centre, DalhousieUniversity.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Access to Care/Adequate Human Services and Social SafetyNet/Gender/Health/Health Determinants/Meaningful Work and Service to OthersAbstract: Discusses the demographic profileof Quebec’s Aboriginal population from dataprovided by the 1991 Census and IndianRegistry. Includes a discussion of the healthdeterminants, Aboriginal women and theCanadian constitutional framework with regardto federal and provincial responsibility forAboriginal health, the transfer of health careresponsibilities, sharing of skills, as well as theright to equality and self-government (CWHNAbstract).79. O’Gorman, K. & Delaney, R. (1996).Natural Helpers in the Northern Context: WomenWho Made a Difference in NorthwesternOntario. In R. Delaney, K. Brownlee, & M. K. Zapf(Eds.), Issues in Northern Social Work Practice(pp. 159-172).Keywords: Critical Learning Opportunities/Meaningful Work and Service to Others/ WorkAbstract: This chapter of the book was designedto acknowledge women’s contributions tonorthern social welfare and describes fivewomen who made a substantive differenceto the peoples of northwestern Ontario.Recognition is also made of the fact that thereare many others who have made contributionsthat are being left out. Among the five womendescribed in this chapter is Joy Ashan Fedorick,a 49-year-old Cree-Métis woman who worked inthe field of social issues for more than 24 years inWinnipeg, Kenora and Thunder Bay.80. Older Native Women’s Health Project& Saskatoon Community Clinic (1995). SharingOur Health Circle: The Grandmothers’ HealthAssessment Report. Saskatoon, SK: The OlderNative Women’s Health Project SaskatoonCommunity Clinic.Keywords: Critical Learning Opportunities/Health/Women’s Health81. Palumbo, D. & Palumbo, J. (1992).What is Their Truth? Listening to the Voicesof Aboriginal Federally Sentenced Women.Ottawa, ON: Correctional Services Canada.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Corrections/Voices/JusticeAbstract: This paper discusses the problemsfaced by federally sentenced Aboriginalwomen and measures what could potentiallybe implemented to improve the system. Thepaper includes transcriptions from a forumdiscussion on creating choices, held by the TaskForce on Federally Sentenced Women in 1992,as well as quotations from Aboriginal womendescribing their formative experiences andexperiences with the justice system.

82. Pauktuutit Inuit Women’s Association(2001). The Inuit Women’s Health IssuesWorkshop. Ottawa, ON: Pauktuutit InuitWomen’s Association.Keywords: Inuit Women/Women’s HealthAbstract: Unavailable83. Peters, E. (2002). The Two Major LivingRealities: Urban Service Needs of First NationsWomen in Canadian Cities. In K. B. Miranne & A.H. Young (Eds.), Gendering the City: Boundariesand Visions of Urban Life (pp. 41-62). Rowmanand Littlefield.Keywords: First Nations Women/Urban LivingAbstract: Unavailable84. Poelzer, A. (1985). Métis Women’sLives and the Dynamics of Northern EconomicDevelopment. Saskatoon, SK: University ofSaskatchewan.Keywords: Métis Women/Northern EconomicDevelopmentAbstract: Unavailable85. Pollack, S. (2003). Racialized Women inthe Prison Context: Deconstructing DominantPractices and Reconstructing Alternatives.Available Online: http://www.oise.utoronto.ca/depts/aecp/CMPConf/papers/Pollack.htmlKeywords: Aboriginal Women/Canada/ Health/Offenders/Racism/women/WorkAbstract: This paper will examine and critiquethe Correctional Service of Canada’s mentalhealth policy with female offenders. Anoverreliance upon cognitive-behaviouraltreatment which posits that criminal offendingresults from cognitive distortions and an inabilityto reason, de-racializes (and de-genders)women’s experiences. Alternative approaches,such as anti-oppression and feminist poststructuralpractices, will be examined for theirpotential to provide alternative mental healthprogramming for racialized incarceratedwomen. The mental health programming forwomen prisoners does not reflect the diversityof experiences resulting from varied socialpositioning. Further, women from differentcultural and racial backgrounds (e.g. Aboriginalwomen) who have various types of experiences(such as abuse, domestic violence, psychiatrichospitalization, residential schools, racism, etc)are assumed to have the same mental healthneeds.86. Pompana, Y. (1993). Cultural IdentityCase Study: A Métis Woman, Winnipeg,Manitoba. Paper prepared for the RoyalCommission on Aboriginal Peoples.Keywords: Manitoba/Métis WomenAbstract: This an unpublished paper submittedto the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples.87. Roach, K. & Rudin, J. (2000). Gladue:The Judicial and Political Reception of aPromising Decision. (Canada Supreme Courtcase Gladue) (Changing Punishment at theTurn of the Century). Canadian Journal ofCriminology, 42, 355.Keywords: Adequate Power/Canada/Safetyand Security/Social Justice and Equity/ Youth/Justice/ImprisonmentAbstract: This paper examines the SupremeCourt’s decision in R. v. Gladue whichinterpreted the requirement in s. 718.2(e) ofthe Criminal Code that judges at sentencingexamine alternatives to imprisonment “withparticular attention to the circumstancesof Aboriginal offenders.” The authors arguethat Gladue is promising in its recognition ofAboriginal overincarceration as a pressingproblem and of the disadvantages suffered byall Aboriginal offenders including those livingin an urban environment. The authors examinethe relation between s. 718.2(e) and restorativeand retributive principles of sentencing. Theyalso explore the relevance of s. 718.2(e) incases of serious crimes and the role that Gladuemay play in a process of net widening throughextensive use of conditional sentences in caseswhere imprisonment would not normally havebeen imposed. The reception of Gladue in thecriminal justice system, including the SupremeCourt’s subsequent six decisions concerningconditional sentences, is also examined. Finally,the authors explore the negative reception thatGladue received in the popular media and theinitial decision to exclude s. 718.2(e) from the billto enact a new Youth Criminal Justice Act. Theauthors conclude that although it is a promisingdecision, Gladue is not likely to reduce theoverincarceration of Aboriginal people inCanada (Authors’ abstract).88. Rojas, A. (2001). Iglumi Isumatait: AReinterpretation of the Position of Inuit Women.Thesis (M.A.) -- Trent University.Available Online: http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk3/ftp04/MQ57995.pdfKeywords: Canada/Inuit Women/ImagesAbstract: This thesis is a subjective explorationof the images of Inuit women in narrative textsabout Inuit. The intention in writing this thesis is toopen up a space in which inquisitive dialogue isencouraged regarding the generally acceptedposition of Inuit women. Inuit women havebeen portrayed in many contradictory images.These images can be seen as an oppressiveforce that presently confines Inuit women whoonce held a highly important decision-makingAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing255

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healingrole in Inuit society. The reinterpretation of thedescriptions of Inuit women provides a deeperunderstanding of the position of Inuit women inInuit society. This thesis questions the uncriticalacceptance of texts and encourages theemergence of the “active” reader by readingagainst the grain of the text (Author Abstract).89. Ross, L. (2000). Imprisoned NativeWomen and the Importance of NativeTraditions. In J.James (Ed.), States ofConfinement: Policing, Detention and Prisons.New York: St. Martin’s Press.Keywords: Native women/Culture/ ImprisonedAboriginal WomenAbstract: Unavailable90. Sangster, J. (1999). Criminalizing theColonized: Ontario Native Women Confrontthe Criminal Justice System, 1920-60. CanadianHistorical Review, 80, 32-61.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Canada/Gender/Justice/Crime/Colonization/VictimizationAbstract: The author examines the roots ofAboriginal women’s overincarceration inOntario in the 20th century, especially duringand immediately following World War II. Recordsfrom the Mercer, the only Ontario Reformatoryfor Women; Material and cultural dislocationsof colonialism; Gender and race paternalismof the courts and prisons; Cultural gap in thenotions of crime and punishment.91. Seniors’ Advisory Council (2005).Perspectives on Older Women in BC,Socioeconomic Change in the Making. Victoria:Seniors’ Advisory Council, British Columbia.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/British Columbia/Government/History/Older Women/SocialConditions/WorkAbstract: This position paper reports the resultsof a survey, focus groups, and discussionswith 644 British Columbia women aged 55 orover (including Aboriginal women). Surveyquestions covered such matters as age, maritalstatus, work history, family and caregiving,income, pensions, and independent living.Recommendations are made throughoutregarding government policy and services forthe female senior population.92. Shaw, M. (1991). Survey of FederallySentenced Women: Report to the Task Forceon Federally Sentenced Women on the PrisonSurvey. Ottawa, ON: Task Force on FederallySentenced Women, Correctional ServiceCanada.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Canada/OffendersAbstract: This report presents the results of asurvey undertaken on behalf of the Task Force.The survey was designed to assess the viewsof all federally sentenced women in prisonabout their experiences of imprisonment, andthe kinds of programs and services they feelthey need, and to provide a broader profile ofthe population than that routinely available.The experiences of Aboriginal women, thosein provincial prisons, and those serving longsentences were of particular concern. Thesurvey was based on interviews with allwomen at the Prison for Women in Kingstonand all those serving federal sentences underExchange of Service Agreements in provincialprisons. A total of 170 women took part in theinterviews between August and November1989.93. Sillet, M. (1988). National Inuit WomenHealth Concern. Arctic Medical Research, 47,102-103.Keywords: Health/Inuit Women/NorthernWomenAbstract: Unavailable94. Silver, J. (2004). CommunityDevelopment in Winnipeg’s Inner City.Canadian Dimension, 38, 36-39.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/CommunityDevelopment/PovertyAbstract: If you look hard enough in the midstof Winnipeg’s sprawling and decaying innercity, you will see scattered islands of remarkablecreativity and collective action: innovativecommunity development (CD) initiativesbattling the seemingly relentless spread ofurban poverty. Most Winnipeggers are obliviousto this struggle: they choose not to knowabout it - or to care. Some of the most excitinginner-city CD initiatives are being driven bythe Aboriginal community, led in most casesby strong and resourceful urban Aboriginalwomen. Most of these women bring to theseprojects a philosophy of sharing and communitythat is rooted in traditional Aboriginal beliefsystems.95. Sinclair, J. R. (1999). On the Role ofNehiyaw’skwewak in Decision Making AmongNorthern Cree. Thesis (M.A.) -- University ofAlberta.Keywords: Canada/Gender/History/Men/ MétisWomenAbstract: Interviews conducted between 1993and 1998 with community members in the LesserSlave Lake area of northern Alberta, a bushCree (Nehiyaw sakawiyiniwak) community, formthe basis for an exploration of the traditional roleof Métis women in collective decision makingin that community. Oral history methodology,256

interview style, and analytic conventions informthe study. Men’s and women’s traditionalroles appear to have assumed a differentialfocus in various decision-making spheres, butwere based on an unquestioned assumptionof gender equality. Men and women appearto have used somewhat different processesin contributing to making collective decisions.Traditional roles have been confused with theimposition of an outside social and legal system.An appendix includes transcribed interviewswith 14 Elders (Author Abstract).96. Statistics Canada. (8-27-2002). Health ofthe Off-Reserve Aboriginal Population, 2000/01.The Daily Catalogue 11-001E. Ottawa, ON,Statistics Canada.Available Online: http://www.statcan.ca/Daily/English/020827/d020827.pdfKeywords: Basic Physical Needs/HealthAbstract: This report states that Aboriginalpeople who live off reserve in cities andtowns are generally in poorer health thanthe non-Aboriginal population, accordingto the first ever study using new data fromthe 2000/01 Canadian Community HealthSurvey. The study found that inequalities inhealth persisted between Aboriginal peoplewho lived off reserve and other Canadiansafter socioeconomic and health behaviourfactors were taken into account. Four healthmeasures were used in the comparisonbetween Aboriginal and non-Aboriginals: (1)self-perceived health; (2) chronic conditions; (3)long-term activity restriction; and (4) depression.97. Stern, P. R. & Condon, R. G. (1995).Puberty, Pregnancy, and Menopause: LifecycleAcculturation in a Copper Inuit Community.Arctic Medical Research, 54, 21-31.Keywords: Health/Inuit Women/WorkAbstract: In the past three decades CopperInuit women have gone from a situation offamily-centered births in tents and snowhouses,to community births in government-run nursingstations to hospital births hundreds of milesfrom home. This process, which has been welldocumented by John O’Neil, Patricia Kaufertand others, is one aspect of the medicalacculturation of the Canadian Inuit. Thepresent work demonstrates how this medicalacculturation has profoundly affected boththe quality and the character of informationflow between generations regarding all lifecycle processes from birth to puberty tomenopause. This paper examines the changesin the transmission of cultural information aboutlife processes for three generations of Inuitwomen in the central Canadian Arctic villageof Holman and will consider the historical andsocial roots of these changes. Among thefindings of the authors is that both elderly andyoung women are relatively knowledgeableregarding issues related to reproductive healthand are comfortable discussing these topics.Women in their middle years, however, appearto be less knowledgeable and often displaydiscomfort with the subject (Journal Abstract).98. Stone, S. D. & Doucette, J. (1989).Marginal Women Unite! Organizing the DisAbledWomen’s Network in Canada. Journal ofSociology and Social Welfare, 16, 127-145.Keywords: Canada/Welfare/Disabled Women/Disabilities/Aboriginal Women99. Sugar, F. (1989). Entrenched SocialCatastrophe: Native Women in Prison.Canadian Woman Studies, 10, 87-89.Keywords: Incarcerated Women/AboriginalWomen/Incarceration/Correctional FacilitiesAbstract: This article discusses conditionsfacing Aboriginal women in prison, thestructural conditions which have led to theiroverrepresentation among prison inmates, andmeasures needed to correct the situation. Theauthor was at one time an inmate at KingstonPrison, the prison for women. Her article reportson the current statistics for inmates, the reasonsfor incarceration and the lack of programmingavailable to inmates.100. Sugar, F. & Fox, L. (1990). NistumPeyako Seyako Seht’wawin Iskwewak: BreakingChains. Canadian Journal of Women andDevelopment, 3, 465-482.Keywords: Aboriginal Incarceration/ AboriginalWomen/Incarcerated Women/1Abstract: In this paper, the authors offer ahighly personal and compelling analysis of theconditions under which Aboriginal womenhave come to figure so prominently amongthe population of female inmates in federalcorrectional facilities. Arguing that racism liesat the heart of the criminal justice system’streatment of Aboriginal women, the authorsargue that there is an urgent need for healing“through tradtional ceremonies, support,understanding, and ... compassion” (p.482)(Dion Stout, 1997).101. Sugar, F. & Fox, L. (1995). Survey ofFederally Sentenced Aboriginal Women in theCommunity. Ottawa, ON: Correctional Servicesof Canada.Available Online: http://www.csc-scc.gc.ca/text/prgrm/fsw/nativesurvey/toce_e.shtmlKeywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequatePower/Family Violence/Racism/ViolenceAgainst Women/Women OffendersAbstract: Summarizes interviews with federallysentenced Aboriginal women all of whomhave served federal time in prison. IntervieweesAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing257

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing258reflect on issues of brutality, violence, racism,and oppression. The groundbreaking researchdone by these two Aboriginal women revealsthat most of these women had been subjectedto childhood violence, sexual assault, and/orrape. This report summarizes and discussesimplications of interviews with 39 Aboriginalwomen who have served time in federal prisons.Each woman was asked to tell how she grewup, how she came to be in prison, and whathappened to her after emerging from prison.Themes revealed in the interviews include familyviolence, violent crime, and maltreatment byprison authorities, racism, and the need forAboriginal support services.102. Sutherns, R., McPhedran, M., &Haworth-Brockman, M. (2005). Rural, Remoteand Northern Women’s Health: Policy andResearch Directions: Final Summary Report.Winnipeg, MB: Centres of Excellence forWomen’s Health.Keywords: Basic Physical Needs/ Gender/HealthServices Research/Inuit Women/Rural Women/Women’s HealthAbstract: Addresses the health concernsof rural, remote and northern women.Includes data collected from focus groupsand workshops with women from diversecommunities across Canada, including fishersand farmers, and from Aboriginal, Francophoneand Anglophone communities from coast tocoast to coast. The authors also draws on datacollected from a National Consultation meetingheld in Saskatoon (2003).103. Tait, C. L. (1999). New BeginningsProject: Wellness Needs Assessment ofAboriginal Women Living in Montreal.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/ Health/Montreal/Well-beingAbstract: The aim of this component was todesign and conduct a qualitative assessment toidentify the health, wellness, and social serviceneeds of Aboriginal women living in Montreal.104. Tuchak, T. M. (1997). EmpoweringInuit Women in Community-based EconomicDevelopment (crafts). Thesis (M.Sc.) -- Universityof Alberta.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/Canada/Empowerment/Inuit Women/NorthernCommunities/ResearchAbstract: The goal of this thesis is todescribe and analyze a community-basedeconomic development project involvingInuit craftswomen participating in a craftproduct development workshop in order todetermine whether the participants becameempowered and, if so, to verify and analyzethe empowerment process. An operationaldefinition of, and assumptions aboutempowerment are developed. Participatoryaction research methods are used to guidethe data collection. The method is shownto be the most appropriate for conductingcollaborative research with northern Aboriginalpeoples. The data collected is shown to supportthe operational definition and assumptions,indicating the existence of an empowermentprocess during this research. Suggestions forfurther research emphasizing the necessity oflong-term study of empowerment are made.This research is of interest to Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal scholars, professionals and residentsof small northern communities endeavoringto improve the community-based economicdevelopment process and involve local peoplein it.105. Valentine, F. (2001). EnablingCitizenship: Full Inclusion of Children withDisabilities and their Parents. (Rep. No. CPRNDiscussion Paper No. F|13). Ottawa, ON:Canadian Policy Research Networks.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/Children/Disabilities/Education/Government/ Research/WorkAbstract: The paper includes a comprehensiveset of 12 tables and four boxes, which detailcurrent interventions. Building on this detail, theauthor uses the enabling conditions for healthychild development identified in CanadianPolicy Research Networks’s earlier work as theorganizing framework to analyze the needsof these families and the existing policies. Theenabling conditions are adequate income,effective parenting, and supportive communityenvironments. He describes the unique financialand parenting challenges faced by familiesthat have children with disabilities, and thewide variation in the policies and investmentchoices undertaken by employers, governmentsand communities. He demonstrates that theseparents and their children do not benefit fromfull access to work, education, and individualand community supports and services. They arenot, therefore, living as full citizens. A great dealon the disability situations faced by Aboriginalpeoples and parents is discussed throughout.106. Vicq, S., Dufour, L., Keewatin, E.,Arcand, D., & Whitecalf, T. (1995). Stories fromKohkom: Sharing our Values, Teaching ourYoung. Saskatoon: READ Saskatoon.Keywords: Canada/Health/Native women/Storytelling/CultureAbstract: “The Saskatoon Community Clinicbegan a program of outreach to Aboriginalgrandmothers in the fall of 1992 with fundingfrom Health Canada. This outreach was calledthe Older Native Women’s Health Project.Project staff visited grandmothers in their homesand brought them together to talk about theirown health as well as that of their families

and communities ... By telling their stories, thegrandmothers are sharing their strength andwisdom with the community.” -- P. 4 “This book isdedicated to the [23] Aboriginal grandmotherswho told their stories to teach the youngergenerations about life, traditions, and values...”-- P. 3107. Wachowich, N. with Apphia AgalaktiAwa, R. K. K. a. S. P. K. (1999). Saqiyuq: Storiesfrom the Lives of Three Inuit Women. Montreal,QC: McGill-Queen’s University Press.Keywords: Canada/Health/History/InuitWomen/Montreal/Voices/StorytellingAbstract: Includes a discussion on: (1) Awa,Apphia Agalakti, 1931-1996; (2) Katsak, RhodaKaukjak; (3) Katsak, Sandra Pikujak; (4) InuitCanada History 20th century; (5) Femmes inuitNunavut Biographies; (6) Inuit Canada Social lifeand customs; (7) Femmes inuit Nunavut Histoire,Inuit women Canada Social life and customs;(8) Inuits personal narratives; and (9) NunavutBiographies. Saqiyuq is the Inuit word for astrong wind that suddenly changes direction.Clearly, the lives of these strong Inuit womenhave totally and irrevocably changed. Theirsis a simple story of survival and strength, theessence of their lives. Storytelling is an integralpart of Inuit life and the means by which life skillsand values are shared. Wachowich went to theNorth first to observe the Inuit. These womenbecame her friends, and she later returnedto record their stories on tape with the help ofinterpreters. Respectful of oral tradition, she hasattempted to faithfully translate these women’soral histories into written narrative.108. Wakewich, P. & Parker, B. (2002).Mapping Research on Women and Health inNorthwestern Ontario. Thunderbay, ON.Available Online: http://www.yorku.ca/nnewh/english/pubs/Mappingresearch.RuralandRemoteWomen Keywords: FirstNations/First Nations Women/Health/ResearchAbstract: The focus of this paper is on a reviewof the literature regarding women and healthin northwestern Ontario and to identify gapsbetween existing research and concernsidentified by northern women and isolated FirstNations women specifically.109. Wall, S. (2000). Disability and Wellbeing?:The Story of an Aboriginal Woman.Thesis (M.S.W.) -- University of Regina, Regina, SK.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/Disabilities/Gender/History/Multiple Oppressions/Research/Well-being/WorkAbstract: This study analyzes how livingwith a disability affects the well-being of awoman of Aboriginal ancestry. The researchis an exploratory, qualitative, feminist study.The social well-being model developed byRoeher Institute and the theory of multipleoppressions provide the analytical backgroundfor the study. The study focused on a womannamed “Hope” and concluded that her race,class, gender, and disability interrelate tosignificantly affect her quality of life. An oralhistory approach was used in data collectionthrough multiple interviews with a woman who isreferred to as Hope. Two theoretical frameworksare used in the data analysis. First, the socialwell-being model developed by the RoeherInstitute breaks down the concept of wellbeinginto three elements: self-determination,democratization and equality. The secondtheoretical framework used is the theory ofmultiple oppressions, which emphasizes theinterlocking nature of all oppressions. It alsostates that oppression is structured on multiplelevels -- the personal, group, and institutionallevels. The theory of multiple oppressionsemphasizes the importance of placing theexperience of the person or group beingstudied at the center of the work, a beliefconsistent with oral history methodology110. Webster, C. M. (2004). Classificationwithout Validity or Equity: An EmpiricalExamination of the Custody Rating Scale forFederally Sentenced Women Offenders inCanada. Canadian Journal of Criminology andCriminal Justice, 46, 395-421.Keywords: Social Justice and Equity/WomenOffendersAbstract: In order to fulfill its legal mandateto assign an initial security classification ofminimum, medium, or maximum to all federallysentenced women offenders, the CorrectionalService of Canada (CSC) has used the CustodyRating Scale (CRS) - an objective statisticaltool - for more than a decade. Despite CSC’snumerous claims of this tool’s validity and theequity of its outcomes, it has been repeatedlysuggested that the CRS misclassifies women ingeneral, and Aboriginal women in particular.This article extends the (theoretical) debatesurrounding the applicability of the CRS forthese two subgroups of the inmate population.Using actual findings published by CSC, thisarticle empirically demonstrates that the overallscale, one of its two subscales, and many ofthe individual items making up the classificationtool have weak or no predictive validity forAboriginal and/or non-Aboriginal women.Further, it provides evidence that the CRSintroduces a systematic bias against Aboriginal(relative to non-Aboriginal) offenders whereby asubstantial proportion of these minority womenare unjustly overclassified in higher levels ofsecurity. The article concludes with a discussionof several of the broader theoretical and policyimplications of these findings.111. Webster, C. M. (2004). “Taking Downthe Straw Man” or Building a House of Straw?Validity, Equity, and the Custody Rating Scale.Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing259

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing260Canadian Journal of Criminology & CriminalJustice, 46, 631-639.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Canada/ Justice/OffendersAbstract: The article focuses on issues relatedto the Custody Rating Scale (CRS) of Canada.While a significant linear relationship existsbetween overall CRS security level designationsand institutional incidents for women as agroup, this relationship collapses for Aboriginalfemale offenders. More specifically, theinstitutional incident rates for Aboriginal womenclassified in minimum and medium securityare essentially the same. Clearly, the CRSlacks predictive validity for this subsample offemale offenders, as it is unable to discriminateaccurately between these two securityclassification designations according to differingprobabilities of inmate risk. The most seriousfinding is that the CRS introduces a systematicbias against Aboriginal offenders whereby asubstantial proportion of Aboriginal womenare unjustly overclassified at higher levelsof security. Despite the fact that relative totheir non-Aboriginal counterparts, the largemajority of Aboriginal offenders designated asmedium security are not involved in institutionalincidents, they are nonetheless classified atthese higher levels.112. Webster, R. W. (2002). AboriginalWomen and Menopause. Journal of Obstetricsand Gynecology Can., 24, 938-940.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Basic PhysicalNeeds/Diabetes/Health/Health Care/Manitoba/Native Americans/women/ WorkAbstract: Objective: To determine thecharacteristics of menopause in Aboriginalwomen, in particular Canadian Aboriginalwomen. Methods: An extensive review ofarticles extracted from both medical andnon-medical databases was undertaken.The search strategy combined the key word“menopause” with any of the following terms:Aboriginals, Native Americans, Natives, Indians,Métis, and Inuit, Eskimo, and Indigenouspeople. Results: A total of 29 records werefound, 13 of which had results relevant to theobjective of the study. These articles suggestthat menopause may have a positive effect onthe lives of Aboriginal women with respect toincreasing their freedom within the community.Aboriginal women appear to experiencefewer vasomotor symptoms than other NorthAmerican women. Conclusion: More researchneeds to be done to determine the effectmenopause has on Canadian Aboriginalwomen and their coexisting diseases such ascardiovascular disease, hypertension, anddiabetes mellitus. This work will allow health careproviders to make more informed decisionson managing Aboriginal women’s transitionthrough menopause in areas such as hormonereplacement therapy (Journal Abstract).113. Weibe, R. & Johnson, Y. (1998). StolenLife: The Journey of a Cree Woman. Toronto,ON: Alfred A Knopf Canada.Keywords: Healing/Social Justice and EquityAbstract: This is a wonderful collaborationbetween a white man and a Native woman. Itspeaks in both voices with power, control andpoignant, devastatingly honest emotion. Writtenwith the help of award-winning author RudyWiebe, this acclaimed novel tells of YvonneJohnson’s experience while imprisoned forfirst-degree murder in 1991, and the spiritualstrength she eventually found. A compellingstory of murder, morality, justice and injustice,Stolen Life: The Journey of a Cree Woman isJohnson’s account of the troubled society welive in. Powerful and eloquent, this is a bookabout Indian life, of stolen land and stolen lives,which eloquently chronicles one woman’s pathtoward healing.114. Williams, A. M. (1997). Canadian UrbanAboriginals: A Focus on Aboriginal Womenin Toronto. The Canadian Journal of NativeStudies, XVII, 75-101.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequateIncome and Sustainable Economies/SocialJustice and Equity115. Williams, D. G., Lange, P., Bayfield,D., Beardy, M., Lindsay, E. A., Cole, D. C.,et al. (1992). A Lament by Women for “thePeople, the Land” [Nishnawbi-Aski Nation]: AnExperience of Loss. Canadian Journal of PublicHealth, 83, 331-334.Keywords: Canada/Health/Health CareAbstract: In response to a hunger fast by fivemembers of the Sandy Lake Band at the SiouxLookout Zone Hospital in Northern Ontario(Canada) -- a cultural protest of the status ofhealth care services in the Zone -- the FederalMinister of Health agreed to establish a panelto review the region’s health care system. Theyear-long study involved hearings in each ofthe 28 remote communities of the Zone, andinterviews with Elders and chiefs, women,and health care providers. A consultationteam from McMaster University (Faculty ofHealth Sciences) assisted the panel withepidemiological survey research, literaturereviews, and the interpretation of the datacollected in the proceedings. This paper offersour interpretation of data collected from thequalitative study component. Specifically, itprovides an interpretation of the discourse ofthe Native women of the Nishnawbi-Aski Nationon their experience of health and health care.An “idiom of loss” captures, we feel, the depthof their concerns, dilemmas and frustrations(Journal Abstract).116. Wilson, K. J. (2001). The Role of MotherEarth in Shaping the Health of Anishinabek: A

Geographical Exploration of Culture, Healthand Place. Thesis (Ph.D.) -- Queen’s University,2001.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/Canada/Culture/First Nations/First Nations Communities/Health/ResearchAbstract: This dissertation contributes to anexpanding body of research within healthgeography that focuses on the role of placein shaping experiences of health. Recentresearch within the geography of health hasbegun to acknowledge and demonstratethat the meanings ascribed to places as wellas individual experiences of places contributeto health. The birth of the journal ‘Health andPlace’ is a reflection of the changing paradigmswithin the geography of health that argue fordifferent perspectives and analyses of place.At present though, research on health andplace is limited. Meanings of place and therelationship between place and health haveculturally specific dimensions, yet these tend tobe overlooked especially with respect to FirstNations peoples. First Nations peoples have arelationship with the land that contributes totheir experiences of place and health. However,while geographic research has explored FirstNations’ health, few studies have actuallyattempted to explore the influence of culturalbeliefs and values on health -- let alone theintricate link between the land and health. Thisdissertation presents the results of two separateyet interrelated approaches to understandingthe intricate relationship between culture,health and place for First Nations peoples.Using data from the 1991 Aboriginal PeoplesSurvey, the first stage of this dissertation exploresthe determinants of First Nations’ health inthe context of cultural variables that proxy arelationship to the land. In the second stageof this research, qualitative methods wereemployed to tap the process through which theland shapes First Nations’ health. The interviewswere conducted in two parts. First, 17 in-depthinterviews were conducted with Anishinabek(Ojibway and Odawa peoples) living in oneFirst Nations community on Manitoulin Island,Ontario. The findings from the interviewssuggest that particular geographies exist inwhich relationships between the land andhealth are manifested. These geographiesare evident across different scales and theydemonstrate that the land, as place, representsmore than just a physical location. Rather, theland is simultaneously physical, symbolic andspiritual. Second, given that the urban FirstNations population is increasing, interviewswere conducted with Anishinabek who hadrelocated from Manitoulin Island and arecurrently residing in three urban locations:Hamilton, Sudbury, and Toronto. The interviewsexplored the extent to which cultural beliefsregarding the land could be transplantedand accommodated within urban settings.The interviews revealed that Anishinabek cansuccessfully negotiate the specific challengesposed by urban environments and maintainconnections to the land that are necessaryfor health. Further, the results demonstratethat negotiation takes place between andwithin particular geographic scales, both realand imagined. The findings of this dissertationdemonstrate that culture is an importantcomponent of the link between health andplace. Further, incorporating Anishinabeperspectives of health and place reveal thatthe current conceptualizations of health andplace within the geography of health literatureare partial (Author Abstract).117. Zambrowsky, S. (1986). NeedsAssessment on the Native Women Who Are orMay Be in Conflict with the Law in the Regionof Montreal. Ottawa, ON: Solicitor GeneralCanada.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Justice/Montreal/Native women/ResearchAbstract: This report describes the findings ofa field study carried out in the Montreal areaduring the months of January to June, 1987; inthe wake of a growing awareness on the partof Native Friendship Centre personnel that anincreasing number of Aboriginal women, manyof them Inuit, were coming to the Centre foremergency help. Through her research, theauthor derives an estimate of the number ofAboriginal women on the streets of Montreal,their use (or non-use) of available socialservices, and their involvement with the criminaljustice system. Among the most significantrecommendations to emerge out of this projectis the need for an Aboriginal women’s shelter inMontreal that would be staffed by Aboriginalpersonnel (Dion Stout, 1997).118. Zellerer, E. (1999). Restorative Justicein Indigenous Communities: Critical Issuesin Confronting Violence against Women.International Review of Victimology, 6, 345-358.Keywords: Canada/Culture/Education/InuitWomen/Violence Against WomenAbstract: This article discusses restorative,community-based responses to violenceagainst indigenous women in northern Canada,including wife abuse, marital rape, andviolence. The author argues that restorativejustice holds great promise, but there aresignificant challenges to ensuring that violenceis effectively confronted and women areprotected. Six critical issues are examined: (1)breaking the silence and education; (2) theneeds of victims; (3) power relationships; (4)Elders; (5) cultural values; and (6) resources.Data are provided from a study of violenceagainst Inuit women in the Canadian easternArctic. Although the focus is on indigenouscommunities, these issues are viewed aspertinent to many other communities andcultures (Journal Abstract).Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing261

119. Zellerer, E. (2004). Aboriginal Women’sStruggles for Justice in Canada. In S. Pickering& C. Lambert (Eds.), Global Issues, Women andJustice. Sydney, Australia: Sydney Institute ofCriminology.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Australia/Canada/Social Justice and Equity120. Zellerer, E. (2005). Northern Women inConflict with the Law. Unpublished WorkKeywords: Social Justice and EquityAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and HealingAbstract: The researcher will hold discussionswith authorities in Yellowknife to help guidethe research. Data will be collected fromgovernment documents, archival material,court records, and interviews. Pre-sentencereports will be examined and women who arebeing held at the Fort Smith Correctional Centrefor Women will be interviewed. In addition,correctional authorities and service providerswill be interviewed.262

11. Social, Educational andEconomic Determinants ofHealthThe role of poverty, housing, income,homelessness, single parentfamilies and current family trendsincluding the role of child welfarein relation to Aboriginal mothers are thecentral points of debate in this section.The literature grouped under this sectionincludes material that that cross-examinesa wide variety of economic, educationaland social issues that affect Aboriginalwomen, either individually or in theirsocial and family roles as mothers and/orcommunity and citizen members. Theresearch under this caption highlights theunderlying economic factors which canand do impinge on the health and qualityof life experienced by Aboriginal womenin Canada. This section has been brokendown into nine subsections that look at:(1) overall, the economic and social issuesfacing Aboriginal women, including:(2) the consequence of poverty andmarginalization; (3) single mothers; (4) thedevelopment of health and social servicedevelopment programs for Aboriginalwomen; (5) income and economicfactors; (6) the role of child welfare and itsimpact on mothering; (7) the role of socialrelationships among Aboriginal groups;(8) housing; and (9) homeless Aboriginalwomen. The educational literature underthis section is also divided into three areas.While the material under this section is notall connected to health issues specifically,it does have a great deal of connectionto the issue of health. Education and theresearch that results through educationalavenues are important to understandingthe health conditions, needs and strategiesrequired for improving the health ofAboriginal women. The three sub-sectionsunder this area look at (1) educationalperspectives in relation to Aboriginalwomen; (2) indigenous knowledge anddoing research with Aboriginal women;and (3) the appropriation of Aboriginalculture, knowledge and medicine.All EncompassingThe six articles under this section alldeal specifically with Aboriginal womenwho are identified as being amongthe most disadvantaged in terms ofincome and health. The materialgrouped under this section deal withsocial as well as economic elementsthat influence Aboriginal women’s livedrealities. Gerber (1990) compared thesocioeconomic situation of Aboriginalmen and women and concluded thatthe most disadvantaged Canadians arefemale, Native and specifically Indianrather than Métis or Inuit. The marginalizedsocioeconomic status of many Aboriginalwomen results in detrimental lifestyles,unsafe environments, and overcrowdedhousing. These conditions impact thelife chances and health status of manyAboriginal girls and women (Grace, 2002).The Final Report of the First Nations andInuit Regional Health Survey (FNIRHS) cowrittenby MacMillan, Walsh, Jamieson,Crawford and Boyle (1999) did not focusentirely on Aboriginal women but it doesprovide statistics on various areas thathave relevance to Aboriginal women’shealth, concerns and needs. Their reportdealt with the health issues surroundingtobacco use, examining residential schoolsand Elder health; chronic diseases, activitylimitations and the need for continuingcare as well as focusing on the search forwellness and health and dental services forAboriginal people. Mannis’ (2005) researchconsidered many factors that contributedto or adversely affected the well-beingof Aboriginal women in Quebec and themaintenance of their health. Mannis notedthat the perspectives and awareness thatemerged from this study exceeded thevery field of health care, extending to moregeneral social issues, social inequalities,socioeconomic conditions and, inparticular, the quality of life of Aboriginalwomen.Poverty and MarginalizationThese twelve articles focused primarilyon the examination of the racializedAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing263

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing264experience of poverty and marginalizationamong Aboriginal women in Canada.The gendered implications of poverty andpoverty discrimination was examined byAbell (2005) who utilized the frameworkof international human rights activism tolook at the relationship between women’spoverty and violence against women,in particular, on the poverty that affectswomen’s capacity to evade or escapeor recover from violence and on theviolence of poverty. Unfortunately, Abell’sarticle does not focus exclusively on theexperience of Aboriginal women living inpoverty. Researchers who have focusedexclusively on poverty and marginalizationissues among Aboriginal families whoare primarily headed by single mothersinclude McIntyre, Connor and Warren(2000), who looked at the prevalence ofhunger among Canadian children and thecharacteristics of coping strategies usedby families in poverty. They noted thatsingle-parent families, families relying onsocial assistance and off-reserve Aboriginalfamilies in particular were overrepresentedamong those experiencing hunger andthat hunger co-existed with the mother’spoor health and activity limitation as wellas children with poor health. Parents(primarily mothers) among this groupoften offset the needs of their children bydepriving themselves from food resultingin a diminished state of health. Miko andThompson (2004) notes that Aboriginalmothers living in poverty often have tochoose between eating and paying therent. The Ontario Federation of IndianFriendship Centres produced two reportsin 2000 and 2003 on poverty and childhunger among urban Aboriginal families(again primarily single-mother parentfamilies). Both studies look at the extentand impact of poverty on Aboriginalchildren and families in urban centres inOntario. The relationship between livingin poverty and being marginalized inconnection to the health of Aboriginalwomen was examined by Polakoff andGregory (2002), Reutter, Neufield andHarrison (2000) and Roussy (2000). Polakoffand Gregory (2002) examined the conceptof health among six women (three ofwhom were Aboriginal) who live in povertyand their struggle for wholeness in the faceof poverty. Reutter, Neufield and Harrison(2000) on the other hand looked at thehealth of low-income Canadian womenby reviewing research that was publishedin English language peer-reviewed journalsbetween 1990 and 1997. They noted thatmuch of this research addressed personalhealth practices and health status butdoes not focus specifically on specificissues for Aboriginal women other thanthe recognition of the need for increasedinvolvement of diverse groups of womenin research, such as homeless women andwomen of various ethnic backgrounds,including First Nations women. Roussy(2000), utilizing grounded research, lookedat the health of pregnant women and thethreat of poverty and violence posed totheir capacity for health. Again, as in theother research noted in this subsection,the focus of Roussy’s article is not entirelyon Aboriginal women but does allude tothe health needs of pregnant Aboriginalwomen. Roussy merely indicates thatspecial efforts must be made to renderculturally sensitive care to First Nationswomen and that there is a need torecognize the connections betweenracism, colonization, poverty and violence.Single MothersOnly two articles looked specificallyat issues for Aboriginal single mothers.Sunseri (1997) looks at neo-conservativegovernment policies and their impacton Aboriginal single mothers in Ontarioand concluded that the effects of neoconservativepolicies are negativefor the well-being of single Aboriginalmothers. Furthermore that these policiesare not gender neutral and have anundertone of racism especially for thisgroup. DIAND commissioned a studyon single Aboriginal mothers based oncustom tabulations from the 1996 Censusof Canada. The study focused on womenwho identify as Aboriginal as opposed tothose who have Aboriginal ancestry asit is this population that is culturally and

socioeconomically more distinct fromthe Canadian mainstream. The studyindicates that single-mother families arealmost twice as common in urban areasas in rural areas among all three identitygroups (Indian, Métis, and Inuit). Amongthe registered population, those living offreserve in urban areas had the highestproportion of female single-parent familieswhile those living on reserve had the lowestproportion. This pattern is similar amongthe other Aboriginal identity populations aswell. The portion of female single-parentfamilies with children 0 to 15 years of agewas also highest among the RegisteredIndian population, especially amongthose living in urban areas as opposed torural localities. According to the statistics,single Aboriginal mothers also tend to beyounger than the general population.Jeremy Hull, who worked on tabulatingthe statistics on single Aboriginal mothersin Canada, also states that educationalattainment may influence the likelihoodof being a single parent; however, thedata is inconclusive about the relationshipbetween educational attainment andbeing a single parent among the femalepopulations in each of the three Aboriginalgroups. On the other hand, educationalattainment does correlate with the levelof employment and income amongstthese groups. Among the Aboriginalpopulation, single mothers have thelowest employment rates and thus lowerearning power. Employment was alsofound to be related to place of residenceas the statistics reveals that Aboriginalsingle mothers living on reserve or in ruralareas had higher rates of employmentthan those living in off-reserve, urbanareas. There was a large difference inemployment rates between Aboriginal andnon-Aboriginal single mothers, especiallyin urban areas where the difference wasmore than twenty percentage points.Aboriginal single mothers also experiencelower incomes when compared to all agebrackets. Aboriginal single mothers arealso overrepresented among those whoare dependent on government transferpayments and again, Registered Indiansingle-parent mothers, in particular, livingin urban off-reserve locations (75%) weremore likely to depend on governmenttransfer payments in comparison to otherAboriginal populations.It is clear from this research that allCanadian single mothers tend toexperience economic disadvantages,including problems in the labour marketand low family income, but Aboriginalsingle mothers, especially those who areregistered Indians and living in urbanlocalities, experience these problemsas well but to a greater extent than doothers. Given the high prevalence ofAboriginal single-parent mothers in urbanareas, low educational attainment, highrates of unemployment and low incomelevels, there is no correlation of theseknown facts with the health status amongthis population. Given recent researchfindings, growing numbers of childrenliving in single-parent families are likely toexperience more educational and healthrelatedproblems than other children. Ifchildren in low economic conditions areat risk healthwise, then so too are theirmothers. Health risks seem to be related toboth income levels and parenting styles.The findings from Hull’s research suggestthe need for further research in other areas.For instance, research on the connectionbetween socioeconomic conditionsand the levels of health amongst singleAboriginal mothers is silent and evidencesan enormous gap in the literature and inour understanding of the quality of healthexperienced by Aboriginal women in thisspecific population.Health and Social ServicesDevelopmentThe research in this area looks primarilyat the development of Aboriginal healthand social service development and therole that Aboriginal women and peopleshave played in developing these services.Allard (1993) documented the evolution ofurban health and social services amongthe Aboriginal population in Winnipeg,interviewing many Aboriginal women-Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing265

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing266centred service organizations. Allard’sresearch documents the degree ofcontrol that Aboriginal people, especiallywomen, demonstrated in the developmentof urban Aboriginal health and socialservices. Antoniow (1993) discussed theoverall approach to the developmentof a “Talking Bridge” initiative that cameabout as a response to gaps in services toAboriginal people with respect to healthcare programs. The project addressed thehealth needs of single parents but also theneeds of Elders, men, youth and womenwho did not have children. Antoniow’sarticle merely describes the goals andaccomplishments of the “Talking Bridge”project rather than focusing primarilyon Aboriginal women. Bennett (2003)documents the involvement of Aboriginalchildren welfare organizations in thedevelopment of child welfare servicesunder the self-government initiatives of theManitoba Framework Agreement Initiative.Interviews regarding the developmentof child and family services were mainlyheld with the executive directors of theFirst Nations Child and Family Serviceorganizations in the southern part of theprovince, the majority of whom wereAboriginal women. The findings of aqualitative assessment identifying thehealth, wellness and social services needsof Aboriginal women living in Montrealwas provided by Contois and Thomas(1999). Their analysis of the barriersto access health services resulted inrecommendations arising from Aboriginalwomen’s perspectives on ways that thesebarriers could be dismantled. Napoli(2002) also looked at the developmentof an integrated holistic health caremodel designed for Aboriginal womenbecause of the health challenges facedby this group. Napoli notes that gatheringtogether to support each other is atraditional custom for Aboriginal womenand that the integrated holistic healthcare model capitalized and was designedaround this fact. As such, the model offersAboriginal women an opportunity to dealwith the challenges of mental and physicalhealth issues through traditional activities,enhancing their physical and spiritualhealth and receiving education whilecreating an atmosphere of empowermentand mutual support.Strategies aimed at developing culturaland community-based health initiatives sothat Aboriginal people could claim andreassert their identities was shared in theresearch conducted by Davis, Dudziak andHarding (2005). They highlight specificallythe work of the Aboriginal Healing andWellness Strategy in the Province ofOntario. The Aboriginal Healing andWellness Strategy (AHWS) is a policy andservice initiative that brings togetherAboriginal people and the Government ofOntario in a unique partnership to promotehealth and healing among Aboriginalpeople. In 1990, Aboriginal organizationsand the government ministries thatdeveloped this strategy expressed acommitment to combat the alarmingconditions of poor health and familyviolence that Aboriginal people in Ontariohave endured. The strategy enablesAboriginal communities to address familyviolence and health service needs throughthe integration of traditional Aboriginalteachings and mainstream healthservices and interventions. More than 250community-based and regional Aboriginalprograms have been established. Theseinclude health access centres, shelters forabused women and their children, andhealing lodges and treatment centres thatblend traditional and western approachesfor the treatment of sexual assault, physicalabuse, addictions and family dysfunction(Davis, Dudziak and Harding, 2005).Income and Economic FactorsThe body of research under this headingfocused directly on the health disparitiesexperienced by Aboriginal peoples aspart of the direct and indirect aspects ofsocial, economic, cultural and politicalinequalities (Adelson, 2004). Dion Stout(1995) in particular addressed theeconomic conditions experienced byAboriginal women which affect themnot only socially and economically, but

also have a direct impact on their mentalwell-being. Donner (2000), while notfocusing specifically on the experience ofAboriginal women, discussed the healthand hygiene of poor women, includingAboriginal women, in Manitoba. Donnerlooked at the health aspects that resultfrom living in poverty, income distributionand the health policies within Manitoba.Kenny’s (2002) research, based on thefindings of focus group and interviewswith 140 Aboriginal women from eightlocations across Canada, highlights thebarriers which policies and legislationcreate for Aboriginal women. Variouslaws, especially the Indian Act and othergovernment policies, do not effectivelysupport or encourage Aboriginal womento maintain full cultural lives while tryingto attain contemporary education andwork. Research on the effectiveness ofemployment, job access and trainingprograms for Aboriginal women in theProvince of Quebec found that programsthat encourage employability forAboriginal women meets various needsamong Aboriginal women from Montrealand surrounding areas. Among the needsand well-being factors identified forAboriginal women were that of earning aliving, participating in community activitiesand being with other Aboriginal people(Lévesque, 2001). Rude and Deiter (2004)looked at the gender implications of freetrade on Aboriginal women, especiallywith respect to forestry issues. Aboriginalwomen from First Nations reserves in BritishColumbia and Saskatchewan indicatedthat they were deeply concerned aboutthe pace and manner in which trade intimber was progressing in Canada and thatoften women’s voices and perspectiveswere not included. Although the focus ofthis research was on forestry issues, it doesprovide insight into the health concernsidentified by Aboriginal women and othercommunity members. Particularly notedwas that the loss of traditional foodstogether with the commercialization ofthe forest increasingly forced Aboriginalpeoples to live off store-bought foodswhich create health problems such asdiabetes and dental concerns. White,Maxim and Gyimah’s (2003) article lookedat labour force activity among Aboriginalwomen and its direct effect on familialstatus and household structure to seewhether these factors had any similaritiesamong Aboriginal and non-Aboriginalwomen. Their research indicates that thelower educational attainment of Aboriginalwomen coupled with the presence ofminor children and lone parenthoodwas found to be associated with a lowerlikelihood of being employed.The Impact of Child Welfare onthe lives of Aboriginal WomenThe literature in this area indicatesthat child welfare and the ideology ofmotherhood impacts Aboriginal womenmore significantly than other femalepopulations within Canada. Bodgden(2000) notes that women who divorceand who deviate from the ideals ofmotherhood leave themselves opento regulation by the courts that decidewhich parent will receive custody ofchildren. Systemic discrimination of womendisadvantaged by Aboriginal status,race, ethnicity, culture, religion, disabilityand sexual orientation in the custodyarena is explored. Among her researchparticipants are the views of two Aboriginalwomen involved in child custody battleswith their partners. Haig-Brown (1998)looked at the history of Aboriginal womenand the role of women as “warriormothers” who should be respected formaintaining, rebuilding and developingvibrant contemporary First Nations lives andcultures. The experience of Native womenwith the child welfare systems are notedin the research conducted by Howse andStalwick (1996) and Kline (1992 and 1993).Kline in particular examined the originsand operation the “best interests” doctrinepromulgated in the law and how thisdoctrine structures and constrains judicialdecisions made respecting First Nationschild welfare. MacDonald (2002) notesthat many Aboriginal women who havehad their children apprehended by childwelfare authorities rarely have had theirAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing267

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing268concerns heard and/or documented inthe literature. Similar research conductedby Pobihushchy (1999) looked primarilyat women identified by child welfareauthorities as being at risk of having theirchildren removed due to their substancemisuse. Pobihushchy identified barriers totreatment for women and the dearth oftreatment options available, especially forAboriginal women. The high percentageof First Nations women, who participatedin this study, Pobihushchy says, indicatesthe need for culturally competent servicedelivery and for empowerment strategiesand processes to be used with thesewomen who are oppressed in many ways.Furthermore, women’s involvement inchild welfare initiatives can also be furthercomplicated by political interferenceby some band chiefs and councilwhen Aboriginal child welfare agenciesinvestigate child abuse (Fontaine-Brightstar, 1996). An extensive look at thechild welfare system and it connection tothe homeless situation among Canadianyouth was conducted by Serge, Eberle,Goldberg, Sullivan and Dudding (2002).One quarter of the youth who participatedin this pilot study identified themselvesprimarily as Aboriginal or gave this astheir first ethnic group. However it wasnoted that Aboriginal youth comprisehalf of homeless youth who have beenin care. Unfortunately, due to limitationsand due to the small number of cases,the authors note it was not possible toanalyze separately the results for varioussubgroups of youth on homelessness, suchas Aboriginal youth or young women. Thedifference in perceptions about feminismand motherhood between Native andnon-Native activists in the United Statesand Canada was the focus of Udel (2001).Udel notes that many Aboriginal womencondemn western notions of feminismbecause it has devalued the role ofmotherhood for Aboriginal women andtheir traditional responsibilities.A rarity in the research on the effects ofthe child welfare system on the Aboriginalwomen who work within this system wasconducted by Reid (2005) who examinedthe mental health of Aboriginal womenworking in the Aboriginal child welfare field.In particular, Reid’s research focused onthe impacts of child welfare work on FirstNations women’s holistic health, how FirstNations women cope with child welfarework, and strategies First Nations womenutilize in dealing with the issues they face indoing this type of work especially in smallFirst Nations communities. The themese inReid’s research identified five themes theinclude the stress of dual accountability,unrealistic expectations and multipleroles, the emotional costs and benefits ofrelationships, the fact that meaningful workgives strength and how women copedand maintained their holistic health undersuch work conditions.Social Relationships amongAboriginal GroupsThe social influences among Aboriginalpeople are behind the focus of theresearch under this heading. Biggs(1995), looking at Inuit relationships, notesthat complex and counterbalancingmotivations underlying attachment,which governed social life in traditionalInuit camps, continue to influenceInuit behaviour in modern settlements.Kendall (2001) stated that Aboriginalpeople endure an “endless circle ofdisadvantageous circumstances suchas family violence, educational failure,poverty, ill health and violence.” Hisresearch reviews the major factors thatcontribute to such conditions and howAboriginal people are trying to interruptthis endless disadvantage. The resilienceof Aboriginal families and the pivotal rolethat families play in healthy communitiesis documented by Castellano (2002),who notes that Aboriginal familiescontinue to survive in various traditionalmultigenerational and extended forms.Castellano documents life stories about thedifferent trends among Aboriginal familiesas they knit together new connectionsin urban environments and with otherAboriginal people who come from diversenations and in the process create “families

of the heart.” Elias (2004) examinedmore closely how the social environmentinfluences the health of First Nationscommunities in Manitoba. How the social,cultural, geographical, economic, healthstatus, risk factors, and health serviceenvironment of First Nations communitiesindependently influence health risk, healthstatus, and preventative health practiceswas examined. Approximately half ofthe participants in a study that looked athealth risks and conducted by O’Neil, Elias,Yassi, Fletcher and Cohen (1997) wereAboriginal women. Cultural perceptions(and implicitly, gender perceptions) withrespect to traditional land use activitiesand the risk associated with industrialdevelopments in four regions wereexplored.Housing IssuesThe lack of housing and lack of affordablehousing on and off reserve as well as inurban areas has a significant impact on thehealth and well-being of Aboriginal womenand their families and communities. Mason(1996) noted that there is a desperateneed for livable, adequate and cleanhousing for all Aboriginal people, especiallywomen in urban areas. Women andchildren especially are doubly affectedby the lack of such housing and in themale-dominated urban settings; the issueof wellness and health affects Aboriginalwomen and their children in ways thatare not often understood. O’Hearn(1995) reported on the housing crisis inInuit communities in northern Canadaand analyzes the link between housingshortages and social problems such asfamily violence and other social problemsin the community. Housing reform and theefforts to improve housing for First Nationspeoples was discussed by Perry (2003) whosuggests that housing was an importantsite in the colonial encounter and thatthe colonial encounter was key to honingand disseminating new ideals related tohousing, gender, and family. Researchon the association between housingdensity, isolation and the occurrence oftuberculosis in First Nations communitieswas conducted by Clark, Nowgesic andRiben (2002). The residential mobilityof marginalized populations, especiallyamong single mothers of Aboriginal origin,was explored by Skelton (2002). A morefocused approach to Native women andhousing was conducted by Chagny (1999)who looked at the importance of involvingwomen in housing projects within a FirstNations community in Quebec that hadbeen relocated 17 years prior. Chagny’sthesis pointed out the importance ofdefining housing layouts in accordance tothe Native families’ choices and sense ofidentity.Homeless Aboriginal WomenClosely associated with the lack ofhousing and affordable housing issues isresearch on homelessness experiencedby Aboriginal women. Bridgman (2000and 2001), a city planner and professor atthe University of Manitoba, appears to bethe only researcher to have conductedresearch among homeless Aboriginalwomen. Her interest in this area stemslargely from her own experiences of beinga homeless woman. Bridgman, usingnarratives and commentaries, notes thatthe stories of homeless Aboriginal womenreveal experiences of ill health, abuse,neglect, alcoholism, and violence butalso the development of deep friendshipsand an abiding sense of reason amonghomeless Aboriginal women. Bridgmanindicates that it is important for Aboriginalwomen to find meaning in their ownexperience of being homeless and shenames herself in her own narratives.Educational PerspectivesWhile not all of the articles under thissubsection deal with health-relatedmatters for Aboriginal women, they doaddress the importance of learning andthe role that education plays in the wellbeingof Aboriginal women. Castellano(1982), a female Aboriginal scholar, notedthat when developing successful healthpolicies with respect to Aboriginal people,Aboriginal people need to be meaningfullyAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing269

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing270empowered to participate. Collier (1994)looked at the educational experience andinfluence on the educational attainmentof other Aboriginal students by ten Creewomen who left their northern communityto attend a nursing college in the south.The role of Ojibway women as adultlearners in a teacher education programwas highlighted by Freeman (2001)while Hawkins (1997) documented thesuccessful outcome of an English languageprogram designed to employ Aboriginalwomen in banking, business and otherbusiness sectors, including the health field.LaRocque (2000) sheds light on “traditionalknowledge” and its impact on NativeStudies and scholarship at the Universityof Manitoba. Similarly, Luther, Whitemoreand Moreau (2003) include the experienceof four Aboriginal women scholars andhow systemic racism in universities affectsthe way Aboriginal women becomescholars and impacts their teaching stylesand interactions with students. Pictou(1996) analyzed the transformation thatMi’kmaq women underwent as a resultof their educational experience. Pictouin particular notes that when Aboriginalwomen are given a chance to criticallyreflect and speak from an Aboriginal/feminist perspective, alternative forms ofknowing emerge that become centralto the learning process and in turn cantransform Aboriginal women’s lives. Theemergence of Aboriginal women scholarsin various disciplines has had a majorimpact on the understanding of Aboriginalhistory as well as on the scholarly andpolitical agendas. Fiske (2000) indicatesthat a review of the literature by, for,and about Aboriginal women in theareas of history, law, education, health,and literature reveals new trends ininterdisciplinarity within feminist studies ofcolonialism, representation, “voice” andissues of equality and empowerment.Frye (2000) also notes the influence ofAboriginal women in terms of supportingand utilizing indigenous methods such asthe use of circle methodology within andacross various disciplines.Indigenous Knowledge andDoing Research with AboriginalWomenAll of the materials grouped under thissubcategory effectively recognize theindigenous knowledge that Aboriginalwomen possess and the importance ofobtaining the participation of Aboriginalwomen in research across variousdisciplines, including health. For instance,Dickson (2000 and 2001) documentsthe role of Aboriginal grandmothers inparticipatory action research aroundhealth needs and interventions forpromoting health among Aboriginalwomen in downtown Vancouver, BritishColumbia. Morris (1999) looked at thecurrent women’s health environmentand the ongoing problem of the lack ofmeaningful research about Aboriginalwomen among other areas such as thatof lesbians, women of racial, ethnic andlinguistic minority backgrounds, womenwith disabilities, young women and womenover 65. The National Aboriginal HealthOrganization (2003) (NAHO) indicated thatresearch is one way to create knowledgeand includes a framework for providingguidance and direction in setting NAHO’scurrent research role and agenda andhelp them determine what research theorganization would support and endorse.Research was conducted by the PrairieWomen’s Association of Canada (2002),who expounded on a group of FirstNations and Métis women’s interest inimproving health services for Aboriginalwomen and their families. Their projectused a community-based approach tobegin dialogue with Aboriginal womenand service providers in Saskatoon togain a better understanding of Aboriginalwomen’s access to health services inthe city, to identify gaps in servicesand to develop a shared vision of anAboriginal women’s health centre thatwould be designed to meet Aboriginalwomen’s health needs. The SaskatoonAboriginal Women’s Health ResearchCommittee (2005), following the ethicalguidelines developed by RCAP, sets out

ethical guidelines for conducting healthresearch with Aboriginal women. Theseguidelines were based on their own workand research with Aboriginal women andadvocate some of the best practicesadopted by the Saskatoon AboriginalWomen’s Health Research Committee.Another set of guidelines developedfor scholars doing health research withAboriginal peoples was developed bya broad range of medical professionals(Smylie, 2001). That guide emphasizedculturally appropriate health care,treatment in Aboriginal languages,providing cultural interpreters andAboriginal health advocates on staff,access to informed consent regardingmedical treatments, the importanceof family and community roles andresponsibilities, respect for traditionalmedicines and work with Aboriginalhealers, as well as attaining knowledgeand involvement in Aboriginal communitiesand the people in them. The strengthof qualitative research is that it offersan approach that can be responsiveto community needs, says Strickland(1999), who utilized grounded theory as amethodology in understanding attitudesheld by Aboriginal women around Pap testscreening. Gaps in research about theneeds of northern and isolated First Nationswomen were addressed by Wakewich andParker (2002). Young (2003) reviewed andexamined existing research to determineif the research had adequately examinedthe health needs of the Aboriginalpeople in Canada and concluded thathealth researchers have not adequatelyexamined several important health needs(i.e. rehabilitation) of the Aboriginalpopulation.Appropriation of AboriginalCulture, Knowledge andMedicineVery little literature exists under thiscategory; however two authors havelooked at the appropriation of culturalknowledge and medicine. Donaldson(1999) in particular examined themisappropriation of Native AmericanIndian traditions and spirituality and itsuse in feminist literature while Rowley(2001) examined more specifically theimages and stereotypes of the life ways ofAboriginal women and how these imagesand stereotypes have historically beenrelated to “nature” in dominating culturesin Canada.An annotated list of all resources organizedaround social, educational and economicdeterminants for Aboriginal women are setout below.Bibliography of Resources1. Abell, J. (2001). Structural Adjustmentand the New Poor Laws. Ottawa, ON,Canadian Feminist Alliance for InternationalAction. 1-16-2005.Available online: http://www.fafia.org/research/violencepang.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Women/Human Rights/Poverty/Racism/Social Class/Social Justice andEquity/Violence against WomenAbstract: Examines the gendered andracialized experiences of poverty/class andviolence in Canada. Within the framework ofinternational human rights activism, it focuseson the relationship between women’s povertyand violence against women, in particular,on poverty that affects women’s capacity toevade or escape or recover from violenceand on the violence of poverty. Also examinesthe gendered implications of the structuring ofpoverty and poverty discrimination in Canadaand integrates other considerations such asrace, age, sexual autonomy and status.2. Adelson, N. (2004). Reducing HealthDisparities and Promoting Equity for VulnerablePopulations: Aboriginal Canada. SynthesisPaper. Edmonton, AB: Institute of Gender andHealth.Available Online: http://www.igh.ualberta.ca/RHD/Synthesis/Aboriginal.htmKeywords: Aboriginal Peoples/AboriginalWomen/Adequate Human Services and SocialSafety Net/HealthAbstract: Reviews the health disparities amongAboriginal peoples (First Nations, Inuit andMétis) in Canada, all direct and indirect resultsof social, economic, cultural and politicalinequities.3. Allard, Y. (1993). Winnipeg Case Studyof Health and Social Services: Final Report.Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing271

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and HealingWinnipeg, MB: Northern Health Research Unit,[Department of Community Health Sciences,Faculty of Medicine], University of Manitoba.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/First Nations/Health/History/Manitoba/Social ServicesAbstract: A social history of Aboriginal healthand social services development in Winnipeg,with the objective of documenting theevolution of urban health and social servicesreflecting Aboriginal priorities and concerns.The report attempts to demonstrate the degreeof Aboriginal control in their development.The study was based on interviews with healthand social service providers, policy makers,and administrators from Winnipeg. Agenciesinvolved included: Aboriginal Women’s Centre;Native Women’s Transition Centre; OriginalWomen’s Network; St. Boniface HospitalNative Services; Ikwe Widjittiwin (Women’sCentre); Mayfair Boarding Home for MedicalPatients; Assembly of Manitoba Chiefs HealthCommittee; Manitoba Métis Federation HealthCommittee; Aboriginal Council of Winnipeg;Métis Child and Family Services; Ma Mawi WiChi Itata Centre; and Health Science AboriginalServices Department. Also involved were:Winnipeg Aboriginal Health Centre SteeringCommittee; Manitoba Department of Health;and University of Manitoba Northern MedicalUnit.4. Antoniow, M. (1993). Final Reportfor the “Talking Bridge” Project “Gaagi DomGak Azchigan”: A Health Innovation InitiativeAdministered by the Sault Ste. Marie IndianFriendship Centre. Sault Ste. Marie, ON: SaultSte. Marie Indian Friendship Centre.Keywords: Aboriginal Parents/Health Care/Single ParentsAbstract: The “Talking Bridge” project wasinitiated in response to an identified gapin services in urban Aboriginal health careprograms; specifically, it addressed singleparent families who lacked emotional supportin their everyday life in situations such asmedical operations, childbirth, mental health,addictions, socialization, health awareness,cultural awareness, financial stresses, physicaland sexual abuse, and peer support. Theproject targeted other areas in need of supportother than single parents. They were Elders,men, youth, and women with no children. Thisreport describes the activities of the projectsince funding was provided by the Ontariogovernment, demonstrating its success, and tojustify continued support for the project.5. Bennett, M. (2003). Perspectives onEngaging the Participation of First NationsPeoples in the Development of Child Welfareunder Self-Government. Thesis (M.A.) -- Universityof Manitoba, 2003.Keywords: Canada/First Nations/ManitobaAbstract: This thesis focuses on some of theexperiences and challenges on how FirstNations citizens have been engaged in publicdiscussions that will inform the developmentof contemporary First Nations governinginstitutions. This research combines an overviewof the literature focusing specifically on selfgovernmentin relation to child welfare andFirst Nations people. The literature reviewalso looks at the role First Nations peopleshave played in community consultationsconcentrating specifically on the ways FirstNations peoples and communities have beenengaged to participate in other consultationinitiatives carried out by Aboriginal andnon-Aboriginal governments and/or nongovernmentorganizations. The review of theliterature is supplemented by an examinationof two very specific child welfare initiativescurrently underway in the Province of Manitoba,with more attention paid primarily to theManitoba Framework Agreement Initiative.The examination of these two initiatives isthen followed by an in-depth data analysisof interviews carried out with a select groupof child welfare professionals from within andoutside Manitoba who shared their perspectiveson aspects of engaging First Nations people’sparticipation in shaping the future of childwelfare under self-government. This researchwill be of particular importance to First Nationscommunities, governments and child welfareauthorities who are interested in engagingand empowering First Nations peoples toparticipate in public discussions on the decisionmakingprocess that might be instrumental forinforming the vision, philosophy, structure andthe consultation aspects of self-determiningefforts of First Nations peoples. The majorityof interviews were conducted with femaleAboriginal executive directors of the southernCFS agencies who provide services to 36southern First Nations communities in Manitoba.6. Bent, K. (2004). Anishinaabe Ik-We Mino-Aie-Win. Aboriginal Women’s Health Issues: AHolistic Perspective on Wellness. Winnipeg, MB,Prairie Women’s Centre of Excellence.Available Online: http://www.pwhce.ca/pdf/abWoHealthBentFull.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/ Health/Women’s HealthAbstract: Aboriginal women suffer the effectsof marginalization in every area of their lives.Profound effects have particularly been notedin their health and wellness status. Yet littleresearch has been conducted to unravelthe complex array of variables that affecttheir health and wellness. Research that hasbeen conducted either medicalizes their272

experiences in a Western fashion, so that littleis still known about the actual lived experienceof health and wellness for Aboriginal women.This research study sought to answer questionsthat are important to Aboriginal women’shealth and wellness because it relates toidentifying aspects of health and wellness thatare unique to Aboriginal women. In Project I,125 Aboriginal women completed a 49-itemquestionnaire designed to assess their healthstatus across four dimensions (i.e., physical,mental, emotional, spiritual), their health andwellness concerns, their access to health careservices in the mainstream and in the Aboriginalcommunity and most importantly their thoughtson what “wellness” means to them. In ProjectII, the primary focus was on identifying aspectsof wellness, health concerns across the samefour dimensions, and documenting Aboriginalwomen’s stories about their experienceswith the health care system. Ten Aboriginalwomen who did not complete the surveyquestionnaire were interviewed and askedquestions relating to their health experiences,needs and concerns. The results indicate thatAboriginal women face health problems thatare not common to non-Aboriginal women andcurrent health care services do not adequatelymeet their needs. These results are discussed interms of acculturation theory. Elder consultationalso provided information for the inclusionof traditional knowledge in the analysis. Theinterview results were analyzed for relevantthemes in relation to the survey data, currentservices and traditional knowledge (Authorabstract).7. Bogden, L. (2000). Where Did All of theGood Mothers Go?: The Gendered Nature ofChild Custody Law. Thesis (M.A.) -- Simon FraserUniversity, 2000.Available Online: http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/ftp01/MQ61410.pdfKeywords: Canada/Research/AboriginalMothers/Gender/Child CustodyAbstract: The ideology of motherhoodembodies a matrix of values and behaviouralstandards deemed to constitute ‘goodmothering’ with the presumption that somemothers are ‘better’ than others. Women incustody disputes are effectively differentiatedby the ideology of what constitutes a goodmother. Upon dissolution of marriage, motherswho deviate from the ideals of motherhoodleave themselves open to regulation by thevery courts that are going to decide whichparent will receive custody of the children.This thesis uses a combination of methods,including interviews with mothers involved incustody disputes, custody cases from January1996-January 1999, and a review of theacademic literature to determine if currentresearch mirrors what women say of their ownexperiences. This thesis demonstrates thatcustody law is gendered and reflective ofpatriarchal ideology. Finally, the thesis offersrecommendations for action.8. Bridgman, R. (2000). My Journey Home:Homeless and Aboriginal and a Woman. InJ.Oakes, R. Riewe, S. Koolage, L. Simpson, &N. Shuster (Eds.), Aboriginal Health, Identityand Resources (pp. 93-104). Winnipeg, MB:Departments of Native Studies and Zoology andthe Faculty of Graduate Studies, University ofManitoba.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Health/Homelessness9. Bridgman, R. (2001). Testimony of OneHomeless Aboriginal Woman: I Can Only StartFrom My Own Story. In J. Oakes, R. Riewe,M. Bennett, & B. Chisholm (Eds.), Pushing theMargins: Native and Northern Studies (pp. 322-337). Winnipeg, MB: Native Studies Press.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Cultural Integrityand Identity/HomelessnessAbstract: This life history of a formerly homelessAboriginal provides an opportunity for one storyto be told. The article experiments with a formin which narrative and commentary are split tohelp us listen to this story without interruption.Within a moral framework, we hear a story thatattests to ill health, abuse, neglect, alcoholism,violence, deep friendship, and an abiding senseof reason. Two questions underlie the author’sarticle: “How does she name herself in her ownnarratives?” and “How does she find meaning inher own experiences?”10. Briggs, J. L. (1995). Vicissitudes ofAttachment: Nurturance and Dependence inCanadian Inuit Family Relationships, Old andNew. Arctic Medical Research, 54, 24-32.Keywords: Inuit families/Family Relationships/Family TrendsAbstract: This paper describes complex andcounterbalancing motivations underlyingattachment, which governed social lifein traditional Inuit camps and continue toinfluence Inuit behaviour in modern settlements.These motivational patterns are capable ofmaintaining a strong sense of personal worthand connectedness with other people; butthey can malfunction in difficult circumstances.The differing vicissitudes of nurturance anddependence in camps and in settlements aredescribed, with focus on the development of avicious circle, which can afflict the self-esteemof Inuit who live under modern conditions(Journal Abstract).11. Cassidy, B., Lord, R., & Mandell, N.(1995). Silenced and Forgotten Women: Race,Poverty and Disability. In N. Mandell (Ed.),Feminist Issues: Race, Class, and Sexuality (pp.26-64). Scarborough, ON: Prentice Hall CanadaInc.Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing273

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing274Keywords: Canada/Disabilities/Poverty/ SocialPatternsAbstract: In this chapter the authors discussthe social patterns and processes by whichdifferently located women are marginalizedwithin feminism. A focus is provided on FirstNations women, African-Canadian women,immigrant women, women with disabilities, andpoor women.12. Castellano, M. (1982). IndianParticipation in Health Policy Development:Implications for Adult Education. CanadianJournal of Native Studies, 2, 113-128.Keywords: Education/Health/Research/WorkAbstract: Development of policy, in this instancehealth policy, must engage meaningful andempowered Aboriginal participation, to besuccessful. Although this is an older article, itremains useful for the author’s insights, whichhave been developed further in her later workon participatory research.13. Castellano, M. B. (2002). AboriginalFamily Trends: Extended Families, NuclearFamilies, Families of the Heart. Ottawa, ON: TheVanier Institute of the Family.Available Online: http://www.vifamily.ca/library/cft/aboriginal.pdfKeywords: Canada/Canadian AboriginalFamilies/Family Trends/Strong Families andHealthy Child DevelopmentAbstract: This paper emphasizes the resilienceof Aboriginal families which continue to survivein various traditional multigenerational andextended forms. It speaks of the different trendsoccurring with Aboriginal families as they knittogether connections in urban environments,with Aboriginal people who come from diversenations and creating “families of the heart.” Thelife stories that the author shares represent someof the trends she has witnessed in Aboriginalfamily life in Canada. The paper discussesadditional details on the traditions that continueto animate Aboriginal families, the historicallegacy that they wrestle with, and the pivotalrole that family plays in their vision of healthycommunities and vibrant citizenship. The lastpart of the paper looks primarily at healingissues for Aboriginal families.14. Castellano, M. B. & Hill, J. (1995). FirstNations Women: Reclaiming Our Responsibilities.In J. Parr (Ed.), A Diversity of Women: Ontario1945-1980. Toronto, ON: University of TorontoPress.Keywords: women/First Nations/First NationsWomen15. Chagny, M. (1999). Native Women andtheir Homes: Gender, Housing and Identity,Case Study: Chisasibi, Northern Quebec. Thesis(M.Arch.) -- McGill University, 1999.Available Online: http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/ftp03/MQ50684.pdfKeywords: Canada/Gender/Housing/NativewomenAbstract: Cree communities in northern Quebechave been going through rapid changes sincethe first arrival of the Euro-Canadians on theirlands. Their customs, their houses and theireating habits have been deeply influencedby Western living patterns. Today, the housesand the community designs remind more ofthe suburban Canadian landscape. Yet, theNative social, cultural and natural environmentstill differs from non-Native communities inCanada. Traditionally, women used to playan important role in the domestic area. Dueto colonization, Native women have lost theirstatus and are not part of the decision-makingprocess of their homes. Despite that, Nativewomen have continued to play a specialrole in fostering a sense of identity in theircommunities. It is therefore important to involvethem in housing projects in order to find designsmore adapted to the needs of their families.The case study took place in Chisasibi, a Creevillage at the North of James Bay, which hasbeen relocated 17 years ago, and been livingin fully equipped houses based on westerndesigns. This thesis aimed at revealing theopinion of Native women about their domesticenvironment and collects their suggestions forfuture improvements. The results showed thatNative families’ lifestyles have become moreand more diversified: some want to incorporatetraditional behavior patterns, other on thecontrary, are more inclined in living the westernway. Of course age and social backgroundplay an important role in their opinions. Still,the major criticism concerns the inappropriatedesigns and the lack of space and storage,which tend to influence the way people usethe space in the house. The thesis pointed outthe importance of defining housing layouts inaccordance to the Native families’ choices andsense of identity (Author Abstract).16. Clark, M., Nowgesic, E., & Riben, P.(2002). The Association of Housing Density,Isolation and Tuberculosis in Canadian FirstNations Communities. International Journal ofEpidemiology, 31, 940-945.Available Online: http://ije.oupjournals.org/cgi/reprint/31/5/940.pdfKeywords: Canada/First Nations/HousingAbstract: This article discusses a study that wasdone to assess the association between housingdensity, isolation, and the occurrence of TB inFirst Nations communities in Canada.

17. Collier, L. (1994). Coming Down South toSchool: Northern Native Women in a MontrealCollege (John Abbott College). CanadianWoman Studies, 14, 20.Keywords: Culture/Education/Montreal/ Nativewomen/women/WorkAbstract: In Ste-Anne-de-Bellevue, a village inthe West Island suburbs surrounding Montreal,stands John Abbott College. Part of the CEGEPsystem (Collèges d’Enseignement Généralet Professionnel) of Quebec, it provides atwo-year pre-university and professionalprograms (nursing, aircraft maintenance,police technology, etc.) to secondary schoolgraduates. Mohawks from the nearby reservesof Kahnawake and Kanehsatake haveattended the college since its inception in1970. They have done so in small numbers,though, and have passed through relativelyunnoticed. In January 1989, however, ten Creewomen from the James Bay area enrolled innursing, making up one third of the new intake.Their arrival, and the resulting culture shockthey and their teachers underwent, led tothe institution of a Cree Nursing Project at thecollege. Counselors were hired to work with theCree communities, students, and staff. So far,two students have graduated; others follow intheir footsteps. Meanwhile, more Cree studentshave arrived to study in social science, businessadministration, and other programs. All thestudents come under the now broadenedmandate of the Cree Nursing Program, with itsexpanded staff of counselors. In 1990, the KativikSchool Board, established under the James BayAgreement to oversee the education of Inuitstudents, set up its own support program andregistered all its students studying in English atJohn Abbott College (others studying in Frenchare registered at a different Montreal college)(Journal Abstract).18. Deiter, C. & Otway, L. (2002). Researchas a Spiritual Contract: An Aboriginal Women’sHealth Project. CEWH Research Bulletin, 2.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/Adequate Power/Canadian Women/CulturalDifferences/Health/Health Beliefs/HealthKnowledge/Life-Sustaining Values, Morals, andEthics/Women’s Health/Work/14Abstract: Article appears in the Winter 2002edition of the CEWH Research Bulletin (Vol.2, No. 3) and in the Fall/Winter 2001/2002issue of Network/Le Réseau (Vol. 4/5, No.4/1). Summarizes research conducted for thePrairie Women’s Health Centre of Excellence.Describes the work of two researchers, ConnieDeiter and Linda Otway, who use specificresearch methods to include the participationof Aboriginal women (CWHN Abstract).19. Dickson, G. (2000). AboriginalGrandmothers’ Experience with HealthPromotion and Participatory Action Research.Qualitative health research, 10, 188-213.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Cultural Integrityand Identity/Empowerment/ Healing/Health/Life-Sustaining Values, Morals and Ethics/Spirituality and A Sense of Purpose/ResearchAbstract: This article describes a case studyexamining the effects of participating in ahealth promotion project, one aspect of whichwas a health assessment conducted usingparticipatory action research. The study wascarried out over 2.5 years in a project for olderAboriginal women (hereafter known as thegrandmothers). Participation in the project andhealth assessment contributed to a number ofchanges in them, which were categorized ascleansing and healing, connecting with self,acquiring knowledge and skills, connectingwithin the group, and external exposure andengagement. This experience demonstrated anapproach to health promotion programmingand conducting a health assessment thatwas acceptable to this group of peopleand fostered changes congruent withempowerment.20. Dickson, G. (1997). ParticipatoryAction Research and Health Promotion:The Grandmothers’ Story. Thesis (PhD) -- TheUniversity of Saskatchewan, 1997.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Canada/Healing/Health/Research/women/14Abstract: This inquiry is a case study of the utilityand appropriateness of participatory actionresearch both as a research methodology andas an intervention for health promotion. In thestudy, I examined the effects of participatingin a health promotion project, one aspect ofwhich was a participatory health assessment. Ialso described in detail the experience of usingparticipatory action research to conduct thehealth assessment. The study was carried outover 2.5 years in a health promotion projectfor older, urban, Aboriginal women (hereafterknown as the grandmothers) sponsoredby the local community clinic. The overallpurpose of that project was to examine thehealth needs of these women and respondthrough health promoting programming. Thegrandmothers were the central participantsin the study. Participation in the project andhealth assessment contributed to a number ofchanges in them which I have categorized as:personal cleansing and healing; connectingwith self; acquiring knowledge and skills;connecting within the group; and externalexposure and engagement. ‘Participation’was identified as the central influenceon the outcomes, ‘action’ as a themeinterwoven throughout, and ‘opportunity’,‘encouragement’, and ‘mediation’ as keycharacteristics of the project and researchenvironment. This experience of usingparticipatory action research demonstratedAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing275

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing276its success as an approach to conducting ahealth assessment which was acceptable to thisgroup of people and congruent with the healthpromotion project in which it was embedded.The analysis of the experience highlights bothtensions and accomplishments. The findingsof the health assessment are published in aseparate document.21. Dickson, G. & Green Kathryn L. (2001).Participatory Action Research: Lessons Learnedwith Aboriginal Grandmothers. Health Care forWomen International, 22, 471-482.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Critical LearningOpportunities/Women’s HealthAbstract: Participatory action research isevolving as both a research methodologyand an intervention for health promotion.Here we describe its use in conducting ahealth assessment as part of a larger projectfor older Aboriginal women (hereafter knownas the grandmothers). The overall purposeof the project was to study the women’shealth needs and respond through healthpromotion programming. The experience ofusing participatory action research revealeda number of lessons, including challengesand points of tension, and determinants andindicators of success. The research teamidentified some implications for considerationby others interested in participatory actionresearch.22. Dion Stout, M. (1995). Social andEconomic Factors Affecting AboriginalWomen’s Mental Health: A TheoreticalPerspective. Ottawa, ON: Native Physicians ofCanada.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Ethnicity/ Health/Well-being/womenAbstract: This paper examines social andeconomic factors affecting the mental wellbeingof Canadian Aboriginal women. Thedisenfranchising effects of poor social andeconomic environments, experiences andliving conditions are highlighted. The authorrecommends that closer attention must be paidto how spirituality, ethnicity and socioeconomicdevelopment can best transverse withrelationships of wealth creation and distribution(Dion Stout, 1997).23. Dion Stout, M. (1996). AboriginalCanada: Women and Health. Ottawa, ON:Health Canada, Women’s Health Bureau.Available Online: http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/canusa/papers/canada/english/indigen.htmKeywords: Aboriginal Women/Basic PhysicalNeeds/Canada/Canadian Women/ Education/Health/Health Care/Health Determinants/Medicine/Social Support/ Traditional Health/Women’s HealthAbstract: In this paper I seek to identify andunderstand the key issues, concerns and trendscurrently affecting the health of Aboriginalwomen in Canada. Adopting a ‘populationhealth’ approach, I argue that Aboriginalwomen’s relatively poor health status (whencompared to that of non-Aboriginal Canadianwomen) can only be understood in thecontext of a range of health determinants,including socioeconomic status, educationand employment conditions; social supportnetworks; physical environment; healthychild development and access to healthservices. Although Aboriginal women areoften faced with highly unfavourable personalcircumstances, they are seeking to effectpositive change in their health status by drawingupon the strength afforded by Aboriginalfeminism and traditional health frameworks.Moreover, in light of such developments as thetransfer of control over health care services toAboriginal communities, as well as the growingacceptance on the part of mainstreammedical and policy communities of the valueof traditional forms of medicine, there is reasonfor cautious optimism regarding the futuredirection that Aboriginal women’s health willtake in this country. However, for Aboriginalwomen to achieve their full health potentialthere must be a sustained commitment on thepart of all concerned parties, including womenand men as well as health care providers andgovernments to tackle not merely the effects ofill health, but also its underlying causes (AuthorAbstract).24. Donaldson, L. (1999). On MedicineWomen and White Shame-ans: New Age NativeAmericanism and Commodity Fetishism as PopCulture Feminism. Signs: Journal of Women inCulture and Society, 24, 617-633.Keywords: Culture/Medicine Women/Aboriginal Culture/SpiritualityAbstract: This article looks at the misappropriationof Native American Indian traditionsand spirituality and its use in feminist literature.25. Donner, L., with contributions fromAngela Busch and Nahanni Fontaine (2000).Women, Income and Health in Manitoba: AnOverview and Ideas for Action. In Winnipeg, MB:Women’s Health Clinic.Available Online: http://www.womenshealthclinic.org/resources/wih/wihreport.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Women/Poverty/SocialConditions/Women’s HealthAbstract: Includes discussions around: (1)Poor women Health and hygiene; (2) Poorwomen Health and hygiene Manitoba; (3) Poorwomen Social conditions Manitoba; (4) PovertyHealth aspects; (5) Income distribution; (6)Income distribution Health aspects Manitoba;

(7) Medical and Health Policy Manitoba; (8)Poverty Manitoba; (9) Women Manitoba.26. Elias, B. (2004). The Influence of theSocial Environment on the Health of ManitobaFirst Nations Communities. Thesis (Ph.D.) --University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB.Keywords: First Nations/Health/Manitoba/ Safetyand Security/Social Justice and EquityAbstract: Manitoba First Nations communitiesare assuming control over health services,and the way health information is collected iscritical to shape the health and social policiesand programs that First Nations peoples willcreate. Although identifying poor health andassociated risk factors is critical for formulatinghealth-promoting interventions, the potentialstill exists that this approach can stigmatizeAboriginal peoples for the state of their health. Itis therefore time to move beyond a biomedicalmodel of individual risk factors to an approachthat can take into account the characteristicsof, and processes occurring at, the levels ofthe individual and the broader environment.This study is the first ever to take a multilevelapproach to understanding the health of FirstNations communities. Of particular interest isthe way that the social, cultural, geographic,economic, health status, risk factor, and healthservice environment of First Nations communitiesindependently influences health risk, healthstatus, and preventative health practices.The primary database used in this study is theManitoba First Nations Regional LongitudinalHealth Survey (1997). First Nations communitylevel characteristics were derived from thissurvey and a number of other data sources.The data was analyzed using multilevel logisticregression modeling techniques. A major findingof this study is that community level factors,independent of individual characteristics,explain higher rates of health risk factors,poorer health status, and preventative healthpractices. Another important finding is thatdifferent social environments and elementsof these environments, along with differentindividual social characteristics, account forthe variation in health risk factors, health status,and preventative health practices within andbetween Manitoba First Nations communities.In light of these findings, this study proposesa number of multilevel social determinantpathways that First Nations policy makers,health directors, health service providers,researchers, and program developers mayconsider when addressing (Author Abstract).27. Fiske, J.-A. (2000). By, For, or About?:Shifting Directions in the Representations ofAboriginal Women. Atlantis: A Women’s StudyJournal, 25, 11-27.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequatePower/women/Education/History/Health/EmpowermentAbstract: In the past fifteen years much haschanged respecting the representation ofAboriginal women in feminist scholarship. Theemergence of Aboriginal women’s scholarshipin law, education, and literature has hada major and much overdue impact on ourunderstanding of their history and their scholarlyand political agendas. A review of the literatureby, for, and about Aboriginal women in theareas of history, law, education, health, andliterature reveals new trends in interdisciplinaritywithin feminist studies of colonialism,representation, “voice,” and issues of equalityand empowerment.28. Flette, E. (2004). Book Review: SeekingMino-Pimatisiwin: An Aboriginal Approach toHealing by Michael Hart (Book Review). Envision:The Manitoba Journal of Child Welfare, 3, 44-47.Available online: http://www.envisionjournal.com/application/Articles/61.pdf#search=’Seeking%20MinoPimatisiwin’Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/CulturalDeterminants/Cultural Integrity and Identity/Healing/Spirituality and A Sense of PurposeAbstract: Elsie Flette’s article provides anoverview of the book Seeking Mino-Pimatisiwin:An Aboriginal Approach to Helping, written byMichael Hart. Hart’s book includes a discussionon colonization, social work’s role in colonialoppression and the role an Aboriginal approachplays in resisting this colonial oppression.29. Fontaine, N. (2001). Neither Here, NorThere: A Reflection on Aboriginal Women andIdentity. Thesis (M.A.) -- University of Manitoba,Fall 2001..Available Online: http://collection.nlc-bnc.ca/100/200/301/swc-cfc/motherhood_issuee/021011-0662326791-e.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Women/Manitoba/Identity/SocialAbstract: This thesis seeks to explore the notionand complexity of identity as it relates toAboriginal women within the contemporaryCanadian colonial context. How do Aboriginalwomen view and position themselves withina contemporary context? As well, how doAboriginal women negotiate their subjectivitywithin conflicting historical and contemporarydiscourses? The overall objectives of theresearch are a) to provide an overview ofvarious theoretical theories on contemporaryidentity; b) to record Aboriginal women’sperspectives and constructions of theiridentity in their own voice and; c) to provide atheoretical analysis on how Aboriginal women’sidentity constructions create and open a newpostcolonial space in which to (re)claim and(re)define themselves. In simple terms, thepurpose of this research is simply to presentthe multiplicity of voice, place and identity ofAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing277

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing278Aboriginal women within the contemporaryCanadian perspective. On a more personalnote, the fundamental purpose in pursuingthis research is for me a way to honour andacknowledge my mother’s struggle and legacyas an Aboriginal woman (Adapted from theIntroduction).30. Freeman, K. M. (2001). Ojibwe Womenas Adult Learners in a Teacher EducationProgram: Towards an Understanding ofAboriginal Women’s Experiences of Learningand Change. Thesis (Ed.D.) -- University ofToronto, 2001.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Canada/Education/Research/womenAbstract: Existing literature in adult educationpays scant attention to the experience ofAboriginal adult learners, especially those whoare women. Further, while more Aboriginalteachers are needed, and the majorityof Aboriginal teacher education studentsare women, almost no research has beenconducted with this student population. Thepurpose of this study is to better understandthe experience of Ojibwe women as adultlearners in a program of teacher education.The study explored the experience of eightvoluntary participants ranging in age from29 to 51 years of age nearing completion ofa two-year university program in Aboriginalteacher education. Participants’ motivations,expectations, characteristics, interaction,experiences in the program, and goals uponcompletion were examined. A qualitativeapproach was employed in gathering data.There were four parts to the study: in-depthinterviews with participants; follow-up interviewsafter individuals had received transcripts of thefirst interview; a demographic questionnaire;and field notes. Interviews, which yielded morethan four hundred typed pages, formed themain part of the study. The emergent researchdesign generated findings which were sortedinto four main themes: relationships with othersas an Aboriginal teacher education student;survival and success as an Aboriginal learner,personal change during the teacher educationprogram; and “I am an Ojibwe woman.”Findings were reported primarily in participants’own words and discussed in relation to theorieson adult learning, adult development andAboriginal education. Interpersonal, communityand cultural connections were important toall participants and significantly influencedtheir educational endeavours. Participantsdemonstrated cultural continuity and a senseof social responsibility in their activities andconcerns as teachers-in-preparation. Programfeatures and other factors which supportedor hindered participants in completing theirprogram were identified and discussed. Thestudy explored aspects of personal changeand raised ethical issues regarding theappropriateness of conducting research inthe area of Aboriginal adult development,concluding that a far deeper and broaderresearch effort would be necessary, and oneconducted from the perspective of a cultural‘insider’ to achieve legitimacy. Conclusionswhich have implications for research andprogram planning in Aboriginal education andquestions for further investigation were identified(Author Abstract).31. Gerber, L. M. (1990). Multiple Jeopardy:A Socioeconomic Comparison of Men andWomen among the Indian, Métis and InuitPeople of Canada. Canadian Ethnic Studies,22, 69-84.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ Discrimination/Socioeconomical DisparityAbstract: This study concluded that the mostdisadvantaged Canadians in terms of incomeare female, Native, and specifically Indianrather than Métis or Inuit.32. Grace, S. (2002). Aboriginal Women. InD. E. Stewart, A. M. Cheung, L. E. Ferris, I. Hyman,M. M. Cohen, & J. I. Williams (Eds.), OntarioWomen’s Health Status Report (pp. 359-373).Available Online: http://www.womenshealthcouncil.on.ca/userfiles/page_attachments/chaptersPDF/Chapter26.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Peoples/AboriginalWomen/Canada/Cervical Cancer/Children/Culture/Diabetes/Disabilities/Family Violence/Health/Men/Suicide/women/Women’s HealthAbstract: In traditional Aboriginal cultures,women are considered to be the givers oflife, and traditionally this role in the family washighly respected. However, many Aboriginalwomen face greater risks of complex healthissues in a variety of areas than women in thegeneral population (Statistics Canada, 1998),and this increased risk is partly attributableto their marginalized position in society andrapid change within their cultures (Indian andNorthern Affairs Canada, 2000). For example,the life expectancy of Aboriginal women issignificantly shorter than that of non-Aboriginalwomen (Statistics Canada, 1998). The suiciderate for Aboriginal adolescent girls is eighttimes the national average. The diabetes rateamong Aboriginal peoples is ten times theCanadian rate, and is generally higher forwomen than men (Young, Reading, Elias, &O’Neil, 2000). Rates of cardiovascular (Anand& Tookenay, 2001) and respiratory diseases(Young, 1998), disability, infections, andmental health problems are all higher amongAboriginal women than in women in general.Aboriginal women suffer higher rates of cervicalcancer (Marrett, 1998), sexually transmitteddisease (Health Canada, 1999c), and cirrhosisof the liver than do their non-Aboriginalcounterparts. A number of Aboriginal womenand children are driven to relocate owingto domestic violence and lack of support,

particularly in remote and isolated communitiesacross the country (National Clearinghouseon Family Violence, 1997). The marginalizedsocioeconomic status of many Aboriginalwomen results in detrimental lifestyles, unsafeenvironments, and overcrowded housing. Theseconditions have an impact on the life chancesand health status of many Aboriginal girls andwomen (Indian and Northern Affairs Canada,2000) (From Overview).33. Haig-Brown, C. (1992). Choosing BorderWork. Canadian Journal of Native Education,19, 96-116.Keywords: Education/Research/WorkAbstract: Research relationships are the keyissue addressed. How should ethnographicmethods be used, if at all, to remedyimbalances of power in educational situations?Haig-Brown lays out what she did and how shedid it in her “border” work as an ethnographer.Holistic principles are centred and applied toher position as a non-Aboriginal researcher.34. Haig-Brown, C. (1998). Warrior Mothers.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Canada/Children/Culture/Education/First Nations/History/women/WorkAbstract: Educational institutions should inspire“warrior mothers” to work together againstandrocentric agendas of homogenization andacculturation. The history of Aboriginal womenin Canada, whose children were abductedand raised in religious schools, is one of culturaldenigration. These students’ daughters andgranddaughters are the warrior mothers whodemand respectful education while persisting inmaintaining, rebuilding, and developing vibrantcontemporary First Nations lives and cultures.35. Hawkins, C. A. (1997). Urban CircleTraining Centre: An English Language Program(First Nations). Thesis (M.ED.) -- University ofManitoba 1997.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Culture/Education/First Nations/Manitoba/WelfareAbstract: This practicum experience is a studyof an English language program developedat Urban Circle Training Centre, a programdesigned to employ Aboriginal women inbanking, business and retail sectors. A problemarose when the materials to teach a 12-weekEnglish language program to this group ofwomen was inappropriate and ineffective.The 14 women studied were between theages of 18-55 years and were all on socialassistance living in Winnipeg. The studentswere attending Urban Circle Training Centreto improve their skills and find employment.The major objective of the English languageprogram was to develop both written and orallanguage skills in a program which integratedAboriginal perspectives so that the studentswere better prepared for employment in theretail, business, and banking sectors of ourcommunity. Needs assessment questionnaires,evaluations and a review of literature were theprimary sources of data collection. The resultsindicated (a) the topics were relevant, (b)students’ oral and written communication skillsimproved, (c) workplace employers found thestudents were prepared to meet the demandsof the workplace, and (d) students found theformat was interesting. From this practicum,I learned (a) the importance of relevancyin program planning, (b) the importance ofcritical reflection in learning, (c) the need foreffective oral and written communicationskills in the workplace, (d) that a meaningfulexperience can be created by developing aninteresting program, (e) students move towardsa greater degree of self-direction in learning,(f) the artistry of education, (g) how to design,implement, and evaluate an English languageprogram, (h) more about Aboriginal culture,and (i) to be prepared to change the directionof the course to meet the changing needs ofthe learners (Author Abstract).36. Howse, Y. & Stalwick, H. (1996). NativeChild Welfare and the Experiences of NativeWomen. (Rep. No. Social Work 200A Manual).Keywords: Critical Learning Opportunities/ Work37. Hull, J. (1996). Aboriginal Single Mothersin Canada, 1996: A Statistical Profile. Winnipeg,MB: Minister of Indian Affairs and NorthernDevelopment.Keywords: Aboriginal Mothers/Single MothersAbstract: This study focusing on Aboriginal singlemothers and their families was commissionedby the Department of Indian Affairs andNorthern Development based on customtabulations from the 1996 Census. It is basedon the population who identified themselvesas Aboriginal and/or as being registered underthe Indian Act. The study takes a descriptiveapproach, providing tables and figureswhich are based on two- or three-way crosstabulations.The first part of the study describesthe prevalence of single mothers and singlemother families in Canada and some of theircharacteristics. Prevalence rates are providedfor families, women in general, mothers andmothers with children under the age of 16.The second part of the study focuses on thecharacteristics of single mothers and singlemother families, looking at such variables aseducational attainment, age, employment,and income. The final section summarizes thefindings and provides some conclusions andbrief discussion of some of the issues raised.38. Jaccoud, M. (2005). The Marginalizationof Aboriginal Women in Montreal. In D.Newhouse & E. Peters (Eds.), Not Strangers inThese Parts: Urban Aboriginal Peoples (pp. 131-Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing279

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing280145).Available Online: http://policyresearch.gc.ca/doclib/AboriginalBook_e.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Peoples/AboriginalWomen/Diabetes/First Nations/Health/ MontrealAbstract: This article is based on a case studyof ten Aboriginal women living in Montreal(eight were First Nations and two were Inuit)under conditions that fall within a theoreticalframework of exclusion and marginalization. Theprimary purpose of the article is on the processof exclusion and marginalizational experiencedby these women who had temporarily orpermanently migrated to Montreal using a lifenarratives methodology. The living conditionsof the women at the time of the study revealedthat they had children placed in care, werereceiving income security payments, weredependent on drugs and alcohol at some pointin their lives and three indicated that they hadhealth problems such as diabetes, anemiaand HIV. The article discusses the migrationpatterns and the lure of Montreal on the livesof these women and the resulting processes ofmarginalization faced by each one39. Kendall, J. (2001). Circles ofDisadvantage: Aboriginal Poverty andUnderdevelopment in Canada. AmericanReview of Canadian Studies, 31, 43-59.Keywords: Poverty/Canada/Government/Aboriginal Peoples/HealthAbstract: Again last year, the United Nationsrated Canada the best country in the world tolive in. This assessment is based upon a country’sHuman Development Index. Even so, noteveryone in Canada enjoys the advantagesof living in a highly developed country. InNovember 1996 the Canadian governmentpublished the 4,000-page, $58 million Report ofthe Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples(RCAP 1996), a report that reviewed and maderecommendations about a wide range of socialand economic issues related to Canada’sAboriginal peoples. The Globe and Mail’s JohnGray, summarizing some of the highlights ofthe report relating to the condition of Nativesin Canada, referred to what the report calls“an endless circle of disadvantage -- familyviolence, educational failure, poverty, ill health,violence” (Gray 1997). This paper will brieflydescribe some of the social and economicconditions of Canada’s Aboriginal peoples,review the major factors contributing to suchconditions, and explore some initiatives beingundertaken to interrupt this endless “circle ofdisadvantage,” one experienced by so manyAboriginal people in Canada.40. Kenny, C. (2002). North AmericanIndian, Métis and Inuit Women Speak aboutCulture, Education and Work. Ottawa, ON:Status of Women Canada.Available Online: http://dsp-psd.communication.gc.ca/Collection/SW21-90-2001E.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequateIncome and Sustainable Economies/ AdequatePower/Critical Learning Opportunities/Culture/Education/Healing/Inuit Women/MeaningfulWork and Service to Others/SocioeconomicDeterminants/WorkAbstract: Three researchers conducted focusgroups and interviews with 140 Aboriginalwomen in eight sites across Canada to studythe barriers created by policies which do notsupport Aboriginal women to maintain fullcultural lives while pursuing contemporaryeducation and work. Sites included rural andurban Manitoba; Toronto, Parry Sound andOttawa, Ontario; Vancouver and Merritt, BritishColumbia; Iqaluit, Nunavut; and rural and urbanNova Scotia. Researchers worked closely withadvisors and site liaisons in each community.Participants offered stories. These were tapedand/or transcribed and analyzed for values,themes and policy recommendations. A seriouscritique of the Indian Act and other policiesaffecting the lives of Aboriginal women isprovided by the participants and researchers’analysis of policy documents (Status of WomenCanada Abstract).41. Kenora Area Committee for SkillDevelopment (1991). Breaking Barriers: NorthernOntario Women in Skilled Occupations =Obiggoon Ka-chii-achii-shing: Gii-we-dinong-Ontarioikwag ona-ga-ji-toonawa Ota-nokiiweniiwa= Surmontons les obstacles: les Nord-Ontariennes dans les métiers spécialis’es.Kenora, ON: Kenora Area Committee for SkillDevelopment.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Employment/Skills/WorkAbstract: Unavailable42. Kline, M. (1992). Child Welfare Law,“Best Interests of the Child” Ideology, and FirstNations. Osgoode Hall Law Journal, 30, 375-425.Keywords: Adequate Power/First Nations/ StrongFamilies and Healthy Child DevelopmentAbstract: This article explores the origins andoperation of the “best interest” doctrine andillustrates how this doctrine structures andconstrains judicial decisions in the context of FirstNations child welfare. The author questions howthe law operates in the area of child welfareand its application to First Nations women,peoples and communities. Not only does Klinepoint to child welfare as a continuing processof colonization but she points to the ideologicaldimensions and forms of child welfare lawsfrom its origins to its impact on recent legislativereform effects in the area of First Nations childwelfare.

43. Kline, M. (1993). Complicating theIdeology of Motherhood: Child Welfare Lawand First Nations Women. Queen’s Law Journal,18, 306-342.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/AdequatePower/First Nations/Strong Families and HealthyChild DevelopmentAbstract: This article provides insight into theorigins and operation of the “best interest of thechild” doctrine and to illustrate how it structuresand constrains judicial decision making inthe context of First Nations child welfareproceedings. After illustrating the difficultyinvolved in transforming ideology through lawreform, the article suggests that First Nationswomen in particular must be empoweredto develop their own child welfare servicesoutside the framework of existing jurisdictionalarrangements and should be in line with the selfgovernmentaspirations of Aboriginal peoples.44. LaRocque, E. (1997). The Colonizationof a Native Woman Scholar. In C.Miller & P.Chuchryk (Eds.), Women of the First Nations,Power, Wisdom and Strength. Winnipeg, MB:University of Manitoba Press.Keywords: First Nations Women/ Colonization/Education/Power/Wisdom45. LaRocque, E. (2000). From the Land tothe Classroom: Broadening Epistemology. InJ. Oakes, R. Riewe, M. Bennett, & B. Chisholm(Eds.), Pushing the Margins: Native and NorthernStudies (pp. 62-75). Winnipeg, MB: Native StudiesPress.Keywords: Safety and Security/Social Justiceand Equity/ManitobaAbstract: The author reflects on “traditionalknowledge” and its impact on Native Studiesand scholarship at the University of Manitoba’sDepartment of Native Studies.46. Lévesque, C. (2001). AboriginalWomen and Jobs: Challenges and Issues forEmployability Programs in Quebec.Available Online: http://www.swc-cfc.gc.ca/pubs/0662654889/200105_0662654889_e.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Women/Canada/Montreal/Status of Women/women/WorkAbstract: This report presents the findings of astudy conducted by Le Partenariat Mikimonfor Status of Women Canada betweenOctober 1997 and March 1999. It is an initialassessment of the utilization and effectivenessof employment, job access and trainingprograms among Aboriginal women in theProvince of Quebec. The study’s first samplefocuses on Aboriginal women living in Montreal;the second sample focuses on women fromthree Aboriginal areas as central to Canada’scommunities living in the regions. There werethree objectives for the study: describe thesituation of Aboriginal women with regard toemployment and employability programs;define the specific needs of Aboriginal womenin the area of training and jobs; and, identifyapproaches for analysis and deliberation,in order to promote employability amongAboriginal women. The findings showed thatemployability programs meet various needsof Aboriginal women clients in Montreal andthe regions. Among those needs are earning aliving, participating in community activities, andbeing with other Aboriginal people. The reportconcludes with a number of recommendations.47. Luther, R., Whitmore, E., & Moreau, B.(2003). Seen But Not Heard: Aboriginal Womenand Women of Colour in the Academy. (2nded.).Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ImmigrantWomen/Racism/Women of ColourAbstract: This book, the proceedings of asymposium, focuses on the experiences ofwomen of colour and Aboriginal womenscholars with issues of equity in the academy.It proffered the opportunity for the participantsto share their lived experiences, ideas andhopes for change. The discussion beginswith a summary of the editors’ research onthe experiences of faculty of colour andAboriginal faculty in Canadian universities.The presentations of four invited speakersfollow. Patricia Monture-Angus describes herstruggles with the process of securing tenure,as an Aboriginal woman. It was the omissions-- what she was not told -- as much as whatwas done to her that made the university achilly, inequitable institution to her. Razackanalyzes the role of the ‘’Native informant’’ andthe spaces that racialized immigrant womenare allocated in the university. While ‘’a littlebit’’ of discussion of racism, hegemony andsocial change is allowed, there is no space forserious challenge to white supremacy. WandaThomas Bernard shares her personal strugglewith the daily obstacles, the visible and invisibledemands on her time and her reclaiming ofhope as a form of resistance in the university.Finally, Joanne St. Lewis shows us how systemicracism in the university is demonstrated in theway we do our scholarship, our teaching, ourinteraction and in every area of our historicaland present existence ‘’in the belly of thebeast.’’ This book calls for a ‘new beginning’guided by the analysis and strategiespresented.48. MacDonald, K. A. (2002). MissingVoices: Aboriginal Mothers Who Have Beenat Risk of or Who Have Had Their ChildrenRemoved from Their Care. Vancouver, BC:NAC-BC.Keywords: Children/Aboriginal Mothers/ ChildWelfare Systems/Missing VoicesAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing281

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing28249. MacMillan, H., Walsh, C., Jamieson, E.,Crawford, A., & Boyle, M. (1999). First Nationsand Inuit Regional Health Survey. First Nationsand Inuit Regional Health Survey NationalSteering Committee.Available Online: http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fnihb-dgspni/fnihb/aboriginalhealth/reports_summaries/regional_survey.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Peoples/AboriginalWomen/Basic Physical Needs/British Columbia/First Nations/Health/Manitoba/ women/Women’s Health/YouthAbstract: The Final Report of the First Nationsand Inuit Regional Health Survey (FNIRHS) wasdeveloped from National Core Data derivedfrom the 1997 National Health Survey of FirstNations and Labrador Inuit communities. Thedata presented in this document representsthe most current, validated health informationon the First Nations in British Columbia, Alberta,Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec,New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and the Inuitpeoples of Labrador. The FNIRHS Reportconsists of seven thematic volumes andappendices consisting of a technical reportand a description of the development process.The thematic volumes are presented in sevenchapters which deal with the following topics:Children’s Health; Examination of ResidentialSchools and Elder Health; Chronic Diseases; TheTobacco Report; Activity Limitation and theNeed for Continuing Care; Search for Wellness;and Health and Dental Services for AboriginalPeople. Each thematic volume includes aliterature review, as well as an analysis of coredata results. Comparison of core data resultswith other national databases such as theNational Population Health Survey (NPHS);National Longitudinal Survey of Children andYouth (NLSCY); and the Aboriginal PeoplesSurvey (APS) are also included whereverpossible. While this report does not focus entirelyon Aboriginal women, it does provide healthstatistics in various areas that have relevance toAboriginal women’s health issues, concerns andneeds.50. Mannis, P. (2005). The Health of NativeWomen in Quebec. Canadian Women’s HealthNetwork, 4/5, 13.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/ BasicPhysical Needs/Canada/Health/HealthDeterminants/Well-being/Women’s Health/3Abstract: From the very start, the QNW’s maintheme has been equality between the sexes-- economically, socially, legally and politically --in addition to campaigning for more equilibriumbetween the living conditions of Aboriginal andnon-Aboriginal peoples. According to reportson the health care situation of Aboriginalwomen, the importance of maintaining theseobjectives becomes even more obvious. Anextensive examination of the documentationon the health of Aboriginal women, a projectcarried out with the support of the Centre ofExcellence for Women’s Health -- ConsortiumUniversité de Montréal (CESAF), produceda number of findings attesting to the manyproblems that Aboriginal women in Quebecface to varying degrees. The document,entitled Femmes autochtones et santé: un étatde la situation (Aboriginal Women and Health:An Assessment), has two specific objectives: tobe a basic reference on the different aspectsof Aboriginal women’s health and to piquethe interest of decision makers regarding issuesaffecting Aboriginal women. This documentwas based on the Health Determinantsapproach, as developed by Health Canada.This approach is especially interesting in that itallows us to consider the many factors that maycontribute to or adversely affect the well-beingof women and the maintenance of their health.From this perspective, this exercise in awarenessfalls within, by definition, a greater context andexceeds the very field of health care, extendingto more general social issues, social inequalities,socioeconomic conditions and, in particular,the quality of life of Aboriginal women.51. Martin Hill, D. (2000). IndigenousKnowledge as a Tool for Self-Determination andLiberation. Paper presented at the NationalAssociation of Native American Studies Section(Houston, TX, February 21-26, 2000). Houston, TX,National Association of Native American StudiesSection.Available Online: http://tinyurl.com/5lgajKeywords: Cultural Integrity and Identity/Culture/Empowerment/Healthy Ecosystem andSustainable Relations Between Human Beingsand the Natural World/Native Americans/Spirituality and A Sense of PurposeAbstract: This paper explores aspects ofIndigenous knowledge on several levels andexamines the role of Indigenous knowledgein Indigenous empowerment as the numberand influence of Native people in academiaincreases. Indigenous peoples worldwidehave a common set of assumptions that formsa context or paradigm -- a collective coreof interrelated assertions about Indigenousreality. Indigenous knowledge is spirituallybased and spiritually derived. To remove thespiritual foundation of Indigenous knowledgeis to destroy its very soul -- a fact not lost oncolonialist regimes. Colonial governments andinstitutions deprecated Indigenous knowledgeand cultures and thereby justified denyingIndigenous peoples a meaningful political role.The first order of Indigenous self-determination isthe task of revealing the Indigenous experience,long written out of official histories. Historically,Indigenous peoples have been dependenton non-Natives to assist in developing thenecessary dialogue to resist dominationand exploitation. The outcome has been a

history of research by the dominant culture,within the dominant discourse. This discoursedevalues Indigenous knowledge and is onestrategy by which the West legitimatizes its ownknowledge. Indigenous peoples must havean intellectual space in which to developtheir own frameworks and methodologiesregarding intellectual self-determination. Theseframeworks would then require the institutionalsupport of the Academy and would engage“others’ “ discourse in a constructive manner.Instances of discourse between IndigenousAfricans and Native Americans are described(Abstract take from www.indianeduresearch.net/ed454012.htm).52. Mason, G. K. (1996). Aboriginal Womenand Housing in Urban Canada. Women andEnvironments, 39/40, 38-40.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Basic PhysicalNeeds/Canada/Health/Housing53. McIntyre, L., Connor, S. K., & Warren, J.(2000). Child Hunger in Canada: Results of the1994 National Longitudinal Survey of Childrenand Youth. Canadian Medical AssociationJournal, 163, 961-965.Available Online: http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/abstract/163/8/961Keywords: Basic Physical Needs/Canada/Health/YouthAbstract: Background: In Canada, hungeris believed to be rare. This study examinedthe prevalence of hunger among Canadianchildren and the characteristics of, and copingstrategies used by, families with childrenexperiencing hunger. Methods: The dataoriginated from the first wave of data collectionfor the National Longitudinal Survey of Childrenand Youth, conducted in 1994, which included13,439 randomly selected Canadian familieswith children aged 11 years or less. Therespondents were asked about the child’sexperience of hunger and consequent use ofcoping strategies. Sociodemographic and otherrisk factors for families experiencing hunger, useof food assistance programs and other copingstrategies were analyzed by means of multiplelogistic regression analysis. Results: Hungerwas experienced by 1.2% (206) of the familiesin the survey, representing 57,000 Canadianfamilies. Single-parent families, families relyingon social assistance and off-reserve Aboriginalfamilies were overrepresented among thoseexperiencing hunger. Hunger coexisted with themother’s poor health and activity limitation andpoor child health. Parents offset the needs oftheir children by depriving themselves of food.Interpretation: Physicians may wish to use thesedemographic characteristics to identify andassist families with children potentially at risk forhunger54. Miko, Roselle and Thompson, Shirley(2004). Pay the Rent or Feed the Kids? Women &Environments International Magazine, 14991993,Spring/Summer 2004.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequateIncome and Sustainable Economies/ Canada/Community Solidarity and Social Support/Housing/Manitoba/PovertyAbstract: If you had to choose betweenpaying the rent and feeding the kids, whatwould you choose? For Louise and Charmaine,two Aboriginal women living in poverty andpoor housing in Winnipeg, Manitoba, theseare their daily life choices (names, locations,and personal identifying information havebeen removed to protect the identities of thewomen.). Both women ranked affordablehousing as their main priority, closely followedby food for their children. For these women,everything, including access to servicessuch as affordable food and transportation,community, and maintaining some control overtheir lives revolves around affordable housing.Their stories are those of many Aboriginalwomen throughout Canada and especially inManitoba.55. Morris, M. (1999). Shaping Women’sHealth Research: Scope and Methodologies.Halifax, NS: Maritime Centre of Excellence forWomen’s Health.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequatePower/Critical Learning Opportunities/ Gender/Health/Health Services Research/ Women withDisabilities/Women’s HealthAbstract: Reviews important issues pertainingto women’s health research questions, design,ethical reviews, analysis, presentation anddissemination of results, and the possibilities forresulting action and policy changes. Examinespower and perspective in feminist participatoryaction research, and presents best casesand gender analysis tools for women’s healthresearch. Briefly looks at the current women’shealth research environment, the emergingCanadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR),and the ongoing problem of the dearth ofmeaningful research for lesbians, Aboriginalwomen, women of racial, ethnic and linguisticminority backgrounds, women with disabilities,young women, and women over 65. Makesrecommendations on each of these issues(CWHN Abstract).56. National Aboriginal Health Organization(2003). Ways of Knowing: A Framework forHealth Research. Ottawa, ON: NationalAboriginal Health Organization.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/Critical LearningOpportunities/Empowerment/ HealthAbstract: NAHO believes that the advancementand sharing of knowledge in the field ofAboriginal health are key to the empowermentof Aboriginal peoples. And since research is oneAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing283

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing284way to create knowledge, NAHO developedthis framework to provide guidance anddirection in setting NAHO’s current researchrole and agenda, and to help determine thetype of research that NAHO would support andendorse. The framework provides a generalguide to culturally appropriate research forAboriginal communities and researchers andnon-Aboriginal researchers and researchorganizations.57. Native People of Thunder BayDevelopment Corporation (1983). ShatteredDreams: An Employment and Related NeedsStudy of Native Women in Thunder Bay.Thunder Bay, ON: Ontario, Native EmploymentOpportunities Program.Keywords: Native women/Employment/Northern Women/Ontario58. O’Hearn, T. (1995). Inuit Women: TheHousing Crisis and Violence. Ottawa, ON:Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporationand Pauktuutit Inuit Women’s Association.Keywords: Canada/Housing/Inuit Women/ViolenceAbstract: Reports on the housing crisis in Inuitcommunities in the Northwest Territories,Nunavik, and Labrador. Analysis of the linkbetween the housing shortage and socialproblems in the communities is provided.Women’s shelters in Happy Valley and GooseBay, Labrador, Yellowknife, NWT and Iqaluit, inthe Baffin Region are profiled.59. O’Neil, J., Elias, B., Yassi, A., Fletcher, C.,& Cohen, B. (1997). A Study of the Social andCultural Construction of Environmental HealthRisks in Aboriginal Communities - Final Report.Ottawa, ON: Northern Health Research Unit,Dept. of Community Health Services, Universityof Manitoba.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/ EnvironmentalFactors/Health/Health Risks/Healthy Ecosystemand Sustainable Relations between HumanBeings and the Natural World/Life-SustainingValues, Morals and EthicsAbstract: Communities, scientists, governments,industry, and environmental groups haveall been involved, in one way or another,in the debate over what is a health risk.This study examines the cultural basis of riskperception and the importance of localknowledge in changing the assessment andmanagement of health risk. The authorslooked at risk perceptions across two domainsof environmental threats. The first domaindescribes cultural perceptions of risk associatedwith traditional land use activities and thesecond domain describes perceptions of riskassociated with industrial developments inthe respective regions. The author examinesenvironmental health risks in three Aboriginalcommunities in northern Canada. Research wasconducted in Wollaston Lake, Saskatchewan,Kuujjuarapik, Quebec and Sagkeeng FirstNation, Manitoba. Each of these communitiesis attempting to determine the potential healthimpacts of industrial activities such uraniummining, hydroelectric development and pulpand paper manufacturing/nuclear wastedisposal respectively. Approximately half of theparticipants in this study were women.60. Ontario Federation of Indian FriendshipCentres (2000). Urban Aboriginal Child Poverty:A Status Report on Aboriginal Children andtheir Families in Ontario. Toronto, ON: OntarioFederation of Indian Friendship Centres.Available Online: http://www.ofifc.org/ofifchome/page/aborChilPov.htmKeywords: Aboriginal Children/AboriginalFamilies/Poverty/Research/Urban PovertyAbstract: This is a study on the extent andimpact of poverty on Aboriginal childrenand their families in urban centres in Ontario.The study is based primarily on qualitativeresearch methods, drawing on four sources ofinformation: literature about child poverty asit relates to Aboriginal children; key informantinterviews with front-line workers and parents,staff and parent focus groups; and focusgroups with senior staff of the OFIFC. Includesrecommendations for “immediate programenhancements”, “First Nations and otherAboriginal organizations”, and “co-operativepolicy responses.”61. Ontario Federation of Indian FriendshipCentres (2003). Child Hunger and FoodInsecurity among Urban Aboriginal Families.Toronto, ON: Ontario Federation of IndianFriendship Centres.Keywords: Aboriginal Children/AboriginalFamilies/ Child Hunger/PovertyAbstract: The objectives of this study were: todetermine the prevalence of food insecurityamong urban Aboriginal families; to look atthe physical and psychological impact offood insecurity on Aboriginal children and theirparents; to examine the relationship betweenfood security and school performance ofAboriginal children and youth; and to examinethe relationship between food insecurity andchild welfare intervention among Aboriginalpeoples. The study employed literature,questionnaires, and key informant interviews,drawing on a total of 508 participants from 23cities in Ontario. Includes recommendationsfor “Federal and provincial government;immediate program enhancements;“Aboriginal organizations and First Nations”; and“Co-operative Policy Responses.”62. Ontario Native Women’s Association

(1993). A Preliminary Study: Anishnabequek& their Families in Ontario. Thunder Bay, ON:Ontario Native Women’s Association.Keywords: Aboriginal women/AboriginalFamilies/Family Trends/Ontario63. Pauktuutit Inuit Women’s Association(2001). The Inuit Women’s Health IssuesWorkshop. Ottawa, ON: Pauktuutit InuitWomen’s Association.Keywords: Inuit Women/Women’s Health64. Pauktuutit Inuit Women’s Associationof Canada (2002). Inuit Women’s Health: A Callfor Commitment. Network: Canadian Women’sHealth, 4/5.Keywords: Canadian Women/Health/HealthCare/Inuit Women/Women’s HealthAbstract: Discusses the health care needs ofInuit women in Canada.65. Perry, A. (2003). From “the Hotbed ofVice” to the “Good and Well-Ordered ChristianHome.”. Ethnohistory, 50, 587-600.Keywords: British Columbia/Canada/FirstNations/Gender/Government/HousingAbstract: This article analyzes the relationshipbetween First Nations housing and reformin British Columbia between 1849 and 1886.Utilizing published and archival evidence drawnfrom church and government sources, the essayexamines reformers’ conceptions of First Nationshousing and their concrete efforts to improveit. The essay thereby suggests that housing wasan important site in the colonial encounter andthat the colonial encounter itself was key tohoning and disseminating new ideals relatedto housing, gender, and the family (JournalAbstract).66. Pictou, S. M. (1996). The Life LearningExperiences and Personal Transformations ofMi’kmaq Women. (M.A.) -- Dalhousie University,1996, Halifax, NS.Keywords: Culture/Healing/Racism/WorkAbstract: This thesis is a study of the Life LearningExperiences and Personal Transformations ofMi’kmaq Women. The central purpose of thisstudy is to provide a rich and detailed accountof what our learning means to us. The thesisundertakes a critical interpretive approachfrom an Aboriginal/feminist perspective, toexplore Mi’kmaq women’s learning processesevolving out of their life experiences thatare shaped by various contexts. ThroughMi’kmaq women’s own personal accountsand a historical analysis, I used an Aboriginalframework of Seven Directions as a guideto understand the interrelationship of our lifelearning experiences rooted in the past andpresent, which are indicative of the future.In taking our life experiences for granted,Mi’kmaq women’s learning becomes a struggleagainst racism and sexism founded in historicalprocesses of colonization and oppression, andaffect all aspects of our lives. When given theopportunity to critically reflect and speak froman Aboriginal/feminist perspective, alternativeforms of knowing emerge that become centralto our learning and effects the personaltransformation of our lives. These alternativeforms of knowing are nurtured by Mi’kmaqculture and language and illuminate a potentialrelationship to a broader social transformativelearning process for healing, and offer hopefor a vision for overcoming oppression. Theseinsights are offered for reflective considerationby all educators who work with First Nationsadults and children (Author’s Abstract).67. Pobihushchy, A. L. (1999). Changesand Choices: A Psycho-Educational GroupProcess for Women Identified by Child WelfareAuthorities as at Risk of Having their ChildrenRemoved Due to Substance Misuse. Thesis(M.S.W.) -- The University of Manitoba, 1999.Available Online: http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk1/tape10/PQDD_0017/MQ48196.pdfKeywords: Canada/Gender/WorkAbstract: This practicum describes a 16- sessionpsychoeducational group for women who hadbeen identified by Child Welfare Authorities asat risk of losing their children due to substancemisuse. Systems and addictions theories werecombined with a feminist lens to inform andguide the work. A literature review identifiesthe barriers to treatment for women, andthe dearth of treatment options available.It was hypothesized that the child welfareinvestigation and the attendant threat tothe system would create the crisis that wouldunbalance the family system sufficiently to allowa supportive intervention to have an impact.Concrete supports such as child care andtransportation were provided. The goal of thegroup was to empower the women to becomeactive participants in self-identifying theirstruggles with substances, and in the planningand management of their treatment needs. Theoutcome and the evaluations indicate that thiswas accomplished, but much work needs tobe done to ensure gender-specific treatmentoptions are available (Author Abstract).68. Poelzer, A. (1985). Métis Women’sLives and the Dynamics of Northern EconomicDevelopment. Saskatoon, Sask: University ofSaskatchewan.Keywords: Métis Women/Employment/Economic Environment69. Polakoff, E. & Gregory, D. (2002).Concepts of Health: Women’s Struggles forAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing285

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing286Wholeness in the Midst of Poverty. Health Carefor Women International, 23, 835-845.Keywords: Adequate Income and SustainableEconomies/Adequate Power/ Canada/Health/Inadequate Human Services and Social SafetyNet/Manitoba/Poverty/ Women’s HealthAbstract: This article describes the findings ofa modest qualitative study that deals with theconcept of health and involves the womencenteredinterviewing of six women who livein poverty, of which three participants were ofAboriginal background. The themes uncoveredin this study identify the struggle for wholeness inthe midst of poverty. The findings validate manyof the nursing theorists’ definitions of healthas wholeness, and challenge care providersto bring an appreciation of this view to theirunderstanding of women’s health.70. Reid, M. (2005). First Nations WomenWorkers’ Speak, Write and Research Back: ChildWelfare and Decolonizing Stories. First PeoplesChild & Family Review, 1, 2, 21-40.Keywords: First Nations Women/Child Welfare/Mental HealthAbstract: The author writes about theimpacts experienced by First Nations socialworkers working in the child welfare system.Individual and collective stories about their CFSexperiences resulted in the development offive themes that emerged from their sharing.The five themes centred around the stress ofdual accountability, the stresses of unrealisticexpections and multiple roles, the emotionalcosts and benefits of the intensity of therelationships, the fact that meaningful workgives strength and hwo the women coped andmaintained their holistic health.71. Reutter, L., Neufeld, A., & Harrison, M. J.(2000). A Review of the Research on the Healthof Low-Income Canadian Women. CanadianJournal of Nursing Research, 32, 75-97.Keywords: Canadian Women/First Nations/First Nations Women/Health/Poverty/ Women’sHealthAbstract: Reducing health inequities associatedwith poverty is an important public healthnursing role. This article describes the scopeof research on the health of low-incomeCanadian women. The research includedwas published in English-language peerreviewedjournals between 1990 and 1997.The 26 articles retrieved are summarizedaccording to the focus of the study and thecomposition of the sample. Most addressedpersonal health practices and health status.Only one intervention study was identified.The studies and the findings of this analysis arediscussed in relation to three recommendationsfor research on women’s health: an emphasison social context, including the structuralconditions affecting women’s health; activeparticipation of women in the research process;and recognition of diversity among low-incomewomen. Suggested priority areas for futureresearch are: intervention studies; studiesaddressing the structural context of the lives oflow-income women; research strategies thatenhance the participation of women in theresearch process; and increased involvementof diverse groups of women such as homelesswomen and women of varied ethnicbackgrounds, including First Nations women(Journal Abstract).72. Roussy, M. (2000). How PovertyShapes Women’s Experiences of HealthDuring Pregnancy: A Grounded Theory Study.Dissertation Abstracts International, TheSciences and Engineering, 60, 3205.Available Online: http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk1/tape9/PQDD_0028/NQ38967.pdfKeywords: Adequate Income and SustainableEconomies/First Nations/ Health/Health Care/Poverty/Racism/Social Justice and Equity/Wellbeing/PregnancyAbstract: The health of pregnant women is amajor concern to health care providers. Thisgrounded theory study of 40 women examinedthe health of pregnant women and the specialthreat that poverty and violence posed totheir capacity for health. Pregnant womenexperienced their health as an integrated partof their daily lives; that is, they reported thattheir health was affected by “everybody andeverything.” Women’s main concern duringpregnancy was to have a healthy newbornand, to this end, they engaged in the processof creating a healthy pregnancy by engagingin health-enhancing behaviours. In this process,the woman focused primarily on ensuring thebirth of a healthy baby. Three conditions wereessential to a woman’s capacity to create ahealthy pregnancy: (1) the acceptance of thepregnancy, (2) adequate financial resources,and (3) supportive relationships (especiallyhaving a supportive partner). Pregnanciesinvariably carried with them some uncertainty,and this caused the 40 women in this studyto experience a state of vulnerability which,in turn, triggered attempts to create healthypregnancies. This led to a cycle of improvinghealth: the more energy women had to carryout health-enhancing behaviours, the betterthey felt physically and mentally, the moreable they were to conduct their daily activities;and, consequently, the better their health.However, living within a context of povertyand/or violence increased pregnant women’svulnerability and decreased their capacityfor creating a healthy pregnancy, leading toextreme stress and the experience of threat.Male violence threatened the women’sability to be connected to those who wereimportant sources of emotional, financial, task-

oriented, and knowledge-oriented support,and thus, jeopardized their ability to meettheir fundamental needs. Furthermore, thelack of sufficient financial resources limitedwomen’s abilities to leave their abusivepartners. In order to survive, women in thesecircumstances sometimes reverted to previous,often harmful, ways of coping in an attempt toreduce their high levels of stress. These copingstrategies usually took the form of behavioursthat required little energy, such as smoking,not eating properly, and consuming alcohol.Having financial support and a safe place togo were crucial with regard to enabling womento decide to leave abusive partners. Regainingcontrol of their lives in this way allowed womento refocus their energy on health-enhancingbehaviours. The women in this study showedincredible strength as they met the challengesimposed by poverty and abuse. They did notremain victims but took hold of their lives withcourage and conviction. In order to promotethe adoption of health-enhancing behavioursby childbearing women, health care providersmust recognize poverty and violence as factorsthat significantly threaten women’s capacityfor health. Further to this, special efforts mustbe made to render culturally sensitive careto First Nations women (i.e., recognizing theircultural identity and heritage, their connectionto nature, and the importance of the Eldersof their community). To this end, we mustrecognize the connections between racism,colonization, poverty, and violence. For untilwe have eradicated poverty, and the cycle ofviolence and degradation that is its legacy, wewill not have succeeded in doing all we can toensure the health and well-being of our citizens.(PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2003 APA).73. Rowley, S. (2001). Paths of Resistance,Tracks of Disruption: On Stereotypes, NativeWomen’s Spirituality, and the Problems ofFunctionalism and Cultural Appropriation in the“Nature” of Dominating Western Cultures. Thesis(Ph.D.) -- York University, 2001.Keywords: Canada/Culture/Native women/WorkAbstract: Native Peoples comprise living,dynamic, contemporary Nations, with life waysthat have survived in the midst of (indeed, inspite of) the genocide perpetrated againstthem by dominating non-Native cultures.Native traditions have neither vanished, as thecolonizers of North America predicted, norhave they remained frozen in “pre-contact”or early contact time. Such notions arereflections of extremely powerful stereotypesthat reinforce the notions of some non-Nativeswho feel that they can take for their owncertain aspects of Native tradition that appealto them because the traditions are supposedto belong to people unknown and long dead.This dissertation is an examination of some ofthe images and stereotypes of the life ways ofNative peoples, in particular, the life ways ofNative women, and how these have historicallybeen related to “nature” in dominatingcultures in North America (with a focus onCanada). It seeks to disrupt and subvert anumber of these stereotypes, appropriations,and misinformation about Native peoplesthat are present in environmental philosophy,ecofeminist and related feminist spiritualitymaterials by identifying them, outlining howthey are represented and perpetuatedin these materials, and suggesting that allendeavours to discuss and/or research Nativepeoples adopt methods that are groundedin--and begin with--the voices, the images,information, and theories generated byNative peoples. I strive to honour the workof Native people who have already sharedtheir wisdom with non-Native communities byconcentrating on their words as primary sites oftheory and knowledges--theories which offerprofound critiques of some of the materialsthat are part of environmental philosophy andfeminist/ ecofeminist movement. In so doing,the methods that I have developed for thepresentation of this dissertation are “at least” asimportant as my contributions to the literatureand to “original facts” (typical expectations ofPh.D. dissertations). Hence, in an effort to pushbeyond disciplined boundaries of the academyand present this research in a manner thatmirrors the issues and concerns in which I havegrounded my research, this work is written withthree interwoven typefaces--each to markclearly the “voice” or process it reveals: Native“voice,” a narrative of my process, and myanalysis (Author Abstract).74. Rude, D. & Deiter, C. (2004). Fromthe Fur Trade to Free Trade: Forestry and FirstNations Women in Canada. Ottawa, ON: Statusof Women Canada.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequateIncome and Sustainable Economies/ AdequatePower/British Columbia/Canada/ Diabetes/FirstNations/Free Trade/Gender/ Health/HealthyEcosystem and Sustainable Relations BetweenHuman Beings and the Natural World/Status ofWomenAbstract: The gender implications of freetrade on Aboriginal women, particularly asit relates to forestry, was examined by theauthors in this study commissioned by Status ofWomen Canada. The report focused on theexperiences of First Nations women in westernCanada who were taking a lead in advocatingfor Aboriginal title and rights, to protect theenvironment and preserve traditional lifestyles.Thirty-four First Nations women living on ornear three reserves in British Columbia andSaskatchewan were interviewed. Sharingcircles were held to gather their stories andperspectives on the effects of forestry and freetrade. The women were deeply concernedabout the pace and manner in which tradein timber has been undertaken in Canada.Their study indicates that forestry initiativesAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing287

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing288controlled by Aboriginal people have notconsistently included the voices of women.Women are uncertain of how their communitiesare benefiting from free trade and many haveorganized to resist the economic developmentthat is springing up on their traditional landswithout their input and consent. While the focusof this article is on forestry, it does highlightfactors that have a direct outcome on thehealth of Aboriginal women and communities’members. The loss of traditional foods togetherwith commercialization is increasingly forcingpeople to live off store-bought foods whichcreate health problems such as diabetes anddental concerns. Health issues, the authors note,are rarely included as part of environmentalassessments when looking at the impact towildlife and other aspects of the ecosystem.This perspective is gender specific as womentend to look at the human impacts ratherthan the financial and economic returns ofsuch endeavours. This report contributes to thediscussion of women and trade agreements bymaking the connections between First Nationswomen, forestry and free trade. It begins witha literature review on the following subjects:gender and Aboriginal women, traditional roles,the fur trade, Aboriginal title and rights, and freetrade and logging in First Nations communities.It then summarizes interviews with 34 women onor near three reserves in British Columbia andSaskatchewan on the environmental, cultural,economic and social impacts of logging. Thereport concludes with recommendations onsuch matters as public education, naturalresource management and trade agreements.75. Saskatoon Aboriginal Women’s HealthResearch Committee (2005). Ethical Guidelinesfor Aboriginal Women’s Health Research.Winnipeg, MB: The Prairie Women’s HealthCentre of Excellence.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Ethics/Health/Research/Women’s HealthAbstract: These ethical guidelines for Aboriginalwomen’s health research were developedby the Saskatoon Aboriginal Women’s HealthResearch Committee with support from PrairieWomen’s Health Centre of Excellence. Theguidelines have been adapted from the RoyalCommission on Aboriginal Peoples - EthicalGuidelines for Research (1993)1 and EthicalGuidelines for WUNSKA Research. WUNSKA isa Cree word meaning, “To wake up”; theseguidelines were developed by a group ofsocial workers in the early 1990s, in orderto facilitate research by and for Aboriginalpeople. The need for these guidelines comesout of recognition of the historically detrimentalrelationship between Aboriginal peoples andresearchers and the research process. Thedevelopment of ethical guidelines by Aboriginalwomen will help toward creating relevant andaccurate research. The Saskatoon AboriginalWomen’s Health Research Committeedeveloped these guidelines for their own workand also to be used by other researchers. Theseguidelines uphold the standard of best practiceadopted by the Saskatoon Aboriginal Women’sHealth Research Committee. The guidelineswere developed for use in two projects, NaspiciMiyomahcihowin: Continuous Good Healthby the Saskatoon Aboriginal Women’s HealthResearch Committee and Living Well: AboriginalWomen, Cultural Identity and Wellness by AlexWilson.76. Serge, L., Eberle, M., Goldberg, M.,Sullivan, S., & Dudding, P. (2002). Pilot Study:The Child Welfare System and Homelessnessamong Canadian Youth. Ottawa, ON: NationalHomeless Initiative.Available Online: http://www.cecw-cepb.ca/DocsEng/HomelessnessAndCW.pdfKeywords: Canada/Child Welfare/Education/Homelessness/Housing/Welfare/YouthAbstract: This Canadian pilot study wasdesigned to contribute to a more thoroughunderstanding of the relationship betweenyouth who have been in the care of childwelfare and youth homelessness in Canada.77. Skelton, I. (2002). Residential Mobilityof Aboriginal Single Mothers in Winnipeg: AnExploratory Study of Chronic Moving. Journal ofHousing and the Built Environment, 17, 127-144.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/Canada/ ChronicMoving/Housing/Manitoba/ MarginalizedPopulations/Residential MobilityAbstract: The paper reviews literature onresidential mobility giving particular attention tothe choice-constraint framework predominantlyutilized, and arguing for a more inclusiveapproach in the study of marginalizedpopulations. Then it reports on mobility patternsin inner-city Winnipeg, Canada in order toillustrate the discussion, beginning with adescription of archival mobility data from thenational Census and from the local schoolboard. Next, semi-structured and in-depthinterviews with highly mobile single mothers ofAboriginal origin are presented to describe andanalyze mobility experiences of this group. Theinterview material is interpreted to suggest thatmoving behaviour is underlain by rationalitiesrelated to Aboriginal identity in the city, and toa willingness and capacity for action in faceof dire social circumstances, observationsthat might not emerge from choice-constraintanalysis. Finally, some consequences for furtherstudies and for policy are identified (JournalAbstract).78. Smylie, J. (2001). A Guide for HealthProfessionals Working with Aboriginal Peoples:Cross-Cultural Understanding. Ottawa, ON:Society of Obstetricians and Gynecologists ofCanada.

Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/AboriginalWomen/Critical Learning Opportunities/ Cross-Cultural Care/Cultural Integrity and Identity/Health/Health Care/Medicine/WorkAbstract: Presents a series of recommendationson cross-cultural understanding andhealth care for health professionals. Theserecommendations deal with culturallyappropriate health care, treatment inAboriginal languages, providing culturalinterpreters and Aboriginal health advocateson staff, access to informed consent regardingmedical treatments, the importance of familyand community roles and responsibilities,respect of traditional medicines and workwith Aboriginal healers, as well as attainingknowledge and involvement in Aboriginalcommunities and the people in them (CWHNAbstract).79. Strickland, C. J. (1999). The Importanceof Qualitative Research in Addressing CulturalRelevance: Experiences from Research withPacific Northwest Indian Women. Health Carefor Women International, 20, 517-525.Keywords: Government/Health/ResearchAbstract: Across Indian communities, thespirit of self-determination is in the air. Tribesare contracting with the federal governmentin order to take responsibility for healthand governance as sovereign nations. Fortoo long others have denied tribal needs,conceptualized tribal problems, and usedtheir theoretical models in implementinginterventions. In this age of self-determination,more tribal communities want to partner withothers in studies affecting their communities.Qualitative research offers an approach thatcan be responsive to community needs. Thestrength of one qualitative method, GroundedTheory, for example, is presented here asone such tool. Using Grounded Theory in twoPacific Northwest tribal communities, the firststudy looked at attitudes about Papanicolaou(Pap) test screening and the second looked atconceptualization of pain. It is suggested thatqualitative research is of particular value tothe design of culturally relevant interventions(Journal Abstract).80. Sunseri, M. (1997). The Ascendance ofNeo-Conservatism and Its Impact on AboriginalSingle Mothers of Southwestern Ontario. Thesis(M.A.) -- University of Guelph 1997.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Gender/ Welfare/Well-being/womenAbstract: This thesis is an investigation of neoconservativepolicies and their impact onthe daily lives of Aboriginal single mothersin Ontario. Open-ended interviews wereconducted in London and Windsor with twentysingle mothers to examine their personalexperiences in an effort to qualitatively analyzethe effects of neo-conservatism on theirstandards of living. The argument of this thesisis that, for such women at least, the effectsof neo-conservative policies are negative forthe well-being of Aboriginal women. This thesisfurther argues that neo-conservative policiesare not gender neutral and do have a racistundertone, as the conjunction of gender andrace makes the impact of neo-conservatismparticularly negative for this group (AuthorAbstract).81. Tait, H. (2001). Aboriginal Women. InStatistics Canada (Ed.), Women in Canada2000: A Gender-Based Statistical Report (pp.247-268).Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Statistics/Gender/Demographics82. Thompson Godard, B. (1985). Talkingabout Ourselves: The Literary Productions ofNative Women of Canada.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Literary WritersAbstract: Author Barbara Thompson Godard,Series CRIAW Papers no. 11 Description: Theseessays... are the best of 600 essays about bodyimage by young women aged 13-19 fromacross Canada. You name it, these youngwomen have a personal experience with it,ranging from: eating disorders, depression andanxiety attacks, developing breasts, shoppingfor a first bra, body hair, body piercing, tattoos,hair dyes, driving Mom insane, dancing, selftorture,dealing with unwanted touching,discovery of the body’s secret places, livingwith disabilities, the body in relation to culturaltraditions, feeling ugly, feeling beautiful, feelingwhole, gaining confidence and self-awareness,the ecstasy of sport, being strong. Along withthe artwork and substantial resource section onyoung women and body image, this is a bookof great interest to young women, parents,teachers and all those who care about women.83. Tuchak, T. M. (1997). EmpoweringInuit Women in Community-based EconomicDevelopment (crafts). Thesis (M.Sc.) -- Universityof Alberta, 1997.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/Canada/Empowerment/Inuit Women/NorthernCommunities/ResearchAbstract: The goal of this thesis is todescribe and analyze a community-basedeconomic development project involvingInuit craftswomen participating in a craftproduct development workshop in order todetermine whether the participants becameempowered and, if so, to verify and analyzethe empowerment process. An operationaldefinition of and assumptions aboutempowerment are developed. Participatoryaction research methods are used to guidethe data collection. The method is shownAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing289

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing290to be the most appropriate for conductingcollaborative research with northern Aboriginalpeoples. The data collected is shown to supportthe operational definition and assumptions,indicating the existence of an empowermentprocess during this research. Suggestions forfurther research emphasizing the necessity oflong-term study of empowerment are made.This research is of interest to Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal scholars, professionals and residentsof small northern communities endeavoringto improve the community-based economicdevelopment process and involve local peoplein it.84. Udel, L. J. (2001). Revision andResistance: The Politics of Native Women’sMotherwork. Frontiers: A Journal of WomensStudies, 22, 43-63.Keywords: Canada/Culture/Men/Nativewomen/Politics/MotherhoodAbstract: The article highlights the differencesof perception about feminism betweenNative and non-Native activists in the U.S. andCanada. Many Native women academicsand grassroots activists alike invoke models ofpreconquest, egalitarian societies to theorizecontemporary social and political praxes,regardless of the differences in tribal affiliation,regional location, urban or reservationbackground, academic or community setting,and pro- or anti-feminist ideology. FeministCalara Sue Kidwell argues, “Although feministsmight deny the equation of anatomy anddestiny, the fact is that the female reproductivefunction is a crucial factor in determining awoman’s social role in tribal societies. Womenbear children who carry on the culture of thegroup. Blue, like many Native women activists,links women’s authority as procreators with theirlarger responsibilities to a personified, feminizedEarth. Several Native women condemnWestern feminism for what they perceive asa devaluation of motherhood and refutationof women’s traditional responsibilities. Nativewomen argue that in their marital contractswith Euro-American men they lost power,autonomy, sexual freedom, and maternity andinheritance rights, which precluded their abilityto accomplish motherwork (Journal Abstract).85. Wachowich, N. & with Apphia AgalaktiAwa, R. K. K. a. S. P. K. (1999). Saqiyuq: Storiesfrom the Lives of Three Inuit Women. Montreal,QC: McGill-Queen’s University Press.Keywords: 3/Canada/Health/History/InuitWomen/Montreal/11Abstract: Includes a discussion on: (1) Awa,Apphia Agalakti, 1931-1996; (2) Katsak, RhodaKaukjak; (3) Katsak, Sandra Pikujak; (4) InuitCanada History 20th century; (5) Femmes InuitNunavut Biographies; (6) Inuit Canada Social lifeand customs; (7) Femmes Inuit Nunavut Histoire,Inuit women Canada Social life and customs;(8) Inuit personal narratives; and (9) NunavutBiographies. Saqiyuq is the Inuit word for astrong wind that suddenly changes direction.Clearly, the lives of these strong Inuit womenhave totally and irrevocably changed. Theirsis a simple story of survival and strength, theessence of their lives. Storytelling is an integralpart of Inuit life and the means by which life skillsand values are shared. Wachowich went to theNorth first to observe the Inuit. These womenbecame her friends, and she later returnedto record their stories on tape with the help ofinterpreters. Respectful of oral tradition, she hasattempted to faithfully translate these women’soral histories into written narrative.86. White, J., Maxim, P., & Gyimah, S. O.(2003). Labour Force Activity of Women inCanada: A Comparative Analysis of Aboriginaland Non-Aboriginal Women. Canadian Reviewof Sociology and Anthropology, 40, 391-416.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequateIncome and Sustainable Economies/ Canada/Meaningful Work and Service to OthersAbstract: Using data from the 1996 PublicUse Microdata File (PUMF) on individuals,this paper examines labour force activity ofwomen in Canada, focusing on the effectsof familial status and household structureto determine whether these factors havesimilar elasticities among Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal women. We found that labour forceactivity varied greatly by Aboriginal Status. Ingeneral, Registered Indians were less likely to beemployed but more likely to be unemployedthan other Aboriginals and non-Aboriginals.While lower educational attainment, presenceof minor children and lone parenthood werefound to be associated with a lower likelihoodof being employed, significant differences byAboriginal Status were found. The effect ofeducational attainment on employment wasfound to be higher among Registered Indians(Authors’ Abstract).87. Wright, M. C. (1999). Aboriginal Housing:A Feminist Perspective. Canadian HomeEconomics Journal, 49, 84-86.Keywords: Housing/Economics/Canada/women/Children/EducationAbstract: Examines social issues thatcharacterize the ongoing crisis in housing forAboriginal households in Canada. Highlights theimpact of substandard housing conditions onwomen and children (Journal Abstract).88. Young, T. K. (2003). Review of Researchon Aboriginal Populations in Canada:Relevance to their Health Needs. BMJ, 327, 419-422.Keywords: Canada/Diet/First Nations/ Health/Health Care/Health Determinants/ Medicine/Research

Abstract: Objective: To determine if researchhas adequately examined the health needs ofthe Aboriginal population of Canada. Design:Review. Study Selection: Medline search ofjournal articles published during 1992-2001.The search terms used were “Canada” andvarious synonyms and categories for CanadianAboriginal people. Each paper was categorizedaccording to the Aboriginal group, age-sexgroup, comparison group, geographic location,and type of research topic (health determinant,health status, or health care). Results: Of352 citations found, 254 were selected afterelimination of those without abstracts, notcontaining data on Canada, or not focusingon health issues. The proportion of papers doesnot reflect the demographic composition ofAboriginal people in Canada, with severeunderrepresentation of Métis, urban Aboriginalpeople, and First Nations people not living onreserves and overrepresentation of the Inuit.Children and women received less attentionproportional to their share of the population. Afew prolific research groups have generateda disproportionate amount of publicationsfrom a few communities and regions. To wit,174 papers dealt with health determinants (forexample, genetics, diet, and contaminants),173 with health status, and 75 with health care.Injuries, which account for a third of all deaths,were studied in only eight papers. None of thehealth care papers examined rehabilitation.Conclusion: Researchers have not adequatelyexamined several important health needs of theAboriginal population (Journal Abstract).Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing291

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing29212. Self-Determination andSelf-GovernmentThe research centers on issuesregarding membership, citizenshipand the political expressions ofleadership by Aboriginal women,including issues surrounding adequatepower in the government structures ofAboriginal governments. The sociallyconstructed roles of woman in societyhave varied over time in terms of theireconomic, social and political equalityto their male counterparts. Throughvarious women’s movements at the turnof the 20th century, women in generalhave advocated and challenged theirtraditional positions, especially in terms oftheir participation in the political arena.It was not until 1918 that all women weregiven full federal right to vote in Canada,which was two years after Manitoba,Saskatchewan, and Alberta recognizedwomen’s right to vote (Status of WomenCanada, 1995). It took an additional twoyears for women to be given the right torun in federal elections and the first womanwas elected to the House of Commonsin 1921 (Status of Women Canada,1995). There have been other milestonesachieved through the unrelentingadvocacy of the women’s movement,but none so revered as the passing of theCanadian Human Rights Act in 1977, whichoutlawed discrimination on the basis of sexand guaranteed equal pay for equal workfor women.This legislation was to usher women intothe 21st century by recognizing womenas equal participants and contributors tothe social, economic, and political realitiesof Canadian society. Despite a gradualequalization and in some instances asurpassing, of treatment, opportunities andprivileges in some sectors, women have notgained full equality to men because theyare still noticeably absent from decisionmakingprocesses (Status of WomenCanada, 1995).The experiences of women in Canadahave varied in terms of formal equality andthe road to self-determination and selfgovernmenthas been considerably moredifficult for minority and Aboriginal women.Almey & Lindsay Colin (2004) argue thatwomen who are visible minorities aredoubly disadvantaged compared tothose women who are not and that thereis an even starker picture for Aboriginalwomen, who fare far worse, in everysocial, economic, and political field thanany other female group in Canada. Asa result, mainstream feminism has beencriticized as being inadequate to theexperiences of Aboriginal women. This isdue largely in part to the reality that theterm “Aboriginal” refers to three distinctgroups in Canada, whose post-contactexperiences and pre-contact history makeit impossible to identify a single Aboriginalwomen’s feminist perspective (Rude &Deiter, 2004). As well, the role of Aboriginalwomen must be placed in its traditionalcontext of “community,” rather than therole in terms of the nuclear family, ascommon in many Eurocentric ideologies.The challenges and barriers that Aboriginalwomen face in the context of selfdeterminationand self-government arereflective of their experiences of racismand colonialism through repressivegovernment social policy and legislation(Deiter & Rude, 2005). Although theliterature contains conflicting positionsregarding the traditional pre-contact roleof Aboriginal women in Canada, Sayerset al., 2001 state that roles may havevaried from community to communitybut the contemporary devaluation ofAboriginal women through the devastatingeffects of colonization has resulted inthe institutionalization of the Europeanpatriarchy and has contributed to thedenigration of Aboriginal women byAboriginal men. In other words, theEuropean patriarchal ideology has beenso ingrained in Aboriginal culture throughcolonization that the Aboriginal male biascontinues to perpetuate the disintegrationof the role of Aboriginal women in decisionmakingprocesses.The European patriarchal ideology has notonly embedded itself in Aboriginal culture,but it has also found its way into Aboriginalself-government structures and various selfgovernmentinitiatives. This has occurredthrough the influence of discriminativelegislation, which began in 1869 withthe Gradual Enfranchisement Act and

continued with the 1876 Indian Act (Fiddler,2005). The Indian Act was indisputablyresponsible for disinheriting the longestablishedrights of treaty status womenwho were denied the right to vote in bandelections, hold office or participate in anypublic meetings (Anderson, 2000). Theend result, even after several amendmentssuch as the 1950 amendment which gavewomen the right to vote and run in bandelections, is that women continue to beexcluded from the decision-making bodiesthat deal with the social and culturalamenities and benefits of being a memberof the community.The exclusion from these bodies results inthe silencing of women’s perspectives asthey relate to the social and economicrealities of living on reserve. Many ofthe issues surrounding child welfare,violence against women and substanceabuse then take a back seat to maledominatedpolitical agendas. Sayers etal., 2001, state that self-government andself-determination activities becomedysfunctional due to lateral violence,which they describe as people who havebeen colonized continuing to colonizethemselves using imported political andgovernance structures, that results inthe use of intimidation, anger, controland threats. First Nations communitieswho attempt to move forward on selfgovernancewithout trying to resolve thenegative social and economic residue leftover from hundreds of years of colonizationwill only experience feelings of frustrationand helplessness. Building self-governmentand establishing self-determinationprocesses that are healthy begin withbuilding communities and families that arehealthy (Sayers et al., 2001).The road to self-government and selfdeterminationhas been quite differentfor Canada’s female Métis population,although one can argue that the impactsof Canada’s social policy on Aboriginalpeople has had similar outcomes for Métiscommunities and families as it has hadon First Nations. The Métis have beenfighting for the right to be recognized asa distinct Aboriginal group for hundredsof years. In a bid to protect the inherentrights of the Métis, Louis Riel formed aprovisional government which led to thedrafting of the Manitoba Act 1870, whichin turn created the Province of Manitoba.Included in the act (sections 31, 32, and33) were provisions outlining the grantingof a land base for the Manitoba “halfbreeds”and their children. Last minuteamendments to the act in 1871 saw thereality of a Métis land base disappear.Today, there is no legislation that deals withthe Métis as a distinct nation, nor has anylevel of government, provincial or federal,formally acknowledged responsibility forany social, economic, or political aspectof the Métis nation. Without any legislationor policies preventing or restricting Métiswomen from participating in politicalarenas, their experience has been quitedifferent from First Nations, especially inManitoba.The Manitoba Métis FederationIncorporated (MMF) is the politicalbody that is recognized by all levels ofgovernment (municipal, provincial andfederal) to represent the political, social,economic and cultural interests of theMétis population in Manitoba. Since itsincorporation in the 1960s, women havealways been part of the governancestructure of the MMF, although theirparticipation seemed to reflect trends inthe dominant political culture. In otherwords, women were not prevented fromvoting or running in federal elections in the60s, however, there were very few womenwho were successful or even interested inpursuing political careers because of thenotion that this was a “man’s job,” and theMMF governance structure mirrored thisreality for quite some time (Dumont, 2005).In 1985-86, as a result of a growing numberof Aboriginal women’s groups claimingto speak on behalf of Métis women,the then president of the MMF, YvonneDumont, encouraged the Métis womenof Manitoba to organize and then offeredthem a seat at the table of the Boardof Directors. The reasoning behind thisinitiative was to provide Metis women withan additional voice at a table that wasdominated by their male counterpartsand to encourage women to participatein Métis self-governance processes anddecision making.Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing293

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing294Each director is elected to his/her positionin regional elections (three positions perregion) of which the MMF has seven.Thepresident, however, is elected provincially.The result is a 22-person board of directors.In the MMF’s March 2003 election, elevenwomen and eleven men were elected tothe MMF’s Board of Directors. Currentlyin Manitoba, there are only two femalechiefs out of a possible 64 (Assembly ofManitoba Chiefs, 2005). Additionally, therehas only been one female president of theMMF, who was appointed acting presidentto fill a vacancy, but there has not beenany female candidates for the president’sposition in over a decade and one hasnever been elected.Although the experiences of Aboriginalpeople have all been similar in terms of theeffects of colonization on self-governmentand self-determination processes, theroad to overcoming the barriers to equalrepresentation in the decision-makingprocesses for the various female Aboriginalgroups has sometimes been one that isunique. The pursuit of self-governmentbrings with it the notion of renewedorganizational structures in Aboriginalcommunities; however there are stillresidual effects of old colonial governingmechanisms at work in many Aboriginalcommunities (Fontaine, 2002).The concerns of Aboriginal women seemto speak primarily about issues of formalequality, violence, and equal participationin all aspects of community. Currentlythere seems to be a lack of accountabilityin the current Aboriginal governingstructures and that current proposedself-government structures will continueto silence rather than advance social,economic, and political ideals from thewomen’s perspective (Sayers et al., 2001).An annotated list of resources onAboriginal women and self-determinationand self-government is set outalphabetically as follows.Bibliography of Resources1. Absolon, K., Herbert, E., & MacDonald,K. (1996). Aboriginal Women and TreatiesProject. Victoria, Ministry of Women’s Equality.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/women2. Archibald, L. (1994). Inuit Women andSelf-Government. Canadian Woman Studies14[4], 112.Keywords: Children/Culture/ Education/Government/History/Inuit WomenAbstract: During the Board of Directors’workshop on the inherent right to selfgovernment,Pauktuutit focused on selfgovernmentat the community level becausethat is where most people live out their lives.While Inuit women fully support and needself-governing structures at the regionallevel, and they want these recognized andprotected in the Canadian Constitution, Inuitwomen also need to see and feel that theyare self-determining at the community level.As a starting point, Board Members wereasked to imagine what the ideal communitywould be like: “Imagine that you wake up onemorning and find that your community hasbeen transformed into the ideal community.What would it be like?” With Inuit teachers inthe classroom, our children will be understood.Schools would be located in the communitywith the proper equipment in them, andtraditional skills will be taught as a part of theschool curriculum. Schools will be Inuit-run. Wealso need Inuit colleges and universities in theNorth, and regional cultural centres whereInuit history can be recorded and taught.Children will be able to get a good academiceducation in both Inuktitut and English.Speaking English does not have to mean losingour Inuit-ness. Self-government must promoteand use Inuit culture. Inuktitut will be spokenin all government offices. Inuktitut will be thelanguage spoken in day care centres, schools,social services, and in the home. The Inuit wayof thinking and doing things will be a part of ourgovernment. Regional dialects will be promotedand preserved, for we do not all speak thesame dialect and our differences must bevalued and respected. Traditional culturalactivities will be revived and celebrated.3. Bennett, M. (2003). Perspectives onEngaging the Participation of First NationsPeoples in the Development of Child Welfareunder Self-Government. Thesis (M.A.) --University of Manitoba, 2003.Keywords: First Nations/Manitoba/ ChildWelfare/Aboriginal Women/ AboriginalChildren/Self-GovernmentAbstract: This thesis focuses on some of theexperiences and challenges on how FirstNations citizens have been engaged in publicdiscussions that will inform the developmentof contemporary First Nations governinginstitutions. This research combines an overviewof the literature focusing specifically on selfgovernmentin relation to child welfare andFirst Nations people. The literature reviewalso looks at the role First Nations peoplehave played in community consultations,

concentrating specifically on the ways FirstNations people and communities have beenengaged to participate in other consultationinitiatives carried out by Aboriginal andnon-Aboriginal governments and/or nongovernmentorganizations. The review of theliterature is supplemented by an examinationof two very specific child welfare initiativescurrently underway in the Province of Manitoba,with more attention paid primarily to theManitoba Framework Agreement Initiative.The examination of these two initiatives isthen followed by an in-depth data analysisof interviews carried out with a select groupof child welfare professionals from withinand outside Manitoba, who shared theirperspectives on aspects of engaging FirstNations people’s participation in shaping thefuture of child welfare under self-government.This research will be of particular importanceto First Nations communities, governments andchild welfare authorities who are interestedin engaging and empowering First Nationspeople to participate in public discussions onthe decision-making process that might beinstrumental for informing the vision, philosophy,structure and the consultation aspects of selfdeterminingefforts of First Nations peoples. Themajority of interviews were conducted withfemale Aboriginal executive directors of thesouthern CFS agencies who provide servicesto 36 southern First Nations communities inManitoba.4. Boyer, Y. (2004). First Nations, Metisand Inuit Health Care: The Crown’s FiduciaryObligation. Discussion Paper Series: Paper No.2.Saskatoon, SK, Native Law Centre of Canada.Available Online: http://www.usask.ca/nativelaw/publications/discussionTitle1.htmlKeywords: Adequate Power/First Nations/Health/Health Care/Legal IssuesAbstract: A timely series devoted to examininglegal issues in Aboriginal health. These legalissues have received little attention in the past,and thus this series is a much-needed andinformative response. Readers can expectdiscussion of a number of topics, includingthe Crown’s fiduciary duty, international lawand the Indigenous right to health, intellectualhealth property, and traditional medicine.5. Caron, M. (2005). A Study of the PoliticalExpressions of First Nations Women. Windsor,ON, Thesis (M.A.) -- University of Windsor, 1998.Available Online: http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk1/tape11/PQDD_0011/MQ52523.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Women/ Canada/Culture/First Nations/First Nations Women/Government/ Healing/RacismAbstract: In this thesis the author examinedpolitical expressions of First Nations women.Using cultural studies concepts and aspects ofAboriginal theory, and reviewed literature inorder to develop some cultural and historicalunderstanding of First Nations cultures inCanada prior to conducting interviews withAboriginal women. The objective was toanswer three questions: how do Aboriginalwomen express their political interests; howdo they define their roles in the politics of theircommunities; and finally, what do they consider“political?” First Nations women are virtuallyabsent from mainstream politics in Canada.The women interviewed understood the politicsof federal and band governments. Thesepolitical forums, however, were outside therange of the politically relevant. Despite theirapparent absence on the political landscape,the women interviewed illustrated a strongcommitment towards the politics of healing.Healing within First Nations cultures refers toindividual, family, and community recoveryfrom the consequences of systemic racism byEuropean colonialism (RRCAP, 1996, v.3, 53). Thewomen varied in their approaches to healing,but all of them articulated a commitmenttowards building balanced and harmoniouscommunities defined by the values and beliefsof First Nations cultures (Author Abstract).6. Chabot, A. & Barbour, L. (2002).Aboriginal Women’s Justice Consultation: FinalReport. Ottawa, ON, Métis National Council ofWomen. 2005.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ AdequatePower/Canada/Conference Report/InuitWomen/Métis Women/ Social Justice andEquityAbstract: Summary: Aboriginal women donot have the same access to governmentand government processes as their malecounterparts within Aboriginal organizationsor within Aboriginal communities. Leadershiptends to be male dominated. The continuedexclusion of Aboriginal women in decisionmaking will result in the development ofpolicies of programs that do not accuratelyreflect the experiences of or the impacts onAboriginal women. A consultation model wasdeveloped to give Aboriginal women a voice.The model was developed in conjunction withthe three sponsoring organizations, the MétisNational Council of Women, Native Women’sAssociation of Canada and Pauktuutit InuitWomen’s Association. The model was adaptedinto a funding proposal to the Voluntary SectorInitiative and was approved in February of 2001with a consolation date for September of thesame year. This Conference Report is the result.Notes Conference was held on September 26-29, 2001, Ottawa, Ontario.7. Daly, A. (2002). Words and Silences:Aboriginal Women, Politics and Land. FeministEconomics 8[2], 220-223.Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing295

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing296Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ AdequatePower/Australia/womenAbstract: For Words and Silence, EditorPeggy Brock has collected a series of casestudies about the relationship betweenAboriginal Australian women and the land.Brock’s book contains an introduction and sixchapters. All the contributors, who are mainlyanthropologists, have long associations withAboriginal people and their communities. Inthe introductory chapter, Brock outlines thehistorical development of the recognitionof Aboriginal land rights in Australia from itsbeginnings in the 1960s to its culmination in theNative Title Act of 1993 and related pieces ofState government legislation. She argues thatwhile Aboriginal women have always beeninterested in the land and have been closelyassociated with its guardianship, the formalityof the legal processes required for establishingNative title claims has made it difficult forAboriginal women to become involved. Arecurring theme of the book is that silencemust not be interpreted as a lack of interest orignorance. The silence of Aboriginal womenoften reflects knowledge, involvement, andeven power.8. Desjarlais, C. (2002). From the Past(1876) to the Present (2000): An Analysis ofBand Membership among the Plains Cree ofSaskatchewan. Thesis (M.A.) -- University ofRegina, 2001.Available Online: http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk3/ftp04/MQ60221.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Women/Bill C-31/BandMembership/Cree Naiton/ SaskatchewanAbstract: For Plains Cree people, bandmembership has undergone many changesfrom pre-treaty days to the present. Prior to theIndian Act of 1876, Plains Cree determined theirown band membership. The Indian Act placedthe authority to decide band membership inthe hands of the Superintendent General ofIndian Affairs. Since the Amendment to theIndian Act in 1985 known as Bill C-31, Plains Creepeople once again have the opportunity todetermine their own band membership, andhave regained a degree of freedom. This studyexamines traditional aspects of membershipamong Plains Indians in Saskatchewan,including organization of band societies,traditional criteria for band membership,and the influence of political leadership andconflict in membership. It then examines bandmembership under the Indian Act and theinfluence of recent amendments to the IndianAct regarding reinstatement of Indian statusand band membership. Four band membershipcodes in Saskatchewan are examined.Interviews with reinstated status Indians wereconducted to determine their experiences inthe application of membership codes in theirreserve communities (Author Abstract).9. Emberley, J. V. (2001). The BourgeoisFamily, Aboriginal Women, and ColonialGovernance in Canada: A Study in FeministHistorical and Cultural Materialism. Signs: Journalof Women in Culture and Society 27[1], 59-88.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ AdequatePower/Canada/CultureAbstract: This article focuses on the roleof English bourgeois family in the colonialgovernance in Canada. Concept ofaboriginality, In addition, details on thefeminist theory of historicocultural materialism,disentitlement of Aboriginal women frompolitical decision-making practices is alsodiscussed in detail.10. Fiske, J. (1995). The Supreme Law andthe Grand Law: Changing Significance ofCustomary Law for Aboriginal Women of BritishColumbia. BC Studies 105/106, 183-199.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/British Columbia/Customary LawAbstract: Fiske draws on the proceedings ofa recent case heard by the British ColumbiaCourt of Appeal which appeared to recognizethe validity of Aboriginal customary law inorder to assess the implications of such law forAboriginal women, particularly in the contextof the drive toward self-government. Arguingthat customary law traditions constitute apowerful discursive resource, the authorsuggests that their impact upon women isfar from straightforward, and might easily besubverted by patriarchal interests, both withinand beyond Aboriginal communities themselvesas a means of perpetuating existing patterns ofdiscrimination (Dion Stout, 1997).11. Fiske, J.-A. (2000). By, For, or About?:Shifting Directions in the Representations ofAboriginal Women. Atlantis: A Women’s StudyJournal 25[1], 11-27.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ Adequate Power12. Fiske, J.-A., Newell, M., & George, E.(2001). First Nations Women and Governance.A Study of Custom and Innovation among LakeBabine Nation Women. First Nations Women,Governance and the Indian Act: A Collectionof Policy Research Reports. Ottawa, Status ofWomen, Canada.Keywords: Canada/First Nations/First NationsWomen/Government/ Research/Status ofWomen/womenAbstract: In this community-based study ofgovernance, Elders and hereditary chiefs of theLake Babine Nation guided three researchers,one of whom is a member of the nation, toview policy reforms and the development of

community governance in a holistic frame.Specifically, these leading women addressedthe interconnections between family relations,traditional governance and the limits of federalgovernment policies. Taking leadership withinthe research process, the hereditary chiefs andElders moved beyond the focus group methodsfavored by the researchers by directing theirmeetings with the team in accordance withtraditional principles and contemporarygoverning practices.13. Flaherty, M. (1994). Inuit Women:Equality and Leadership (Excerpts from MarthaFlaherty’s Speech at Pauktuutit’s 1994 AnnualGeneral Meeting). Canadian Woman Studies14[4], 6.Keywords: Culture/Inuit Women/ LabourInvolvement/EconomyAbstract: The traditional clothing producedby Inuit women is unique in the world. It isa visible statement of the creativity andpracticality of Inuit women. Women haveclothed their families for centuries, not onlykeeping their loved ones warm but doingso with skill and beauty. Today, Inuit womencontinue to produce beautiful clothing. Thisis an economic activity which women canundertake from their homes, providing goodsfor their family or selling the products of theirlabour for money. We are proud of the skills ofInuit women clothing producers, artists, andcraftswomen, and we believe that their workshould be included in definitions of communityeconomic development. We sometimes hearcomplaints that the solutions we advocate aretoo southern, too Qallunaat [non-Inuit]-oriented,or that they undermine Inuit culture. Culturallybased solutions are important and the facilitiesand services we need to address the problemsfacing Inuit communities must be rooted inour culture and traditions. Equally importantis the need to develop solutions which work.When we support day care, we are not justadvocating the creation of southern-type childcare facilities; we are talking about the creationof a northern child care system. The world ischanging, and our culture and lifestyles havechanged in order to meet the challenges theworld presents us with. More and more Inuitmothers are working outside the home so thereis a real need for safe, reliable, affordable childcare. We have examples of day care centresin the North which reflect the best of Inuit andsouthern life, which operate in both Inuktitutand English, and provide children with thecare they need while their parents are at work.Finally, I would like to speak about leadership.Two years ago, in Kuujjuuak, delegates toPauktuutit’s 1992 annual meeting passed aresolution directing us to develop a “code ofconduct” for Inuit leaders. Following the annualgeneral meeting, we sent the resolution to allInuit organizations asking for information andinput into the development of this code. Acode of conduct for Inuit leaders, once passedby an organization, sets the standards ofleadership that members of the organizationswish to uphold. It sends a clear messageregarding the expectations placed on Inuitleaders. In effect, a code of conduct describesour collective vision of what a leader should be.It also sets limits by describing conduct we wishour leaders to avoid.14. Fontaine, N. (2002). Aboriginal Women’sPerspective on Self-Government. CanadianDimension 36[6], 10-12.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ AdequatePower/CanadaAbstract: This article discusses the CanadianAboriginal women’s perspective on selfgovernment.Challenge posed by the Euro-Canadian state to Aboriginal women’sautonomy, independence and decision-makingcapacities; Ambiguity in the definition of selfgovernment;Status of Aboriginal women in thelate 1960s among male-centered Aboriginalpolitical realm.15. Green, J. (1993). Constitutionalizing thePatriarchy: Aboriginal Women and AboriginalGovernment. Constitutional Forum, 4[4], 110.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ Government16. Green, J. (2001). Canaries in the Minesof Citizenship: Indian Women in Canada.Canadian Journal of Political Science/RevueCanadienne de Science Politique, 34[4], 715-738.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/ AboriginalWomen/Adequate Power/ Canada/FirstNations/Human Rights/ RacismAbstract: This article explores the conceptof citizenship in relation to certain Aboriginalwomen, whose membership in First Nations issubject to Canadian federal legislation andFirst Nations constitutions and membershipcodes. In the struggle for decolonization,Aboriginal peoples use the language ofrights - rights to self-determination, andclaims of fundamental human rights. Thestate has injected its limited policy of‘’self-government’’ into this conversation,characterized by the federal government’spreference for delegating administrativepowers to Indian Act bands. Since the 1985Indian Act revisions, bands have been ableto control their membership. Where prior to1985 the federal government implementedsexist, racist legislation determining bandmembership, now some bands have racist,sexist membership codes. In both cases, thefull citizenship capacity of affected Aboriginalwomen, in either the colonial state or in FirstNations, is impaired. The bands in question resistcriticism by invoking rights claims and traditionalpractices; the federal government washesits hands in deference to self-government.Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing297

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and HealingThe rights claims of affected women arescarcely acknowledged, much less addressed.Meanwhile, their citizenship in both dominantand Aboriginal communities is negotiated withthe realities of colonialism, racism and sexism.Their experience demonstrates the limitations ofcitizenship theory and of Canadian citizenshipguarantees (Journal Abstract).17. Jackson, M. (1994). Aboriginal Womenand Self-Government. Hylton, J. Aboriginal Self-Government in Canada: Current Trends andIssues. Saskatoon, Purich Publishing.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ Canada/women18. Lahey, K. A. (2002). Métis Womenand Aboriginal Self-Governance: EntrenchingInequality through the Devolution ofDiscrimination. Jurisfemme 21[1], 8-9.Keywords: Government/Métis Women/Poverty/Status of WomenAbstract: Includes a discussion on: Aboriginalself-governance; Canadian law; maledominance; Métis women; self-government;sex discrimination; sexism; status of women;unemployment; women living in poverty.19. Monture, P. A. (2005). LocatingAboriginal Peoples in Canadian Law: OneAboriginal Woman’s Journey through Case Lawand the Canadian Constitution. Thesis (L.L.M.)-- York University, 1998.Available Online: http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/tape15/PQDD_0024/MQ39214.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Peoples/ Canada/Gender/JusticeAbstract: This thesis has three principal goals.The first goal is the most onerous. It is to examinethe degree to which Aboriginal peoples’experience, knowledge systems, traditions andways of being can be held within the existingboundaries of Canadian law. This first goal isnarrowed and shaped by the second, which isto examine the way gender impacts on the firstquestion. Women’s roles and responsibilities, aswell as the exclusion of women’s experience,is a theme which is woven throughout theentire thesis. The third goal is methodologicallybased. This thesis offers up one example ofthe way in which Aboriginal practices andtraditions can be united with conventionalCanadian legal practices. This last goal requiresthat this thesis be written in plain languagethat is accessible to people without access totechnical and sometimes complicated “lawtalk.” This thesis is a journey of one Mohawkwoman through Canadian legal relationships.The journey is an idea that is common amongmany Aboriginal traditions and ways. Thisconcept as well as the practice of storytellingis used to trace the author’s progress fromlaw student to law teacher as the vehiclethrough which the above goals are met. Itis, as well, an examination of legal conceptssuch as discrimination, rights (both individualand collective) and equality. This specificexamination is complemented by discussionsof oppression and colonization. The conclusionwhich examines what is Aboriginal justice isoffered to provide one opportunity to begin toconsider how Aboriginal laws can be balancedwith Canadian law (Author Abstract).20. Moore, C. (1992). Our Land, Too:Women of Canada and the Northwest, 1860-1914. Whitehorse, Yukon Territory. Departmentof Education.Keywords: Canada/Culture/ Education/FirstNations/First Nations Women/Health/ History/Immigrant Women/Social Conditions/womenAbstract: The social roles and expectationsof women have differed since history wasfirst recorded. We are able to understandCanadian history better when we knowsomething about First Nations women andimmigrant women. This document looks atthe social roles and expectations of womenin Canadian history. It examines the followingpoints: living the traditional life; leaving the oldlife behind; day-to-day life; opportunities andnew roles; sexuality, health and reproduction;family and community; women and education;and, women and the law.21. O’Neil, J., Elias, B., & Yassi, A. (1998).Situating Resistance in Fields of Resistance:Aboriginal Women and Environments. Lock, M.and Kaufert, P. Pragmatic Women and BodyPolitics. 260-286. Cambridge, University ofCambridge Press.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/Adequate Power/Healthy Ecosystem andSustainable Relations Between Human Beingsand the Natural World22. Sayers, J. F., MacDonald, K. A., Fiske,J.-A., Newell, M., George, E., & Cornet, W.(2001). First Nations Women, Governance andthe Indian Act: A Collection of Policy ResearchReports. Ottawa, ON, Status of WomenCanada.Keywords: Canada/First Nations/First NationsWomen/Health/Status of Women/womenAbstract: This publication includes the followingthree reports: “A Strong and Meaningful Rolefor First Nations Women in Governance”;“First Nations Women and Governance: AStudy of Custom and Innovation among LakeBabine Nation Women”; and “First NationsGovernance, the Indian Act and Women’sEquality Rights”.298

23. Sutherland, L. (1996). Citizen Minus:Aboriginal Women and Indian Self-government.Race, Nation, Class and Gender. Thesis (M.A.)-- The University of Regina, 1996.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ Canada/Children/First Nations/First Nations Women/Gender/Social Class/ womenAbstract: The purpose of this study is to developa theoretical framework which will encompasselements of race, class, nation and genderas they are applicable to the position of FirstNations women in Canadian and Indiansociety. In order for Indian women to beempowered to struggle for a fundamentalchange in their position, it is mandatory thatIndian women and Indian people in general,develop a social class consciousness. It is timefor Indian people to confront the kinds oftraditionalism and nationalism that justify andcondone maltreatment of Indian women andtheir children. This conservative nationalism isthe dark side of ‘liberal’ multicultural policy inCanada. It is divisive and destructive. This studyseeks to develop a new theoretical frameworkwhich will critique the prevailing ideology whichfosters reactionary nationalism and ensnaresIndian people in neocolonial hierarchies whichdestroy their hope and vision for the future.Indian self-government is viewed by many asa panacea for improved conditions for Indianpeople. This study demonstrates that Indian selfgovernmentwill probably be a continuum ofpast neocolonialism in the absence of socialistconsciousness.24. Trask, M. (1995). Indigenous Women.Self-Determination, and Nation Building. Womanof Power 24, 34-38.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Self-Government/Adequate PowerAbstract: For feminist analysis of power tocontribute to Indigenous nation building,it is necessary to understand the globalcommonalties of Indigenous world views andvision. The author speaks to the commonholistic principles of Indigenous thought and theimplications for social and political change fromthe perspective of a leader of the SovereignNative Nation of Hawaii. She considers “politicalwork to be all encompassing because all issuesare interrelated.”25. Voyageur, C. J. (2002). Keeping All theBalls in the Air: The Experiences of Canada’sWomen Chiefs. Women and Leadership:Feminist Voices 13[Special 25th AnniversaryIssue], 206-224.Keywords: Canada/Gender/ Government/Research/Female Chiefs/Aboriginal WomenAbstract: Cora Voyageur draws on quantitativeand qualitative data to understand the livesand achievements of women chiefs acrossCanada. She explores the goals of womenchiefs with respect to policy and programs atthe community level. Their personal experiencesare located within a critical frame that queriesthe impact of gender and racial inequalitiesand government bureaucracies on the womenchiefs’ personal and professional lives.26. Young, L. (1997). Gender-EqualLegislatures: Evaluating the Proposed NunavutElectoral System. Canadian Public Policy -Analyse de Politiques XXIII [306], 316.Keywords: Adequate Power/GenderAbstract: This article outlines and evaluates aproposal for mandated gender parity in thelegislature of the new territory of Nunavut.It concludes that the proposal is consistentwith democratic rights and enhancesdesirable relationships of representationand accountability between elector andlegislator. As such, the Nunavut proposalrepresents an innovation reform that adaptsCanadian political traditions to accommodatecontemporary social cleavages. Althoughthe results of a 1997 referendum in Nunavutpreclude the implementation of the proposalin the new territory, the proposal remains arelevant contribution to policy discussionsconcerning the underrepresentation of womenin elected office.29. Wastesicoot, J. (2004). A CulturalFramework for Cree Self-Government: RetracingOur Steps Back. Thesis (M.A.) -- University ofManitoba, 2004.Keywords: Canada/Cree Nation/ Culture/Elders/History/Manitoba/Oral History/ResearchAbstract: In 1994, the Chiefs of Manitoba,through the Assembly of Manitoba Chiefs(AMC), set out to create a path to selfgovernmentfor the First Nations people inManitoba. This thesis explores the concept ofself-government and what this means to theCree Elders in northern Manitoba. Four CreeElders were interviewed; two male and twofemale. This thesis captures and documentstheir oral history and takes the research findingsto restoring the traditional governing systemof the Cree Nation. The research findingsidentify the necessary components that areessential towards building a foundation forself-government that is based on the traditionalculture of the northern Cree Nation.30. Weaver, S. (1993). First NationsWomen and Government Policy, 1970-1992:Discrimination and Conflict. In S.Burt, L. Code,& L. Dorney (Eds.), Changing Patterns: Womenin Canada (2nd ed., pp. 92-150). Toronto, ON:McClelland and Stewart.Keywords: Canada/First Nations/First NationsWomen/Government/womenAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing299

Abstract: Traditionally, the predominantprinciple of descent among the tribes wasbilateral - meaning that descent was tracedequally through both the mother’s and thefather’s relatives. Next most common wasmatrilineal descent, the tracing of descentthrough the female line. Weaver states thatpatrilineal descent among Aboriginal peopleswas much less common.Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing300

13. Identity, Culture,Spirituality and HealingDiscussion in this area includes anarray of research that has focusedon empowerment, resilience,positive gender and ethnic identity,as well as self-esteem factors for Aboriginalwomen. It includes health issues for lesbianwomen involved in same-sex relationships.The role of traditional culture, medicineas well as the importance of culturalteachings, storytelling and women’sresponsibility as keepers of the culturewill be the main focus of this section.Restorative justice measures are includedin this part of the review. Lastly, theissue of healing and Aboriginal women’sapproaches to healing for selves, familyand community will to be considered. Allof the research gathered for this sectiondeal with the many aspects to healing,identity, spirituality as well as the role ofculture in the lives of Aboriginal women.Almost all of the publications in this sectionhave the word “heal” or “healing” orallude to this concept in their titles. Giventhe breadth and scope of the material inthis area, this section was further dividedand categorized into six subsections, all ofwhich deal with some aspect of identity,culture, spirituality and healing in the livesof Aboriginal women and people. Thematerial looks at: (1) healing; (2) restorativejustice; (3) aspects of cultural traditions,teachings and geography; (4) spiritualityand holistic well-being; (5) identity, strengthand contemporary roles of women askeeps of culture; and (6) the role oftraditional medicine. Only a synopsis ofsome of the material under each sectionis highlighted in this section. Additionalsources for each of these subcategoriescan be found in the annotated list ofreferences.HealingThe breadth of literature under this headingalone is enormous. The topic of healing byand for Aboriginal women is very dynamicand the literature available reveals thatit is also interdisciplinary in perspective.Because of the large volume of literatureon healing, not all of which is coveredhere. Additional resources on this topiccan be found in the appendices under theappropriate heading.Absolon (1993), an Aboriginal femalescholar, states in referencing the MedicineWheel Framework that healing is both apractice and a process, requiring timeand patience from all involved. Aspectsof “healing” include a look at who doesthe “healing” and the role of healers,particularly women healers, in traditionalAboriginal societies (Chambers, 2005).Hayden (1995) looked at northern womenas healers, nurturers, trainers, leaders androle models. A unique examination ofAboriginal women as healers was doneby Gillis (1994), who examined the literarystrategies that Native women writers usedto elevate Aboriginal women to theirformer high status, primarily in relation tothe motif of woman as healer. Struthers(2003) also depicted the everyday lifeof traditional Indigenous women healersby providing a synopsis of six Canadianand U.S. Ojibwa and Cree Aboriginalwomen healers, also known as medicinewomen or traditional interpreters. Includedin Struthers’ article is information abouttheir lives, backgrounds, and succinctdescriptions of their traditional healingpractices.Healing has also been looked at as a“location” rather than as a process oran internal state of mind. Research onthe needs of incarcerated Aboriginalwomen for instance focused on locationregarding the need for a “healing lodge”to assist Aboriginal women in the healingprocess (Canada, 1992). Caissie (1999)in particular, looked at the endorsementof a women’s correctional facility calledthe “Okimaw Ohci Healing Lodge,”which was based on the philosophies andcultures of First Nations peoples. Otherresearchers who have looked at healingneeds of incarcerated Aboriginal women,particularly in the Northwest Territories,include Chisholm-Smith (1995) and abiography about an Aboriginal woman’sjourney to healing after being imprisonedfor first-degree murder (Wiebe andJohnson, 1998). Research that has focusedon the role of healing for Aboriginal womenin an urban context include a publicationby Hard, Apaquash and Butcher (1999),who describe how traditional AboriginalAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing301

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing302healing and health practices havebeen utilized by a multidisciplinary teamapproach at the Shkagamik-Kwe HealthCentre in Ontario.Healing also can be difficult to achieve,especially when there has been alongstanding and continuing historyof repeated traumatic events and soLederman (1999) proposed a model ofhealing for Aboriginal individuals, familiesand communities by using naturalisticmethods such as “healing circles.” HealingCircles have also been looked at bynumerous other researchers. For instance,the Native Law Center of Canada (1997)published a report on the process of a“healing circle” that was used in the caseof an Aboriginal man who pleaded guiltyto sexual assault. Stevenson (1999) alsocontends that healing circles, talkingcircles and sharing circles have alsobeen utilized in the field of social work bymany Aboriginal communities and urbanpeoples and organizations. The issue ofhealing from trauma was also explored ina short article written by Robinson (1997),who describes a workshop that guidedAboriginal participants through difficultand personal issues that arose fromintergenerational trauma such as war,oppression, poverty, racism, alcoholism,deaths of parents and siblings, includingsexual, emotional and physical abuse. Thepositive and beneficial impact of Women’sCircles on the health and healing of NativeAmerican women in a residential womenand children’s facility was explored bySaylors (2003). As Aboriginal women areexpected to take leadership in healingthemselves, their children, families andcommunities, learning circles, similar tosharing circles, were seen as a good wayto share information and knowledge, asa way to explore lessons learned and togather community-level insight into issues,and to assist in providing women withdirection for the future (Irwin, 2001). Therole of Aboriginal women in healing theirwounded families as a result of colonizationand its aftermath was considered by Kaye(1990) in an earlier Canadian Living article.Restorative JusticeRestorative justice initiatives by Aboriginalpeoples have been extensively researchedand numerous research papers writtenabout alternative justice reforms, howeverthe literature does yield some but notmuch about restorative justice andAboriginal women. Aboriginal womenresearchers Stewart, Huntley and Blaney(2001) documented Aboriginal women’sexperiences of violence and their concernsin light of the Restorative justice reformsoccurring within the court systems of BritishColumbia. Another look at restorativejustice reforms and Aboriginal perspectiveswas published by the Aboriginal Women’sAction Network (2001), which provideda look at the possible implications ofinitiating restorative justice reforms in casesof violence against Aboriginal womenand children in Aboriginal communitiesspecifically. Circle sentencing is anotherinitiative, which supposedly has itsorigins in justice practiced by Aboriginalpeoples. Emma Larocque (1997) in herarticle states that the collective conceptin these reforms has more to do with amisguided socialist assumption stemmingfrom Western, liberal, and colonial ideasthan any Native tradition. Zellerer (1999)noted that while there is great promisefor restorative justice, there are significantchallenges for Indigenous women inCanada such as breaking the silence andeducation, the needs of victims, powerrelationships, Elders, cultural values andresources to address these challenges.Cultural Traditions, Teachings andGeographyAngmarlik Pauloosie, et al. (1999) is acollection of interviews with 16 Elders (bothmale and female) who all address a widerange of topics about the world viewsand traditions of a number of Aboriginalcultures. English (1996) discusses herlife experiences in an Indian ResidentialSchool combined with storytelling as ahealing mechanism and teaching methodsusing the Medicine Wheel. Cruikshank(1994), using oral history, documents theknowledge and history of two YukonElders from the Crow clan. Maher’s(1999) research focuses on traditionalAboriginal health beliefs and how this canallow improved understanding by healthprofessionals about the health-relateddecisions made by Aboriginal people.Napholz (1998) discusses a qualitative

study among a group of urban Aboriginalwomen who attempted to relearntraditional roles as a way of achieving selfdeterminationand as a potential way ofhelping themselves overcome problems.Women’s health and community healthnursing practice in geographically isolatedsettings was examined by Leipert andReutter (1998). Wilson (2001) explored theFirst Nations peoples’ relationship with landand its contribution to their experiences ofplace as well as their health.Spirituality and Holistic Well-BeingAchieving well-being or “minobimadziwin”by Aboriginal women was specificallyaddressed by Anderson (2005), who notesthat in order to have good health anda good life Aboriginal people need tobecome secure again with our culturesand selves. Anderson states that if we arealienated from who we are and wherewe have come from, we experience anintellectual, emotional and spiritual rupturethat can make us sick. Stories by Aboriginalfemale Elders about Native and Christianspirituality were explored by Carlson andDumont (1997). Spirituality was found to beintegral to the holistic healing of womenliving in second-stage housing for batteredwomen (Halcrow, 1995). Poonwasie andCharter (2001) documented the leadershipefforts of Aboriginal women, groups andcommunities in developing their ownapproaches to healing and wellnessbased on their own world views andthrough the empowerment of Aboriginalcommunities and clients. The spiritualityof Ojibway women was also highlighted inthe research done by Wilson (2004) whointerviewed Aboriginal women about theirpersonal experiences and understandingof the relationship between identity andwellness.Identity, Strength andContemporary Roles forAboriginal Women as Keepers ofCultureDion Stout (2005) posits that in 1996,there were about 408,100 Aboriginalwomen in Canada out of a totalAboriginal population of 799,000 and thatapproximately 66% of these women selfidentifiedas North American Indian, while25% identified as Métis, 5% as Inuit and 3%as belonging to more than one Aboriginalgroup. Ontario and British Colombiaare recognized as having the largestpopulations of Aboriginal women (73,725and 71,455 respectively). Meanwhile,Aboriginal women made up the greatestshare of the general female populationwhen combined with the populationstatistics of the three northern territories(Nunavut (86%), Northwest Territories (50%),and the Yukon (22%)), and the provinces ofManitoba (12%), and Saskatchewan (12%).Dion Stout (2005) also emphasized that thenumber of Aboriginal people over 65 yearsof age is growing three times faster thanany other age group. It is also importantto point out that in 1996, Aboriginalwomen aged 65 and over made up 54%of all Aboriginal seniors even thoughproportionally to youth, fewer Aboriginalwomen were seniors.Much of the other material that providesus with a statistical sense of the numbersof Aboriginal women in Canada has beencharacterized by research conductedby or on behalf of governments and notby Aboriginal women themselves. Forinstance, Elgersma (2001) provides adetailed look at the demographic andsocioeconomic profile of Aboriginalwomen in Canada using specializeddata extractions from the 1996 Census.Elgersma’s report looks at seven areasthat examine population statistics,language, family, education, labour forceinvolvement, income levels and mobilitycharacteristics among all women inthe three Aboriginal groups (Inuit, NorthAmerican Indian and Métis). An earlyreport profiling statistical information onAboriginal women around age, householdand family type and size, income,labour, industry and occupation, fertility,housing and education was Pryor’s 1984profile using the 1981 Census data. TheDepartment of Indian Affairs and NorthernDevelopment (DIAND) (2004) also publisheson a yearly basis summary statistics whichinclude the age and gender distributionbetween First Nations men and womenincluding residency comparisons betweenall First Nations communities in Canada.In addition to the summary of populationstatistics, DIAND prepared a report onthe population projections of AboriginalAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing303

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing304people by gender and age for all regionsacross Canada (DIAND, 2003). No analysisof identity would be complete withoutincluding literature that has focused onBill C-31’s impact on Aboriginal women.Miskimmin (1997) is one among manyauthors who have explored the impactof the Bill C-31 amendments to the IndianAct passed in 1985. Other profiles onAboriginal women and their identityhave been conducted in the Provinceof Saskatchewan by the SaskatchewanWomen’s Secretariat (1999). Culturalidentity was considered have a positiveimpact on Aboriginal women in Manitobaand the ways in which Aboriginal womendraw upon cultural values, teachingsand knowledge in their efforts to healthemselves, their families and theircommunities can enhance the healthprofessions’ understanding of how to assistthem (Wilson, 2004). In particular, Wilsonnotes that Aboriginal women’s identitiesare inseparable from their family, history,community, place and spirituality andunderstood in the context of their wholelives. Health care professionals needto ensure that any health care servicesdeveloped for Aboriginal women arerooted in cultural practices and values thatare reflective of the Aboriginal women andmen they are serving.Anderson (2000) explored the identityof Aboriginal women in Canada andhow Aboriginal women’s identity hasbeen systematically dismantled throughcolonization, abuse and disrespect,both within and outside the Aboriginalcommunity. In addition to the historicalanalysis of the treatment of Aboriginalwomen is an examination of howAboriginal women are now reclaimingcultural traditions and recreating positiveimages of themselves for themselves.Fontaine (2001) also looked at thecomplexity of identity among Aboriginalwomen living in a contemporary context.Similarly, Aboriginal women living in whatBarrios and Egan (2002) termed a “majorityculture” had been asked to comment onthe meaning of being Native in additionto being a Native woman. Four themesemerged that reflected on Aboriginalwomen’s otherness; conflicting dominantand Native cultural messages; Nativetraditions as strengths particularly if taughtby female Elders early in life; and theformation of positive gender and ethnicidentities. Bonnett (1997) reviewed howAboriginal women, Francophone and otherminority women defined their citizenshipsince the turn of the century, leadingup to and including their engagementwith the Canadian Constitution. Foulds(1997), through the use of narratives andstorytelling, focused on the lives andstories of a group of Native women froma northern Alberta reserve about theirperspectives on gender, class, status,race, kinship, marriage and reproduction,spirituality, addictions and domesticviolence including feminism. Foulds notesthat these women’s perspectives reflect aphilosophy that is clearly distinct from thatof other mainstream Anglo-feminists.Haslip (1999) also recognized thatAboriginal women play significant rolesand responsibilities as keepers of theculture. Hayden (1995) touched upon thefact that many Aboriginal women walkin two worlds that are so diametricallyopposed from one another that it makesit impossible for women to receive healthservices from a holistic perspective thattakes into account the bicultural realityof some Aboriginal women. Laframboise,Heyle and Ozer (1999) also note thatAboriginal women’s roles are changingand have become more diverse as aresult of European contact but that thestrength of their spirituality is dependent onachieving wellness and balance.Aboriginal women have also played asignificant role in changing communitiesand have been at the forefront ofcommunity development (Wabie, 1999)and leadership through organizationssuch as child and family services (Bennett,2003) and securing better legal supportfor women who have been victimsof violence, in addition to providingcounselling and emotional support (Phipps,1989). The experience of Aboriginalwomen chiefs was covered by Voyageur(2002) who explored the impact of genderand racial inequalities and governmentbureaucracies on women chiefs’ personaland professional lives. Aboriginal women,Madeleine Dion Stout says, are criticalplayers in the health development withtheir communities whether women are

taking care of families, maintainingcultures, conducting research or assumingleadership roles -- all this in spite of theirpoor health prospects. Aboriginal womenview health holistically and view socialand cultural conditions as integral to thehealth of their communities. For example,Dion Stout pointed out that childbirth in theNorth and midwifery in Inuit communitiesgo hand in hand and are the heartbeat forwomen working to keep culture alive andwell (Dion Stout, 2005). Ultimately in theend, “healthy living” for Aboriginal womendepends, to a great extent, on meaningful,appropriate and responsive policies thatinclude, engage and empower women’sparticipation in development (Dion Stout,2005).For convenience, an annotated list ofresources compiled under this thematicarea has been organized alphabeticallybelow.Bibliography of Resources1. Aboriginal Family Healing Joint SteeringCommittee (1993). For Generations to Come:The Time is Now: A Strategy for Aboriginal FamilyHealing. Toronto: Aboriginal Family Healing JointSteering Committee.Keywords: Family Violence/Healing/ Nativewomen2. Aboriginal Women’s Action Network(2001). Research Report on the Implications ofRestorative Justice for Women and Children inIsolated Communities in BC with DocumentedHistories of Violence. Ottawa, ON: The LawCommission of Canada.Available Online: http://www.lcc.gc.ca/en/themes/sr/rj/awan/Awan.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Women/British Columbia/Canada/Children/Gender/Government/Justice/Social Justice and Equity/ViolenceAgainst WomenAbstract: This paper is intended as acomparative overview of five Aboriginalcommunities in British Columbia and thepossible implications of initiating Restorativejustice reforms in cases of violence againstwomen and children in these communities.This document examines the ways in whichAboriginal women’s experience of colonizationis mediated by gender and attempts to locatethe effects of violence against women andchildren within this trajectory. As Aboriginalwomen it is our belief that our voices must beconsidered before any discussion of restorativejustice and diversion of K files (files on violentoffences against women and children) takesplace. This paper looks at the conditions ofwomen’s lives within their community, andprovides a frame of reference and contextshould these reforms become more commonlyused in cases of violence against womenand children. Restorative justice as it is usedfor violent offenses should not be theoreticalabstracted ideas that are formed in a vacuumby government officials, romanticized andremoved from the context of our lives asAboriginal people. These reforms can anddo have a profound impact on women andchildren’s safety, particularly in communitiesthat are geographically and socially isolated.This paper attempts to articulate our numerousconcerns, taking both women’s voices andcurrent theory around restorative justicesuch as ideas on reintegrative shaming intoconsideration (Adapted from the ExecutiveSummary).3. Absolon, K. (1993). Healing as Practice:Teachings from the Medicine Wheel. Victoria,BC: Wunska Network.Keywords: Healing/Medicine Teachings/ CultureAbstract: Absolon uses the Medicine Wheelframework to discuss service provision and theneed to determine what constitutes healing,as well as considering the negative influences.She states that “the presence of behavioursthat contribute to and sustain ‘harmoniousand cohesive’ relationships is essential.” (p.5) Healing is a process characterized by thecontinuum inherent in the Medicine Wheel ...the healing process requires time and patiencefrom all involved; the healing relationship isan important factor in allowing this process toevolve (p.12).4. Amadahy, Z. (2003). The HealingPower of Women’s Voices. In K. Anderson & B.Lawrence (Eds.), Strong Women Stories: NativeVision and Community Survival. Toronto, ON:Sumach Press.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ CommunityDevelopment/Community Solidarity and SocialSupport/Gender/ Social DeterminantsAbstract: The author discusses the role of musicin Aboriginal social change movements andits connection to gender differentiation. Theuse of voice in healing is discussed as well asthe fact that cultural and musical expressionsneed to be a part of the evolving and flexiblemovement toward recovering past ways oflife and healing our communities and restoringbalance after centuries of colonization,genocide and assimilation.5. Anderson, K. (2000). A Recognition ofBeing: Reconstructing Native Womanhood.Toronto: Sumach Press.Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing305

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing306Keywords: Native Women/IdentityAbstract: Is there a special role for Nativewomen? Author Kim Anderson, herself a Cree-Métis woman, asserts that Native womanhood“is not about simply playing certain roles, oradopting a preset identity; rather... it is anongoing exercise” in finding the balancebetween one’s individuality, place in a family,the broader community and nation, and thespiritual world. Anderson explores how theNative female identity has been dismantledover the years through colonization, abuse anddisrespect, both within and outside the Nativecommunity. She shows how Native women arereclaiming their cultural traditions and creatingpositive images of themselves true to theirheritage.6. Anderson, K. (1997). A Recognition ofBeing: Exploring Native Female Identity. Thesis(M.A.) -- University of Toronto.Available Online: http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/ftp01/MQ29139.pdfKeywords: Gender/Gender Equity/ Nativewomen/WorkAbstract: This thesis explores the subject ofNative female identity through interviews withtwelve Native women in the Toronto area. Theintent is to present a positive vision of Nativewomanhood in response to all the negativeimages that have plagued Native femaleidentity since contact with the Europeans.To build this vision, the author sought outexemplary Native women and explored thefollowing questions with them: How haveNative women resisted negative definitions ofidentity? How have they constructed positivealternatives? What is the understanding ofNative womanhood that emerges? And howdoes this influence the conduct of Nativewomen in their communities? Traditions ofgender equity in Native societies, and strategiesof resistance to racist and sexist definitions ofNative womanhood are presented as part ofa literature review. The author approachesthe work from a personal standpoint; that of aNative woman seeking information about heridentity (Author Abstract).7. Angmarlik Pauloosie & et al. (1999).In the Words of Elders: Aboriginal Cultures inTransition. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.Keywords: Canada/Culture/Education/ FirstNations/Health/History/Justice/ Medicine/SocialConditions/WorkAbstract: In the Words of Elders: AboriginalCultures in Transition is a collection of interviewswith 16 Elders and traditional teachers. TheNative Studies Department at Trent Universityresponded to the need for a text that providedan overview of First Nations teachings fromthe perspective of the Elders. Traditionalteachers representing a variety of traditions andcultural areas of Canada were selected andinterviewed. The result is a compelling collectionof first person narratives that address a range oftopics. The text contains a wealth of knowledgefrom a generation of respected Elders andtraditional teachers. While each life story andexperience is different, the collection allowsthe reader to glimpse and compare the worldview and traditions of the Passamaoquoddy,Micmac, Seneca, Mohawk, Odawa, Ojibwe,Innu, Mushkegowuk Cree, Inuit, Dakota Sioux,Saulteaux, Slavey, Dogrib, Shayshas, andMusqueam. The interviewer spent several daysduring 1995-1995 interviewing each Elder athome. Topics covered include: life history,creation stories, important aspects of Nativeculture, using traditions today, traditionaldwellings, Elders, humour, work, grieving,ceremonies, time, relation between languageand culture, traditional medicines and foods,education, life on the land, traditional justice,attaining balance, relations with non-Natives,dreams and prophecies. This exceptionalcollection proves that collaboration betweenacademics and Elders is possible and the resultcan benefit all people.8. Arnott, J. (1995). Breasting the Waves:On Writing and Healing. Vancouver, BC: PressGang Publishers.Keywords: Healing/Metis Women/ Racism/SocialConditions/Spirituality and A Sense of PurposeAbstract: Tapping her creative energy asmother, writer, workshop facilitator; celebratingfriendship as a potent path to healing;acknowledging the ‘bodymind’ pain of racismand societal denial of racism; and finding thesacred within ourselves by reclaiming women’srituals. To read Breasting the Waves is toparticipate in ‘a conspiracy of healing’. It is towitness the vulnerability, strength and pride of aMétis woman writer reclaiming her full powers.9. Baird-Olson, K. & Ward, C. (2000).Recovery and Resistance: The Renewal ofTraditional Spirituality among American IndianWomen. American Indian Culture and ResearchJournal, 24, 1-35.Keywords: Culture/Spirituality and a Sense ofPurpose10. Bannerman, B. B. (2002). ‘A Search forHealing’: A Phenomenological Study. Thesis(M.SW) - University of Northern British Columbia.Available Online: http://www.nlc-bnc.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk3/ftp05/MQ62464.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Women/British Columbia/Canada/Healing/Meaningful Work and Serviceto OthersAbstract: This study applies a feminist

perspective to explore the lived experience offour Aboriginal women who had attended anAboriginal residential treatment program foralcoholism at least two years previous to thestudy, and have been sober since that time. Thestudy discovered a “search for healing” themewhich consisted of seven interrelated themeswhich were: acceptance and belonging,reclaiming cultural expression, group process,mentors and role models and communitysupport. Theses categories are thematicallywoven together to become a symbolicresearch/healing basket that will contain anessence of a lived experience and could beuseful for further addiction treatment (Authorabstract).11. Barrios, P. G. & Egan, M. (2002). Livingin a Bicultural World and Finding the WayHome: Native Women’s Stories. Affilia Journal ofWomen and Social Work, 17, 206-228.Keywords: Culture/Gender/Health/ NativewomenAbstract: Four Native American women livingin the majority culture were interviewed in aqualitative study, using snowball sampling,to explore their experiences concerning themeaning of being Native and of being Nativewomen. A constant comparative qualitativeanalysis revealed four themes reflecting thewomen’s experiences: “otherness”; conflictingdominant and Native cultural messages; Nativetraditions as strengths, particularly as taught byfemale Elders early in life; and the formation ofpositive gender and ethnic identities (JournalAbstract).12. Benoit, C., Carroll, D., & Chaudhry, M.(2003). In Search of a Healing Place: AboriginalWomen in Vancouver’s Downtown Eastside.Social Science & Medicine, 56, 821.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Canada/Healing/Health/Health CareAbstract: Research on general health servicedelivery in urban areas of Canada shows thatAboriginal people face formidable barriers inaccessing culturally appropriate and timelycare. Over the past decade, Urban AboriginalHealth Centres (UAHCs) have emergedto address the unmet health concerns ofAboriginal people living in metropolitan areasof the country. The purpose of this researchwas to address the gap in social scienceliterature on how the health care concernsof Aboriginal women are being met byUAHCs. The research aimed to give voice toAboriginal women by asking them whetherthe appropriate professional services andeducational programs they need to addresstheir health care needs were being providedin the inner city. A case-study approach wasused whereby three separate focus groupswere conducted with Aboriginal women whowere clients of the Vancouver Native HealthSociety (VNHS), its sister organization, Sheway,or residents of Vancouver’s Downtown Eastside(DTES). In addition, 25 semi-structured interviewswere conducted with VNHS staff, healthproviders, government representatives, andcommunity leaders in health care (total n=61).The findings indicate that despite efforts fromvarious quarters to articulate the health andsocial concerns of the country’s marginalizedpopulations, such has not been the case forAboriginal women living in one of Canada’smost prosperous cities. Many Aboriginal womenexpressed a strong desire for a Healing Place,based on a model of care where their healthconcerns are addressed in an integratedmanner, where they are respected and giventhe opportunity to shape and influence decisionmaking about services that impact their ownhealing.13. Bent, K., Josephson, W., & Kelly,B. (2004). Effects of an Aboriginal CulturalEnrichment Program on Adolescent Mothers’Self-Perceptions. First Peoples Child & FamilyReview, 1, 83-100.Available Online: http://www.fncfcs.com/pubs/vol1num1/Bent_et_al_pp83-100.pdfKeywords: Adolescent Mothers/ Adolescents/YouthAbstract: This study explored the effects of anAboriginal cultural enrichment initiative onthe self-concept of ten pregnant or parentingadolescent women, all but one of whom wereof Aboriginal descent. The cultural enrichmentactivities were integrated into a program ofsupport for adolescent mothers. Questionnaireswere administered to the participants at thebeginning and after six weeks of participatingin the cultural enrichment component ofthe program. The Self-Perception Profile forAdolescents (Harter, 1988) was used to measureglobal self-worth and self-perception acrosseight domains. Overall cultural identity, culturalidentity achievement, cultural behavioursand sense of affirmation and belonging weremeasured using the 20-item Multigroup EthnicIdentity Questionnaire (Phinney, 1998b).Individual audio-taped interviews were alsoundertaken following completion of the posttests.After six weeks of the cultural enrichmentprogram, the participants’ cultural identityachievement scores increased significantly,and participants who had achieved a strongcultural identity also had higher levels of globalself-worth. Average self-concept becamemore positive in the specific domains of jobcompetence and behavioural conduct. Inthe interviews, participants expressed positivereactions to the cultural component of theprogram, and attributed positive personalchanges to the cultural experiences it provided.The results support the conclusion that it is highlybeneficial to incorporate a cultural componentinto services for Aboriginal youth (JournalAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing307

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing308Abstract).14. Blondin, B. (1990). Native TraditionalMedicine: Its Place in Northern Health Care. InJ. Perreault & S. Vance (Eds.), Writing the Circle:Native Women of Western Canada (pp. 19-26).Alberta: NeWest Institute for Western CanadianStudies.Keywords: Cultural Integrity and Identity/Health/Health CareAbstract: This short article discusses traditionalmedicine and healing and the author statesthat they both should be considered as anessential service to the Dene. The author is aconsultant in all aspects of a cultural holisticapproach to community development.15. Blondin, G. (1997). Yamoria: TheLawmakers, Stories of the Dene. Edmonton, AB:NeWest.Keywords: Medicine/StorytellingAbstract: A Dene Elder, George Blondin,overviews Dene stories and presents theirlaws regarding medicine, social, political andspiritual life. The explicit analysis he offers frameswhat a medicine man or woman can andcannot do and is very helpful in understandingthe Dene cultural milieu.16. Bonnett, L. L. (1997). Toward a MoreInclusive Concept of Citizenship: Women andthe 1981 Ad Hoc Constitutional Conference.Thesis (M.A.) -- Carlton University, 1997.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Canada/ResearchAbstract: Women’s roles as citizens in theconstitutional arena have often beenoverlooked in Canada. This study provides alongitudinal analysis of some of the ways inwhich Anglophone, Aboriginal and Franco-Quebecois women defined their citizenshipsince the turn of the century, leading up to andincluding their engagement with the CanadianConstitution in 1980-81. Through a comparativeexamination of the goals of the Aboriginal,Franco-Quebecois and Anglophone women’smovements, it examines how women’s sex/gender and nationalist identities influenced theirconstitutional interests. Focusing on the eventsof the February 14, 1981 Ad Hoc Conference onWomen and the Constitution, it explores howwomen redefined traditional notions of who is a‘citizen’ and which citizenship issues are allowedto be raised on the constitutional agenda.Moreover, this research analyzes women’sconcerns about the process and substance ofthe constitutional amendments, to demonstratethat ‘women’s interests’ were more complexand controversial than first thought.17. Borins, M. (1995). Native HealingTraditions Must Be Protected and Preservedfor Future Generations. Canadian MedicalAssociation Journal, 1356-1357.Keywords: HealingAbstract: A Toronto physician, Borins, traveledthroughout developing countries examiningtraditional healing practices, including speakingto Elders from an Ontario reserve. He arguesIndigenous healing practices should bepreserved and protected.18. Brady, E. (2001). Healing Logics: Cultureand Medicine in Modern Health Belief Systems.Utah State University Press.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Culture/ Healing/Health/WorkAbstract: This collection of nine articles (with anintroduction by Erika Brady and a bibliographycompiled by Brady, Michael Owen Jones,Jacob Owen, and Cara Hoglund) coversvarious topics in folk medicine and belief froman ethnographic perspective, with attentionpaid to multiple regions and cultural groupswithin North America. In the introduction,Brady discusses her work in the early 1980sas a chaplain associate at a midsize hospitalin Cape Girardeau, Missouri, describing theconfluence of belief systems she encountered,ranging from vernacular health systems likeherbal treatment derived from Ozark naturalresources, to West African-based root work thatflourishes in the nearby Mississippi delta. Bradypoints to an issue that is prominent throughoutthe book when she writes, “Most consistent ofall, so deeply taken for granted that it escapesnotice as a traditional health belief system, isthe profound, almost universal assumption thatsoul and body are linked in some larger patternof meaning that should be acknowledged,and can even be altered, by prayer.” (3) All ofthe authors who contribute to this collectionexplore the complex relationships betweeninstitutionalized, formal medicine and thediverse beliefs and practices on which medicalconsumers rely in order to negotiate boththe medical industry and their own healinglogics, or the “dynamic, emergent nature ofnonconventional health belief systems.” (12) Thebook does not specifically focus on Aboriginalwomen, health and healing but it does look at“The New Age Sweat Lodge” and its popularityin contemporary alternative spirituality,as well as the political complications of itsappropriation from Native American spiritualpractices.19. Brant, B. (1996). The Good Red Road:Journeys of Homecoming in Native Women’sWritings. In B. Brant & S. Laronde (Eds.),Sweetgrass Grows All Around Her (pp. 82-90).Toronto: Native Women in the Arts.Keywords: Native women/Women’s Writing/Literature/Culture

20. Bruyere, J., Marchessault, G., Cooney,P., & Riese, N. (1997). Challenge for Changeand Healing in Relationships Between theAboriginal Community and an Urban TeachingHospital. In Annual Meeting of the Society forApplied Anthropology. Oklahoma City, OK:Society for Applied Anthropology.Keywords: Critical Learning Opportunities/Healing21. Caissie, M. A. (1999). The Okimaw OhciHealing Lodge for Eskwewuk: Is CorrectionalPractice Consistent with Healing Practice?Thesis (M.A.) -- Simon Fraser University.Available Online: http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk1/tape10/PQDD_0028/MQ51309.pdfKeywords: Canada/Culture/First Nations/FirstNations Women/Healing/ Women OffendersAbstract: The plethora of reports, Task Forcesand Royal Commissions to review the periloussituations of First Nations peoples and in thisinstance First Nations women, reached itsclimax in 1989 with ‘Creating Choices’: ‘ TheTask Force on Federally Sentenced Women’.This report endorsed the need for a correctionalfacility based, in part, on the philosophies andcultures of First Nations peoples. As a result ofmany recommendations outlined in this report,the ‘Okimaw Ohci Healing Lodge’ for federallysentenced First Nations women (‘Eskwewuk’)located in Maple Creek, Saskatchewan wasconstructed. This prison opened its doors toFirst Nations female offenders in November1995 with the mandate to afford a culturallyappropriate atmosphere for incarcerationand (re)habilitation. The recognition given bycorrectional officials that something “different”was required to address the overrepresentationof First Nations peoples within penitentiarieswas a positive first step. A larger problematic,however, not fully addressed with the provisionof the ‘Healing Lodge’ continues to exist,that is, that the relationship between FirstNations peoples and non-First Nations peoplesis ingrained in colonialist and patriarchalattitudes. One must view the construction of acorrectional institution structured on the viewsof First Nations peoples with cautious optimism.Despite the fact that an ‘apparent’ increase insensitivity to the needs of First Nations peoples --and more specifically women -- in Canada, the‘Lodge’ may instead prove to be an exemplarof “mock change” or “false generosity” whosepurpose it is to tranquilize First Nations people.This thesis will provide a literature review ofFirst Nations women offenders and, usingpostcolonial and women’s standpoints theories,an exploratory analysis of ‘Okimaw Ohci’ itself.My purpose is twofold: first, I will examine somepolicy questions and issues that will need tobe considered as the ‘Lodge’ continues tooperate; and second, outline a “model ofhealing,” based upon First Nations philosophiesthat could be applied at the ‘Lodge’, andperhaps at other correctional institutions.22. Canada (1993). The HealingLodge: Final Operational Plan. Ottawa, ON:Correctional Services Canada.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Healing/Correctional FacilitiesAbstract: The Task Force on FederallySentenced Women identified the need for adifferent correctional model to respond to theneeds of incarcerated Aboriginal women. Thisneed will be met through the establishmentof a Healing Lodge. In order for the women toheal, the Healing Lodge and the activities thattake place there must be responsive to thosewho will use them - the Aboriginal women. Thisdocument presents the final operational planand looks at the many facets of the HealingLodge.23. Canada & House of Commons (1995).Towards Holistic Wellness: The AboriginalPeoples. Ottawa, ON: House of Commons,Standing Committee on Health.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/ AboriginalWomen/Canada/Healing/ Health/Sexual AbuseAbstract: The authors provide a broadoverview of health issues affecting Aboriginalpeoples in Canada as a basis upon whichto make specific policy recommendations.Several theme areas are of direct relevanceto Aboriginal women, including physical andsexual abuse, alcohol addiction and theimpacts of sociostructural barriers. Moreover,in the concluding chapter, not only do theauthors highlight Aboriginal women’s pivotalrole in healing their communities and promotingwellness, but they emphasize the importanceof drawing women into existing leadershipstructures. Based upon these and other findings,the report sets out a ‘plan of action’ whichcalls for closer collaboration among divergentgroups and levels of government in thepromotion of wellness and for the developmentof meaningful consultative mechanisms, whichprovide the basis for input by traditionally‘voiceless’ groups such as Aboriginal women(Dion Stout, 1997).24. Carlson, J. C. & Dumont, A. (1997).Bridges in Spirituality: First Nations ChristianWomen Tell Their Stories. Toronto, ON: AnglicanBook Centres and United Church PublishingHouse.Keywords: First Nations/Spirituality and A Senseof PurposeAbstract: The stories of Native women EldersSarah Simon, Dr. Jessie Saulteaux, GladysMcCue Taylor, Gladys Taylor Cook, and ViSmith, as told to Joyce Carlson and Alf Dumont.Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing309

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing310The stories weave the women’s Native spiritualtraditions with Christian ones.25. Chambers, A. (2005). Healing Journey:Maybe Communities Know More about WhatAils Them than the Medical System Has BeenWilling to Recognize. Canadian Geographic,125, 87-94.Keywords: Culture/Healing/Health/ HealthCare/History/Lead/Medicine/ WorkAbstract: When Nancy Gibson set out in 1994 tounderstand the work of healers in a traditionalsociety, she said goodbye to Alberta’s wellfundedscientific establishment and boughtan airplane ticket for Sierra Leone, a small,diamond-rich country on the Atlantic coast ofAfrica. She had lived there in the early 1970s asa volunteer with the international developmentorganization CUSO. She was a young nursethen, with five children in tow and a worldto save. Twenty-three years later, she was adoctoral student returning to study the potentialfor collaboration between Western medicineand the self-styled healers sought out by the sickin villages across the country. That encounterand others with healers in Sierra Leone gaveGibson critical insights into the strengths anddurability of the country’s indigenous healthsystem, which is based on community need,available resources and local learning. Today,at 63, with a youthful face under a shock ofwhite hair, she lives in Edmonton and is thelead researcher in a Canadian network thatis investigating Aboriginal and northern healthissues. Her work is an exploration of the organicconnection between health and communityand of the contrast between traditionalknowledge and a medical system thatadvances on the basis of abstract numbers andlinear cause and effect. Why, she asks, do weplace so much faith and so many resources inlab science and health practices that excludesuch factors as culture, history, spiritualityand the traditional knowledge and copingmechanisms of communities?26. Charnley, K. (1991). Concepts of Anger,Identity, Power, and Vision in the Writings andVoices of First Nations Women. Fireweed: AFeminist Quarterly, 32, 32-43.Keywords: First Nations/First Nations Women27. Chisholm-Smith, A. (1995). Healing as anAlternative to Incarceration.Keywords: Adequate Human Services andSocial Safety Net/HealingAbstract: The researcher, as part of a widerstudy on healing, used a particular researchmethod to gain insight into the issue ofincarcerated women in the NWT. Interviews tookplace with women presently incarcerated inthe North as well as with those directly involved(healers, correctional officers, government andinterest groups).28. Couture, J. & Couture, R. (2003).Biidaaban: The Mnjikaning Community HealingModel. (Rep. No. Aboriginal Peoples Collection).Ottawa, ON: Aboriginal Corrections PolicyUnit, Public Safety & Emergency PreparednessCanada.Available Online: http://www.psepc-sppcc.gc.ca/publications/abor_corrections/pdf/biidaaban_e.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Peoples/Canada/Community Solidarity and Social Support/Correctional Programming/ Critical LearningOpportunities/ Healing/Health/Life-SustainingValues, Morals,and Ethics/Social Justice andEquityAbstract: This report grew out of a conversationheld at a 1998 gathering of Aboriginalcommunity members brought together toexplore issues of sex offender treatment in theircommunities. These participants knew thattheir healing approaches were making somefundamental changes in the life and wellbeingof their communities and asked whetherthe Aboriginal Corrections Policy Unit, PublicSafety and Emergency Preparedness Canadawould be interested in documenting thosechanges. The Native Counseling Services ofAlberta agreed to undertake the participatoryresearch project and contracted Dr. JoeCouture and Ruth Couture to undertake theresearch and writing of this report. The purposeof this report, while it does not focus on healingaspects related to health, is to provide aholistic picture of restorative justice healing byBiidaaban, the Mnjikaning Community HealingStrategy in Mnjikaning First Nation, that includesa description of the community, its healingprocess and its value to the community.29. Cruikshank, J. (1994). Annie Ned(Yukon Elder) [Excerpt from Julie Cruikshank’sCelebration 1992: a Yukon Woman’s Daybook].Canadian Woman Studies, 14, 69.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Northern Elders/Older WomenAbstract: Mrs. [Annie Ned], well-known southernYukon Elder and member of the Crow clan, wasborn more than a hundred years ago in the oldsettlement of Hutshi. Her mother died when shewas a small child, so she was raised by her twograndmothers, Dakwa’al (her mother’s mother)and Dakalama (her father’s mother). Growingup under the guidance of two women bornaround 1850, it is not surprising that Mrs. Neddeveloped a deep understanding of the “oldways.”30. Davis, L., Dudziak, S., & Harding, M.(2005). A Strategy for Aboriginal Healing &

Wellness. In Health for All in the Year 2000,Ottawa, Ontario, 22 - 25 October 2000 Ottawa,ON: Canadian Public Health Association.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/ Healing/HealthAbstract: This paper examines the developmentof community-based initiatives of the AboriginalHealing and Wellness Strategy (AHWS) as partof a movement toward social change. AHWSprovides an example of new forms of programsbeing created as Aboriginal peoples claimand reassert their identities. Forged through aunique partnership of fifteen major Aboriginalorganizations and four Ontario governmentministries, a joint policy development processwas instituted. A variety of culture-basedservices have been implemented throughoutthe province, including Aboriginal health accesscentres, healing lodges, family centres and atraditional birthing centre. As a multidisciplinarystrategy, AHWS brings together traditionaland Western knowledge and practice.The theoretical framework is based on theteachings of the Medicine wheel with attentionto physical, mental, emotional and spiritualdimensions. This framework addresses the needsand aspirations of Aboriginal peoples to providea comprehensive and holistic continuum ofhealing. Special features of the culture-basedapproaches will be discussed.31. Deiter, C. & Otway, L. (2001).Sharing Our Stories on Promoting Health andCommunity Healing: An Aboriginal Women’sHealth Project. Winnipeg, MB: Prairie Women’sHealth Centre of Excellence (PWHCE).Available Online: http://www.pwhce.ca/pdf/deiterReport.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/Adequate Power/Canada/Culture/FamilyViolence/Healing/Health/Health Care/ Life-Sustaining Values, Morals and Ethics/SocialJustice and Equity/Well-being/Women’s HealthAbstract: This report, “Sharing Our Stories onPromoting Health and Community Healing: AnAboriginal Women’s Health Project,” presents abroad historical overview of Aboriginal women’shealth issues, a review of pertinent and currentresources, and recommendations on how toaddress and improve the health of Aboriginalwomen in Manitoba and Saskatchewan. Theauthors of the study are both First Nationswomen and are familiar with the many healthand social issues facing Aboriginal women.Health and health issues for Aboriginal womenare complex issues. Constitutionally, thefederal government has exclusive jurisdictionfor “Indians.” Medical Services Branch ismandated to deliver health services to FirstNations people. However, for Aboriginal peoplewho are not on federal reserve land, thereare jurisdictional battles over who pays forwhich health care services, frequently at thecost of the health of the people. Furthermore,the history of colonization in this country hasseverely affected the health and well-beingof Canada’s Indigenous people and womenin particular. The imposition of Europeanvalues caused Aboriginal women to lose theireconomic status, language, community rights,culture, and traditional roles as healers andleaders. The high incidence of family violenceagainst Aboriginal women is seen as one ofthe most tragic results. Set in the context ofan historical overview, the report includes aselected literature review. The researchersalso surveyed nearly 100 women, includinginterviews with five Elders. The analysis andreport are written from an Aboriginal women’sperspective and based on the reports providedby Aboriginal women through the surveys andinterviews (Executive Summary).32. Deiter, C. & Otway, L. (2002). Researchas a Spiritual Contract: An Aboriginal Women’sHealth Project. CEWH Research Bulletin, 2.Available Online: http://www.cewh-cesf.ca/bulletin/v2n3/page6.htmlKeywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/Adequate Power/Canadian Women/ CulturalDifferences/Health/Health Beliefs/HealthKnowledge/Life-Sustaining Values, Morals andEthics/ Women’s Health/WorkAbstract: Article appears in the Winter 2002edition of the CEWH Research Bulletin (Vol.2, No. 3) and in the Fall/Winter 2001/2002issue of Network/Le Réseau (Vol. 4/5, No.4/1). Summarizes research conducted for thePrairie Women’s Health Centre of Excellence.Describes the work of two researchers, ConnieDeiter and Linda Otway, who use specificresearch methods to include the participationof Aboriginal women (CWHN Abstract).33. Department of Indian Affairs andNorthern Development (2003). RegisteredIndian Population by Sex and Residence,2003. Ottawa, ON: Indian and Northern AffairsCanada.Available Online: http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/pr/sts/rip/rip03_e.pdfKeywords: Canada/Gender/ Demographics/Aboriginal Women/MenAbstract: The Department of Indian Affairs andNorthern Development (DIAND) is requiredby the Indian Act (Chapter I, Section 5 (1))to record in the Indian Registry the names ofindividuals who are registered under the Act.The Indian Registry System (IRS) is a databasewhich records individuals’ names and a rangeof non-statutory data. The Registered IndianPopulation by Sex and Residence describes theAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing311

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing312IRS population as recorded at December 31,2000. Descriptive statistics are developed fromthe IRS that include sex, age, residence, registrygroup, responsibility centre and region. Dataare organized in two broad sections. The firstsection provides summary statistics that includeageand gender distribution and residencycomparisons for all regions and for Canada. Thesecond section presents detailed information foreach registry group arranged by sex, residence,responsibility centre and region. Registry groupsare listed in alphabetical order within eachresponsibility centre. The registry group numberis given next to the registry group name (seepage vii for the definition of registry group).34. Department of Indian Affairs andNorthern Development (2003). Registered IndianPopulation Projections for Canada and Regions2000-2021. Ottawa, ON: Department of IndanAffairs and Northern Development.Available Online: http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/pr/sts/ipp_e.pdfKeywords: Indian Demographics35. Driben, P. (1990). A Death in theFamily: The Strategic Importance of Women inContemporary Northern Ojibwa Society. NativeStudies Review, 6, 83-110.Keywords: Ojibwa Women/Death36. Egan, M. (2002). Living in a BiculturalWorld and Finding the Way Home: NativeWomen’s Stories. Affilia, 17, 206-228.Keywords: Culture/Gender/Native womenAbstract: Four Native American women livingin the majority culture were interviewed in aqualitative study, using snowball sampling,to explore their experiences concerning themeaning of being Native and of being Nativewomen. A constant comparative qualitativeanalysis revealed four themes reflecting thewomen’s experiences: “otherness”; conflictingdominant and Native cultural messages; Nativetraditions as strengths, particularly as taught byfemale Elders early in life; and the formation ofpositive gender and ethnic identities (JournalAbstract).37. Elgersma, S. (2001). Aboriginal Women:A Profile from the 1996 Census. Ottawa, ON:Indian and Northern Affairs Canada.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequateIncome and Sustainable Economies/ AdequatePower/Education/Gender/ Well-beingAbstract: This publication focuses on Aboriginalwomen since their experience and thesocioeconomic variables used to profilethem reveal a population group distinctfrom non-Aboriginal women, as well asAboriginal men. Gender and race impact thesocioeconomic well-being of Aboriginal womenas individuals, as mothers and as membersof their communities. Understanding theunique challenges facing Aboriginal womenis therefore an integral part of any strategyto build stronger peoples, communities andeconomies. The objective of this report is toprovide a demographic and socioeconomicprofile of Aboriginal women in Canada whichreveals the distinct challenges facing this groupand help inform and support the policy-makingprocess. Data in this report are made availablefrom DIAND’s core tabulations and specializeddata extractions from the 1996 Census ofPopulation. The report is divided into seven mainsections which examine population, language,family, education, labour force, income andmobility characteristics of Canada’s Aboriginalwomen by ethnic group (Inuit, North AmericanIndian, and Métis). Where appropriate,comparable statistics are also provided forthe total Canadian population, and the malepopulation (Adapted from Introduction).38. English, V. (1996). Toward a Rebirth ofthe Medicine Wheel as a Pedagogy for NativeEducation. Thesis (Ph.D.) --University of Calgary,1996, Calgary, AB.Keywords: Canada/Education/Healing/MedicineAbstract: The author uses the story of herlife and experiences in an Indian residentialschool combined with other women’s storiesto demonstrate storytelling as a healingmechanism. Secondly, she documents Nativeteaching methods using the medicine wheel.Finally, she uses the contemporary figures ofthe Ninja Turtles to blend the traditional westerneducational concepts with the objectives of theNative medicine wheel. The author, who is alsoknown as Poh-ska-ki, is a Blackfoot woman fromthe North Piegan Blackfoot Tribe.39. Fajber, E. (1996). The Power of MedicineHealing and Tradition among Dene Womenin Fort Good Hope, Northwest Territories. Thesis(M.A.) -- McGill University, 1996.Keywords: Canada/Cultural Integrity andIdentity/Gender/Healing/Health/Medicine/Mental Healing/Spirituality and A Sense ofPurpose/Women’s HealthAbstract: Presents information gathered throughstorytelling, emphasizing the concepts, power,and potential of healing for Dene women.Focuses on Aet’sechi, a time of learning Denebeliefs and practices, a time of training, atime of gathering the knowledge that a Denewoman needs for her life, a time of instruction,a time which holds enormous power. Denewomen are leading and directing effortstoward ‘healing’ themselves, their families, andtheir communities. Employing a modality of

montage and storytelling, this thesis explores thisenigmatic concept of ‘healing’ among Dene,and its gendered dimensions, in the communityof Fort Good Hope, Northwest Territories.This account challenges the limitations of aresistance-hegemony paradigm often usedto describe Aboriginal actions as embeddedwithin colonial relations, and endeavourstoward a more nuanced analysis whichexplores Dene ‘healing’ beyond the colonialspace. ‘Healing’ is emerging as a vehicle forthe assertion and celebration of Dene identity,Dene tradition and ‘Dene ways’. This thesisfurther explores how many Dene women inFort Good Hope are mobilizing the powerof tradition, such as -aet’sechi/ (practicesassociated with ‘becoming woman’), as ameans of ‘healing’ social/health concerns, andinfluencing gender and power relations in thecommunity.40. Fast, P. A. (1998). Gwich’in women,Gwich’in healing: Responses of NorthernAthabascans to Postcolonial Hegemonies. Thesis(Ph.D.) - Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.Keywords: Native Americans/Children/ Work/Government/Healing/MenAbstract: This study is about Alaskan Gwich’inAthabascans, Native Americans who grow up,make a living, and raise children in an addictivesociety. The work analyzes three interrelatedissues: (1) positioning of women in Gwich’insociety, (2) Gwich’in decision making withrespect toward adaptation under 20th centurycomplex constraints, and (3) local economy,sharing semiotics in context of economicand bureaucratic reproduction of addictiveprocesses. The first explores some of thestruggles and strategies of women in Gwich’interritory with respect to addiction and physicalexploitation. Their situations are compoundedby inexplicit barriers between women andpositions of leadership, as well as by women’sroles in parenting. The second part exploresGwich’in habits of what they term consensusin conflict with and in support of Gwich’innotions of individualist behavior. Tensionscaused by this paradox are accentuated inleadership roles which laud simultaneously thetraditions of Gwich’in warriors and traditionalGwich’in concepts of humility: two disparatemodes which work together, but at greatpersonal cost to Gwich’in leaders. The thirdcentral issue identifies economic domination ofGwich’in society through many subtle forms ofbureaucratic and addictive abuse, including itsrepercussions within local economy in the formof local businesses and institutional programssponsored by the government which nurtureor demand furthering of addictions. ManyGwich’in leaders are prey to these addictiveprocesses, although they are also advocates ofchange. Healing is an integral metaphor usedby both Gwich’in men and women to expressa common goal: escape from dependencyof all sorts, from economic exploitation tophysical addiction. Working across and withinthe healing trope is a pervasive sense of socialand economic perseverance which to someemerges as closure and to others as consensus.Throughout Gwich’in country rhetoric aboutsocial pathologies and social healing occursin financial reports, political campaigns, andwomen’s public and domestic discourse.41. Fast, P. A. (2002). Northern AthabascanSurvival: Women, Community, and the Future.Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.Keywords: Cultural Integrity and Identity/ Statusof WomenAbstract: Combining scholarly analysis, firstpersonaccounts, and her own experiencesand insights as a Koyukun Athabascan artistand anthropologist, Phyllis Ann Fast illuminatesthe modern Athabascan woman’s world. Herconversations with Athabascan women offerrevealing glimpses of their personal lives anda probing assessment of their professionalopportunities and limitations.42. First Nations of Quebec and LabradorHealth and Social Services Commission (2000).Empowering Words of First Nations Women:Manual for Speaking Out About Life, Healthand... Diabetes Wendake, Quebec: First Nationsof Quebec and Labrador Health and SocialServices Commission.Keywords: Canada/Critical LearningOpportunities/Diabetes/First Nations/ Health/Women’s HealthAbstract: This project is an initiative of the FirstNations of Quebec and Labrador Health andSocial Services Commission. Partially funded byHealth Canada. Also available in French underthe title: Paroles et pouvoir de femmes desPremières Nations-- Manuel pour une prise deparole sur la vie, la santé... le diabète.43. Flette, E. (2004). Book Review: SeekingMino-Pimatisiwin: An Aboriginal Approach toHealing by Michael Hart (Book Review). Envision:The Manitoba Journal of Child Welfare, 3, 44-47.Available Online: http://www.envisionjournal.com/application/Articles/61.pdf#search=’Seeking%20MinoPimatisiwin’Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/CulturalDeterminants/Cultural Integrity and Identity/Healing/Spirituality and A Sense of PurposeAbstract: Elsie Flette’s article provides anoverview of the book Seeking Mino-Pimatisiwin:An Aboriginal Approach to Healing, written byMichael Hart. Hart’s book includes a discussionon colonization, social work’s role in colonialoppression and the role an Aboriginal approachplays in resisting this colonial oppression.Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing313

44. Flynn, T. (2005). Women of theFirst Nations: Power, Wisdom and Strength.Indigenation.Available Online: http://research2.csci.educ.ubc.ca/indigenation/tara.htmacknowledge my mother’s struggle and legacyas an Aboriginal woman (Adapted from theIntroduction).46. Foster, C. (1995). A Time for Healing:Starting with the Self. Herizons, 9, 26-28.Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and HealingKeywords: Aboriginal Women/Culture/ FirstNations/Life-Sustaining Values, Morals and EthicsAbstract: The following article is not basedon a true interview. It is an amalgamationof actual interview responses and of quotesexcerpted from essays in three different books,which requires some imagination on the partof the reader. The fictitious interviews are withstrong and accomplished women, willing toshare their personal feelings with a curiousnon-Aboriginal girl. The ages of the womenspan the age spectrum, but the predominantvoice is that of the women who have passedout of their twenties and have experiencedmotherhood. We explore what it feels like to bea mother and how Aboriginal women preserveand understand their identity through Elders,parents, tradition and culture. The conversationsalso discuss the effects of the Western notionof patriarchy on Aboriginal women. (http://research2.csci.educ.ubc.ca/indigenation/tara.htm).45. Fontaine, N. (2001). Neither Here, NorThere: A Reflection on Aboriginal Women andIdentity. Thesis (M.A.) -- University of Manitoba,Fall 2001.Available Online: http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk3/ftp04/MQ62728.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Women/ Manitoba/IdentityAbstract: This thesis seeks to explore the notionand complexity of identity as it relates toAboriginal women within the contemporaryCanadian colonial context. How do Aboriginalwomen view and position themselves withina contemporary context? As well, how doAboriginal women negotiate their subjectivitywithin conflicting historical and contemporarydiscourses? The overall objectives of theresearch are a) to provide an overview ofvarious theoretical theories on contemporaryidentity; b) to record Aboriginal women’sperspectives and constructions of theiridentity in their own voice and; c) to provide atheoretical analysis of how Aboriginal women’sidentity constructions create and open a newpostcolonial space in which to (re)claim and(re)define themselves. In simple terms, thepurpose of this research is simply to presentthe multiplicity of voice, place and identity ofAboriginal women within the contemporaryCanadian perspective. On a more personalnote, the fundamental purpose in pursuingthis research is for me a way to honour andKeywords: Canada/HealingAbstract: Features Cambridge Bay, acommunity of Inuit and southern descentpeople, located above the Arctic Circle inthe central region of Canada. Problems ofsubstance abuse; Regional superintendent forthe Department of Personnel Clara O’Gorman’sorganization of an informal wellness group(Journal Abstract).47. Foulds, L. A. (1997). Braided Tales: Livesand Stories of Women in a Northern AlbertaReserve Community. Thesis (M.A.) -- University ofCalgary. Calgary, AB.Available Online: http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk3/ftp05/mq24632.pdfKeywords: Gender/Native women/ StorytellingAbstract: This thesis describes and interprets thelives and stories of a group of Native women ina northern Alberta reserve community. It seeksto explore the specific experiences and currentrealities faced by these women, with particularattention to the impact of colonial processes.Informed by a materialist feminist perspective,the analysis emphasizes emic perspectives anddefinitions of the concepts of gender, class,status, race and feminism. Through the useof first person narrative, insights on topics ofkinship, marriage and reproduction, spirituality,addictions and domestic violence arepresented. The use of narrative and storytelling,in conjunction with an examination of materialsocial and economic conditions, allows fora more specific analysis of the particularexperiences of this group of Native womenwithin a relevant context. In addition, it allowsfor an exploration of the question of Nativefeminism as a philosophy distinct from that ofmainstream Anglo-feminism48. Fyre, J. G. (2000). Circle asMethodology: Enacting an AboriginalParadigm. International Journal of QualitativeStudies in Education, 13, 361-370.Keywords: Cultural Integrity and Identity/Education/Spirituality and A Sense of Purpose/WorkAbstract: Circle as methodology is a poeticnarrative, a Trickster tale, which is descriptiveof an Aboriginal method in use, while beingcritical of hegemonic beliefs which confineus. Fyre Jean seeks to engage qualitativeresearchers from all disciplines in an ongoing314

dialogue to recognize and resist the oppressiveEurocentric attitudes and practices currentlyshaping research norms. Creatively combiningAboriginal teachings with qualitative design,the author shares insights she gleaned whenresearching the material for Circle works:Transforming Eurocentric consciousness.49. Gillis, M. S. C. (1994). Woman as Healer:The Creation of an Ideal for Native Womenin Canada in Maria Campbell’s Halfbreed,Beatrice Culleton’s In Search of April Raintree,and Jeannette Armstrong’s Slash. Thesis (M.A.)-- University of New Brunswick.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ Canada/History/Native women/WorkAbstract: In the Sacred Hoop: Recoveringthe Feminine in American Indian Traditions,Laguna Pueblo/Sioux Indian writer and literarycritic Paula Gunn Allen resurrects the ancientAboriginal myths and customs that empoweredNative women to be healers and shamans.Much of the contemporary literature byNative women in Canada draws its symbolicpower from this centuries-old ideology. MariaCampbell’s Halfbreed, Beatrice Culleton’sIn Search of April Raintree, and JeannetteArmstrong’s Slash are works by Native womenthat use Native literary devices to create asymbolic ideal for Native women: womanas healer. This study examines the literarystrategies these authors use to elevate theNative woman to her former high status amongIndigenous peoples, primarily in relation tothe motifs of woman as healer. I rely mainlyon the texts themselves, but draw evidenceof the earlier powerful position of Aboriginalwomen from mythology and history providedby Allen, Beverly Hungry Wolf and Beth Brant(Degonwadonti). As well, I examine Campbell’s,Culleton’s and Armstrong’s techniques in lightof their interviews with Hartmut Lutz, and incomparison with the writings of other Nativewomen, to demonstrate that Halfbreed, AprilRaintree and Slash are uniquely and universallyNative women’s literature. Like Penny Petrone’sNative Literature in Canada: From the OralTradition to the Present, this study is “exploratoryand tentative” because “the neglect thathas plagued the literature of Canada’s nativepeople” has rendered the writings of Canada’sNative women even less visible. Ultimately,I have tried to meet Petrone’s challenge to“bring to a new level of scholarship to thestudy and appreciation of Native Canadianliterature.” (Author’s Abstract).50. Griffin, I. (2001). The PracticalApplication of Traditional Aboriginal HealingPractices as a Restorative Justice Process: ACase Study of the Helen Betty Osborne Story.Thesis (M.S.W.) -- The University of Manitoba,2001, Winnipeg, MB.Keywords: Healing/Justice/ Canada/ Manitoba/Offenders/ResearchAbstract: Restorative justice is a processwhereby criminal actions are dealt with in amanner that attempts to reduce the harmcaused to the victim and community. Theprinciples and concepts of restorative justiceshare many similarities with traditional Aboriginalteachings, and as such, the two processescan be jointly applied to address the needsof victims, offenders, and communities. Thisqualitative case study explores the applicationof traditional Aboriginal healing practices asa restorative justice process using the HelenBetty Osborne case as an example. Primarydata are from interviews conducted withseveral key participants during November1998 and January 1999, and from informaldiscussions between October 1997 and May1999. The thesis focuses on how participantswere affected by the restorative process andthe potential for this process to be incorporatedinto the Canadian correctional system. Therestorative process in the Helen Betty Osbornecase affected those involved in a variety ofways. Many indicated it was a powerful andpositive experience for them; while othersfound it to be emotionally difficult and of morebenefit to the offender than the victim. Mostfelt that this process, with increased supports forthe victim, could be successfully incorporatedinto the justice system. There is a role for socialworkers as part of the restorative justice processin the community, in the institutions, and in thedevelopment of policy and programs. Futureresearch should focus on how this process canbe incorporated into the justice system, itseffect on the victim and offender, and its effecton successful community reintegration. As well,a means of evaluating this process should bedeveloped.51. Griffiths, C. T. & Belleau, C. (1995).Addressing Aboriginal Crime and Victimizationin Canada: Revitalizing Communities, Culturesand Traditions. In K.M. Hazelhurst (Ed.), PopularJustice and Community Regeneration:Pathways of Indigenous Reform. Westport,Conn.: Praeger.Keywords: Canada/Culture/Justice/ Justice/VictimizationAbstract: Reports on innovations in theadministration of justice, social reintegrationof offenders, and administration of justicealternatives, and in the recovery of damagedcommunities. The authors provide descriptionsof programs, assessment of their impact andadvocacy for further change.52. Halcrow, B. J. (1995). The Inclusion ofSpirituality within a Second-Stage BatteredWomen’s Group. Thesis (M.S.W.) -- University ofManitoba 1995, Winnipeg, Mb.Keywords Empowerment/ Healing/ Manitoba/WorkAbstract: This is the report of two Aboriginal andAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing315

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing316five non-Aboriginal women and the explorationof their spirituality within their process of healingand empowerment. This group was facilitatedwithin the context of a second-stage groupfor battered women, which ran for twelveconsecutive weeks. This report describes theintegration of feminist and social work principles,practices, and cross-cultural considerations,which served to promote insight and awarenessof the importance of addressing spirituality asintegral to the holistic healing of women.53. Hardy, S., Apaquash, L., & Butcher,M. (1999). Merging Traditional Aboriginal andWestern Health Practices to Meet the Needsof Urban Aboriginal Peoples. Sudbury, ON:Shkagamik-Kwe Health Centre.Available Online: http://www.latrobe.edu.au/aipc/PDF%20Papers/Hardy_S_127.pdfKeywords: Health/Aboriginal PeoplesAbstract: The health of Aboriginal people inCanada has been compared to that of healthin Third World countries. The Shkagamik-KweHealth Centre, an Aboriginal-based primaryhealth centre, was recently established toaddress the unique needs of the Aboriginalpopulation in one area in Canada. The purposeof this paper is to describe the Shkagamik-Kwe Health Centre in terms of the history of itsdevelopment within the Aboriginal Healing andWellness Strategy and its current programs, withparticular emphasis placed on how traditionalAboriginal healing and health practices arebeing utilized within a multidisciplinary teamapproach.54. Hart, M. A. (2002). Seeking Mino-Pimatisiwin: An Aboriginal Approach to Helping.Halifax, NS: Fernwood Publishing.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/Healing/ HelpingApproaches/Spirituality and A Sense of PurposeAbstract: Hart begins the book by establishinghis frame of reference and by discussing theneed for such an approach given the colonialcontext against which Aboriginal peoplescontinue to struggle. Exploring this generalapproach, Hart describes a practice often usedby many Aboriginal helpers that directly reflectsthe sharing circle, and how this approach canbe used to guide practice with individuals,families and groups in several contexts.Hart uses his own personal and professionalexperiences and that of other Aboriginalhelpers. Throughout the book he outlinesways of adopting an Aboriginal approach tohelping. The closing chapter examines one suchapproach, the sharing circle, and how it can beused to guide practice with individuals, families,and groups in several contexts.55. Haslip, S. (1999). First Nations Womenas Keepers of the Culture: A Consideration ofthe Roles and Responsibilities of First NationsWomen. Unpublished WorkAvailable: http://www.sifc.edu/Indian%20Studies/IndigenousThought/fall99/Keepers.htmlKeywords: Culture/First Nations/First NationsWomenAbstract: This paper represents the author’sunderstanding of the roles and responsibilities ofFirst Nations women as Keepers of the Culture.These understandings are offered with respectand without “misinterpretation or patronization.”As Patricia A. Monture Okanee has written,“[a]ny inaccuracy or vagueness must becomemy responsibility as the one who has woventhis article together.” This author, as a non-FirstNations woman, is aware of the “limits of hercultural experience and the necessity of intenseand detailed sensitivity to” First Nations peoples.(2) She is also aware that many First Nationswomen are tired of having white women,‘interpret, empathize and sympathize with FirstNations women’. (3) She believes howeverthat she has a responsibility to understandFirst Nations peoples as best as she can,“recognizing and attempting to overcome hercultural biases.” (4) This paper represents herattempt to carry out this responsibility (Adaptedfrom the Author’s Abstract).56. Hayden, J. (1995). Walking in TwoWorlds: A Profile of Gaye Hanson. Herizons, 9,21-23.Keywords: First Nations/Sexual AbuseAbstract: Profiles Gaye Hanson, a consultantat Yukon First Nations. Spiritual life; Educationalbackground; Views on alcohol, violence andsexual abuses of women (Journal Abstract).57. Hayden, J. (1995). Northern Women asHealers and Leaders. Herizons, 9, 21-23.Keywords: Social ConditionsAbstract: Discusses the social problemsconfronting northern women. Comments ofLynn Brooks, Executive Director of the NWTWomen’s Advisory Council, on the social issuesconfronting northern women; Women’s roleas healers, nurturers, trainers and role models;Yukon Indian Women’s Association’s trainingof healers under an organization called DeneNets’ Edet `, which means `People Awakening’(Journal Abstract).58. Hazelhurst, K. M. (1995). Introduction:Indigenous Models for CommunityReconstruction and Social Recovery. In K.Hazlehurst (Ed.), Popular Justice and CommunityRegeneration: Pathways of Indigenous Reform.Westport, Conn.: Praeger.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/Adequate

Power/Canada/Culture/Healing/Justice/Nativewomen/Offenders/Prevention/ YouthAbstract: Reports on innovations in theadministration of justice, social reintegration ofoffenders, administration of justice alternatives,and in the recovery of damaged communities.Provides descriptions of programs, assessment oftheir impact, and advocacy for further change.59. Heilbron, C. L. & Guttman, M. A.J. (2005). Traditional Healing Methods withFirst Nations Women in Group Counselling.Canadian Journal of Counselling, 34, 3-13.Keywords: Culture/First Nations/ Healing/SexualAbuseAbstract: A traditional Aboriginal healingceremony, called the Healing Circle, wasutilized in a cognitive therapy counsellinggroup comprised of three Ojibway First Nationand two non-Aboriginal women survivors ofchild sexual abuse in their mid-30s to mid-40s. The traditional ceremony and Aboriginalbeliefs were examined for their impact onthe counselling process. The ceremony andbeliefs established a spiritual component whichcontributed positively to the group. Adheringto Aboriginal culture was integral to the healingprocess. Suggestions for non-Aboriginalcounselors in facilitating the healing processfor First Nations women are offered utilizinga traditional Aboriginal healing ceremony,called the healing circle, in a counseling groupcomprised of First Nations and non-Aboriginalwomen survivors of child sexual abuse. Theauthors also examine ceremony and Aboriginalbeliefs for their impact on the counselingprocess. Results indicate that the ceremonyand beliefs established a spiritual componentthat contributed positively to the group (JournalAbstract).60. Hodgson, M. (1995). ‘Body, Mindand Spirit’: Native Community Addictions,Treatment and Prevention. In K. Hazlehurst (Ed.),Popular Justice and Community Regeneration:Pathways of Indigenous Reform. Westport,Conn.: Praeger.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/AdequatePower/Canada/Culture/Healing/Justice/Nativewomen/Offenders/Prevention/ YouthAbstract: Reports on innovations in theadministration of justice, social reintegration ofoffenders, administration of justice alternatives,and in the recovery of damaged communities.Provides descriptions of programs, assessment oftheir impact, and advocacy for further change.61. Hodson, J. (2004). Aboriginal Learningand Healing in a Virtual World. CanadianJournal of Education, 28, 111-122.Keywords: Education/Healing/InternetAbstract: Today Aboriginal peoples on TurtleIsland are witnessing the leading edge of anew wave of colonialism propelled by thenew religion of corporate globalism, and theInternet is the contemporary missionary of thatnew religion. If we do not extend the dialogueabout this new colonialism and understand itspotential outcomes, we risk repeating our pasts.Although this article was inspired by the eventsrelated to a research project, it is not intendedto be an exhaustive discussion of the findingsassociated with the Learning and HealingNetwork research project, which investigatedthe suitability of Internet-delivered education forAboriginal peoples. Instead I share some of ourexperiences and discuss the critical issues thatarose during the completion of the Learningand Healing Network project. It is my hopethat others will find this experience relevant asthey break their own trails to Internet-deliverededucation (Journal Abstract).62. Hoyle, M. L. (1995). ‘A Fitting Remedy’:Aboriginal Justice as a Community HealingStrategy. In K. Hazlehurst (Ed.), Popular Justiceand Community Regeneration: Pathways ofIndigenous Reform. Westport, Conn.: Praeger.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/AdequatePower/Canada/Culture/Healing/Justice/Nativewomen/Offenders/Prevention/ YouthAbstract: Reports on innovations in theadministration of justice, social reintegration ofoffenders, administration of justice alternatives,and in the recovery of damaged communities.Provides descriptions of programs, assessment oftheir impact, and advocacy for further change.63. Hunter, L., Logan, J., Barton, S., &Goulet, J.-G. (2004). Linking Aboriginal HealingTraditions to Holistic Nursing Practice. Journal ofHolistic Nursing, 22, 267-285.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/British Columbia/Cultural Integrity and Identity/ Healing/Health/Traditional HealthAbstract: With a phenomenal expected growthin the Canadian Aboriginal population andthe fact that less than 1% of Canadian healthprofessionals are of Aboriginal ancestry, thereis an increased need for culturally competenthealth professionals. This article explains diversehealing traditions and links those traditions toholistic nursing practice. Respect for culturallysensitive care is necessary for understandingAboriginal peoples in different contexts. Wesuggest that nursing practice, which takes intoconsideration the understanding of Aboriginalhealing traditions, strengthens the intentionof nurses to be holistic. Holism in nursingallows the profession to be on the forefront ofunderstanding Aboriginal healing traditions; thelinking of holistic nursing practice with Aboriginalhealing traditions offers a foundation on whichto build culturally competent care.Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing317

64. Irwin, L. (2001). Sending a Voice,Seeking a Place: Visionary Traditions amongNative Women of the Plains. In K.Bulkeley (Ed.),Dreams: A Reader on Religious, Cultural, andPsychological Dimensions of Dreaming. NewYork: Palgram.Keywords: Native women/ReligionAbstract: Unavailable65. Johnston, S. L. (2002). Native AmericanTraditional and Alternative Medicine. TheANNALS of the American Academy of Politicaland Social Science, 583, 195-213.67. Kaye, M. (1990). In the Spirit of theFamily. Canadian Living, 131.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/ CommunitySolidarity and Social Support/Healing/StrongFamilies and Healthy Child DevelopmentAbstract: This article speaks to the role ofAboriginal women in healing their woundedfamilies as a result of colonization and itsaftermath.68. Kechnie, M. & Reitsma-Street, M. (1996).Changing Lives: Women in Northern Ontario.Toronto: Dundurn Press.Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and HealingKeywords: Canada/Healing/Identity/ MedicineAbstract: Native American traditional medicineis alive and vibrant in many North Americansocieties, although not all. These traditionscoexist with other forms of healing, and theparticular patterns of existence, interaction,and meaning vary among groups. The literatureexamining these issues is likewise diverse. Thisarticle explores, through a selective review ofthe recent literature, how social and behavioralscientists, among others, are focusing theirinvestigations of traditional and alternativemedicine in Native American communities ofthe United States and Canada today. Issuesinclude how Native practices have persistedand changed, how they are being used (e.g., inframing cultural identity), and how they interactwith other systems, especially biomedicine andfaith healing.66. Kasee, C. R. (1995). Identity, Recovery,and Religious Imperialism: Native AmericanWomen and the New Age. Women andTherapy, 16, 83-93.Keywords: Culture/Native American WomenAbstract: The author posits that culturaldisintegration and the resulting loss ofself-esteem have acted as precursors forrampant substance abuse in Indian Americancommunities. Particularly at risk are Nativewomen, who have little recognition in thedominant culture but whose traditionalroles of respect have also dwindled withforced acculturation. Just when a wave ofreconversion (“going back to the blanket”) istaking hold among Native women substanceusers/abusers, the even more prevalentcommercialization of Indian religion andpseudo-religion are denigrating theserecaptured sources of dignity and pride. Thisreligious imperialism does not just parody trueNative faiths; it robs Native women in recoveryof the self-esteem building tool which hasproven most effective. It also continues theappropriation of Indigenous culture whichfurther serves to undermine coming generationsof Native American women (Journal Abstract).Keywords: Social Conditions/Northern WomenAbstract: Unavailable69. Kenny, C. (2004). When the WomenHeal: Aboriginal Women Speak about Policies toImprove the Quality of Life. American BehaviorScientist.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Healing/ Qualityof LifeAbstract: Unavailable70. Kirmayer, L., Simpson, C., & Cargo, M.(2003). Healing Traditions: Culture, Communityand Mental Health Promotion with CanadianAboriginal Peoples. Australasian Psychiatry, 11,S15-S23.Available Online: http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/links/doi/10.1046/j.1038-5282.2003.02010.x/absKeywords: Aboriginal Peoples/Canada/Culture/Empowerment/Healing/Health/ History/Suicide/YouthAbstract: Objective: To identify issues andconcepts to guide the development ofculturally appropriate mental health promotionstrategies with Aboriginal populations andcommunities in Canada. Methods: We reviewrecent literature examining the links betweenthe history of colonialism and governmentinterventions (including the residential schoolsystem, out-adoption, and centralizedbureaucratic control) and the mental health ofCanadian Aboriginal peoples. Results: There arehigh rates of social problems, demoralization,depression, substance abuse, suicide andother mental health problems in many, thoughnot all, Aboriginal communities. Althoughdirect causal links are difficult to demonstratewith quantitative methods, there is clear andcompelling evidence that the long history ofcultural oppression and marginalization hascontributed to the high levels of mental healthproblems found in many communities. Thereis evidence that strengthening ethnoculturalidentity, community integration and political318

empowerment can contribute to improvingmental health in this population. Conclusions:The social origins of mental health problems inAboriginal communities demand social andpolitical solutions. Research on variations in theprevalence of mental health disorders acrosscommunities may provide important informationabout community-level variables to supplementliterature that focuses primarily on individuallevelfactors. Mental health promotionthat emphasizes youth and communityempowerment is likely to have broad effectson mental health and well-being in Aboriginalcommunities (Journal Abstract).71. Kirmayer, L. J., Simpson, C., & Cargo,M. (2003). Indigenous Populations HealingTraditions: Culture, Community and MentalHealth Promotion with Canadian AboriginalPeoples. Australasian Psychiatry, 11, S15-S23.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/Canada/Community Solidarity and SocialSupport/ Culture/ Empowerment/Healing/Health/History/ Strong Families and HealthyChild Development/Suicide/YouthAbstract: Objective: To identify issues andconcepts to guide the development ofculturally appropriate mental health promotionstrategies with Aboriginal populations andcommunities in Canada. Methods: We reviewrecent literature examining the links betweenthe history of colonialism and governmentinterventions (including the residential schoolsystem, out-adoption, and centralizedbureaucratic control) and the mental health ofCanadian Aboriginal peoples. Results: There arehigh rates of social problems, demoralization,depression, substance abuse, suicide andother mental health problems in many, thoughnot all, Aboriginal communities. Althoughdirect causal links are difficult to demonstratewith quantitative methods, there is clear andcompelling evidence that the long history ofcultural oppression and marginalization hascontributed to the high levels of mental healthproblems found in many communities. Thereis evidence that strengthening ethnoculturalidentity, community integration and politicalempowerment can contribute to improvingmental health in this population. Conclusions:The social origins of mental health problems inAboriginal communities demand social andpolitical solutions. Research on variations in theprevalence of mental health disorders acrosscommunities may provide important informationabout community-level variables to supplementliterature that focuses primarily on individuallevelfactors. Mental health promotionthat emphasizes youth and communityempowerment is likely to have broad effectson mental health and well-being in Aboriginalcommunities (Journal Abstract).72. Klem, M.-E. (1998). Colonizing Bodies:Aboriginal Health and Healing in BritishColumbia, 1900-50. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press.Keywords: Health/First Nations/Well-being/Government/British Columbia/ Children/Indigenous Healing/Healing/ Medicine/History/Aboriginal PeoplesAbstract: Historical analysis of colonization ofAboriginal peoples in British Columbia. Theauthor explores the ways in which Aboriginalbodies were materially affected by CanadianIndian policy, which placed restrictions onfishing and hunting, allocated inadequatereserves, forced children into unhealthyresidential schools, and criminalized Indigenoushealing and traditional medicine.73. Lane Jr. P., Bopp, M., Bopp, J.,& Norris, J. (2002). Mapping the HealingJourney: The Final Report of a First NationsResearch Project on Healing in CanadianAboriginal Communities. Ottawa, ON,Aboriginal Corrections Policy Unit, SolicitorGeneral Canada and the Aboriginal HealingFoundation. Aboriginal people’s collection; APC21 CA (2002).Available Online: http://www.psepc-sppcc.gc.ca/publications/abor_corrections/pdf/apc2002_e.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Peoples/AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/Adequate Income and Sustainable Economies/British Columbia/Canada/ Healing/Health/Manitoba/ Mental Healing/Well-being/WorkAbstract: This project was co-funded by theAboriginal Corrections Policy Unity of SolicitorGeneral Canada and by the AboriginalHealing Foundation. Six Canadian Aboriginalcommunities generously participated in intensecommunity-based consultations and in aNational Consultative Meeting held in Winnipeg.These communities (listed in alphabetical order)are: (1) Eskasoni First Nation on Cape BretonIsland, Nova Scotia; (2) Esketemc First Nation,otherwise known as Alkali Lake, British Columbia;(3) Hollow Water First Nation in southeasternManitoba, (4) Mnjikaning First Nation atRama, Ontario; (5) Squamish First Nationnear Vancouver, British Columbia; and (6)Waywayseecappo First Nation in southwesternManitoba. In each of these communities, keyhealing personnel and community volunteersgrappled with very challenging and difficultquestions related to the ongoing healing workin their communities and to the requirements forthe road ahead, leading to sustainable wellbeingand prosperity.74. LaFramboise, T. D., Heyle, A. M., &Ozer, E. J. (1999). Changing and Diverse Rolesof Women in American Indian Cultures. In L.A.Peplau & S. Chapman Debro (Eds.), Gender,Culture and Ethnicity: Current Research aboutAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing319

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing320Women and Men (pp. 48-61). Mountain View,CA: Mayfield Publishing Co.Keywords: Culture/Ethnicity/Gender/ DiversityAbstract: This article is an exploration of thetraditional gender roles of Indian men andwomen. The researchers examine the roles ofNative American women prior to Europeancontact, concluding that achieving wellnessand balance highlight the spiritual source oftheir strength.75. Lederman, J. (1999). Trauma andHealing in Aboriginal Families and Communities.Native Social Work Journal, 2, 59-90.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/ Healing/Trauma/WorkAbstract: This paper considers howtraumatization of Aboriginal peoples maybe of a unique process, characterized as it isby a longstanding and continuing history ofrepeated traumatic events, which make itextremely difficult for the process of healingto take place. This paper examines someof that traumatic history, the psychologicalmechanism of trauma in regard to Nativeindividuals, families and community life. Thepaper proposes a model of healing and anethnographic way of documenting data inorder to re-examine this theory, speculatingthat the data will further facilitate the healingprocess. Lederman applies “naturalistic”methods to an integrated strategy of healingand research. Naturalistic refers to a researchmethodology that adheres to the “naturalways of each community, its tradition and itsmembers.” Healing circles form the basis ofresearch. By working within models informedby “grounded theory,” circle stories provideknowledge that is intergenerationally andcross-culturally significant. Research and healingare linked to policy in the struggle to confrontthe continuing cycle of retraumatization ofAboriginal families and communities. Ledermanoverlooks the need for a gender-based analysis;however, the methods described can readilybe grounded in a gendered analysis.76. Legge, M. J. (2002). Seeking “RightRelations”: How Should Churches Respond toAboriginal Voices? (Exploring Elemental Ethicswithin Unevenly Structured Relations of Powerbetween Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal Womenin Canada). Journal of the Society of ChristianEthics, 22, 27-47.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/Canada/ CriticalLearning Opportunities/Life-Sustaining Values,Morals, and EthicsAbstract: What moral and spiritual resources dochurches have to open space for transformingand making new relations with and amongAboriginal communities? What values bestexpress justice and are cross-culturallyappropriate? Who decides on the terms andhow? When are moral agency and responsibilityaptly configured within unevenly structuredrelations of power? With special attention tothe United Church of Canada and to voices ofAboriginal and non-Aboriginal women, I exploreelements of an ethical framework in dialoguewith the Royal Commission on AboriginalPeoples. The Commission suggests three rolesthat religious institutions can play: to fosterawareness and understanding; to participate inpublic discussion; and to advocate at the locallevel in situations of conflict. On what groundscan each role be adequate in practiceand what are some ingredients for ethicalguidelines? The author suggests that moralagenda and basis might confirm the claims ofecclesial potential (Journal Abstract).77. Leipert, B. & Reutter, L. (1998). Women’sHealth and Community Health NursingPractice in Geographically Isolated Settings: ACanadian Perspective. Health Care for WomenInternational, 19, 575-588.Keywords: Canada/Government/Health/Health Care/Research/Women’s HealthAbstract: In this article we examine the literatureon women’s health and community healthnursing practice in geographically isolatedsettings from a Canadian perspective. Anextensive review of journal literature, Canadiangovernment documents and reports, andreports by women’s organizations forms thebasis of this examination. Following a briefintroduction to the concept of geographicalisolation, literature relating to women’s healthissues in rural and northern settings is described.This is followed by a discussion of communityhealth nursing practice and women’s healthin rural and northern settings. The discussionsection identifies major gaps in the literatureand suggests implications for communityhealth nursing practice and research, as wellas strategies for policy and programming toimprove women’s health and community healthnursing practice in geographically isolatedsettings in Canada (Journal Abstract).78. Letendre, A. D. (2002). AboriginalTraditional Medicine: Where Does It Fit? CrossingBoundaries: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 1, 78-87.Available Online: http://www.ualberta.ca/~gsa/ejournal/vol01n02/v01n02_07.pdfKeywords: Medicine/PreventionAbstract: The paper establishes the central roleof traditional medicine in Aboriginal society andthe value of the Aboriginal traditional medicineframework in working toward healthy Aboriginalcommunities. The author examines fundamentaldifferences between traditional medicine andwestern medicine and describes two conflictschallenging the successful integration of

Aboriginal traditional medicine within westernmedicine: issues of power and the Aboriginalconceptualization of illness prevention.79. Long, D. & Fox, T. (1996). Circles ofHealing: Illness, Healing and Health amongAboriginal People in Canada. In D. Long & O. P.Dickason (Eds.), Visions of the Heart: CanadianAboriginal Issues. Toronto, ON: Harcourt, Brace& Company.82. Maher, P. (1999). A Review of‘Traditional’ Aboriginal Health Beliefs. AustralianJournal of Rural Health, 7, 229-236.Available Online: http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/links/doi/10.1046/j.1440-1584.1999.00264.x/absKeywords: Gender/Health/Health Beliefs/MedicineKeywords: Canada/Healing/Health/Empowerment/Work/Well-beingAbstract: The authors summarize past Indianhealth policies since Confederation. The authorsalso examine the differences in allopathic andholistic attitudes toward health and healing.In addition the STE Program of the Stony FirstNation’s attitudes toward health and healingis explained. The STE Program is a four-stepprogram that focuses on: (1) healing; (2)life skills; (3) upgrading; (4) work placementand according to Chief Wesley is successful,with many of the participants having animprovement in their personal well-being.Perspectives on healing and programs currentlyoperating across Canada are discussed.Fourteen recommendations complete thearticle.80. Lowell, J. (1995). Rethinking Traditions:Women Taking Charge of Culture, Medicineand Each Other. Herizons: Women’s News,Feminist Views, 9, 25-26.Keywords: Culture/Inuit Women/ MedicineAbstract: The author assesses the negativeimplications of the medicalization of childbirthfor Inuit women and advocates greater useand validation of traditional midwifery practices(Dion Stout, 1997).81. Lowery, C. T. (1999). A QualitativeModel of Long-Term Recovery for AmericanIndian Women. Journal of Human Behavior inthe Social Environment, 2, 35-50.Keywords: Healing/Health/HistoryAbstract: A developmental model of Indianwomen’s long-term recovery is proposedbased on American Indian thought abouthealth and healing and life histories of six urbanIndian women in recovery for three to twelveyears. The qualitative analysis identified fourcomponents of the recovery process, includingpositive discontinuity, expanding the circle,reclaiming the mother, and developing newcontinuity. These components are supportedby narrative analysis from the lives of aYakama woman (Washington Plateau), a NezPerce woman (Idaho), two Blackfeet women(Montana), and two Ojibway women (NorthDakota) (Journal Abstract).Abstract: Western health professionals oftenexperience difficulties in service delivery toAboriginal people because of the disparitybetween Aboriginal and Western health beliefsystems. This article reviews the literature whichconsiders ‘traditional’ Aboriginal health beliefsand medical systems. The traditional Aboriginalmodel of illness causation emphasizes socialand spiritual dysfunction as a cause of illness.Supernatural intervention is regarded as themain cause of serious illness. There are genderdivisions in Aboriginal society that impact on thedelivery of Western health care. Managementstrategies such as preventative care, bushmedicine, and the role of traditional healers arediscussed. These belief systems are consideredwith particular reference to their interactionsand implications with regard to the Westernmedical system. This information provides aframework to allow improved understandingby health professionals of the health-relateddecisions made by Aboriginal people (JournalAbstract).83. Malloch, L. (1989). Indian Medicine,Indian Health: Study between Red and WhiteMedicine. Canadian Woman Studies, 10, 105-107.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Health/ MedicineAbstract: The focus of this article is on traditionalAboriginal medicine and the role of Aboriginalwomen as practitioners and transmittersof such knowledge. The author identifiesbases for cooperation with the mainstreamhealth community and makes policyrecommendations.84. Mancini Billson, J. (1995). Clan Mothersand Sky Walkers: Iroquois Women of the SixNations, Ohswekenow, Keepers of the Culture.In Keepers of the Culture: The Power of Traditionin Women’s Lives. New York, NY: LexingtonBooks.Keywords: Culture/Iroquois Women/ OntarioAbstract: Unavailable85. Martin Hill, D. (2000). IndigenousKnowledge as a Tool for Self-Determination andLiberation. In Houston, TX: National Associationof Native American Studies Section.Keywords: Cultural Integrity and Identity/Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing321

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing322Culture/Empowerment/Healthy Ecosystem andSustainable Relations between Human Beingsand the Natural World/Native Americans/Spirituality and A Sense of PurposeAbstract: This paper explores aspects ofIndigenous knowledge on several levels andexamines the role of Indigenous knowledgein Indigenous empowerment as the numberand influence of Native people in academiaincreases. Indigenous peoples worldwidehave a common set of assumptions that formsa context or paradigm--a collective coreof interrelated assertions about Indigenousreality. Indigenous knowledge is spirituallybased and spiritually derived. To remove thespiritual foundation of Indigenous knowledgeis to destroy its very soul -- a fact not lost oncolonialist regimes. Colonial governments andinstitutions deprecated Indigenous knowledgeand cultures and thereby justified denyingIndigenous peoples a meaningful political role.The first order of Indigenous self-determination isthe task of revealing the Indigenous experience,long written out of official histories. Historically,Indigenous peoples have been dependenton non-Natives to assist in developing thenecessary dialogue to resist dominationand exploitation. The outcome has been ahistory of research by the dominant culture,within the dominant discourse. This discoursedevalues Indigenous knowledge and is onestrategy by which the West legitimatizes its ownknowledge. Indigenous peoples must havean intellectual space in which to developtheir own frameworks and methodologiesregarding intellectual self-determination. Theseframeworks would then require the institutionalsupport of the Academy and would engage“others’ “ discourse in a constructive manner.Instances of discourse between IndigenousAfricans and Native Americans are described(Abstract take from www.indianeduresearch.net/ed454012.htm).86. Martin Hill, D. (2003). TraditionalMedicine in Contemporary Contexts: Protectingand Respecting Indigenous Knowledge andMedicine. Ottawa, ON: National AboriginalHealth Organization.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Cultural Integrityand Identity/Health/Healthy Ecosystem andSustainable Relations between Human Beingsand the Natural WorldAbstract: This report is an environmental scanon traditional medicine that was conductedfor the National Aboriginal Health Organization.This examination of traditional medicineincludes articulating an Indigenous knowledgeapproach to understanding what traditionalmedicine is and why it historically existedoutside dominant institutions, biomedicalmodels, and Eurocentric paradigms. Thecontributions of Aboriginal women to traditionalmedicine is discussed throughout the documentalong with a discussion of where traditionalmedicine, identity and faith healing intersect.87. McCormick, R. M. (1995). TheFacilitation of Healing for the First NationsPeople of British Columbia. Thesis (Ph.D.) --University of British Columbia, 1994. Vancouver,BC.Keywords: Adequate Human Services andSocial Safety Net/British Columbia/ Canada/Empowerment/First Nations/ Healing/HealthAbstract: This study explores the facilitationof healing for First Nations people living inBritish Columbia. The purpose of the study isto develop categories to describe, from theperspective of First Nations people, whatfacilitates healing. The findings suggest thatan effective healing program for First Nationspeople would invoke empowerment, cleansing,balance, discipline and belonging.88. Melnychuk, E., Anawak, C., Idlout,L., Kanayk, E., Reed, D., & Quirke, A. (2000).Workshop on Traditional Inuit Healing andWestern Science-Based Methodologies. InHealth for All in the Year 2000, Ottawa, Ontario,22 - 25 October 2000 Ottawa, ON: CanadianPublic Health Association.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/ Healing/Health/Health CareAbstract: The population of Nunavut isapproximately 27,000 people, of which 85% areInuit. Within the last three generations, therehave been tremendous changes at all levelsof Nunavut society. Traditional Inuit practicesfor healing are different than and separatefrom the healing practices of other Aboriginalpeoples in Canada. These traditional Inuitapproaches are currently being exploredwhile science-based approaches continueto be applied within Nunavut. This workshopwill present traditional Inuit practices byusing real life examples, e.g. midwifery andattending to injuries. Creative delivery of theworkshop material will create a stimulatingand experiential learning environment. Thisworkshop is designed to allow interaction withthe audience using traditional Inuit approachesto health and wellness. This workshop is in the“health for Aboriginal people” section.89. Miskimmin, S. E. (1997). NobodyTook the Indian Blood Out of Me: An Analysisof Algonquian and Iroquoian DiscourseConcerning Bill C-31. Thesis (M.A.) --University ofWestern Ontario.Available Online: http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/ftp04/mq21048.pdfKeywords: Canada/First Nations/ Gender/Government/Research

Abstract: This thesis examines the Englishdiscourses of Algonquian and Iroquoian peopleof southwestern Ontario in which they discussthe impact of Bill C-31, an amendment to theIndian Act passed in 1985 with the goal to endgender discrimination. My research focusesboth on the narratives of those women who(re)gained their status following the Bill, and onthe narratives of community members reactingto the attempts of reinstated women and theirfamilies to return to the reserve. In examiningthe narratives of First Nations people, I haveillustrated the complexity of the issue andshown that both the women’s life experiencesand the reactions of community members tothese women are related to key factors. Themost important of these, for both Algonquianand Iroquoian peoples, is the maintenance ofties to the community; this has more relevanceto people’s day-to-day lives than does legalstatus conferred by the government of Canada(Author Abstract).90. Mitchinson, W. (2000). Colonizing Bodies(Book Review). Canadian Historical Review, 81,486-488.Keywords: British Columbia/Healing/HealthAbstract: The author reviews the book‘Colonizing Bodies: Aboriginal Health andHealing in British Columbia, 1900-1950’ writtenby Mary-Ellen Kelm.91. Monture-Okanee, P. A. (1992). TheRoles and Responsibilities of Aboriginal Women:Reclaiming Justice. Saskatchewan Law Review,56, 237-266.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Adequate Power92. Moore, C. (1992). Our Land, Too:Women of Canada and the Northwest, 1860-1914. Whitehorse: Yukon Territory. Dept. ofEducation.Keywords: Canada/Culture/Education/ FirstNations/First Nations Women/ Health/History/Immigrant Women/ Social ConditionsAbstract: The social roles and expectationsof women have differed since history wasfirst recorded. We are able to understandCanadian history better when we knowsomething about First Nations women andimmigrant women. This document looks atthe social roles and expectations of womenin Canadian history. It examines the followingpoints: living the traditional life; leaving the oldlife behind; day-to-day life; opportunities andnew roles; sexuality, health and reproduction;family and community; women and education;and, women and the law.93. Napholz, L. (1998). Bicultural Resynthesis:Tailoring an Effectiveness Trial for a Group ofUrban American Indian Women. AmericanIndian and Alaska Native Mental HealthResearch, 9, 49-70.Keywords: Children/Culture/Healing/ Suicide/TraumaAbstract: The purpose of this qualitative studyof a six-week effectiveness trial was to describeamong a group of urban American Indianwomen, the process of successful traditionalismin the form of bicultural resynthesis. Biculturalresynthesis represents a major current attempton the part of the participants to integratetraditional and contemporary demands ina positive, culturally consistent manner. Thethemes of shame and isolation, adapting tosurvive, deculturation, ethnic switching/renewal,and bicultural resynthesis are discussed. Furthersupport is achieved for retraditionalizationof American Indian women’s roles as aneffective means of achieving American Indianself-determination and as a potential way ofhelping women overcome problems.94. Napholz, L. (2000). Balancing MultipleRoles among a Group of Urban MidlifeAmerican Indian Working Women. Health Carefor Women International, 21, 255-266.Keywords: Health/Health CareAbstract: This six-week study draws on the roleconflict reduction intervention plays in the livesof eight urban American Indian women. Thebalancing of multiple roles and integratingtraditional and contemporary femininestrengths in a positive manner is the focus of thestudy.95. Napoli, M. (2002). Holistic Health Carefor Native Women: An Integrated Model.American Journal of Public Health, 92, 1573-1575.Keywords: Diabetes/Education/ Empowerment/Health/Health Care/WorkAbstract: Providing health care services toNative women has become a challenge owingto the severity of illness -- in particular, diabetes,alcoholism, and arthritis -- in this group today.If comprehensive health care is to be offered,coordination of services between physicaland mental health practitioners is needed.Gathering together to support each other hasbeen a traditional custom for Native women.An integrated health care model is discussedthat offers Native women an opportunity todeal with the challenge of mental and physicalhealth issues through traditional activities,enhancing their physical and spiritual healthand receiving education while creating anatmosphere of empowerment and mutualsupport (Journal Abstract).96. Native Law Centre of Canada (1997).A Healing Circle in the Innu Community ofAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing323

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing324Sheshashit. Justice as Healing Newsletter, 2.Available Online: http://www.usask.ca/nativelaw/publications/jah/sellon.htmlKeywords: Canada/Healing/IndigenousHealing/Indigenous Methodology/ Justice/Offenders/Sexual ViolenceAbstract: This report describes the process ofa “healing circle” as it applied in the case ofGavin Sellon, who pleaded guilty to a case ofsexual assault in 1993. The circle took place in1996. The report describes the invitation andpreparation of witnesses, as well as the eventsthat took place during the Circle itself.97. Nichol, R. A. (2000). Factors Contributingto Resilience in Aboriginal Persons WhoAttended Residential Schools. Thesis (M.S.W.)-- University of Manitoba, Fall 2000.Keywords: Education/First Nations/ ManitobaAbstract: Thesis examines factors that promotedresilience in Aboriginal people who attendedresidential schools. A small sample of fourwomen and two men from First Nations groupsin Alberta and Saskatchewan was studied.The research identifies factors that helpedthese people endure the residential schoolexperience such as: long-term marriages, alifelong interest in education, high intelligence,and cooperative coping strategies. A happyand nurturing childhood and a strong beliefin their traditional Aboriginal religion are alsopointed out as resiliency factors.98. Nielsen, M. O. (2003). CanadianAboriginal Healing Lodges: A Model for theUnited States? The Prison Journal, 83, 67-89.Keywords: Aboriginal Incarceration/ AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/Correctional Programming/ Critical LearningOpportunities/Cultural Integrity and Identity/Healing/Spirituality and A Sense of PurposeAbstract: Native Americans areoverrepresented as incarcerated offenders, yetthere are few effective programs available tothem. Prisoners of Aboriginal ancestry are alsooverrepresented in the Canadian correctionalsystem. A number of culturally appropriate,innovative programs have been developedto effectively lower their recidivism rate in thatcountry. This article explores one such initiative,the Aboriginal-operated healing lodges, byfocusing on one institution: the Stan DanielsHealing Centre in Edmonton, Alberta, thelargest and oldest in Canada. The history of thecentre is presented as well as data about itsresidents, staff, mandate, ideology, programs,and recidivism rates. A number of potentialobstacles to the development of such acentre in the United States are discussed, butit is concluded that this model might be veryeffective in some states with a sufficiently highNative American population (Journal abstract).99. Nowegejick, A. (2005). From my SewingBasket: Traditional Native Healing Ceremoniesand Social Work Practice with Native People.Thesis (M.S.W.) --Lakehead University. ThunderBay, ON.Available Online: http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/ftp01/MQ60924.pdfKeywords: Healing/Native Women/ Work/CeremoniesAbstract: In 1989 the author attended a healingworkshop called ‘Women Healing’. Elder AlanaAbosawin, who has for some years workedwith the homeless in Quebec, sang a song thattold a story about ‘bush lady’. The song spoketo the author of the truth of her light brownskin and dark hair and the hidden shame thatfollows with the lineage of the Indian woman. Itfrightened the author. Today she knows the pastis our past, her past, their past. In that totalityshe sought awareness, clarity and acceptance.It was through her eyes that were a thousandyears old who saw through the author andbeyond her. It was the words of her song andthe beat of the drum which summoned theauthor from her place of slumber and beganthe journey towards understanding. This thesis isa search for understanding, a quest for directionand a vision of what can exist for Nativewomen, their families and communities. This isfor those who come to the circle, who placetheir trust in each other and in the Creatorto search for the things necessary so we canreach back with something good and strong.(Abstract shortened by UMI.)100. Ooste, J., Laugrand, F., & Rasing, W.(1999). Perspectives on Traditional Law. Iqaluit,Nunavut: Language and Culture Program ofNunavut Arctic College.Keywords: CultureAbstract: Tirigusuusiit, Piquajait and Maligait:Inuit perspectives on traditional law --Tirigusuusiit and Maligait -- Respect for wildlife-- Dealing with wrong-doers -- Advice forwomen -- Emile Imaruittuq: memories of the past-- Lucassie Nutaraaluk: memories of the past --Leaders, Elders and Shamans -- Ownership andsharing -- Murder -- Unikkaat and Unikkaaqtuaq-- Pisiit, songs101. Paproski, L. (1997). Healing Experiencesof British Columbia First Nations Women:Moving Beyond Suicidal Ideation and Intention.Canadian Journal of Community Mental Health,16, 69.Keywords: Adequate Power/British Columbia/Culture/Empowerment/First Nations/Healing/Life-Sustaining Values, Morals and Ethics/Prevention/Suicide/ Youth

Abstract: This study explores how five BritishColumbia First Nations women moved throughsuicidal ideation and intention in their youth.Much of their healing process was facilitatedby a reconnection to their cultural identity andtraditional Native spirituality. Phenomenologicalresearch methods were used to guidethe interview process, analysis, and theinterpretation of unstructured interviews. Eachtranscribed interview was analyzed for themesand developed into a narrative. Severalprocedures were used to examine the validityof the analysis and interpretation, includingparticipant review of the findings. Three of thetwelve themes that emerged suggest commonexperiences surrounding suicide attempts orideation. These experiences suggest that theimpact of separation from family, community,and culture was significant for each of thesewomen. Nine of the twelve major themesdescribe a variety of healing experiences forthese five women, involving Elders or other rolemodels, professional counselors, family, andcommunity. As a consequence of their healingexperiences, all participants reported anincreased sense of personal empowerment, apositive view of themselves, and a commitmentto a positive future for themselves and otherFirst Nations people. The significance of culturalconnections and Native spirituality may haveimportant implications for the interventionand prevention of suicide in First Nations youth(Journal Abstract).102. Pauktuutit Inuit Women’s Association(2004). Final Report: Inuit Healing inContemporary Inuit Society. Ottawa, ON:Pauktuutit Inuit Women’s Association.Available Online: http://206.191.37.17/pdf/publications/abuse/AHFNuluaqInuitHealing_e.pdfKeywords: Adequate Human Services andSocial Safety Net/Cultural Integrity and Identity/Healing/Inuit WomenAbstract: Pauktuutit Inuit Women’s Associationmade it a priority to look at Inuit healing inits 2001 project services for Inuit Survivors ofChild Sexual Abuse. The overall purpose of thisresearch was to identify those who practiceInuit healing across Canada and to ask them todefine Inuit healing.103. Pelletier, C. (1998). Respectingour Human Dignity: Justice in AboriginalCommunities. Montréal: Femmes autochtonesdu Québec = Quebec Native Women.Keywords: Family Violence/JusticeAbstract: This report examines justice anddiffering definitions of justice as it relates tothe human dignity and social disorder of FirstNations communities. Justice in family violenceissues as well as the role of Community justice isalso focused on..104. Pereira, J. R. (2005). A PreliminaryCase Study of Perceptions of Access toEthnomedicine in the Environment in theMi’kmaq Community of Indian Brook. Thesis(M.E.S.) -- Dalhousie University, 2000.Keywords: Canada/Culture/ Government/History/Medicine/MenAbstract: A 16-month case study in Indian Brook,Shubenacadie was conducted to explore thesignificance of traditional land by surveyingperceptions surrounding access to traditionalmedicine. Five other reserve communities werealso visited to gain a broader perspectiveon accessibility and availability of traditionalmedicines for the Mi’kmaq community-atlarge.As a result of occupation and habitationin Mi’kma’ki, a unique and special bond hasformed; thus traditional lands are central toMi’kmaw culture and spiritual beliefs. Legalcases and treaties support Mi’kmaw tenure,but conflict has arisen and access to traditionalMi’kmaw medicines are perceived as limited.Using semi-structured interviews, transect walks,oral histories, mapping exercises, personalobservation, and a review of literature, anunderstanding of the Mi’kmaq history, cultureand belief system was established. Datacollected suggest that pollution and privateland ownership as well as government andCatholic prohibitions contribute to restrictaccess to traditional medicines for Mi’kmaw.Although individual perceptions varied, findingsindicated that traditional medicines are animportant part of the Mi’kmaq culture. Themajority of respondents practice traditionalmedicine although procurement proceduresvary. Perceptions indicated that postcolonialissues, such as the denial of land, influenceMi’kmaw perceptions of accessibility oftraditional medicine. Despite these problems,traditional medicines are generally available toIndian Brook community members. Field studyfindings also suggest a connection betweenprevious family traditional medicine practicesand current individual practice. Furthermore,the study identified a range of opinions thatexist regarding the role of men and women inthe practice of traditional medicine (AuthorAbstract).105. Phipps, K. (1988). The Role of Women inCommunity Organizations. Unpublished WorkKeywords: Community Solidarity and SocialSupportAbstract: Objective: To interview womeninvolved in community organizations; toinvestigate the roles women are playing incommunity organizations; to determine howcommunity organizations are evolving inresponse to social and economic changesthat have occurred over the past 30 years.Summary: Karen Phipps interviewed women invarious community organizations. She wantedto know what their roles are in the organizations.Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing325

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing326She also asked how organizations haveresponded to social and economic changesthat have occurred in the last 30 years. Sheis using this information for her studies at TrentUniversity (Au).106. Phipps, K. (1989). Patterns of CommunityLeadership among Coppermine Women. Thesis(B.Sc. Honours) - Trent University, Peterborough,ON. Peterborough, ON.Keywords: Native Women/Family ViolenceAbstract: Examines, through oral interviewswith Native women in the community, theresponse of Coppermine women to problems ofalcohol abuse and family violence. The paperargues that women have played the decisiverole in organizing community resources tosecure better legal support for women victimsof violence; and to provide counselling andemotional support.107. Poonwassie, A. & Charter, A. (2001). AnAboriginal World View of Helping: EmpoweringApproaches. Canadian Journal of Counselling,35, 63-73.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/Critical LearningOpportunities/Cultural Integrity and Identity/Empowerment/ManitobaAbstract: Euro-Canadian interventions havenot successfully addressed the socioeconomicproblems experienced in Aboriginalcommunities as a result of years of colonization.Leading up to the new millennium, culturalforces have started to shift, and Euro-Canadiancounselors, therapists, and other helpers beganto respond more effectively to the needs ofAboriginal peoples. A number of Aboriginalgroups and communities took leadership bydeveloping their own holistic approaches tohealing/wellness, based on their world views.A reflection on this process with awareness ofAboriginal world views and cultural imperativesoffers possible approaches which facilitateempowerment in working with Aboriginalcommunities and Aboriginal clients.108. Pryor, E. T. (1984). Profile of NativeWomen: 1981 Census of Canada. Ottawa:Statistics Canada, Census and HouseholdStatistics Branch.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Canada/Education/Housing/Native womenAbstract: This booklet provides statisticalinformation on Aboriginal women. Statistics areprovided on the following: number and age;household and family type and size; income;labour force activity; industry and occupation;individual female income; education; fertility;and housing.109. Robinson, Carla (1997). Legacyto Choice Healing the Pain of the Past.Dreamspeaker.Available Online: http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/nr/nwltr/drm/1997/drm_su_97_e.pdfKeywords: Healing/Poverty/Racism/ TraumaAbstract: The author discusses a four-dayhealing workshop “From Legacy to Choice”which was held on the Squamish Reserve inNorth Vancouver in 1997. The workshop was ledby author and internationally known grief expertJane Middelton-Moz. The workshop was meantto guide people through difficult personalissues arising from intergenerational trauma.This is when tragedies such as war, oppression,poverty, racism, alcoholism, deaths of parentsor siblings, sexual, emotional and physical abuseare not grieved by individuals, families andcommunities, and the unresolved grief is carriedinto the next generation.Using a very interactiveand personal approach, Middelton-Moz helpspeople understand the effects of trauma thatthey, their parents or grandparents experiencedand helps them to validate those experiences.As part of this process, many people oftenbegin to feel painful emotions they haveblocked out for a long time. Others are ableto find logical explanations for the turbulentemotions that have ruled their lives.110. Ross, L. (2000). Imprisoned NativeWomen and the Importance of NativeTraditions. In J. James (Ed.), States ofConfinement: Policing, Detention and Prisons.New York: St. Martin’s Press.Keywords: Native women/Culture/ Traditions111. Rowley, S. (2001). Paths of Resistance,Tracks of Disruption: On Stereotypes, NativeWomen’s Spirituality, and the Problems ofFunctionalism and Cultural Appropriation in the“Nature” of Dominating Western Cultures. Thesis(Ph.D.) -- York University.Keywords: Canada/Culture/Native women/WorkAbstract: Native Peoples comprise living,dynamic, contemporary Nations, with life waysthat have survived in the midst of (indeed, inspite of) the genocide perpetrated againstthem by dominating non-Native cultures.Native traditions have neither vanished, as thecolonizers of North America predicted, norhave they remained frozen in “pre-contact”or early contact time. Such notions arereflections of extremely powerful stereotypesthat reinforce the notions of some non-Nativeswho feel that they can take for their owncertain aspects of Native tradition that appealto them because the traditions are supposedto belong to people unknown and long dead.This dissertation is an examination of some ofthe images and stereotypes of the life waysof Native eoples, in particular, the life ways ofNative women, and how these have historicallybeen related to “nature” in dominatingcultures in North America (with a focus on

Canada). It seeks to disrupt and subvert anumber of these stereotypes, appropriations,and misinformations about Native peoplesthat are present in environmental philosophy,ecofeminist and related feminist spiritualitymaterials by identifying them, outlining howthey are represented and perpetuated in thesematerials, and suggesting that all endeavours todiscuss and/or research Native peoples adoptmethods that are grounded in -- and beginwith -- the voices, the images, information, andtheories generated by Native peoples. I striveto honour the work of Native people who havealready shared their wisdom with non-Nativecommunities by concentrating on their wordsas primary sites of theory and knowledges --theories which offer profound critiques of someof the materials that are part of environmentalphilosophy and feminist/ecofeminist movement.In so doing, the methods that I have developedfor the presentation of this dissertation are“at least” as important as my contributions tothe literature and to “original facts” (typicalexpectations of Ph.D. dissertations). Hence, inan effort to push beyond disciplined boundariesof the academy and present this research in amanner that mirrors the issues and concerns inwhich I have grounded my research, this work iswritten with three interwoven typefaces -- eachto mark clearly the “voice” or process it reveals:Native “voice,” a narrative of my process, andmy analysis (Author Abstract).112. Rude, D. & Deiter, C. (2004). Fromthe Fur Trade to Free Trade: Forestry and FirstNations Women in Canada. Ottawa, ON: Statusof Women Canada.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequateIncome and Sustainable Economies/ AdequatePower/British Columbia/ Canada/Diabetes/FirstNations/Free Trade/Gender/Health/HealthyEcosystem and Sustainable Relations BetweenHuman Beings and the Natural World/Status ofWomenAbstract: The gender implications of freetrade on Aboriginal women, particularly asit relates to forestry, was examined by theauthors in this study commissioned by Statusof Women Canada. The report focused onthe experiences of First Nations women inwestern Canada who were taking a lead rolein advocating for Aboriginal title and rights,to protect the environment and preservetraditional lifestyles. Thirty-four First Nationswomen living on or near three reserves in BritishColumbia and Saskatchewan were interviewed.Sharing circles were held to gather their storiesand perspectives on the effects of forestry andfree trade. The women were deeply concernedabout the pace and manner in which tradein timber has been undertaken in Canada.Their study indicates that forestry initiativescontrolled by Aboriginal people have notconsistently included the voices of women.Women are uncertain of how their communitiesare benefiting from free trade and many haveorganized to resist the economic developmentthat is springing up on their traditional landswithout their input and consent. While the focusof this article is on forestry, it does highlightfactors that have a direct outcome on thehealth of Aboriginal women and communities’members. The loss of traditional foods togetherwith commercialization is increasingly forcingpeople to live off store-bought foods whichcreate health problems such as diabetes anddental concerns. Health issues, the authors note,are rarely included as part of environmentalassessments when looking at the impact towildlife and other aspects of the ecosystem.This perspective is gender specific as womentend to look at the human impacts ratherthan the financial and economic returns ofsuch endeavours. This report contributes to thediscussion of women and trade agreements bymaking the connections between First Nationswomen, forestry and free trade. It begins witha literature review on the following subjects:gender and Aboriginal women, traditional roles,the fur trade, Aboriginal title and rights, and freetrade and logging in First Nations communities.It then summarizes interviews with 34 women onor near three reserves in British Columbia andSaskatchewan on the environmental, cultural,economic and social impacts of logging. Thereport concludes with recommendations onsuch matters as public education, naturalresource management and trade agreements.113. Saskatchewan Women’s Secretariat(1999). Profile of Aboriginal Women inSaskatchewan. Regina, SK: SaskatchewanWomen’s Secretariat.Available Online: http://www.swo.gov.sk.ca/D057-ABW.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/ BasicPhysical Needs/WorkAbstract: This profile of Aboriginal womenin Saskatchewan offers a comprehensiveoverview of the issues that are most importantto Aboriginal women in their struggle toimprove their lives and those of their children.It is designed to assist community-basedorganizations and policy makers at all levelsof government to better serve the needsof Aboriginal women and their families inSaskatchewan. The evidence gathered inthis profile shows that the Aboriginal femalepopulation is much younger than the non-Aboriginal female population. Some of the keyfindings for this literature review’s considerationare: (1) Aboriginal women over 15 yearsof age are less likely to participate in thepaid labour force and more likely to spendsubstantial amounts of time caring for childrenand seniors on an unpaid basis. They havea different pattern of paid and unpaid workcompared to non-Aboriginal women. This, inturn, has an impact on their incomes, whichare lower than those of non-Aboriginal women;Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing327

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing328(2) Aboriginal women are more likely to havechildren living with them than non-Aboriginalwomen, and they are also more likely to belone parents. In Regina and Saskatoon, abouthalf of all Aboriginal children live with a singleparent, most often a lone mother. Aboriginalwomen are also much more likely to move theirplace of residence than their non-Aboriginalcounterparts. Provides an overview of the issuesthat are most important to Aboriginal womenin their struggle to improve their lives and thoseof their children. Addresses the health statusof First Nations women, along with generaldemographics and statistics on education,employment, income, housing, families, andviolence. Links gender-inclusive analysis withan approach that takes into consideration thebroad social and economic situation of groupsof people (population health approach).Features comments by a number of First Nationsand Métis women in the province.114. Sauve, J. (1997). Healing the Spirit fromthe Effects of Abuse: Spirituality and FeministPractice with Women Who Have Been Abused.Thesis (M.S.W.) --Carleton University.Available Online: http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/ftp04/mq22148.pdfKeywords: Canada/Healing/Work/Spirituality/Abused WomenAbstract: The purpose of this study is to openthe field of feminist social work practice tospiritual healing. I conducted interviews witheleven women, from various cultural andspiritual traditions, to see how they integratedspiritual healing into their work with women whohave been abused. The findings identified theparticipants’ views on effects of abuse on thespirit, characteristics of healing and harmfulspiritualities, and how spiritual healing mightbe beneficial for women who are healing fromabuse. The women shared personal stories,ideas, approaches, and tools which could behelpful in integrating spirituality into practicewith abused women. The findings also exploredconflict between spirituality and feminism,ways that spirituality could be introduced intothe curricula of schools of social work, nursing,or psychology, and ideas for improvement toservices for abused women.115. Saylors K. (2003). The Women’s CircleComes Full Circle. Journal of PsychoactiveDrugs, 35, 59-62.Keywords: Children/Healing/Health/ Nativewomen/Women’s HealthAbstract: Women have been the backboneof service provision for health and healing inthe Native American community in the SanFrancisco Bay area. The contributions of Nativewomen are exemplified in the Women’s Circleof the Native American Health Centers in SanFrancisco and Oakland. Women receive abroad range of services through the Women’sCircle -- in a coed residential substance abusetreatment facility (Friendship House), in groups,in one-on-one counseling, and at the FriendshipHouse American Indian Lodge, a residentialwomen and children’s facility in Oakland.This article will look at lessons learned, usingboth quantitative outcome measures andethnographic means to examine the impactof the Women’s Circle and how the circle wascompleted. Program staff were interviewed togain insight into how the program impactedfemale clients. The article juxtaposes theprogram elements clients identified as importantto their healing and staff’s perceptions aboutthe growth of the program. Distinct women’shealth issues -- physical, emotional, mental andspiritual -- sculpted program development.Significant findings and lifestyle changes thatoccurred around involvement in the Women’sCircle are examined (Journal Abstract).116. Shawanda, B. (1995). Healing Journalof Native Women. In Atlantic First Nations AIDSTask Force (Ed.), Healing Our Nations ResourceManual.Keywords: Healing/Native women117. St.Pierre, M. & Long Soldier, T. (1995).Walking in the Sacred Manner: Healers,Dreamers, and Pipe Carriers -- MedicineWomen of the Plains Indians. New York: Simon &Schuster.Keywords: Culture/HealingAbstract: Contents include: 1. Healers,dreamers, pipe carriers: communication withthe sacred -- 2. All that is, set in motion -- 3. Lakolwicohan: being raised in the Indian way -- 4.Adulthood -- 5. The shadow world -- 6. Dreamsand the spirit world -- 7. The calling -- 8. Howritual evolves -- 9. Ritual -- 10. Holy women whoare ancestors -- 11. A healing of the people.Walking in the sacred manner is an explorationof the myths and culture of the Plains Indians,for whom the everyday and the spiritual areintertwined and women play a strong andimportant role in the spiritual and religious lifeof the community. Based on extensive firstpersoninterviews by an established expert onPlains Indian women, Walking in the SacredManner is a singular and authentic record of theparticipation of women in the sacred traditionsof northern Plains tribes, including Lakota,Cheyenne, Crow, and Assiniboine. Throughinterviews with holy women and the familiesof women healers, Mark St. Pierre and TildaLong Soldier paint a rich and varied portraitof a society and its traditions. Stereotypicalimages of the Native American drop away asthe voices, dreams, and experiences of thesewomen (both healers and healed) presentinsight into a culture about which little is known.It is a journey into the past, an exploration of thepresent, and a view full of hope for the future.

118. Stephenson, C. (2003). A Cree WomanReads Jung. Transcult Psychiatry, 40, 181-193.Keywords: Culture/Healing/MedicineAbstract: This article begins with Jung’sdescription of two predicaments which confrontthe contemporary psychiatrist: ‘the mysteryof the patient’s difference’ and the dangerof ‘committing psychic murder in the nameof therapy’.’’ The article then presents theexample of one suffering individual from withina non-Western culture who used Jung, as wellas her Native culture’s traditional knowledge, tofind healing. This Cree woman, Yvonne Johnson,created what Jung would call temenos in orderto facilitate change and called upon images oftheriomorphic guides to manoeuvre within theconfines of her suffering. The article concludesby considering how the equivocal languageof Jung’s analytical psychology may functionas an effective bridge between transculturallyoriented psychiatrists and their patients, andparticularly between Western medical practiceand the healing practices of other cultures forwhom the word ‘medicine’ carries a religiousconnotation (Journal Abstract).119. Stevenson, J. (1999). The Circle ofHealing. Native Social Work Journal, 2, 8-21.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/Healing/ TraumaAbstract: The author contends that manyAboriginal communities and urban Aboriginalpeoples in the field of social services are utilizinghealing circles, talking circles and sharingcircles as a way of providing a group supportfor people who are dealing with issues such asaddictions, violence, grief, and trauma. In thisarticle, the author identifies some of the helpfulaspects of a healing circle.120. Stewart, W., Huntley, A., & Blaney, F.(2001). The Implications of Restorative Justiceon Aboriginal Women and Children Suvivorsof Violence: A Comparative Overview of FiveCommunities in British Columbia. Ottawa, ON:Law Commission of Canada.Available Online: http://www.lcc.gc.ca/en/themes/sr/rj/awan/awan.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Women/British Columbia/Social Justice and EquityAbstract: This paper provides a comparativeoverview of five Aboriginal communities inBritish Columbia and the possible implicationsof initiating restorative justice reforms in casesof violence against Aboriginal women andchildren in these particular communities.The document examines the ways in whichAboriginal women’s experience of colonizationis mediated by gender and attempts to locatethe effects of violence against women andchildren within this trajectory. The paper looksat the conditions of women’s lives within thecommunity, and provides a frame of referenceand context should restorative reforms becomemore commonly used in cases of violenceagainst women and children. The paper alsoattempts to articulate numerous concerns,taking both women’s voices and current theoryaround restorative justice such as ideas onreintegrative shaming into consideration.121. Struthers, R. (2000). The Lived Experienceof Ojibwa and Cree Women Healers. Journal ofHolistic Nursing, 18, 261-279.Keywords: Canada/Cultural Integrity andIdentity/Culture/HealingAbstract: The purpose of this study was todescribe the meaning and essence of thelived experience of Ojibwa and Cree womenhealers. A phenomenological methodologywas implemented to answer the researchquestion, “What is the experience of being anOjibwa or Cree woman healer?” A purposivesample of four women, ages 48 to 59, residingin Canada and the United States, participatedin unstructured, taped interviews to articulatetheir lived experience of the phenomenonof being an Ojibwa or Cree woman healer.The descriptions of their lived experienceswere analyzed utilizing methods from Colaizzi,van Manen, Rose, and selected personaltechniques employed by the researcherto preserve integrity within the Indigenouscommunity. Seven themes emerged fromthe data and represent the findings of thisstudy. They are as follows: recognizing andunfolding the healing gift; placing faith in thehealing ability; mastering Indigenous culture,values, and traditions; wholesome use of self;interconnection with all; living a balanced,circular life way; and embracing mankind.These seven themes can be employed by nursehealers and/or holistic nurses to practice the artof holistic nursing (Journal Abstract).122. Struthers, R. (2003). The Artistry andAbility of Traditional Women Healers. HealthCare for Women International, 24, 340-354.Keywords: Canada/Cultural Integrity andIdentity/Healing/Health/Health CareAbstract: In a phenomenological research studywith a purposeful sample, six Ojibwa and CreeIndigenous women healers from Canada andthe United States shared their experience ofbeing a traditional healer. Using stories obtainedduring open-ended, unstructured interviews,in this article I depict the lives, backgrounds,and traditional healing practices of womenwho, in the past, have not been afforded anopportunity to dialogue about their healingart and abilities. The methods of these womenhealers, their arts and their gifts, are differentfrom those of Western conventional medicinebecause of dissimilar world views related tohealth and illness. An increased awareness ofhealth care providers related to the ancientart of traditional healing currently practicedAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing329

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing330in communities by gifted women who provideculturally specific holistic healing and healthcare is essential (Journal Abstract).123. Supernault, E. (1993). Family Violence IsNot Just a Crime against the Crown, It’s a FamilyAffair. It Involves the Entire Family and so Mustthe Healing. Edmonton, AB: Native CounsellingServices of Alberta.Keywords: Family Violence/Healing/ Safety andSecurity/Social Justice and Equity124. Tayler, D. & Watters, M. K. (1994). WhoOwns counselling? A Community-Based Answer:A Community-Based Approach with StrongLinkages Across the Territory is a Model for SocialService Provision Which We Think Will Work in theNorth. Canadian Woman Studies, 14, 108.Keywords: Healing/Sexual Abuse/ Trauma/WorkAbstract: After the boys left, all too familiaranger bubbled up. Tears sprung into our eyes.“It’s genocide.” Strong words, strong feelings.Reliance on centrally located “experts” andthe lack of local counselling services can meanthat emotional wounds are left unattended.The scars left from trauma easily develop intosubstance abuse, depression, promiscuity,violence, and suicide -- this in kids who haveyet to see their eighteenth birthday. EveryFriday from October to February, a foster familytraveled two hours into the city for counselling.From the safety of their foster home, three- andfive-year-old sisters disclosed sexual abuse. Theydescribed many incidents of other violence andneglect. In February a crisis occurred, fundingfor travel and subsistence was withdrawn.Someone somewhere had decided that thegirls should be cured after ten sessions andthat the foster parents were simply takingadvantage of counselling for a free trip intotown. In a flurry of strongly worded telephonecalls, facsimiles, and letters a contract foran additional eight sessions was negotiated.We take a different position. Counselling is aprocess between people. It can happen acrossthe kitchen table, hiking through the bush,sitting in an office, with teachers, doctors, Elders,parents, coaches, and yes, sometimes evenwith professionals like ourselves. Communitybasedresources are typically the people towhom others go for comfort, advice, and help.These natural helpers, para-professionals, Elders,family, and friends are allies in the process ofcommunity healing. Compassionate caring,basic counselling skills, and knowledge oftrauma will go a long way to facilitate thehealing of children in the North. Too manychildren have been victims of institutional abuseand neglect for too long. It’s time to look atservices for traumatized children with a view tocreating a network of listeners who will supporttheir healing.125. Thomas, V., Mitchell, S., & Centre ofExcellence for Women’s Health-ConsortiumUniversité de Montréal (1998). Wisdom ofNative Women: Wellness Conference for UrbanAboriginal Women. Montreal, Quebec.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Cultural Integrityand Identity/Health/Spirituality and A Sense ofPurpose/Women’s HealthAbstract: Discusses urban Aboriginal women’shealth in Quebec:126. Vancouver/Richmond Health Board(1999). Healing Ways: Aboriginal Health andService Review Vancouver, BC: Vancouver/Richmond Health Board.Keywords: Aboriginal Peoples/AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/BritishColumbia/Healing/Health/ Spirituality and ASense of PurposeAbstract: This report is based on theparticipation of Aboriginal people in Vancouverand Richmond over a 12-month period. Thisreview engaged many community members,leaders, managers, and service providers.There were two streams of activities. One calledupon the community at large to identify andprioritize health issues and to describe theirpresent conditions and hopes for the future. Theother involved various teams calling upon thecommunity to contribute in creating informationthat supports health planning. Several focusgroups and community meetings providedinput, verified what was learned, and providedfinal approval to the health plan. The broadrangingperspectives within this report reflectAboriginal people’s holistic view of health thatincludes the physical, mental, emotional andspiritual aspects of being. It also embraces theindividual, family, community and the earth. Butwhat is important to Aboriginal people’s viewabout healing is the current health model’sexclusion of the spiritual aspect of life.127. Vicq, S., Dufour, L., Keewatin, E.,Arcand, D., & Whitecalf, T. (1995). Stories fromKohkom: Sharing our Values, Teaching ourYoung. Saskatoon: READ Saskatoon.Keywords: Canada/Health/Native womenAbstract: “The Saskatoon Community Clinicbegan a program of outreach to Aboriginalgrandmothers in the fall of 1992 with fundingfrom Health Canada. This outreach was calledthe Older Native Women’s Health Project.Project staff visited grandmothers in their homesand brought them together to talk about theirown health as well as that of their familiesand communities ... By telling their stories, thegrandmothers are sharing their strength andwisdom with the community.128. Voyageur, C. (1996). ContemporaryIndian Women. In D.A. Long & O. P. Dickason(Eds.), Visions of the Heart: Canadian AboriginalIssues (pp. 93-115). Toronto, ON: Harcourt Brace

and Company.Keywords: Adequate Power/Social Justice andEquityAbstract: This chapter examines the rolesand concerns of First Nations women incontemporary Canadian society. The authorargues that specific events such as the creationof the Indian Act in 1869 and the passing of BillC-31 in 1985 have had a great impact on FirstNations women. To fully understand the presentsocial, political, and economic position of FirstNations women in Canada, one must look firstat First Nations women in a historical context. It iscertain that past events laid the foundation forthe current situation.129. Voyageur, C. J. (2002). Keeping All theBalls in the Air: The Experiences of Canada’sWomen Chiefs. Women and Leadership:Feminist Voices, 13, 206-224.Keywords: Canada/Gender/ Government/ResearchAbstract: Cora Voyageur draws on quantitativeand qualitative data to understand the livesand achievements of women chiefs acrossCanada. She explores the goals of womenchiefs with respect to policy and programs atthe community level. Their personal experiencesare located within a critical frame that queriesthe impact of gender and racial inequalitiesand government bureaucracies on the womenchiefs’ personal and professional lives.130. Wabie, B. M. (1999). Aboriginal Womenand Community Development: Consistencyacross Time. Thesis (M.A.) -- Trent University, 1998,Peterborough, ON.Available Online: http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/ftp03/MQ40490.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Women/ CommunityDevelopment/MedicineAbstract: This study examines the consistenciesbetween traditional and contemporary rolesand responsibilities of Aboriginal womenwithin the context of family and communitydevelopment. The research sources for thisthesis include using the Medicine Wheelteachings, reviewing relevant literatureand conducting personal interviews withAboriginal women. The study concludes thatcontemporary Aboriginal women’s rolesin community development are consistentwith their traditional roles. Aboriginal womenare pointed out as being the “carriers of theculture” as they organize family and communityevents, and pass on their social customs to theirchildren.131. Waller, M. A., Risley-Curtiss, C., Murphy,S., Medill, A., & Moore, G. (1998). Harnessing thePositive Power of Language: American IndianWomen, a Case Example. Journal of Poverty, 2,63-81.Available Online: http://www.public.asu.edu/~mwaller/Power%20of%20Language.pdfKeywords: Culture/Work/Aboriginal Language/StoriesAbstract: Reflecting biases that permeate theU.S. culture, professional accounts generallyinterpret stories of minority women from adeficit perspective. Problems such as substanceabuse, domestic violence, and teenagepregnancy are often presented from anoutsider’s viewpoint and cast as intrapersonalphenomena independent of historical,political, and cultural context. This articlesuggests that stories and their implicationschange significantly depending on whetherthey are interpreted from a deficit or strengthperspective. Stories of American Indian women,in their own voices, are discussed as a caseexample (Journal Abstract).132. Warry, W. (2000). Unfinished Dreams:Community Healing and the Reality ofAboriginal Self-Government. Toronto, ON:University of Toronto Press.Keywords: First Nations/Government/ Healing/Health/ResearchAbstract: Most writing on Aboriginal selfdeterminationfocuses on the constitutionalor structural aspects of self-government orrelated philosophical issues. In this book, WayneWarry argues that self-government can berealized only when individuals are secure intheir cultural identity and can contribute to thetransformation of their communities.133. Weenie, A. (2000). PostcolonialRecovering and Healing. Reyhner, Jon,Martin, Joseph, Lockard, Louise, and Gilbert,W. Sakiestewa. Learn in Beauty: IndigenousEducation for a New Century. [6], 65-70.Flagstaff, Arizona, North Arizona University.Available Online: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~jar/LIB/LIB6.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Women/ Education/Healing/Social Justice and EquityAbstract: This article is written by an Aboriginalwoman who looks at colonization and healingof the mind through acts of, and resistancewriting.134. Weibe, R. & Johnson, Y. (1998). StolenLife: The Journey of a Cree Woman. Toronto,ON: Alfred A Knopf Canada.Keywords: Healing/Social Justice and EquityAbstract: This is a wonderful collaborationbetween a white man and a Native woman. ItAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing331

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing332speaks in both voices with power, control andpoignant, devastatingly honest emotion. Writtenwith the help of award-winning author RudyWiebe, this acclaimed novel tells of YvonneJohnson’s experience while imprisoned forfirst-degree murder in 1991, and the spiritualstrength she eventually found. A compellingstory of murder, morality, justice and injustice,Stolen Life: The Journey of a Cree Woman isJohnson’s account of the troubled society welive in. Powerful and eloquent, this is a bookabout Indian life, of stolen land and stolen lives,which eloquently chronicles one woman’s pathtoward healing.135. Whelshula, M. M. (2005). Healingthrough Decolonization: A Study in theDeconstruction of the Western ScientificParadigm and the Process of Retribalizingamong Native Americans. Dissertationabstracts International: Section B: The Sciences& Engineering, 60, 3624.Keywords: Healing/Native AmericansAbstract: Through and exploration of theepistemological Western scientific paradigm,it is demonstrated how psychopathologyretraumatizes through enculturation. Througha historical examination of the Colville tribe inWashington State, the author demonstrates theprofound transformations and healing that cantake place through traditional knowledge andpractices.136. Williams, A. & Guilmette, A. M. (2001).A Place for Healing: Achieving Health forAboriginal Women in an Urban Context.Canadian Journal of Native Studies, 2001, 21,1-5.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/ BasicPhysical Needs/Healing/Health137. Wilson, A. (2004). Living Well: AboriginalWomen, Cultural Identity and Wellness. (Rep.No. Project #79). Winnipeg, MB: Prairie Women’sHealth Centre of Excellence.Available Online: http://www.cewh-cesf.ca/PDF/pwhce/livingWell.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Women/AdequateHuman Services and Social Safety Net/ CulturalDeterminants/Health/Health Beliefs/HealthCare/Well-being/ Women’s HealthAbstract: Traditional understandings ofhealth and wellness in Manitoba’s Aboriginalcommunities are distinctly different fromunderstandings that have conventionallyprevailed in most of the province’s health careinstitutions. This research project, undertakenby an Aboriginal Women’s Health ResearchCommittee supported by Prairie Women’sHealth Centre of Excellence (PWHCE), seeksto extend our understanding of the positiveimpact of cultural identity on the wellnessof Aboriginal women in Manitoba and ourunderstanding of the ways that Aboriginalwomen have retained and drawn uponcultural values, teachings and knowledge intheir efforts to heal themselves, their families,and their communities. It includes a reviewand analysis of current research relevant toAboriginal women’s identity and wellness,and presents the results of group discussionsand individual interviews with Aboriginalwomen in Manitoba, which focused on theirpersonal experiences and understandings ofthe relationship between identity and wellness.The Aboriginal women who participated inthis research project take care of their healthand wellness by attending to and maintainingbalance between all aspects - physical,mental, emotional and spiritual - of their being.The women’s identities are inseparable fromtheir family, history, community, place andspirituality, and understood in the context oftheir whole lives. Health care practitioners,providers and policy makers, as well as federaland provincial governments, need to assistAboriginal communities in the developmentof the infrastructure, human resources andadministrative structures needed to create andcontrol health care services that are rootedin the cultural practices and values of theAboriginal women and men they are serving.Further research into the connection betweenthe well-being and identity of Aboriginalwomen, for example research that focuseson the identity and well-being of Aboriginalwomen in remote communities, will enhanceour understanding (Author abstract).138. Wilson, K. J. (2001). The Role of MotherEarth in Shaping the Health of Anishinabek: AGeographical Exploration of Culture, Healthand Place. Thesis (Ph.D.) -- Queen’s University.Available Online: http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk3/ftp04/NQ56106.pdfKeywords: Aboriginal Peoples/Canada/Culture/First Nations/First Nations Communities/Health/ResearchAbstract: This dissertation contributes to anexpanding body of research within healthgeography that focuses on the role of placein shaping experiences of health. Recentresearch within the Geography of Health hasbegun to acknowledge and demonstratethat the meanings ascribed to places as wellas individual experiences of places contributeto health. The birth of the journal ‘Health andPlace’ is a reflection of the changing paradigmswithin the Geography of Health that argue fordifferent perspectives and analyses of place.At present though, research on health andplace is limited. Meanings of place and therelationship between place and health haveculturally specific dimensions, yet these tend tobe overlooked, especially with respect to First

Nations peoples. First Nations peoples have arelationship with the land that contributes totheir experiences of place and health. However,while geographic research has explored FirstNations’ health, few studies have actuallyattempted to explore the influence of culturalbeliefs and values on health -- let alone theintricate link between the land and health. Thisdissertation presents the results of two separateyet interrelated approaches to understandingthe intricate relationship between culture,health and place for First Nations peoples.Using data from the 1991 Aboriginal PeoplesSurvey, the first stage of this dissertation exploresthe determinants of First Nations’ health inthe context of cultural variables that proxy arelationship to the land. In the second stageof this research, qualitative methods wereemployed to tap the process through which theland shapes First Nations’ health. The interviewswere conducted in two parts. First, 17 in-depthinterviews were conducted with Anishinabek(Ojibway and Odawa peoples) living in oneFirst Nations community on Manitoulin Island,Ontario. The findings from the interviewssuggest that particular geographies exist inwhich relationships between the land andhealth are manifested. These geographiesare evident across different scales and theydemonstrate that the land, as place, representsmore than just a physical location. Rather, theland is simultaneously physical, symbolic andspiritual. Second, given that the urban FirstNations population is increasing, interviewswere conducted with Anishinabek who hadrelocated from Manitoulin Island and arecurrently residing in three urban locations:Hamilton, Sudbury, and Toronto. The interviewsexplored the extent to which cultural beliefsregarding the land could be transplantedand accommodated within urban settings.The interviews revealed that Anishinabek cansuccessfully negotiate the specific challengesposed by urban environments and maintainconnections to the land that are necessaryfor health. Further, the results demonstratethat negotiation takes place between andwithin particular geographic scales, both realand imagined. The findings of this dissertationdemonstrate that culture is an importantcomponent of the link between health andplace. Further, incorporating Anishinabeperspectives of health and place reveal thatthe current conceptualizations of health andplace within the Geography of Health literatureare partial (Author Abstract).139. Women’s Reconciliation Network(1997). Healing our Nation through Women’sWisdom: Women Working for Reconciliation.Marrickville, NSW: Women’s ReconciliationNetwork.Keywords: Aboriginal Women/Australia/ CulturalIntegrity and Identity/Healing/ Moari WomenAbstract: This publication comes out of areconciliation event that took place in the StateLibrary of NSW on 29 May 1996, organized bythe Women’s Reconciliation Network.140. Yellow Horse Brave Heart, M. & DeBruyn,L. (1998). The American Indian Holocaust:Healing Historical Unresolved Grief. AmericanIndian and Alaska Native Mental HealthResearch, 8, 60-82.Keywords: Children/Culture/Healing/ Suicide/TraumaAbstract: According to the literature, AmericanIndians experienced massive losses of lives,land and culture from European contact andcolonization, resulting in a long legacy ofchronic trauma and unresolved grief acrossgenerations. This phenomenon, labeledhistorical unresolved grief, contributes tothe current social pathology of high rates ofsuicide, homicide, domestic violence, childabuse, alcoholism and other social problemsamong American Indians. The present paperdescribes the concept of historical unresolvedgrief and historical trauma among AmericanIndians, outlining the historical as well as presentsocial and political forces which exacerbateit. The abundant literature on Jewish Holocaustsurvivors and their children is used to delineatethe intergenerational transmission of trauma,grief, and the survivor’s child complex.Intervention based on American Indianceremonies and modern Western treatmentmodalities for grieving and healing of thoselosses are described.141. Zellerer, E. (1999). Restorative Justicein Indigenous Communities: Critical Issuesin Confronting Violence against Women.International Review of Victimology, 6, 345-358.Keywords: Canada/Culture/ Education/InuitWomen/Violence against WomenAbstract: This article discusses restorative,community-based responses to violenceagainst Indigenous women in northern Canada,including wife abuse, marital rape, andviolence. The author argues that restorativejustice holds great promise, but there aresignificant challenges to ensuring that violenceis effectively confronted and women areprotected. Six critical issues are examined: (1)breaking the silence and education; (2) theneeds of victims; (3) power relationships; (4)Elders; (5) cultural values; and (6) resources.Data are provided from a study of violenceagainst Inuit women in the Canadian easternArctic. Although the focus is on Indigenouscommunities, these issues are viewed aspertinent to many other communities andcultures (Journal Abstract).142. Zieba, R. A. (1990). Healing and Healersamong the Northern Cree. Thesis (M.N.R.M.)- University of Manitoba, Natural ResourceInstitute, 1990., Winnipeg, M.Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing333

Keywords: Elders/Healing/Manitoba/ Medicine/WinnipegAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and HealingAbstract: In two summer field seasons in 1984and 1985, Native healers and beliefs concerninghealing were investigated in a Muskekiwiniw(Swampy Cree) community in northernManitoba, and an Asiniitniw (Rocky Cree)community in northern Saskatchewan. Twotraditional roles were distinguished: herbalist,and ritualist charismatic (shaman). A thirdtype, Native Pentecostal charismatic, in theMuskekiwiniw community was a derivative ofthe traditional ritualist charismatic. The herbalistactivity was declining in the Muskekiwiniwcommunity, while both ritualist types wereactive. In the other community, both herbalistand ritualist roles were active. Active healerswere capable of alleviating stress associatedwith changing cultural conditions. Stress levelsin the Muskekiwiniw community were higher,resulting from a forced move of the communityfrom its traditional location because of floodingfrom a hydroelectric project. The herbalistrole could not provide adequate copingmechanisms in the face of escalating violenceand alcohol abuse. The emergent Pentecostalritualist role reduced stress by offering somemembers of the Muskekiwiniw community anew world view. The active traditional ritualistrole incorporated elements of southernNithawitniw (Plains Cree) and Anishinabe(Saulteaux) belief, and the charismatic natureof the role was adequate to reduce stressassociated with cultural change for someindividuals. Elements of older belief were stillpresent in both communities; the concept ofdream visitors, the pawakanak, was knownamong younger people and still subscribedto by Elders. The pawakanak are a source ofpower for healing, and in the past, a sourceof help in hunting and gathering activities. Thepawakanak can take different forms, and mostoften appear in the shape of an animal. In bothcommunities, sickness was categorized in twoways: that amenable to treatment by traditionalherbalists or non-Native medical people, andillness induced by a person with powerfulpawakanak. Many Nithawitniw believe thatthe latter type cannot be successfully treatedby herbalists or non-Native medicine. Herbalistpractitioners were usually women; in the past,many women practitioners also functioned asmidwives. Herbalist materia medica included 67plant species mentioned in interviews (Author’sAbstract).334

ConclusionThis compilation and annotation ofresources presents a multidisciplinarypresentation of the literaturewhich highlights issues aroundthe health and healing of Aboriginalwomen in Canada. The literature onAboriginal women’s health and healingwas organized into 13 separate themesthat revolved around the following: (1)colonization, racism and the unequaltreatment of Aboriginal women; (2)issues related to access, delivery andperspectives around health and wellbeing;(3) birthing, infants, children andmotherhood; (4) the physical aspectsof illness such as breast cancer andcardiovascular disease; (5) mental healthaspects; (6) sexual and physical violenceagainst women; (7) the effect andimplication of diabetes and Aboriginalwomen; (8) body image and diet amongAboriginal women; (9) environmentalfactors that impact on Aboriginal women’shealth; (10) the health of specific women(i.e. Métis, Inuit, First Nations women, orwomen with disabilities or elderly Aboriginalwomen); (11) social, educational andeconomic determinants connected toAboriginal women’s health; (12) selfgovernmentissues; and last but not least,(13) the role of identity, culture, spiritualityand its connection to healing for Aboriginalwomen. Each of these 13 areas was in turnbroken into subcategories that looked atconnecting health factors and issues.The number of studies concerningCanadian women’s health is enormousas is the body of growing resourcesthat addresses the health concerns ofAboriginal people and more specifically,Aboriginal women in Canada. Indeedit was noted earlier in this overview thatthis compilation of material representsover 35 publication years. But despite theenormity of the material available, thereare still general gaps in our knowledgeabout Aboriginal women’s gender-relateddifferences and cultural perspectivessurrounding their health. Some of the gapsidentified are outlined below in bullet form.• The gender-specific healthconcerns of Aboriginal women arenot fully and expressly articulatedin the material written by Aboriginalacademics in the analysis of selfgovernmentinitiatives in Canada;• In terms of perceptions on variousaspects of health, this area doesmiss quite a lot. In particular,the literature does not addressAboriginal women’s perspectives onaging and the process of aging;• While there is now research that islooking at the connection betweenbone density and osteoporosisamong Aboriginal women, thereis still more research needed thataddresses the bone mineral densityof Aboriginal women amongall three groups who are postmenopausal.A greater grasp of therisk and incidence of hip fracturesamong older Aboriginal women forinstance just does not appear in theliterature;• Very little exists in the availableliterature that focuses on thepreventative benefits of physicalactivity for Aboriginal women ora thorough examination of howAboriginal women keep physicallyhealthy through exercise. Nor dowe know what kinds of exerciseactivities Aboriginal women engagein or are comfortable engaging in.Furthermore mainstream magazines,television shows, movies, andbooks are full of images depictingthin, healthy, well-toned womenwho reflect mainstream Canada’sperspective of beauty and health.This can be quite intimidating formost Aboriginal women but whatalso prevents Aboriginal womenfrom getting healthy and fit requiresmore than just willpower, it alsorequires money. To eat healthyor to join a gym requires fundswhich most Aboriginal women ona limited income just do not haveand furthermore, location may bea factor. There are no such facilitiesin most reserve communities. Whatkeeps Aboriginal women fromparticipating in physical activitiesis a big question that needs to beexplored. More awareness needs tobe generated about the benefits ofAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing335

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing336physical activity among Aboriginalwomen and more research needsto be conducted on how exercisecan help Aboriginal women reducedepression, anxiety and/or otherphysical illnesses;• Although there is some researchthat looks at Aboriginal beliefsaround organ donations (seeMolzahn, Starzomski, McDonaldand Olloughlin, 2004), very little isknown about Aboriginal women’sperceptions regarding organtransplantation and whether or notthey would consent or would bereluctant to donate their organs.The literature also doesn’t givean understanding of how manyAboriginal women across Canadado benefit from organ donationsand how contemporary medicalbreakthroughs in this area impacttheir cultural world views and beliefsystems;• In terms of death and dying, thereis also nothing in the literature thatdocuments Aboriginal women’sperspectives surrounding theirexperiences with death, grief andloss as well as caregiving in the faceof death and end-of-life issues;• There is no doubt that Aboriginalwomen experience other forms ofillness, however very little researchexists which documents what theseother illnesses might specificallybe. Therefore more genderbasedresearch that focuses onthe health of Aboriginal women isneeded as well as research lookingat the following areas (which isnot meant to be an exhaustivelist): cardiorespiratory physiologyand fitness; diet and nutrition withrespect to cancer; tuberculosis orspecific respiratory viral infectionsamong the female Aboriginalpopulation; streptococcalinfections; bacterial infections ofthe intestines, other endocrine andmetabolic disorders; diseases of theeye affecting vision; diseases of thenervous system, including meningitis;diseases of the ear, hearing andmastoid process; diseases of thecirculatory system; diseases of thedigestive system; gastrointestinaldiseases; arteriosclerosis andarteriosclerosis heart disease;hypertension and stroke and othercardiovascular diseases; influenza,pneumonia, and other respiratoryinfections; dental and oral cavitydisease; and/or cancer survivordata specific to the Canadiancontext; qualitative data onAboriginal women’s experiencesurviving cancer and informationabout Indigenous women’s cancersurvivor support groups;• Compulsive gambling is a relativelynew area for consideration whendiscussing linkages betweensubstance abuse and mentalhealth. With the increase ofcasinos all across Canada thisarea will become one of interestas Aboriginal women can bepsychologically and economicallyvulnerable to compulsive gambling.Although compulsive gambling isnot a substance it is considered aprocess addiction in that it mayprogress in stages similar to those inalcoholism. Research also suggeststhat compulsive gamblers havea higher coincidence of mentaldistress and may differ cognitivelyfrom non-compulsive gamblers,thus linking compulsive gamblingand emotional health. Socialand psychological factors are ofspecial concern because manyFirst Nations, especially lately inthe Province of Manitoba, areestablishing casino gamblingon reserve as a way to increaserevenues on reserve. Althoughaddiction services in severalprovinces have begun to offercompulsive gambling treatmentprograms, it may be several yearsbefore the scope of this problemmay be understood and effectivetreatment and prevention measuresdeveloped (Hood, Mangham,McGuire and Leigh, 1996);• Unfortunately, other than FirstNations women, not enoughresearch exists on the impact ofenvironmental pollution for women

in other Aboriginal groups or withinan urban context. More genderedanalysis is needed of the impact onAboriginal women from commercialexploitation of fishing, mining, etc.,chemical spills, toxic waste, wetlanddestruction, land development,use and planning, property owners,solid waste, wildlife protection andIndian rights. The pollution withincities is also impacting Aboriginalwomen but this lack of knowledgerepresents a major gap in ourunderstanding of the environmentalissues as expressed by otherAboriginal women across Canada;• While the material on birthing andobstetrics was quite expansive, it didnot address the rate of postpartumdepression experienced byAboriginal women if at all;• Aboriginal women have the highestbirth rates of all women in Canadabut less is known about infertilityrates among the female Aboriginalpopulation or what the rate ofloss due to miscarriage is amongAboriginal women in the threegroups;• The literature available does notprovide an understanding ofAboriginal perspectives around thecontroversial issues of abortion andbirth control;• The material indicates that diabetesis a fact of life for a large majorityof Aboriginal people and womenwithin Canada, however, very littlewas addressed about the rate ofamputations due to complicationsthat women might experience;• The literature states that one infive Canadians will experience amental illness in their lifetime andthat less than half will visit a doctorabout their problems. This kind ofinformation for Aboriginal peoplegenerally is just not available inthe literature so we know evenless about Aboriginal women’sexperience with mental illness.Furthermore, it is likely that manyAboriginal women experiencingdepression, for instance, may beunaware of their condition or eventhat their condition can be treatedthrough medication, cognitivetherapy or through traditionalavenues. We don’t know howmany Aboriginal women acrossCanada may be affected bymental illness or what the statisticsare for women in each of theAboriginal groups;• Again, in terms of mental healthissues, the research indicates thatwomen may be more susceptiblebecause of early childhood trauma,including sexual abuse, that cansignificantly raise the risk of a mooddisorder at some point. Whilethere is a lot of research that looksat childhood trauma, there is inactuality very little research thatlooks specifically at the culturalgendered experience of Aboriginalwomen with depression and themyriad of other mental illnesses.Furthermore there is very littlematerial that highlights preventionand/or documents the types ofculturally relevant treatments thatare available and which have beeneffective for Aboriginal women, ifat all. More research is needed tounderstand Aboriginal women’smental health experiences in orderto get a handle on the scopeand/or rate of the problem amongfemales in the three Aboriginalpopulations;• Absolutely no data appeared onasthma among Aboriginal girls and/or women. Given some of housingconditions on reserve, it is surprisingthat very little research has focusedon seasonal and allergy triggers.Besides housing, it is known thatother triggers can cause asthmasuch as secondhand smoke, mould,some medications, exposure topesticides, change in the weather,smog, pollen, etc.;• Alzheimer’s disease is a growingissue, particular for women.Alzheimer’s disease is one type ofdementia and it’s caused by adegenerative process in the brain.The research done to date indicatesAnnotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing337

Annotated Overview of Research on Aboriginal Women, Health and Healing338that women are more likely to sufferfrom it than men, likely becausewomen tend to live longer thanmen and are also more likely to bethe primary caregiver to those whosuffer from it. Very little exists aboutthe risk factors, again if at all, toAboriginal women for developingthis disease or whether it exists or is aconcern for the female populationof the three Aboriginal groups inCanada;• Rheumatoid arthritis is one of themost common forms of arthritis,affecting millions (mostly women)according to data from theCanadian Arthritis Society (http://www.thepainrelief.com/joint-pain/canadian-arthritis-society.shtml). Inaddition, it is considered one of thetop three common chronic diseasesin Canada. However virtuallynothing about the experience ofAboriginal women with this diseaseis known or readily available in thehealth research material consultedfor this report. This is so even thoughthe Canadian Arthritis Society’swebsite indicates that AboriginalCanadians are harder hit by arthritis,especially older women. Theysay that Aboriginal women areaffected the most with 70% aged65 and older living with the diseasecompared to 50% non-AboriginalCanadian women in the same agerange;• Because Aboriginal women tendto have higher BMI (body massindexes), they may eventually atsome point over time experienceback pain, even though it may beshort lived. The research availableindicates that the following factorsmake back pain more likely forAboriginal women: genetics,smoking, alcohol consumption,obesity and poor posture. There isvirtually nothing about this aspect inthe literature;• In terms of the experience withpain, there is also no research thataddressed the cultural aspects ofpain from an Aboriginal woman’sperspective;• In additional to dental care, theliterature does not address visualimpairment among Aboriginalwomen. In particular, Aboriginalwomen’s access to eye care ismore complicated by the fact thatthey experience disproportionatelylower incomes and greaterresponsibilities juggling work andfamily. Aboriginal women alsotend to live longer than Aboriginalmen and therefore face greaterrisk of blindness and their risk ofvisual impairment increases withage. Other existing conditionssuch as diabetes can also leadto complications that affect theretina and can cause blindness inAboriginal women. Given thesefacts, there is absolutely nothingin the research that examinesthe range of vision problemsexperienced among the femalepopulation of the three Aboriginalgroups;• Gallbladder disease is also knownto be a concern specifically forAboriginal women. Research bythe National Aboriginal HealthOrganization contends that 70-80% of the Aboriginal population isaffected with this disease becauseof diet. Diabetes, being over55 years of age and obese alsoincrease Aboriginal women’s risk ofdeveloping gallstones. The genderimplication of this disease need tobe better understood , especiallyits impact on Aboriginal women inCanada;• Surprisingly, there is no researchthat explores menstruation issuesamong Aboriginal girls and womenin Canada;• Given the rates of Aboriginalchildren coming into care throughthe Aboriginal child welfare systems,we still do not understand thephysical, mental, or emotionalimpact on Aboriginal mothers wholose their children short-term, longtermand/or voluntarily because ofchild welfare interventions and howthis may affect Aboriginal women’shealth and well-being;