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THE CANADIAN WESTMCINTYRE

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MORAN&S PROVINCIAL GEOGRAPHIESTHE CANADIAN WESTA GEOGRAPHY OF MANITOBA ANDTHE NORTH-WEST TERRITORIESBYALEXANDER McINTYRE, B.A.VICE-PRINCIPAL NORMAL SCHOOL, WINNIPEGAuthorised by the Advisory Boardfor use in ManitobaTORONTOMORANG & CO.,1904LIMITED

Entered according to Act of the Parliament of Canada, in theyear Nineteen Hundred and Four, hy Morang & Co., Limited,at the Department of Agriculture.

FlOb?*PREFACEAs far as it has been found possible, the geography ofWestern Canada as outlined in this little work has beentreated from an inductive standpoint, based on the assumptionthat those who study the " home region " havea fair knowledge of the " earth as a whole " and the"continents."While this is in no way a picture-book, an effort hasbeen made to assist the child to grasp a broad and strongpicture of the country by presenting a series of relatedtopics rather than a great number of uninteresting andunrelated facts. The illustrations have been chosen andthe maps prepared with the purpose of assisting in theunderstanding of the text.Each chapter, or lesson, is followed by a number ofquestions carefully selected. These make a desirablereview of the topic. They also invite the student toinquire into geographical facts outside the text, and thusprepare for the more practical geography when the schooldays shall have ended.Considerable space has been given climate and life,topics our pupils are usually very ignorant of. It is notenough to-day, when our woods and our wild animals arev66000S

;yiPREFACEdisappearing, to say merely that the wild animals of Manitobaand the North-West Territories are the deer, thebear, and the wolf. These are the days when naturestudy should be in evidence in such natural history asgeography finds necessary to use for its own purposes.Special attention has also been paid to the industries ofthe country, as it is felt that the boys and girls of to-dayshould be thoroughly familiar with the conditions as theynow exist, and should be able to give a reason for theirfaith in the future of the home land.It is to be hoped that this book may be found to possessa value of its own apart from any use that may bemade of it as a school text-book and as a volume supplementaryto " Our Earth as a Whole."The author has to acknowledge very valuable assistancereceived from Dr. James Bain, Chief Librarian ofthe city of Toronto; from Mr. C. C. Chipman, ChiefCommissioner of the Hudson's Bay Company, Winnipegfrom Mr. James A. Smart, Deputy Minister of the Interior,Ottawa; from Mr. Frank Pedley, Deputy Superintendent-Generalof Indian Affairs, Ottawa; from Mr.J. D. Scott, Superintendent of Immigration, Ottawa;from Mr. E. Deville, Surveyor General of DominionLands, Ottawa; from Mr. James White, Geographer ofthe Interior Department, Ottawa ; from Dr. Robert Bell,Director of the Geological Survey, Ottawa; from Mr.Percy H. Selwyn, Secretary of the Geological Survey,Ottawa; from Mr. W. F. McCreary, M.P., Winnipeg;

;PREFACEVilfrom Mr. J. R. C.Honeyman, Deputy Commissioner ofAgriculture, Regina ; from Mr. James Hartney, Agent ofthe Manitoba Government, Toronto; from Mr. GeorgeAtkinson, Naturalist, Winnipeg ; and from the officials ofthe various towns and villages throughout the West whohave kindly furnished him with information asked for.Both author and publishers are indebted for permissionto use illustrations to Mr. C. W. Mathers, Photographer,Edmonton, whose beautiful booklet, "The Far North,"has been of the greatest assistance in the preparation ofthis book; to William Notman & Sons, Photographers,Montreal ; to Steele & Co., Photographers, Winnipeg ; toMr. R. H. McDuffie, Raymond; to Mr. W. J. James,Photographer, Prince Albert ; to Mr. W. M. Van Valkenberg,Regina ; to the Nor' West Farmer, Winnipegto the Farmer's Advocate, London ; and to the officials ofthe Hudson's Bay Company, Winnipeg.

CONTENTSPAGEI. The Home Land 1II. The Hunter of the Plains 4IH. The Mound-builders 12IV. The People of the Northland .... 16V. The Fur Trader 25VI. Surface and Drainage 31VII. Climate .71VIII. How the Prairie Soil was made .... 88IX. The Surveyor 101X. Making the Settlement 108XI. Plant Life 115XII. Wild Animal Life 123XIII. Bird Life 134XIV. Industries 144XV. How our Products are carried .... 176XVI. Cities and Towns in Manitoba .... 187XVII. Cities and Towns in the North-West Territories197XVIII. The People 209XIX. Government 217ix

XCONTENTSAppendix : PAG «A. Comparative Land Areas 223B. The Indians 224C. The Fur Trade 224D. Area of Lakes, Hudson Bay, and Spruce Woods . . 225E. Temperature, Rainfall, and Snowfall .... 226F. Land Regulations 227G. The Grain Crop in the Canadian West and OtherCountries 228H. Farm Stock 2301. Dairy Products 230J. Production of Coal in Manitoba and the North-WestTerritories 231K. Yield of Gold in Saskatchewan Sands .... 231L. The Fisheries 231M. Value of Goods imported and exported . . . 232N. Railways in the Canadian West 233O. Statistics of People, Cities, Towns, Villages, etc. . . 234P. Key to Bird-cut on page 139 (Fig. 93) . . . . 238Q. Names and their Histories 239Index 247

ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAPSFIG.1. Ploughing Scrub-land on the Western Prairie . FrontispiecePAGE2. Map of the Dominion of Canada. (Double page) . preceding 13. The Indian of To-day 44. Indians landing on the Shore of Great Slave Lake ... 55. Hunting the Buffalo 66. Indians on Horseback 77. Making a Portage 98. Map showing Location of Indian Reserves .... 109. An Indian Industrial School 1010. Mounds 1211. Soapstone Pipe found in a Mound 1312. Arrow-heads, Pipes, and Ornaments found in a Mound . . 1413. Eskimo Family 1614. The Walrus or Whale-horse 1715. Eskimos in their Kayaks 1916. Hunting the Hooded Seal 2017. The Eskimo Dog or Husky 2218. Hudson's Bay Company Posts in the Far North ... 2419. Trappers in the Woods of the Far North 2620. Fur Traders on their Way to the Northern Posts ... 2721. Sir Alexander Mackenzie 2822. Missionary visiting the Indians 2923. Map of North America, showing Location of the Central Plain . 3124. Map showing Prairie Levels 3325. Macgregor, a Typical Village on the First Prairie Level . . 3526. Birtle, a Typical Village on the Second Prairie Level . . 3527. Relief Map of Manitoba, Assiniboia, Saskatchewan, and Alberta.(Double page) following 3628. A Rapid on the Winnipeg River 3729. (1) Summer Residence on Big Island, Lake Winnipeg. (2) Oneof the Many Beautiful Wooded Islands in Lake Winnipeg . 39

.XllILLUSTRATIONS AND MAPSFIG.PACK30. Scenes along the Shores of Lake Winnipeg . . . .4131. Map of the Manitoba Lakes 4232. Weathered Rocks in the Cypress Hills 4433. Profile Map of the Three Prairie Levels 4734. Scenes along the Banks of the Saskatchewan River ... 4935. The Banks of the Saskatchewan River at Edmonton . . 5136. The Tramway at the Grand Rapids of the Saskatchewan . . 5237. Rapids on the North Fork of the High River in Southern Alberta 5338. An Irrigation Canal in Southern Alberta 5439. The Plateau Country of the Cypress Hills and Wood Mountain 5640. The Peace River Country 5841. Map of the Mackenzie River Basin 5942. The Basin of the Mackenzie River 6043. (1) Towing Scows on the Athabaska. (2) Grand Rapids onthe Athabaska 6144. Scenes on the Hanbury River, North-east of Great Slave Lake . 6445. (1) A Rapid on the Slave River. (2) The Ramparts of theMackenzie River 6646. A Scene on the Churchill River 6847. A Snow-capped Mountain . . 7148. Cut showing Distribution of Heat ...... 7349. Cut showing Distribution of Heat 7350. Climate Map 7451 Cut showing Rarety of Air 7652. Cut showing Action of Hot and Cold Air 7853. A Pleasant Summer Scene in Northern Alberta ... 8254. The Midnight Sun 8555. A Section of the Earth's Surface . . . . . .8956. The Stony Bed of a Summer Stream in Northern Alberta . . 9157. Action of Stream on Stones 9258. A Scratched Boulder 9359. (1) A Boulder on the Shore of Lake Winnipeg. (2) A Boulderon the Plain in Southern Alberta 9460. Section of a Glacier entering the Sea and .breaking into Icebergs 9561. The Great Glacier of the Selkirk Mountains .... 9662. Section of a Glacier on Mountainside 9763. Map showing Area covered by the Great Ice-sheet ... 9864. Township Plans 10265. A Section Post 104

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THE CANADIAN WESTCHAPTER ITHE HOMELANDThe country we should know best of all is Canada.The part of Canada the boys and girls of the prairiesshould find the most interesting is that which extendsfrom Hudson Hay to the Rockies, and from the UnitedStates at the south to the great ocean at the north.This part of Canada was called in the days when nonebut hunters and trappers lived in it the great " LoneLand," but now people delight in calling it the " CanadianWest," the great " Western Country," the " West,"and the "Garden of the Empire" — all names which tryto express its vastness and fertility and its probablefuture. We have not yet had time to learn all aboutthe Canadian West. Indeed, there are large areas thatare still unknown, but we can see a few things that willhelp us to understand why people speak of the wholeland as great. What are some of these?Find, by using your foot-rule and the map of Canada(Fig. 2), how wide and how long this country is. Howmany countries as large as Great Britain do you think itwould make ? What part of the whole of Canada is it ?Look now at the two mighty rivers, the Mackenzie andthe Saskatchewan. Both are over a thousand miles inlength, and the basin of the latter is so large and soul

;CHAPTER IITHE HUNTER OF THE PLAINSWhen the earliest explorers reached this western landthey found the greater part of it already in the hands ofThe Indiantribesseveral Indian tribes. Between Lake Winnipegand Hudson Bay were the Crees of the Muskegs,or the Swampy Crees ; along the northern Saskatchewanwere found theCrees of the Woodsfarther south, on theprairies of Assiniboiaand central Alberta, thePlain Crees had discardedthe canoe andthe bark wigwam, andtaken to the wild horseand the leather tepee.Around the upper watersof the South Saskatchewandwelt the nationsof the Blackfoot ;to thenorth of the country ofthe Crees, in the regionstretching from theFig. 3. — The Indian of to-day.Peace River to HudsonBay, lived the Athabaskans or Chipewyans, while the Assiniboines,or '* Sioux on the Stony River," hunted in the

THE HUNTER OF THE PLAINScountry watered by the Assiniboine and its tributaries.Where these red people came from in the first place wecannot tell, but some writers claim that they must havecrossed over from the continent of Asia. Can you seehow this was possible ?What have the Indian people done for the country?Have they, in any way, made it ready for the coming ofthe settlers fromEastern Canada,Europe, and theUnited States?In order to answerthese questionswe shallhave tolook atthe occupationof the Indian.What did he followas a business?WhatFig. 4.Indians landing on the shores of GreatSlave Lake.was his work, ifwork you may call it? He was a hunter. Sometimes,when game was scarce, he had to stare starvationin the face for days and weeks perhaps, andhis life on the whole may have been more toilsome thanit would have been were he simply a tiller of the soil;A hunterbuthunting was the one thing his whole being longed for, huntingwas the one work in which, apparently, the whitestranger could not excel him. But is hunting a goodoccupation upon which to build a great nation ? Let ussee. If hunting is to be made profitable there must bean abundance of wild animal life. Now the number of

6 THE CANADIAN WESTwild animals in any district can never be very great.locality, then, can support a very numerous tribe ofIndians. Indeed, it is said that each Indian would need,in order to support himself, a piece of country as largeas one of our townships. This would make rather a scatteredpeople, would it not ?Again, the business of hunting makes it. necessary thatthe hunter should follow the herds of deer and of buffaloNo&.njkiaim* ' 'j.Fig. Hunting the buffalo. Notice how the buffalo are being driven intothe pound in the background. What weapons are used?(Fig. 5) from place to place over great stretches of country.How, then, could these people settle down for morea wandererthan a short time in any one place? A hunter,in fact, is for the most part a wanderer, and awandering people can never hope to grow great ; it isonly the settled home that can prepare people to learngreat things. Had the Indian farmed the prairies instead

THE HUNTER OF THE PLAINSof giving his whole time to the chase, he might have becomeof far more importance.Some people who have not made a careful study of theIndian consider him to have been lacking in general intelligence.But this is far from being true, for the Indianhas many times shown wonderful skill as a general and as aspeaker, and we know that these gifts are rare even amongthe civilized men of to-day. It is true that he has oftenshown his savage nature, but he has also been ready to helpin the time of trouble those who have befriended him.Why,Fio. 6. — Indians on horseback.then, did he not make more of the country so many settlersfrom the older lands are now finding very fertile? Can younot see that the country was really against him ? Whatwould you do were nature to prepare all your food withbut little work on your own part ? This was largely theposition of the Indian. The plains were so Hisonlywide and the animal life so abundant that it ^"pa"011was much more delightful to follow the hunt than to tillthe tough soil of the prairies.Perhaps you would havedone the same were you placed as the Indian was manyyears ago. Have you ever thought of how we could getalong without the cow, and the other tame animals we

8 THE CANADIAN WESTknow so well ? Why did the Indian not tame some ofthe wild animals about him ? What animals could betamed ? Why did he not attempt to cultivate the plants ?Which plants ? Were any of these equal to the wheat,oats, and barley brought by our ancestors from acrossthe ocean? Why did he not make greater use of themetals found in the country ? What metals ? He wasonly a worker in stone and in bone, and these cannotbe compared with the iron and steel of to-day.Has he done any good then ? We shall see. His occupation,while it kept him back in many ways, still gavehim a splendid training in local geography,ledge of the None, even to this day, know so well as theIndian the rivers, lakes, plains, and woodlandscountry ...of the country. His villages were placed in carefullychosen sites along the natural highways. He wouldtherefore settle for a time at the junction of two streams.Here the fur trader found him, and here the trading-post,which afterwards grew into an important centre, wasplaced. Another village would be located where somedifficulty in the waterway made a portage necessar} r(Fig. 7). Perhaps you are acquainted with such aplace ?Again, in journeying from point to point across country,he knew how to keep away from the marshy groundsand dangerous spots. He also knew that a road overwhich many travelled would be much better than a freshtrail.Road makerand guideThe Indian was, therefore, our first road-maker, andVfG nave used his trails, when no other roadswere ready. Have we ever thought of thankinghim for these ? Finally, we must bear in mind thatthe Indian had the first real knowledge of the country,

'THE HUNTER OF THE PLAINS 9and that he was willing to share this knowledge with thewhite strangers at the entrance of the land. What wouldthe early explorers, Back, Simpson, and Mackenzie, havedone without their Indian guides ? What would explorerseven at the present time do without the help of the redpeople ? Who would pilot the canoes down unknownflfIfefiAjft-,»1 (I4 •'&&.|W^Fig. 7. — Making a portage.streams and lead the pioneers through deep forests andacross wide prairies ?The Indian has done his part. His work may havebeen very imperfectly done, it is true, but such as it is, hedeserves some reward, and it is a satisfaction to knowthat he has been well treated by the Canadian Reserves andpeople and that " Indian Reserves " have been 8Ch00lsset apart here and there (Fig. 8), where a little farmingas well as hunting may be carried on, and where the once

10 THE CANADIAN WESTnoble red man can always be sure of a spot he may callhis home. This, however, is not all, for " IndustrialFig. 8. — Map showing location of Indian reserves.Schools" (Fig. 9), encouraged by the government, andcared for by the various religious bodies of the country,have been located in desirable situations, for the purposeFro. 0. — An Indian industrial school.of teaching the Indian boys and girls to forget the wanderinghabits of their ancestors, and to learn how to workand act and live like the white races about them.

THE HUNTER OF THE PLAINS 11Questions. — Where did the Indian come from ? Locate on themap of Canada the homes of the various Indian tribes. What wouldlikely be the difference between the Indian tribes living about LakeAthabaska and those living in southern Alberta, or along the course ofthe Assiniboine? What was the occupation of the Indian? What ishis present occupation? Why did he follow hunting rather than agriculture?In what way is a thickly settled district of more importancethan a sparsely settled one? Make a list of the rivers and towns ofthe southern part of the country, also of the rivers and lakes of thenorthern part. Do you see any difference between the names on theselists? How do you explain this difference? Is anything to be gainedby retaining the Indian names of villages, towns, cities, rivers, lakes,and hills? In what way? How did the Indians make their trails anddiscover the best roads? Has the Indian been able to make a ship?Has this kept him back at all ? What reserves are nearest your home ?What Indians live on these? Industrial schools for Indian boys andgirls have been built at Birtle, Middlechurch, Indian Head, Brandon,Portage la Prairie, and at other points: for what purpose? ReadAppendix B. Are there any Indian schools near your home ? Whatis done in these? Do you know if the Indian learns readily?

CHAPTER IIITHE MOUND-BUILDERSIn portions of the south-eastern country are foundstrange earthworks and round-topped mounds (Fig. 10).Any person seeing these banks of earth for theThe moundsfirst time would know at once that they werenot hills,for there is something about them which provesthem to be the works of men. What men ?" A race that long has passed awayBuilt them."From the earliest days of the white settlements thesemounds have been objects of wonder to the people.What could have beenFro. 10. — Mounds. How many do yousee in this picture?How do they differfrom hills? Notice the small tree on themound to the left.the purpose of buildingsuch earthworks? TheIndianhas been oftenquestioned, but his onlyanswer has been, " Themounds were in thecountry when we came."No wonder then thatthese banks of earthcame to be looked uponas the work of a race of men and women that settled inthe land before the Indian. What became of this ancient12

THE MOUND-BUILDERS 13people? Did they disappear on account of their moresavage rival? In order to answer this question manymounds have been dug into and examined. A variety ofobjects have been found, among these being human skeletons,stone hatchets, flint arrowand spear points, fragments ofcrude pottery and stone pipes(Fig. 11). Some of the moundswere certainly used as burialplaces. Others, being placedon the tops of hills, must havedone duty as signal stations,while others may have beenused as places of worship.What people were buried inthese mounds ? Were they theFig. 11. Soapstone pipe foundancestors of the tribes mentionedin a mound.in the last chapter? Why werethese mounds very frequently built in the regions found nowto be the best for farming purposes ? Were these ancientpeople farmers ? These are a few of the questionswe should like to have answered, but thereare many men to-day who are of the opinion that thereshould be no mystery about these earthworks. It has beenfound that not only did certain Indian tribes know muchabout the mounds, but that they were the actual buildersof some of them. If we were to find articles of Europeanmanufacture in some of the mounds, would this tell us anythingof the builder ? The discovery of such articles madepeople suspect that the Indian was the real mound-builder,and a closer knowledge of Indian character makes us allthe more certain of the fact.

14 THE CANADIAN WESTMany mounds in western Canada have been alreadyopened (Fig. 12), but many still remain untouched. Itis our duty, being the first on the ground, to care forthem, so that they may be saved from destruction.The most extensive works built by the moundbuildersare situated in various parts of the Mississippivalley to the south. The Ohio valley alone containsabout ten thousand mounds.TheenclosuresAmong thegreater are the "enclosures," which were of two kinds,Fig. 12. — Arrowheads, pipes, and ornaments foundin a mound.namely, those built on the lowlands, and those built on thehigh grounds.The former containedan areaoften as great astwenty or moreacres. This plotwas surroundedby a wall of earth,higher than aman's head, andhaving severalentrances.Onthe inside of thewall was a deepditch. What usewas made ofthese enclosuresis not known. The enclosures on the higher groundscould be seen from great distances, and were probably usedas places of safety in times of peril. In addition to theenclosures, there were also huge banks of earth a quarterof a mile long, and so broad and high that it must have

TUE MOUND-BUILDERS 15taken a great deal of hard work to build them. It isquite clear that they were not built by a few people norin a few weeks. Altogether, there are no more interestingremains of the days gone by than these mounds.Questions. — Are there any mounds in your locality ? Hownear? What are they like? Make a map of a mound and itssurroundings. Have any of these mounds been dug into? What hasbeen found? What is being done to preserve the mounds? Has thegovernment done anything to help? Can you help?

CHAPTER IVTHE PEOPLE OF THE NORTHLAND" All in robes of ermine white,Woven out of snowflakes light,Crowned with ice gems day and night,Stands the Land of Winter."Fig. 13. — Eskimo family.The man holdsin his hand a knife made from a fileand used to cut the blocks of snow inmaking snow houses.The Indian was notthe only inhabitant ofthe Canadian West whenfirst this country wasbrought to the attentionof the European.Scatteredalong the Arcticcoast and inland to thewatershed separatingthe streams flowing intothe Mackenzie Riverfrom those moving towardsHudson Bay andthe north-eastern Arctic,were several tribes ofanother race, the Eskimo,or Esquimaux.These people, while welcomingstrangers to their homes, have apparently neversought any companionship outside o'f their own race, and16

THE PEOPLE OF THE NORTHLAND 17never longed for regions more sunny than their own iceboundland.What do we know about the Eskimo ? What is theircountry like ? We may safely infer from its position thatit is a region of ice and snow for the greater The Eskimopart of the year ; that even in the summer-time countryfrozen ground may be found a few inches below the surface,and that the land is ill suited to the growth of theplants which we are accustomed to look to for a partof our food.Indeed,were it notfor the continuoussunlightofthe short summerseason, vegetationof anykind would beextremely rarein this far northland.As it is,the friendly sunis favorable tothe growth ofFia. 14. — The walrus or whale-horse.mosses and lichens,and even of many other plants related to some ofthose found about our homes. How these plants learnedto grow so far away is a question we may well think over.The Eskimo, however, has had to adopt an animal diet,and raw meat is as much relished by him as bread andbutter is enjoyed by us, while a strip of blubber or whalefatis looked upon as a very great delicacy indeed.The sea and the rivers bring to him the seal, the walrus

18 THE CANADIAN WEST(Fig. 14), the ice or white bear, and an abundance offish,while the barren grounds are the home ofherds of musk-ox and caribou (Figs. 81 and 82).Of these the caribou is in every way the most valued.Indeed, one can scarcely understand how these northernpeople could get on were it not for this animal. It isno wonder then that the caribou is hunted diligentlywith bow and arrow, or spear, the weapons which theEskimo has made for himself out of the material aroundhim. But does it not seem a strange thing that in thiscountry, where trees have refused to grow and wherewood of any kind is brought only by accident by therivers coming from the forests to the south-west, thesechildren of the cold should have learned how to fashionvery excellent weapons out of such crude materials asbone, horn, and driftwood, held firmly together with thesinews of the deer ?This is not all, for, strong though the weapon may beand ingenious the workmanship, a trained and intelligentmind is required to direct it aright, and the Eskimo getsthis training in the hard school of experience. Life tohim is not one round of pleasure, and the school daysof the children are not spent in learning to read andto write, but in learning the habits of the food animalsabout them, in learning how to handle the kayak or skincoveredcanoe (Fig. 15), and how to make and to usethe weapons that are employed in hunting and fishing.To be a successful deer-hunter in a country made up ofopen plains and rocky barrens is no easy matter, and thesagacity of the man must often be opposed to the keenscent of his prey. Occasionally vast herds are met with,and at such times numbers appear to give these animals

THE PEOPLE OF THE NORTHLAND 19a foolish confidence, which permits of the easy approachof the hunter, the result being an abundance Hunting theof food for present wants and a stock of deervenison for winter use, stored beneath a pile of stones,away from meddlingwolves andfoxes.Again,at certain seasonsof the year,many deer arespeared in thewater in goingto or returningfrom their summerand wintergrounds. Thehunters, knowingthat theseFig. 15. — Eskimos in their kayaks. Notice the stoneornaments one of the men has in his lips. Theseare inserted from the inside, a shoulder heing usedto prevent them from coming all the way through.animals have regular trails, wait at the crossings and slaythem as they are swimming past.Quite as much cunning and skill, too, is displayed in thehunting of the seal, the white bear, and the walrus.Perhapsthe most interesting, exciting, and danger- Hunting theous occupation of the Eskimo is the struggle walruswith the walrus or whale-horse, an animal large, powerful,and vicious. The hunt takes place sometimes inthe open sea, and sometimes near the shore, and is conductedfrom the kayak, the only weapons used beingthe home-made harpoon, a lance, and a heavy line attachedto the harpoon. Thus armed, the hunter goesout in quest of the walrus, and finds him probably engagedin hunting clams. The clams being in the sand

20 THE CANADIAN WESTat the sea bottom, the animal has to dive to get them.Being a lung-breather like ourselves, he is forced to cometo the surface every few minutes for a fresh supply of air.While the animal is below, the hunter steals on him, andwaits for him to rise. The moment he reappears the harpoonis shot with all the strength of a practised arm, andthe walrus disappears,Fig. It5. — Hunting the hooded seal. Compare thisseal with the walrus in Fig. 14.carrying with him the harpoon, towhich the lineis attached. Toprevent thecanoefrom upsetting,the hunterhas about threehundred feet ofline, which hepays out as theanimal sinksdeeper ; and tomake sure of hisprey, there is attachedto the endof the line, nearthe harpoon, afloat as large asa big football. What can this be used for? Sink yourfootball or even a hollow rubber ball in water, and youwill have the answer. The float tries to get to the surface,and when it reaches this, it gives the hunter warningwhen and where to expect the reappearance of the walrusso that a second harpoon may be placed. In the courseof time the animal becomes exhausted, and he is thenkilled with the lance.This may seem very easy sport, but

THE PEOPLE OF THE NORTHLAND 21very frequently the tables are turned, and the hunter becomesthe hunted. At such times only experience andthe skill that comes from experience can possibly savethe hunter.Much has been said in this chapter of the Eskimo as asuccessful hunter. You will understand how necessaryit is that he should be so when you think of the characterof his surroundings, and the constant struggle hemust make to keep himself and his family from starvation.To the Eskimo, hunting is the art of arts ; his very existenceis wrapped up in it.But man, wherever he is placed, needs shelter as well asfood and clothing, and the Eskimo has provided forin his skin-covered tents for summer use and hishalf-buried huts of driftwood, earth, orstonesthisfor the winter. In places where these materials are notto be had, and often when on a hunting or a fishing trip,temporary houses made of cut blocks of snow are erected.The furniture of an Eskimo's hut is always very simple, theimportant things being a bed to lie upon and a stove tosupply heat. The latter is only a stone vessel filled withseal-oil into which a bunch of twisted moss is placed toanswer the purpose of a wick. Still this lamp-stove issufficient to supply allthe heat necessary for the comfortof these hardy Canadians, but it is a black day for thefamily whenever the supply of seal- oil runs low.The home life of the people of the northland (Fig. 13)is usually a happy one. The children have their littlegames, and the women busy themselves in pre-•111. -i Home lifei ?paring the clothing so essential to the comfortof themselves, their husbands, and their children. TheEskimos are not divided into rich and poor, but all live

22 THE CANADIAN WESTtogether in peace and unity. They have their ownstandard of right and wrong, and we must learn to respectthem for any advance made towards a higher civilization,and not judge them too harshly because they happen tohave their lot cast under a more northerly clime.Although there is in the northland a great abundance ofanimal life, yet the the only animal tamed by the Eskimo isThe Huskya wolfish dog, commonly called the Husky (Fig.17). The Husky is a necessity not only tothe Eskimo, by whom he is not always well treated, butalso to all travellers in the north country in the winterseason. Here thedog takes the placeof the horse, andFig. 17. — The Eskimo do# or Husky.isdriven in teamsvarying from threeto a dozen or moredogs, all tied byseparate lines tothe carryall or sled(Figs. 20 and 124).In order to managesuch a team, thedriver carries ashort-handled whip bearing a lash from twenty to thirtyfeet in length, and woe be to the dog that attempts toshirk.We have described the Eskimo, not because he has donemuch to prepare the country for us, but because he is apart of the life of our far north.In addition, he shows sowell what man is able to do in circumstances seeminglyall against him.

THE PEOPLE OF THE NORTHLAND 23Questions. — Mark on a map the home of the Eskimo. Wheredid he come from ? What makes you think this ? Why should theEskimo leave Siberia to make his home in Arctic America? Why has henot tamed the caribou ? Has the Eskimo ever lived farther south thanwe now find him? Why does he not now leave so desolate a countryfor regions farther south ? What articles of trade valuable to ushas he to sell? In what ways has he mastered his surroundings?Describe an Eskimo bear-hunt. What use is made of the dead animal'sskin, flesh, and bones? How has the Eskimo been able to procurethe rifle? What other articles has he received in exchange forhis goods? Have these articles helped him in any way? How?Does he value our gold, silver, and paper money as we value it ? Whatmeans of exchange has he then ?

24 THE CANADIAN WEST

CHAPTER VTHE FUR TRADERSThe country west of Hudson Bay and the Great Lakeswas, for a great many years, in the possession of fur-tradingcompanies before the farmer was permitted to take upland and to till the rich prairie soil. It may Theseem to us unfortunate that this should have P athflndersbeen the case, but it must be remembered that the conditionsof western Canada a hundred years ago were quitedifferent from those existing to-day, for theWest was atthat time practically shut out from the rest of the civilizedworld. Some time, therefore, had to elapse before theland beyond the Great Lakes could be placed in easycommunication with the eastern provinces and the mothercountry. The early history of the Canadian West is thehistory of the fur trader and the explorer, and there is nodoubt that when the men who made the Dominion ofCanada are counted over, the nameless pathfinders of thenorth will not be forgotten.To understand the position in which this portion ofCanada was then placed, we must remember that theEnglish and the French settlements were made verylargely along the Atlantic coast and up the valley of thelower St. Lawrence River. Now between these settlementsand the prairies there lay a wide strip of difficultcountry which had to be crossed before the Canadian25

26 THE CANADIAN WESTplains could be reached. Another entrance, however,The twowas kv wa y °f Hudson Strait and Hudson Bay,gateways ancj ?strange to say, the country was enteredfrom both directions at about the same time. Englishships reached the western shore of the bay over two hundredyears ago, and in the course of time trading-stationsFig.19. — Trappers in the woods of the far north.were opened and a rich trade commenced with the Indians,who came from great distances up the rivers in theircanoes.In 1731 Sieur de la Verandrye, a brave French explorer,entered the West by way of the Great Lakes and later, inThe French 1738, made his way as far as the site of theexplorerspresent city of Winnipeg. His sons a few yearsafterwards reached the Saskatchewan, and later still, arelative of the explorer crossed the continent as far as ther

THE FUR TRADERS 27foot-hills of the Rocky Mountains. The countrymen ofVerandrye, however, did not place much value on thesediscoveries, and no advantage was taken of the fine fieldopened by him.In the meantime Canada passed out ofthe hands of the French and became a possession of GreatBritain, and thehistory of theprairie countryfor many yearswas simply astory of a strugglefor the wholetrade in furs betweenthe Hudson'sBay Company1 and itsrival, the North-West Company.Fio. 20. — Fur traders on their way to the northernFor a time theposts.Hudson's BayCompany made no attempt to extend its power by openingup new routes and planting trading-posts here and thereover the country, but as the fight grew fiercer everyeffort was put forth by both companies to cover the Indianlands. Intrepid explorers and traders made their wayinto the far interior, and made known to the world the1 " The full name of the Company given in the charter is • The Governorand Company of Adventurers of England, trading into Hudson Bay.'They have usually been called 'The Hudson's Bay Company,' the formof the possessive case being kept in the name, though it is usual to speakof the bay itself as Hudson Bay." — Bryce's The Remarkable History ofthe Hudson's Bay Company.

28 THE CANADIAN WESTgreat lakes and rivers with which it abounded. In 1771Hearne reached the Coppermine River ; in 1789 Mackenzie(Fig. 21) discovered the river which bears his name; afew years later Fraser and Thompson crossed the Rockiesand made their way toFig. 21. — Sir Alexander Mackenzie, the discovererof the Mackenzie River.the Pacific coast. Inthis way. the tradingcompanies became almostas well acquaintedas the Indians with therivers, lakes, woodlands,and prairies(Fig. 20), but as yetno thought was givento the introductionofthe farmer, for farmingand fur-trading wouldnot support each othervery well.However, about ahundred years ago, ata time when the rivalrybetween the two companies was at its height, Lord Selkirkobtained from the Hudson's Bay Company, of which hewas a member, a large grant of land in the part of thecountry now known as the province of Manitoba.The SelkirksettlementIn thisdistrict, at Kildonan on the Red River, near thepresent city of Winnipeg, were settled the firstpeople who came to the new land in order to engage infarming. It was only a small community, but its settlementwas one of the greatest events in the whole historyof western Canada : for it has been the farmer, and not

THE FUR TRADERS 29the fur trader, who has made the country what it is.Thepeople of the New England States have always lookedback with pride to the " Pilgrim Fathers," the men whofounded their country. The boys and girls of the prairie^should learn to know and to honor their pioneer settlers;first the self-sacrificingmissionaries (Fig. 22), who daredthe pathless forests and the rapid streams for the sake ofassisting and teaching their fellow-men, and also thepioneer farmers, the men and the women of the " SelkirkSettlement," who endured suffering of every kind,but inthe end proved that this is a goodly land and not merelya " few acres ofsnow and ice."But we must notforget, however,that we owemuch to the furtradingcompanies,for, withall their defects,they were at alltimesintenselydevoted to theinterests of theiradopted land. By means of these traders great advancementwas made in laying the foundations of the countryat a time when the rest of the world considered it as nothingmore than a fairly good hunting-ground. Throughthese traders the Canadian West was won and saved forthe Dominion.Fiq. 22. — Missionary visiting the Indians.the peculiar sleigh used.In 1870 the Hudson's Bay Company, which by thattime included its rival, handed over itsNoticeclaim on the prai-

CHAPTER VISURFACE AND DRAINAGEThe Great Central Plain. — The country we have been describingis the northern part of what lias often been calledthe "GreatCentralPlain"this plain beenof the continent.How hasformed ? FollowFigure 23carefully.On thewestis the plateauof the Rockieswhich runs in anorth-westerlyand south-easterlydirection.What slopeswould this causethe continent tohave ? AboutHudsonFig. 23.Bav is— Map of North America showing the extent, -lii°* tne Great Plain and its relation to the Norththe Wide but low American Highlands.31

32 TIIE CANADIAN WESTplateau of theLaurentians, while on the Atlantic coast isthe plateau of the Appalachians. The innerslopes of these plateaus by meeting have formedthe broad and long plain already mentioned.In what direction does this plain incline ? It may inclinetowards the Arctic Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico, orthe St. Lawrence valley. An examination of the mapwill show you that it slopes in two of theseA plain slop- .ing north and directions: but the St. Lawrence is separatedsouthrfrom it by the high land west and south of theGreat Lakes.In other words, the plain is divided into anorth slope and a south slope by a " height of land " situatedsometimes north and sometimes south of the boundaryline between this part of Canada and the UnitedStates. You must not, however, try to picture this watershedas a mountain chain, for one might cross this heighta hundred times and never see any mark that would causeone to call it a " height of land." Only the rainfall canlocate the exact position of this divide.We are now ready to examine the Canadian portion ofthe Great Central Plain. We have found that it slopesnorthwards. We are now to find that this isThe Canadianportion of the not strictly correct, for the southern and southplainJ,eastern portions of the plain incline towardsHudson Bay, the Nelson-Saskatchewan rivers being ableto reach this body of water by breaking through the oldand worn down Laurentian plateau between Lake Winnipegand Hudson Bay. The remaining portion where theMackenzie River is found, dips north-westwards towardsthe Arctic Ocean. Can you trace the position of theheight of land that divides these river basins? This isthe third watershed to be noted.

SURFACE AND DRAINAGE 33

34 THE CANADIAN WESTThe First and Second Prairie Levels and the ManitobaLakes. — Having now an outline, as it were, of the surfaceand drainage, we shalltry to add the less prominentbut perhaps more important features, so that all may havea true picture of- this broad land; but where shall webegin? Let us follow for a while along the line of settlement-makingby beginning with Manitoba, and proceedingwestwards and northwards until the whole country iscovered.The eastern and north-eastern parts of Manitoba covera portion of the rocky and wooded Laurentian plateau,a region of rough and broken country, fullof bogs, andcovered in part with forests of small trees, while thecentral and western parts lie within the area of the greatplain.West of the country just described are the valley of theRed River and the valley of the lower Saskatchewan, tworegions that slope towards Lake Winnipeg andThe firstpraine levelform i\ ie h' rs t f a sev [GS f steppes or plainsstretching all the way to the Rocky Mountains.The Red River valley slopes northwards and has theRed River in the southern part and Lakes Winnipeg,Manitoba, Winnipegosis, and Dauphin, and the flat countrysurrounding them, in the north. To all appearance thisvalley is perfectly level, but it is not so flat as it seems,for the river from which it gets its name hasThe&Red River a fall of about twelve inches to the mile, andvalleythe country on either side a much greaterfall. It is wooded along the banks of the stream tothe south. Scattered groves of trees are common evenat a distance from the river, and the lake portion israther heavily timbered. The soil, a rich, deep loam

SURFACE AND DRAINAGE 35Fig. 25. — Macgregor, a typical village on the first prairie level.overlying a clay subsoil, is able to support not only afine growth of grass, but also fields of grain and gardensof vegetables and roots.On the west the valley of the Red River is bordered bywhich enter the province from theseveral ranges of hillssouth under the name of the Pembina Mountains, and con-Fia. 26. — Birtle, a typical village on the second prairie level.

36 THE CANADIAN WESTtinue north-westwards as the Riding Mountains, DuekThese hillsMountains, and Porcupine and Pasquia hills.form the front of a second plain (Fig. 24) of greater heightand more rolling surface. (Compare Figs. 25 and 26.)This second plain occupies the whole south-western part ofThe secondManitoba, stretches halfway across the districtprame levelQ £ Assiniboia to the west, and includes a largeportion of the district of Saskatchewan to the north-west.The streams, of this second plain flow through deepvalleys bordered by narrow belts of timber. The soil,though excellent, is not so uniform nor yet so deep asThe levelsthat °f the first prairie level. Still, there arecomparedlar ge areas, for example, the Regina plains,where great depth of soil is very evident. Another differencebetween these levels is seen in the presence ofcertain hilly regions found in the second plain in whatare named the Turtle Mountains, Moose Mountains, theTouchwood Hills, and other hills of a similar character(Figs. 24 and 27). The portion of the second level inthe district of Saskatchewan, northern Assiniboia, andnorth-western Manitoba combines both prairie and woodlandfeatures to a greater extent than does the remainder.Here we may find the surface ranging all the way from agentle slope to rolling grounds. Here too we may findgrass-covered plains and heavily wooded hills. Let usnow look at the way this part of the country is drained.You will notice that all the streams of the first andThethe second levels belong to the Saskatchewan-Nelson systemof rivers, for their waters all drain intoWinnipeg Hudson Bay by the Nelson. Commencing withthe most easterly, the Winnipeg River, whichisfed by the waters of the Lake of the Woods, we have a

Relief Map of 1Saskatchew.

DBA, ASSINIBOIA,D Alberta.

SURFACE AND DRAINAGE 37large stream, which, too rapid for ordinary navigation(Fig. 28), is yet a capital river for supplying electricaland other driving powers on account of its many rapidsand falls. Next we have the Red River, a Thestream which rises near the source of the Mis- RedRlversissippi, and flows northwards seven hundred miles in awinding channel to Lake Winnipeg, where it drops itsheavy burden ofmud. The channelof the RedRiver is wide butshallow.This isdue to the gradualfall of theriver, and also tothe abundanceof sedimentcarried. Thissediment, byconstantly droppingto the bot-Fig. 28. — A rapid on the Winnipeg River.tom of the channel, protects the river-bed from being wornby the water. The sides, being without this protection,are undermined and washed away by the current.is the stream of which Whittier wrote —:"Out and in the river is windingThe links of its long, red chain."ThisThe principal rivers emptying into the Red are theAssiniboine and the Pembina. The former, with its manytributaries, drains the greater part of eastern Assiniboia,a small part of south-eastern Saskatchewan, and all the

38 THE CANADIAN WESTwestern and south-central portion of Manitoba. TheAssiniboine rises in north-eastern AssiniboiaAssiniboine and enters Manitoba west of a point midwayRiverbetween the Riding and the Duck Mountains.At first its course is to the south, but it gradually swingsmore to the east, the south-east, and the north-east in agreat curve, and enters the Red at the city of Winnipeg,six hundred miles from its source.The tributaries of theAssiniboine are the Shell River from the Duck Mountains,the Little Saskatchewan River from the slopes of theRiding Mountains, and the Qu'Appelle and the SourisThe Rivers from eastern Assiniboia. The Sourissouns RiverOliver commences a little east of what you willlearn to know afterwards as the Missouri Goteau (Figs.24 and 27), runs southwards across the internationalboundary line into Dakota, where it curves again towardsthe north-east, and enters Manitoba a little west of TurtleMountain. From this point it flows in a north-easterlydirection and empties into the Assiniboine several milesbelow the city of Brandon. The Qu'Appelle Riverdrains what is termed Long or Last Mountain Lake,forty miles north-west of Regina, and flowsQu'Appelle eastwards through a deep and beautiful val-Riverley which connects with the valley of theAssiniboine a little east of the western boundary ofManitoba. The Qu'Appelle during its course widensinto a number of beautiful lakes, the principal beingRound Lake, Crooked Lake, and the Qu'Appelle Lakes.The other important tributary of the Red is the Pembina,The PembinaRiverManitoba (Figs.which rises in a small lake a few miles northeastof the village of Cartwright in southern24 and 27), and flows from this source,

SURFACE AND DRAINAGE 39first to the north-east, then to the south-east, and finallycrosses the boundary west of the Pembina Mountains,entering the Red a few miles south of Emerson.The Manitoba group of lakes is deserving of a littleattention, not only on account of their value in the way ofnavigation, their fisheries,and their importanceas pleasure resorts(Fig. 29), but becausethey are believed tobe the deeper portionsFig. 29.1. Summer residence on Big Island,Lake Winnipeg.of an old lake thatcovered nearly all ofthe province of Manitobaand extended farinto Ontario and the2. One of the many beautiful wooded islands inLake Winnipeg.United States. The name of this ancient lake is Agassiz,named in honor of Louis Agassiz, a famous j^gSwiss scholar, who for many years was one Agassizof the professors of Harvard University in the UnitedStates ;and there are still to be found here and there inthe province many remains of its gravelly beach, andmany banks and hills of sand formed along its shores bythe winds and the waves of the days gone by, or carriedthere by the flooded rivers that must at one time have

40 THE CANADIAN WESTpoured their waters into its mighty bosom. Figure 24will illustrate what we have said. Study it carefully,making particular note of the boundaries and size of LakeAgassiz.As the lakes mentioned are second inimportance onlyto those of the St. Lawrence basin, as they are also suchprominent features in the surface of the Canadian West,and a particular feature of the first prairie level, it will bewell for us to learn, not only the characteristics of each,but also to find how these waters are arranged so as toform one connected whole.Lake Winnipeg, the largest of the group, is two hundredand fifty miles from north to south, and its southernLakeWinnipegIts depth isan(^ northern expansions have a width oftwenty-five miles and sixtymiles respectively.never greater than sixty or seventy feet, andthis shallowness on the part of such a great body of wateroften proved dangerous to the boats of earlier days.Indeed,as you are seated upon the deck of one of themodern steamers of this lake and are watching all thetwists and turnings made, you are more than surprisedat the crooked course of the vessel. There is an abundanceof water everywhere, no islands or rocks are insight, not even the shore of the lake (Fig. 30) can beseen on the horizon. How is the winding course explained? Were we to take the depth of the water weshould soon learn that the lake is no place for any butexperienced captains, who know every foot of the lakebottom. So shallow is Lake Winnipeg that many placesmiles from shore are covered only by a few feet of water.Lake Manitoba, from which comes the name of theprovince of Manitoba, lies about forty miles to the west

SURFACE AND DRAINAGE 41Fig. 30. — Scenes along the shore of Lake Winnipeg.

42 THE CANADIAN WESTof the southern half of Lake Winnipeg ;Lakes ManitobaandWinnipegosiswhile Lake Winnipegosis,separated only by about two milesfrom the north end of Lake Manitoba, is situatedabout forty or fifty miles west of the northernportion of Lake Winnipeg. These lakes are in man} 7respects simply smaller models of the one already described.BothFig. 31.take a northwesternand asouth-easternposition ; bothare shallow andsurroundedforthe most part bylow shores;both have agreatshore-linein proportion totheir size ;bothare well filledwith numerouswooded islands(Fig. 29) ; andboth are abundantlysupplied with valuable fish. Lake Winnipegosisoverflows into Lake Manitoba by the Waterhen River andthe Waterhen Lake, while Lake Manitoba, in turn, is connectedwith Lake Winnipeg by the Fairford River, LakeSt. Martin, and the Dauphin River (Fig. 31).Lake Dauphin lies south of Lake Winnipegosis, withwhich it communicates by the beautiful, winding MossyRiver, a stream twenty-two miles long and from thirty to

SURFACE AND DRAINAGE 43sixty yards wide. Dauphin Lake, though small in comparisonwith those mentioned before, is asso- ^^ciated with the very earliest explorations of theDauphinGreat West.Here, in the long ago, on the north-westernshore of this little lake, a fort was built by Pierre, oneof the sons of the great Verandrye, who crossed theprairie portage from Fort La Reine (Portage la Prairie)to Lake Manitoba, and from thence journeyed northwardsto Lake Dauphin. Between Lake Winnipegosis, DuckMountain, and the Porcupine Hills lies the districtSwan River, a country well adapted to mixed farming.of theAll the larger lakes of this group are easily affectedby the winds. It is therefore not at all an uncommonthing to see the waters pile up and flood the shore towardswhich the wind is blowing.Perhaps you can explain this.The Third Prairie Level. — We said that the secondprairie level extended about halfway across Assiniboia.At this point the third level begins in the Missouri Coteau,a rough line of hills, thought by some to have been theshore of an ancient sea that has long since disappeared.In western Saskatchewan this level commences at theEagle Hills, and its eastern edge extends to the northwest,along a line joining the hills with a point midwaybetween the western end of Lake Athabaska, and thenorth-eastern corner of Alberta. To get a better ideaof what these levels mean, think of the RedThe surfaceRiver valley as being about seven hundred oreight hundred feetabove the level of the sea, the secondlevel eight hundred feet higher than this, and the lastlevel between twenty-five hundred and three thousandfeet above the sea. The third level ends with the foothills,and its surface is on the whole a little more rolling

44 THE CANADIAN WESTthan the others. Among the surfaces least affected bythe weathering or wearing ofcenturies (Fig. 32) are theCypress Hills and Wood Mountain of western Assiniboia.These are, however, deeply channelled by ravines (Fig.32), showing that they have not escaped altogether. TheFig. 32. — Weathered roeks in the Cypress Hills.soil of this region is often of the finest quality, the onlyexceptions being the cactus and sage-brush land a littleto the south-west of the Cypress Hills, and several othersmall districts, covered by sand-hills, or else of too hillya nature to provide profitablepasture-grounds for horses,cattle, or sheep.The southern portion of this level, that is, the landcovered by western Assiniboia and southern Alberta, is

SURFACE AND DRAINAGE 45almost treeless. The northern and north-eastern partsare generally wooded, but the line betweenthe two. Prairies, parkportions is not very well marked ; lands, and« .. . . « forests.for while many prairie areas are found withinthe forest country, belts of woodland follow most of thelarger rivers far into the otherwise treeless prairies.Almost the whole of the district of Athabaska 1 is timbered,but in the region of the Peace River many fineprairie stretches are found. The prairies to the south ofthe wooded country are,* on account of their fertile soiland delightful climate, among the most valuable in theNorth-West Territories for grazing purposes, while thewooded country is more suitable for fuel and lumber andin the northern regions is a great preserve for our wildanimals.Near the international boundary line, the Rocky Mountainsrise abruptly from the plain, and often present, tothe east, a wall of perpendicular rocks. A short The f00t .distance farther north, however, they become hlllsbordered, or fringed by the foot-hills, and thesecontinue,with varying breadth, at least as far north as the PeaceRiver country.How is this part of western Canada drained ? For thepresent we may say that it is the country of the greatriver Saskatchewan, which commences as a double streamin Alberta. The north branch drains the northern partof this district and the western half of the Drainagedistrict of Saskatchewan, while the southernbranch, by means of the Belly, Bow, and Red Deer Rivers,1 By an order in council passed in 1902, the spelling Athabasca wasofficially adopted by the Dominion Government, the old spelling Athabascabeing abandoned.

46 THE CANADIAN WESTdrains southern Alberta and western Assiniboia. Thesetwo branches unite in central Saskatchewan (Figs. 2-1 and27) into a mighty river which flows to the east and emptiesinto the northern end of Lake Winnipeg, while thewhole system of waters is drained away into Hudson Bayby the Nelson River, a rough and rapid stream. TheNelson is" therefore the great trunk river which emptiesall the waters flowing into Lake Winnipeg. Its lengthis about four hundred and thirty miles ; its fall in thisdistance is seven hundred and ten feet ; and its course isusually in a north-easterly direction. The river is full oflake expansions and wide channels, and, except for shortdistances, is unsuitable for navigation. 1Boundaries, Width, and Area of the Three Prairie Levels.— In the course of our description thus far, we have pointedout the presence of three great prairie levels and a few ofthe features of each. We have mentioned that a plain, risingfrom a height of from seven hundred to eight hundredfeet above the sea level toa height of about three thousandfeet above that level, extends from a point east of theRed River to the base of the Rocky Mountains at thewest, and that this plain is divided into three distinct portionsby the presence of two lines of hills stretching fromthe south-east towards the north-west. The width of thewidth and lowest of these, or the first prairie level, is atthe international boundary nearly fifty-twomiles, while its width at the north is much greater. Itsaverage width is about one hundred and twenty miles,andits area fifty-five thousand square miles. The middle or1A very full description of this river is found on pages 22-32 of PartII of the Report of the Department of the Interior for 1884.

.SURFACE AND DRAINAGE 47second prairie level is two hundred and fifty miles wideat the boundary, and this width is continued across theplain. The area of the second level is placed at onehundred and five thousand square miles, while that of thethird level covers one hundred and thirty-four thousandsquare miles, and its width varies from four hundred andsixty miles at the south to less than half this width atthe north. Some of the features described may be readilyunderstood by a careful reference to the profile map(Fig. 33).vi . THE THIRD PRAIRIE-STEPPE o« LEVEL =THE SECOND STEPPE on LEVELFig. 33. — Profile map of the three prairie levels at the boundary line betweenCanada and the United States.We have still to decide the question, How far northwardsdo these levels extend? To answer this we shall askyou to note the direction of the Rocky Mountains, and thatof the outer or prairie edge of the Laurentian plateau(Fig. 23). Roughly speaking, the latter will be found toagree closely with the line of Great Lakes stretching fromthe Lake of the Woods, north-westerly through Lake Winnipeg,Lake Athabaska, Great Slave Lake, and Great BearLake. This plateau, then, has, with the Rockies, The lain athe effect of throwing the great plain to the south tnan s leinto the form of a huge triangle having one side along theinternational boundary, another side following the mountainsfor a thousand miles to the north and north-west, and

48 THE CANADIAN WESTthe third side agreeing with the direction of the line ofwaters comprising the Manitoba and Mackenzie groups oflakes. That this Laurentian line would form the northernboundaries of the prairie land is readily seen, but whetherthe levels actually extend to this line is another matter.We are all prepared to admit that it is possible for thefeatures of the plains to be so defaced inpassing towardsthe north as scarcely to be recognized by any but themost experienced. Indeed, those familiar with the studyof land surfaces have said that there is always a greatdifficulty in following the features of the prairie levelseven a short distance north of the Saskatchewan, for themarks by which the levels are known are there prettywell effaced. What has caused this difference betweenthe southern and the northern portions of the prairielevels ? Why are the marks less prominent as we gonorthwards. Perhaps this may be explained by thegradual blending of the prairie with the plateau. Itmay also have had something to do with the presence ofa great river flowing across the country from the west tothe east. We shall, therefore, follow the Saskatchewanfrom its source to its mouth, and try to find out what ithas been doing all the centuries of its existence, for wemay be sure that it has been anything but idle.The Saskatchewan. — Commencing with the northernbranch of the river (Figs. 24 and 27), we discover thatit takes its rise in the Rockies of western Alberta, receivingfrom them the snow waters of this region, and thatafter passing the foot-hills it makes along downThe northbranch^ ie vaiiev with a current of from four to fivemiles an hour. Now, when you take into account therapid descent of portions of this stream, and also remember

SURFACE AND DRAINAGE 49Fig. 34. — Scenes along the banks of the Saskatchewan River.

50 THE CANADIAN WESTthat this is not a rivulet, but a river four hundred feet inwidth only a few miles from its mountainous source, youmay easily imagine something of its enormous diggingpower. You need not be told that rivers of this naturemust have their channels enclosed by deep valleys withsteep sides, and that the many tributaries feeding themain stream are engaged in the same work of land destruction.From the foot-hills the course of the river is towards thenorth-east, past Edmonton, and on until in sight of thewatershed separating the Mackenzie and Saskatchewanbasins. From *this elbow (both branches have many ofthese), the river turns to the south-east, and enters thedistrict of Saskatchewan, where itreceives the waters ofThe Battle^ie ^ a^le River at the town of Battleford.River^he Battle, a winding stream flowing in a deepvalley, rises west of Wetaskiwin in north-eastern Albertaand courses in a zigzag manner eastwards to the Saskatchewan.Leaving Battleford, the north branch continuesits course south-eastwards, but before reaching thedistrict of Assiniboia it swings round to the north-eastand unites with the south branch some distance belowPrince Albert and seven hundred and seventy-five milesfrom its mountain source. At Edmonton theThe highbanksbanks of the valley are about two hundred feetin height (Fig. 35), and this feature is characteristic of theSaskatchewan (Fig. 34) until its waters are far downthe second prairie level, after which the river sweeps forthe remaining two hundred and eighty miles in a majesticstream down a broader and shallower valley through theundulating country of the district of Saskatchewan, andon through Cedar and Cross Lakes, and the Grand Rap-

SURFACE AND DRAINAGE 51ids near its mouth, until it reaches Lake Winnipeg.The Grand Rapids of the Saskatchewan, con- TheGrandsidered by many to be unsurpassed in magnifi-Ra P ldscence and volume of water, have a fall of about seventyonefeet in a distance of five miles, but this is in partFig. 35. — The banks of the Saskatchewan River at Edmonton.overcome by a tramway on shore (Fig. 36) by whichgoods can be rapidly transported from steamer to steamer.For about two miles of this course, the river flows througha deep and narrow gorge cut out of the hard limestonerocks. 11A very full description of the Saskatchewan from the forks of theriver to its mouth is given on pages 13-22 of Part II of the Report ofthe Department of the Interior for 1884.

52 THE CANADIAN WESTThe country drained by theMil iPiinnorth branch may be describedas an immense plain, sloping, in the main, northeastwardsfrom the mountains and lowering rapidly fromthe height of four thousand feet at the foot-The basin of °.the north lulls to sixteen hundred feet above the sea level,brancha short distance above Battleford.While thisslope is fairly regular as a whole, and wonderfully fertile,it is broken here and there by numerous high hills,and also by deepriver valleys.Fig. 36. — The tramway at the Grand Rapids of theSaskatchewan. The house is the residence of aHudson's Bay Company factor.Lakes, too, arenumerous andadd much to thevariety of thescenery.Manyof these lakes arelittle better thanso many evaporatingbasins,for the outletsare used only intimes of flood.In thinking, therefore, over the features of this region, and,in fact, over the western and southern portions of thethird prairie level, it is well to remember thisin its lakes.Let us now examine the course ofpeculiaritythe southern arm ofthe great Saskatchewan, but let us observe again how wellThe basin ofthe river has invaded Alberta, Saskatchewan,n . , r . __ *, • ithe south and western Assiniboia. lhe country drainedbranchby the south branch includes the greater part ofsouthern Alberta and western Assiniboia and a small por-

SURFACE AND DRAINAGE 53tion of south -central Saskatchewan.branch, which isIn other words, thiseight hundred and ten miles in length,has something to do with a large part of the settled portionsof the North-West Territories, and its basin issomewhat similar in surface to that drained by the northbranch. Here you will find the same class of naturalFig. 37. — Rapids on the north fork of the High River in southern Alberta.features, the rolling lands, level stretches, scattered hills,and the deep ravines and river valleys (Fig. 37). Here,too, are the characteristic lakes, though fewer in number,and as a rule smaller in area.The principal tributaries of the south branch are the RedDeer, Bow, and Belly Rivers, the two last by their unionforming the river. The Bow River rises in the mountains

54 THE CANADIAN WESTbeyond Banff, and after receiving the Elbow at Calgary,courses along to south-eastern Alberta, whereThe BowRiverit is joined by the Belly River, which with thehelp of its tributaries, the Little Bow, the Old Man,and the St. Mary's rivers drains southern Alberta.southern streams areTheseof great importance to the country,as they flow through or near what has been called theFig. 38. — An irrigation canal in southern Alberta." arid belt " or region of small rainfall. This tract ofcountry has until lately been devoted almost entirely toranching, but irrigation (Fig. 38) is gradually closing inon the ranches and changing the whole region to a garden.The higher reaches of the St. Mary's River have beentapped, and the water brought for miles over the countryand even into the towns in open ditches or canals.Every street in Lethbridge, Stirling, and other towns,

SURFACE AND DRAINAGE 55may have its irrigating ditch, and every house-holder hisown little canal from this ditch to his garden. IrrigationAt regular intervals gates are placed in the canalscanals for the purpose of controlling the flow of water,so that every farmer and every owner of a town housemay have whatever water is needed under lock and key.Irrigation is but in its infancy ; but the results are sosatisfactory already that we may easilysee how valuablethe so-called "arid belt" is bound to be a few yearshence.The course of the south branch from the junction of theBow and the Belly Rivers is at first eastwards towardsMedicine Hat, beyond which it turns first to the north,then to the north-east, and afterwards to the east, receivingin this part of its course the Red Deer from themountains west of central Alberta. The Red Deer flows,as you will observe in Figures 24 and 27, first The Redtowards the north-east and afterwards the DeerRlversouth-east, through a valley often one hundred and fiftyfeet in depth, communicating with many similar valleyscarrying the waters of its tributaries. A little below theRed Deer junction the Saskatchewan flows westwards,then southwards, and again eastwards, until the Coteauis rounded, after which the stream bends to the northand north-east and finallypours into the north branch astream six hundred yards in width.The Cypress Hills and Wood Mountain Plateaus. — Wehave now to look at a portion of country lying withinthe third prairielevel (Fig. 39), but for the greater partsituated outside the basin of the Saskatchewan. Thisregion has for its northern boundary Wood Mountain,the Cypress Hills, and the Milk River Ridge, and for its

.56 THE CANADIAN WESTsouthern boundary the international boundary line. Inreality thistract is a part of the Mississippi basin of thesouth, the watershed separating the northern and southernportions of the Great Plain passing here several miles tothe north of the United States-Canadian boundary line.An examinationof this countryshows it to becomposed of twoclasses of surface,plainsnamelyFig. 39. — The plateau country of the Cypress Hillsage level ofand Wood Mountain. ..and plateaus.The plainsare but a fewhundred feetabove the aver-the surroundingprairies ; the plateaus, on the other hand, rise muchhigher and commence about thirty miles south of MedicineHat in what are called the Cypress Hills,a region ofmore or less rugged country extending eastwards to theend of Wood Mountain.At their western end the Cypress Hills are about twelvehundred feet above the general level of the country.The cypressHlllsTheir eastern end is much lower, though a greatdeal more rugged. The surface of this tablelandis altogether too high for successful grain farming, but itis clad with an abundance offine, nutritious grasses, andtaken with the plain to the north forms one of the finestregions in the world for horse, cattle, and sheep raising.Wood Mountain, again, extends eastwards for forty miles,

•SUIiFACE AND DRAINAGE 57or over half the length of the Cypress Hills. Its averageheight is thirty-two hundred feet above the The woodsides are scored by numerous Mountainsea level, and itsdeep, dry, and wide coulees or channels of streams, thushinting of a time when this part of the land was wateredby heavier rains than now prevail. While portions of theplain to the south and to the south-west of the westernhalf of the Cypress Hills contain stretches of tine ranchinglands, other parts are extremely barren, the soil beinga stiffclay studded with pebbles and boulders and unfitto support any vegetation other than thesage-brush, thecactus, and similar plants. We have also spoken of thecountry to the north of this region, namely the landbetween the South Saskatchewan and the plateaus.Thisplain forms part of the basin of the Saskatchewan, but itssurface does not contribute much to this stream, for thereis no very definite plan of drainage (Fig. 39), and therivers and creeks for the most part wind along and emptyinto lakes having no outlet. This immense plain is verylevel in places, but some parts of it are quite hilly whileothers are covered by great masses of shifting sand.The Mackenzie Basin. — The Mackenzie River country,which includes a portion of northern Alberta and thegreater part of the districts of Athabaska and Mackenzie,is worthy of attention, not only because of the immensityof the river basin, but also on account ofof the upper Peace River lands.the importanceIn this district the landis so fertile and the climate so moderate that ranchingand even mixed farming should become profitable occupations.11See Report of a Select Committee of the Senate of Canada on theMackenzie Itiver Basin, issued by the Dominion Government in 1888.

58 THE CANADIAN WESTBy the Peace River country (Fig. 40), however, wemean a great deal more than the fertile flats which borderthe river; we also include the great plateau whichPeace River stretches, with few interruptions, for manycountrymiles on either side at an altitude, or height,of about eight hundred feet above the river level.ThisFig. 40. — The Peace River country.plateau, through which the river winds with a gentle current,is narrow near the mountains, but widens rapidly asit passes northwards. Along the north bank, for a widthvarying from thirty to eighty miles, the land is knownto be very fertile, partly prairie, and partly open woods.To the south, it encloses one of the most promisinglands of the Canadian West, in what is known as LaGrande Prairie, a region very similar in surface and in

SUn FACE AND DRAINAGE 59soil to that lying between Calgary and Edmonton, andbound some day to become the home of a numerous andprosperous people. The whole of the country describedlies to the southern end of the valley of the Mackenzie.Let us try torecall what we have already read in thischapter regarding the river basins of Western Canada.We were toldthat a greatwatershed separatedthe wacersflowing intoHudsonBayfrom those flowinginto the Mackenziebasin, orto be more correct,from thoseflowing into theArctic Ocean.Following thiswatershed (Figs.2 and 41) froma point nearMount Hooker,OF THE MACKENZIE-RIVERBASINTHE COUNTRY TO THE NORTHEASTFig. 41.in northern Alberta,we shall find that it passes to the south-east, andthen east of the Mackenzie River lakes, and on betweenGreat Slave Lake and the Telzoa River to the MelvillePeninsula at the north-east corner of the country.There are many who make the mistake of supposing theMackenzie but a small feature of Western Canada becausethe lower portion of its course passes through a region

'60 THE CANADIAN WESTthat, as far as we know, can never be devoted to farmingpurposes. This is not a sufficient excuse for refusing to'' The Kingof NorthernRiversworld.mention it here. Some people have called theMackenzie the " King of Northern Rivers."It is one of the twelve longest rivers in theOn the American continent it ranks next to theS^^J3"*C$f* riverFiG. 42.The basin of the Mackenzie River.Mississippiinsize and length.From the headwaters of theAthabaska to theArctic Oceanthe course istwenty-five hundredmiles inlength, and fromGreat SlaveLake to thesame point thebearingthe name " Mackenzie"is onethousandmileslong (Fig. 42).It drains an areaof over six hundredthousandsquare miles.Two of its manytributaries,Peace and Liard, pierce the Rockies, and the lattertheriverstretches to within one hundred and fifty miles of the west-

SURFACE AND DRAINAGE 61ern ocean. The country, too, which supplies the Mackenzie,takes in part of a broken plateau beyond the mountains,a wide portion of the Laurentian country, andeven a portion of the Rockies themselves. From GreatSlave Lake to the sea the average width of the Mackenzieis about a mile. Its waters are on the whole pure ; thereis an absence of the sudden bends so often noticed in theSaskatchewan, and the valley is long and shallow and followsmost faithfully the channel of the river. Let us nowtrace its course more carefully.The Mackenzie basin (Figs. 41 and 42) commences atthe source of the Athabaska, which flows to xheAthathenorth-east towards Lake Athabaska, and baskaRlversucceeds in crossingthe boundaryof northern Albertathree times.The banks aboveand also belowAthabaska Land-Fia. 43.1. Towing scows over therapids of the Athabaska.ing, apoint northof Edmonton, arehigh. One hundredand sixty-fivemiles below the 2. Grand Rapids on the Athabaska.

SURFACE AND DRAINAGE 63Lake Manitoba. At the west end of the lake the wateris clouded, but at the centre and eastern end LajKit is clear. The north shore is hilly, mostly Athabaskabarren, but rich in gypsum, a substance from whichplaster of Paris is made. The land to the south is leveland well wooded.The Slave River leaves Lake Athabaska near FortChipewyan (Fig. 18), receives the Peace River from thewest, flows to the north-west, and enters GreatSlave Lake. One hundred miles below its sourcethe river is free from all obstructions, but from this pointthe second set of rapids, already mentioned, commence.Great Slave Lake, the second expansion of the Mackenzie,ranks fifth among the great lakes of the continent.Its total length is about three hundred Great Slayemiles, while its width in places is fully sixty Lakemiles. Originally in the form of a huge cross, it bearsnow but three arms, the fourth being filled up by thesediment brought from the south by the Slave River.The eastern portion has an irregular outline and itswaters are also much clearer than those of the central andwestern parts. The country north and east of the easternarm is covered with bare, rounded hills and ridges,which rise gradually from the water's edge to a height offrom one thousand to twelve hundred feet. These hillsand ridges are separated by poorly wooded or else mosscoveredvalleys. Figure 44 will give you a fair view ofthe country along the Han bury River. The southern shorehas a more gentle outline, but its low banks are heavilysprinkled with boulders. The northern arm is indentedto a certain extent, while the country in this direction ismade up of wooded, flat lands said to be quite fertile.

64 THE CANADIAN WESTFig. 44.— Scenes on the Hanbury River, north-east of Great Slave Lake.

SURFACE AND DRAINAGE 65From Great Slave Lake, the Mackenzie proper flows ina stream seven miles in width, but shallow and filled withmany islands. A short distance below the outlet theseislands disappear, and the river gradually narrows untilit is only two miles across. The country along this portionof the river is very flat and covered with numerousmarshes and muskegs separated by belts of forest. Belowthis there is a change for the better, agricultural lands arecommon, and even wheat has been successfully grown.When the Mackenzie has gone about one-fifth of theremaining portion of its journey, it is overtaken by theLiard, a rapid stream draining an immense TheLiardarea within and beyond the Rockies. After Rlverleaving the Liard junction, the great river works towardsthe mountains, meets them at the Grand Bend, andcurves along to the north. Below the Grand Bend anotherridge appears on the eastern bank, and betweenthese hills the Mackenzie flows for miles. The easternhills gradually lower and disappear, and the westernhills move farther and farther away from the channeluntil they are lost to view. From the point where theMackenzie meets the mountains the course is The moun .northwards until a few miles below the mouth tainsof the Bear River, where it turns a little to the northwestand passes through the Upper Ramparts (Fig. 45),a remarkable gorge. For some distance above the Rampartsthe river is unusually wide, but here it TheRam .narrows to about five hundred yards, and, bend- vaxtaing to the east, runs for three or four miles between hugewalls of solid rock of a height varying from one hundredand twenty-five to two hundred and fifty feet above thewater. Before entering the delta, similar rocky walls,

66 THE CANADIAN WESTthe Lower Ramparts, have toGreat BearLakebe passed, after which theMackenzie flows through a dreary plain to the sea.Great Bear Lake, the largest of the three lakes of theMackenzie basin, is irregular in outline and has an area ofabout eleven thousand square miles, whichplaces it at the head of the list of the lakes inthe Canadian West. The shores of this inland sea arewooded in stretches,some of the trees beingof such a character astobe well worthy ofa more southern home.The Bear River, bywhich this lake isdrained, flows at firstthrough a countrydestitute of trees; butthis district gives2. The Kani parts of the Mackenzie River.place shortly to fine forest-bordered banks which extendto the river's mouth and along the Mackenzie in a magnificentlywooded country, over sixty miles wide, as yetuntouched by the axe or the saw.The Arctic Plain and the Barren Lands. — We have stilltodescribe the country bordering the Arctic Ocean and

'SURFACE AND DRAINAGEG7Hudson Bay, the country beyond the great spruce forests(Fig. 41), or, in other words, the country north-east of aline joining the mouths of the Nelson and Mackenzierivers. A portion of this country is known as the " barrenlands" (Fig. 41), a name we must look upon as notaltogether descriptive of this very wide region, for it isanything but barren in the spring and summer seasons,when the earth is covered with myriads of flowers and theair is full of insect and bird life. Nothing, „, . .&' Flowers andhowever, can be more dreary than these wind-birdsswept plains in the winter period. Indeed, the wholecountry is a particularly difficult one to travel over, thevalleys being usually swampy, and the swamps coveredwith little hummocks of grass. To slip off one of thesemeans to plunge knee-deep into the ice-cold water of theswamp. We know but little of the " barren lands," andbut little of the rolling, marshy, mossy plains, or tundra,along the Arctic coast, but what we do know of them hascome largely from those who have had to bear° ... J The tundras.every kind of peril and sufferings in theirefforts to make known a few more ofthe dark places ofthe earth. While the mineral wealth said to abound inthis region may bring thousands of people to its mines,these Arctic lands can never, so far as we can see, becomethe home of the farming class.The principal rivers of this region are the Great Fishor Back, the Coppermine, and the Churchill (Fig. 41).The Great Fish River rises near Great Slave_.n „ iiiT Tne GreatLake, and flows north-eastwards through the Fish, copper-°mine, andLaurentian country to the Arctic. 1 he Copper- churchmJriversi «mine flows through a partly wooded region,and empties into Coronation Gulf, an arm of the Arctic.

68 THE CANADIAN WESTAs the name indicates, copper is found in the basin ofthis river, but to what extent we do not know. TheChurchill (Fig. 46) empties a series of lakes and riversextending almost all the way from the height of landeast of Fort McMurray to Fort Churchill, a Hudson's Buypost, situated onone of the finestnatural harborsin Canada. OppositeFortChurchill are theremains of oldFort Prince ofWales, said tobe the most extensiveruins onthe continent.Fig. 4(i. — A scene on the Churchill River.Properly speaking,the Churchill is south of the barren grounds andbelongs to the same kind of country as the Nelson and theAlbany rivers.Southern Keewatin. — The remaining portion of theLaurentian country, in other words the country lyingbetween the Churchill and Albany rivers, and betweenLake Winnipeg and Hudson Bay, has already beentouched on in connection with eastern Manitoba. Agreat deal of this land is made up of broken ground, bogs,muskegs, forests, and fertile fields. Whether much ofthis area can ever come under the plough, or be devotedto mining or manufacturing, isa question the future willhave to settle for us. At present it appears to be thedomain of the trapper and the trader. With this we

SURFACE AND DRAINAGE 69have completed our description of the surface and drainageof a great territory. Have you seen any features in itthat will help to make the Canadian West the " GreaterCanada " in the not far distant future ?Questions. — What causes the Canadian plains to slope towardsHudson Bay and also towards the Arctic? How are the Canadianand United States portions of the plains separated? Where is thewatershed farthest south of the boundary? Would a south slope havebeen better for the West? Give reasons. Which parts of thecountry are arid regions? What has made them so? Can theybe made fertile? What is the character of the Laurentian countryto the east of the Red River valley? In what parts of the Westare the Red River valley, the third prairie level, the barrenlands, the Mackenzie basin, and the Peace River district? Describethese regions. Make a map showing how the water of LakeDauphin may finally reach Hudson Bay. Where are the followingrivers and what are their leading features: Winnipeg, Little Saskatchewan,Bow, Liard, and Churchill? Make maps of the countryof the barren lands and the Mackenzie basin. Make a map ofAlberta, showing how the country is drained. What river flowsthrough the country of the Knee and Hand hills? Write a descriptionof the banks of the North Saskatchewan, the Ramparts of theMackenzie, and the country covered by the Cypress Hills, WoodMountain, and plains south of these. Can you see any reason whythe north branch of the Saskatchewan should be a larger streamthan the south branch? What are these reasons? Describe theCoteau, stating its place in the country. Where are Winnipeg,Regina, Calgary, Battleford, Prince Albert, and Edmonton situated?What natural features should be of greatest value to theseplaces? Point out three other localities thought by you to beplaced in strong natural positions. Are towns or villages situatedat each of these points? If not, why not? What advantages ordisadvantages arise from the fact that the Mackenzie flows northwestwards,the Saskatchewan north-eastwards, and the Red northwards?Must all the railways crossing Canada from east to west passsouth of Lake Winnipeg ? Give reasons for your answer. Compare

70 THE CANADIAN WESTthe level upon which you live with the other levels. Explain theorigin of the great triangle mentioned in this chapter. Make a drawingofthe regions enclosed by the sides of the triangle and show theprairie levels, the Saskatchewan, the Canadian portion of the Mississippivalley, the Red River, the Assiniboine, and the tributaries ofthe Assiniboine. Describe the northern, or Arctic plain. Make amap of the Canadian West and mark on it the average height of thethree prairie levels. Place also on this map the hills that are mentionedin this chapter. Mark also the positions of the lowest landsof the country. What is the meaning of " above the sea-level " VWhat are the areas of the three prairie levels? How do they comparein area with the basin of the Mackenzie? How is easternAssiniboia drained ? Why does not the Saskatchewan of the southflow through the deep valley of the QuAppelle instead of themain Saskatchewan ? Where do these two rivers come nearest eachother? Why does not the north branch drain into the valley ofthe Mackenzie ? Can you give any reason why the Canadian lakesstretch about the margin of the Laurentian plateau from the ArcticOcean to the St. Lawrence ? What is the value of these lakes to thecountry? Describe Lakes Winnipeg and Great Slave. What districtsare wholly in the Saskatchewan basin? In the Mackenziebasin? In the Red River basin? Is Great Bear Lake connectedwith the Mackenzie in the same way as Lakes Athabaska and GreatSlave? Draw a map of Western Canada, showing the drainage of thecountry. Mark all the important lakes and rivers. What are the easternand western boundaries of the three prairie levels? Place onyour map the divide separating the two branches of the Saskatchewan,also the divide separating the Assiniboine from the Saskatchewan.Read Appendix D.

:CHAPTER VIICLIMATEWere a stranger to ask you to describe the climateof Western Canada, would it be sufficient to say thatthe winters are cold and the summers hot ? If yourquestioner were really anxious to learn something ofthe climate, wethink he wouldask you amongmany questionsthe followingHow cold arethe winters andhow hot the summers? Is therainfall great ?When does thewinter usuallyopen and whenend ?Is springslow in coming, or does it come with a rush ? Are theskies clouded or are they sunny the greater part of thetime ? Is the air calm or are high winds common ? Perhapsyou can suggest other questions that would probablybe asked.Fig. 47. — A snow-capped mountain.71

72 THE CANADIAN WESTAgain, ifyou wished to know something of the climateof a strange country, would you ask this information of onewho had spent a week in that country, or would you preferto hear the opinion of some old resident who had madea study of his country's weather for a number of years ?We think you would prefer the latter, for have you notseen one summer dry and another wet ? One spring lateand another early ? One fall clear and another clouded ?What we wish you to see is this : climate requires us totake into consideration a great many facts andManyfea-makeup* these facts must cover a long period of time.In this way only can we get at what people callaverage weather, and climate is really such weather. Weshall now try to learn a few things about our westernclimate, and we shall take it for granted that everybodyhas done a little observation-work on weather. At anyrate, all will know what is meant by sunny weather,changeableweather, cloudy weather, and a host of otherweathers.Now, there must be some weather-cause not far to seek.What do you think this is ? What object about youseems to be of greatest value to the world, theThe sun °one we should miss the most were it to disappearentirely ? Is this object not the sun ? Is there anyother thing more valuable, do you think ? What kind ofweather would we have were the sun to cease to shine for awhole month ? If heat, like light, disappeared as soon asthe sun set, would it make any difference to us ? If heatwere to remain just where it chanced to fall, would theworld as a whole fare as well as it is now doing ?If thesequestions are answered thoughtfully, we think that allwill be able to see how it is that the sun, in more ways

CLIMATE 78than one, is the biggest thing in the world, for withoutthe sun's heat we could have no such thing as weather,no such thing as climate. Indeed, we ourselves wouldnot be here.How is the earth's daily allowance of sun-heat distributed? Does each square yard of surface get the sameamount of heat, or do some regions get a greatersupply than others ? Even the birds seem to distributionrr J.of heat.know that the latter is the case. Figure 48may help you to understand how the sun's heat affects asurface at the equator, and also a surface chosen nearerthepoles.R and S are two large sunbeams of the same size. They mustthen carry the same amount of heat. R strikes the earth's surfacenear the north pole and S near the equator. AB and MN show theFig. 48. Fig. 49.surfaces receiving the heat in each case. Now, the surface AB ismuch greater than the surface MN. This you can see either bymeasuring or by the eye. Still A B gets no more heat than the smallersurface MN. How does this happen ? Let L and K stand for twopersons, at AB and MN respectively. Notice the difference in thesepersons with respect to the rays of heat and therefore the sun. Inother words, the rays of the beam R strike more on the slant than therays of the beam S. It is just the difference between the morning

74 THE CANADIAN WESTsun and the sun at noonday. It is also the difference hetween themidsummer sun and the midwinter sun at midday (Fig. 49). Therays of the former come slanting over the ground, while the rays ofthe latter strike more perpendicularly.How does this apply to the Canadian West? Beforeanswering this question, study Figure 50, thatDistancefromthe equatory 0U ma y know the relation in which the countrystands to the waters surrounding the continent, aswell as its situationwith respectto the equator,the Tropic ofCancer, and theArctic Circle.Being farther tothe north, eachsquare mile ofthe Canadianprairies willreceiveless heatthan an equalarea at the equator,or an equalarea in the countryto the southof us.Our climatethencannotbewellsuitedto the growingof oranges, pine-apples, rice, and such other fruits andgrains as love a high temperature from one end of theyear to the other.MlIV UfaFig. 50. — Map showing the relation of the CanadianWest to the Arctic Circle, the Tropic of Cancer,and the coast waters of Nortli America.

CLIMATE 75Some people judge climate altogether by latitude ordistance from the equator, and these people imagine thatbecause the Canadian West is more than halfway betweenthe equator and the north pole, it must be actually nextdoor to the pole. Latitude, however, is only one of manyfactors to be considered in connection with the climate ofa country. What are some of the other factors ?The first we shall notice is this. There is a differencebetween the climate at the top of a mountain and theclimate at the mountain's base. You already know thathigh mountains may be snow-covered allthe year round(Fig. 47), even though their tops are actually nearer thesun than are the lower grounds. People who have observedthis fact make use of it when they say that thehigher the surface of a country the colder must thatcountry be. Why should this be ?To answer this question we must say something aboutthe air, which like a great covering, surrounds our earth toa height of fifty miles or more.This air, though it cannot beseen by the human eye, yet has weight. In fact, air canbe weighed like cheese or wheat, provided we"have the proper kind of vessel to weigh it in..ElevationIf this be true, we may picture the air as being made up oflayers like the boards in a pile of lumber, or the rows ofbricks in the walls of a house or chimney.In these casesthe lowest layers will have to support all above them, andif they were made of anything like rubber or anything elsethat would give with the pressure, they would be pressed sothat their shape would be changed and their space lessened.Air can be thus pressed into smaller space. This is doneevery time that a bicyclist blows up the tires of his machine.It follows from this that the lower layers of air are com-

76 THE CANADIAN WESTpressed much more than the upper layers on account ofthe extra weight of air resting on them (Fig. 51), andthe air about a mountain top must be thinner than theair in the lower valleys for the same reason. What hasall this to do with the climate at the top of a mountain ?Only this. The thinner the air, the less heat it will hold.A gallon jar filled withboiling water has moreFig 51.heat in it than a pint jarsimilarly filled,becausethere is more water inthe one jar than in theother. In the same waya gallon ofthin air hasa good deal less air in the same space than a gallon ofdense air.People who have done much mountain climbingtell us that they have to breathe oftener each minuteat the top of the mountain than on the lower plain. Eventhe human body, then, can find that thin air has less materialin it than more compressed air. Let us now seewhat bearing this has on the land surface of the prairies.We have seen that the Red River valley is about sevenhundred feet above the lowest earth level, namely, the sea,and that this valley lowers about a foot per mile as it goesnorth. Which part of this plain should have thewarmer climate if height alone is thought of? We havealso seen that the second and third levels are fifteenHeight ofplainslevel of the sea.hundred feet and from twenty-five hundred feet£ three thousand feet, respectively, above theAccording to this, the third level shouldbe colder than the second, and the second should be colderthan the first ; this would be the case were nothing but

CLIMATE 77height considered. But we must not be surprised if thisis not so, because height of the land, or elevation, is butone factor of climate, and as the average height of thesurface of the Canadian West is low in comparison withthat of many other countries (Fig. 24), it cannot be saidthat we suffer much on the score of too great an elevation.The next questions we shall ask are very important.Is air a heat carrier ? Is the heat that helps to ripen ourfields simply that which reaches us directly from^ac^erthe sun ? Do we, in other words, get any heatfrom without our boundaries ? Can the air of one part ofof heata country become laden with heat and move off, carryingthis heat with it? Let us try to answer these. The sun'sheat must pass through the air on its way to the earth.Now, the air is able to hold back about one-third of theheat that tries to get through. How does this heat affectthe air ?Again, the heat that actually gets through andstrikes the earth's surface, warms that surface. This inturn warms the air above itin the same way that a hotstove warms the air above its surface. But the air abovea hot stove is warmer than the air above a table in thesame room. In other words, the air overlying a heatedcountry is warmer than that resting upon a colder country.Warming the air is much the same as taking off someof its pressure ; it causes the air to expand, that is, totake up more room. The half gallon of cold air maynow become the gallon. Which of these would weigh themore ? This is why balloons which are filled with heatedair are able to rise. The air, therefore, over a heatedregion, because it grows lighter, by being heated, rises likea balloon, while the colder air about the heated space flowsin in a circling manner, and it depends altogether from

78 THE CANADIAN WESTwhat direction this moving air comes, and also upon howwe are feeling at the time, whether we shall call it warmor call it cold. What has just been stated may readilybe understood by placing lighted candles, as in Figure 52,at the bottom and at the top of a door openedWindsslightly between a warm room and one a littlecooler. This movement of the air is called wind, andwe are now to make anote of the winds thatare common in WesternCanada, and thus learnsomething more ofthecharacter of our climate.We have seen that theprairies are shut off fromthe Pacific by the greathighland region of theRockies. Has this arrangementany influenceon the winds from thewarm Pacific (Fig. 50)?These, coming from asouth-westerly direc-Fig. 52. — A and B are lighted can lies tioil, reach the colderplaced at the bottom and the top of adoor slightly ajar. I he room on thed hih ° mountainother side of the door is colder than the COUUtry, where they areroom in front. Can you explain why thenames are blown in different directions ?Qr legs chilled andmade to give up thewater they are carrying. How is this? Afterwards,they manage to work their way through the mountainpasses and over the mountain tops and descend to theplains to the east, over which they move as warm dry

CLIMATE 79winds. The influence of the Ckinooks, as these windsare called, is felt over a belt several hundred Thmiles wide, and their general effect is to raise Chinooksthe yearly temperature of this part of the West, and inthis way, more than make up for what the third prairielevel loses by reason of its extra height. Another effectof these winds is to make the rainfall of southern Albertaand south-western Assiniboia lesslevels. How ?As the whole country towards the Gulf ofthe Atlantic to the south-east isthan that of the otherMexico andfairly open to the Canadianprairie country, the Appalachians being11 „ l r» V .The • tmuch lower than the Kockies, warm and moist-southand southwestwindsure-laden south and south-east winds (Fig. 50)may reach us and add to our rainfall and our heat. Allthe winds from the south, however, are not so desirable.We are all more or less familiar with certain hot, parchingwinds that invade our prairies in the summer season.These winds are said to have their origin in, or at leastare affected by, the bad lands of south-western Dakota andsouthern Wyoming (Fig. 50), a region made arid by ascarcity of rain.The country isalso open towards the cold ocean at thenorth, and often in winter and now and again in summer,we are reminded of this fact by a lowering of Tnenorthtemperature. If a mountain chain lay across an^west81,the northern part of the country, do you think windsit would help at all ? How ? While cold winds from thenorth, the north-west, and the west may blow at timeswhen the wheat crop is not in a condition to stand anyrough usage, we may say that the heated plain of theprairies has the effect of tempering these winds, and

80 THE CANADIAN WESTmaking them less harmful. Can you see how this mayhappen ?The Laurentian plateau is so worn down by the stormsof the ages as to interfere but little with the winds fromHudson Bay and the Great Lakes, our northnortheast eastern and eastern winds. Both are of greatwinds °.service to the country, because ot their valueas moisture bearers. All these winds are of very greatimportance. They should therefore be studied most carefully,and the wind-records of January, April, June, andSeptember compared.We have touched a little on another feature of climate,namely, that air is a carrier of water as well as of heat.You have all seen that wet roads grow dry again. You haveAir a earner also seen the sloughs and the streams dry up.ot moistureThese are evidences of what we have said ; forthe air, like a great sponge, isdrinking from every river,lake, sea, and ocean on the face of the earth, and thencarrying this moisture off to drop some of it on the landin the shape of rain, snow, dew, or hail. Does it notseem strange that far-away Manitoba and Alberta mayhave their farms watered by rain carried by the air fromthe most distant seas ?How does the air do this ?Have you ever tried to mixsmall quantities of salt and water ? If so, you will knowthat the salt disappeared and that the water became salty.You will also be able to explain this very won-Moist anddry windsderful change in the salt by saying that thewater dissolved it. In much the same way that waterdissolves salt, airbecomes mixed with the vapor of waterthat the heat of the sun has caused to arise from everymoist surface on the face of the globe. Now if you

CLIMATE 81wished to get a sponge to take up as much water as possibleyou would squeeze it before placing it in the water.Warmed air is like this sponge. Warm air dries thingsbetter than cold air. Make a note of the best and theworst drying days forfor yourselves.a month, and you can prove thisIn other words, hot or heated air is morethirsty than cold air. You can understand now whywinds from the heated south are moister than those fromthe colder north. Those from the north and west aredrying winds and not moisture bearers. A south windin passing north parts with its heat, becomes cooler, andhas to give up some of its supply of moisture. This ishow rain is brought. How does a north wind in passingsouth act ?There is another fact about air we should mention.is like a blanket.passing offIt helps to keep the ground-heat frominto space, and the more moisture in the air,the better the blanket it becomes. This is a Theairafine thing for the plants. Without it a summer covernight would be long enough to allow so much of this heatto escape that the plants would be frozen.ItHas the airover the Canadian West much moisture in it? The bluesky and the usually cool nights may help you to answerthis.We shall now take into account the amount of daylightand darkness of our summer and our winter seasons, asthis will be very helpful in giving us a true idea of theheat and the light we can depend upon from The iongyear to year. During the growing season the summerda ysun rises early and sets late. This gives us a long summerday and a short summer night. This means thatour fields and our gardens get an abundance of light and

,82 THE CANADIAN WESTof heat at the very time when these are most needed.This is how the wheat plant is able to pass from itsseed-time to its harvest in from eighty-five to one hundredand five days. This is another of the importantthings to be noted about the western climate. This alsomeans that theplants have littlechance to becomechilled during thefew hours thatseparatesunsetfrom sunrise(Fig.53). As to theshort days and thelong nights ofwinter time, theseare not so importantfrom theFig. 53. — A pleasant summer scene in northernpoint of view ofAlberta.the farmer.We must now take a look at the nature of land andwater in respect to heat. Water is more slowly heatedand more slowly cooled than land. All summer long ourlakes and rivers are taking in heat from theThe lakes as . .,,...titstorehouses sun. A portion oi this is given back, but notof heat *,°all. Should a drop in temperature take placeduring the summer season, these water-storehouses ofheat, by giving up some oftheir supply, temper the airfor a few miles about them and thus prevent the landfrom chilling as much as it would were it not so favorablysituated. What is the effect of this on the crops ? Whatwaters can we count upon ? Are there any about our

CLIMATE 83coast ? Are these likely to be much heated ? What otherbodies of water are scattered throughout the country ?Examine the large school map of Canada, or Figures 2and 27, and note the many small lakes situated in Manitobaand the North- West Territories.Finally, for the whole prairie region we may say thatthe skies are usually clear, bright, and sunny ; that theair is dry, and the rainfall, while sufficient for the purposesof plant growth, cannot be said to be heavy ; thatthe summer temperature now and again reaches the"nineties," while the thermometer in the severest winterweather drops to the "forties" and even lower. Now, thedifference between " forty below " and " ninety above " isa difference of one hundred and thirty degrees. This iswhy our climate is spoken of as "extreme."While the summer days are hot, the evenings and nightsare delightfully cool and refreshing, facts that mean agood ° deal when farm labor is considered. WeThe seasonsperhaps themust not, however, forget what isgreatest charm of our summer days—the twilight hour,when the western sky takes on" A wonderful glory of color,A splendor of shifting light,Orange and purple and scarlet."The winter season, heralded by a week or ten days oflovely Indian Summer weather, commences, as a rule, inlate October or early November and closes some time aboutthe end of March or middle ofApril, when spring rushesin with a wealth of bud and bloom. The snowfall isusually light, but the snow wears well, and the fierceblizzards of the Dakotas very rarely find their way acrossthe borders into Canada.

84 THE CANADIAN WESTManitoba and eastern Assiniboia, or the first and secondprairie levels, have the same general climate, the annualrainfall being between seventeen and twentyThe rainfall .inches.. .. ., .*Western Assmiboia and Alberta beingunder the influence of the " Chinooks," and also on accountof the greater elevation, have a rainfall a gooddeal less than this.In the wooded country to the northof the prairie belt the rainfall becomes greater becausethe country is cooler as a whole and less water is removedby the air, thus leaving more for the nourishment of thevegetation.We should be able now to apply some ofthe facts ofclimate studied in this lesson to the district known asthe Peace River country, but before attemptingClimate of . . . . . / x . . . . . „.the Peace this, examine the position ot this region in r lg-River countryx ° °ure 40. If latitude alone were considered, whatkind of climate should this land possess ? Do you knowof anything that would help to modify this ? This isthe region of the Chinook winds. How will this affectthe climate ? Is the surface of the country high ? Isit likely to be higher than northern Alberta or thansouthern Alberta ? If we should tell you that the averageheight is two thousand feet above the level of thesea, would this be of any assistance? Is the northernpart of the country higher than the southern ? Whatwill be the effect of this ? Are the summer days likelyto be longer or shorter than the summer days of Manitobaand Assiniboia ? What effect will this have ? Ifthe difference in daylight is an hour more on June 21,than at Winnipeg, Regina, or Calgary, will this mean anything? Would this country likely have more moisture tospare to the grain than southern Alberta has ? Why do

CLIMATE 85you think so ?If the grass is just as thick as the grass inthe districts to the south, will this be anything in favorof the climate ? Have you any reason now for thinkingthat the country cannot become a farming region?Again, let us consider a district farther down theMackenzie basin ;for instance, that in the same latitude as... °Great Slave Lake. Will this region ever sup-%,port an agricultural class I It we can tell Great slave* °you of another region very similar to this,Climate of the,Lake countrywill this help you to answer the question ? Well, thereis a region in Russia in Europe fully as far north asthe land we are considering. This land is situated ona slope facing the Arctic Ocean. It is also placed inthe heart of a continent.Its summer days are longand warm, while its winterdays are short andcold.Still, the Russianland is thickly settledby a farming class, andits soil yields not Only agreat otpit nninrirv quantity nf 01 nnt

86 THE CANADIAN WESTsmall willows, and other plants, which mature quicklyduring the short season of perpetual sunlight (Fig. 54).In the long dreary winter it is one white wilderness, sweptby winds and destitute of shelter.Questions. — What is the source of the moisture that falls on theprairies? How is it brought? Why is it heavier on the first andsecond levels than on the third ? Has Hudson Bay anything to dowith this? Which is the farther north, Winnipeg or London, England?Why have these cities different climates? Why is the air ofthe Canadian West dry ? What is the difference in climate betweenAlberta and Manitoba? What makes the difference? Show thata can of water gains heat more slowly and also loses it more slowlythan a can of sand. What does this experiment teach you regardingthe bodies of water found in the Canadian West? Can you see howgreat bodies of water, if properly situated, would delay the coming ofwinter, and also hold the spring time back? How? On Fig. 41 youwill see a line marked " July temperature of 60°." What is thetemperature of the country to the north of this ? To the south ?Why is the line much farther north in the western portion of thecountry than it is in the eastern? What are the commonest summerwinds of your locality? Which of these bring rain? Which dryweather ? What effect has the climate of your part of the countryon the occupation of the people ? Show the advantages and also thedisadvantages of a dry atmosphere. What is the meaning of thedotted line called Arctic Circle on Fig. 50? Why is the noon-day sunwarmer than the morning or the evening sun? Will spring openfirst at Calgary or at Winnipeg ? Give your reasons. What portionsof the West are not influenced very much by the presence of largebodies of water? What results should follow? Are the waters of theManitoba Lakes easily heated ? Is this a good thing for the climateof the neighboring country? If you were told that the ice on LakeAthabaska was four feet thick, that on Great Slave Lake six feetthick, and that on Great Bear Lake eight feet thick at the close of thewinter season, what would you infer as to the winter climate of theseregions? Would you expect frost to appear on the third level beforeit appears in the Red River valley? Give your reasons. Show in

CLIMATE 87as many ways as you can how snow helps the Canadian West. Inwhat way is snow a disadvantage? From what you know of northernAlberta and western Manitoba, in which would yon expect tofind the greater effect of altitude on climate? Does anything helpto modify this condition? What is it? Why would you expectthe Cypress Hills plateau to be unfavorable to the growing ofgrain? Do you know why ranching is followed in the countrybetween the plateau and the Saskatchewan? Which of the levelshas the best conditions for the cultivation of wheat? Which forthe shipping of wheat? Which do you think will grow the farthestnorth, wheat, oats, barley, or potatoes?What reasons can you givefor your answer? Read Appendix E. Why should the spring seasonbe later at the base of the foot-hills than in the country south of thetown of Lethbridge?

CHAPTER VIIIHOW THE PRAIRIE SOILWAS MADEAll the vegetable life of the earth depends uponthe presence of soil. All the animal life would have noAnimal andchance to exist were it not that plants are ableplant life^Q take f00i\ from the dead material called soil,and put this food into such shape that animals can get it.Indeed, few things are more important than soil, and yetthousands of men and women live and die without thinkingof its wonderful value.What is there in soil that is so necessary to the successof plant life ? What is this soil that plants need so much ?We may say that soil is the loose covering of the earth,but we want to know how far down it goes, how deepit is. Here people differ. Some say that soil is just thepart in which plants are rooted, while others claim that itis the material that covers the rock beneath (Fig. 55).While the first view may be the important one, so far asthe farmer's work goes, the latter isus to look into.How far below the surface isthe more valuable forthe rock upon which thesoil rests ? In some few places it is above ground, whileDepth of soilin others it is iust deep enough to serve as aJ rJ° .. . .cellar floor. In most cases the soil is from adozen feet to several hundred feet in depth. This isa very great quantity. How has it been made ?88

HOW THE PRAIRIE SOIL WAS MADE 89Take a handful of soil from the school grounds, road,cellar, or field, and examine it. It stains the hands, it ismore or less gritty, and it is of a darkish color.If a piece of window-glass were rubbed with isthefounda-•i ii •-!• Tiij* isome soil and then examined, it would be foundtionofsoilto be scratched. What hard substance has caused this ?Filla tumbler a quarter full of the same soil, add water,Fig. 55. — A section, as if the earth were sliced through, so that the part helowthe surface is seen. Tell what you see in this picture. Notice theroots of the tree on the left side.and stir for a minute or two. Allow the mixture to settlefor a few seconds, then pour off the muddy water. Repeatthis a few times until the water runs off clear. Now lookat what you have left in the tumbler. What are theselittle bits ? Just small pieces of rock. You will find themin every soil and particularly in sandy soil, where theyform the greater part of the whole. They are the remainsof broken-down rocks. How have the rocks from whichthese bitspieces ?have been taken, been broken into such smallIf we could answer this question, we would knowthe main things worth knowing about soil. In other

90 THE CANADIAN WESTwords, we would have found out the secret of nature'sgreat soil-mill.Let us go into some thick bluff or grove or forest, towhere the ground feels springy and where the leavesyears before lie around,son-making °^ ^as ^ y ear man anc^ yin the forestanc[ j^ ug fay ^ fincj 0U£ wnat has becomeof these leaves since they fell. This is not a difficultthing, for their story is written in the layers of leavesbeneath our feet. The first and second pages of thisbook are plain and easily read. If we are familiar withthe leaves of the poplar, elm, and maple, we can say,"These are poplar leaves that fell last fall." "Theseare maple leaves that fell a year ago last fall," and soon. But the next page is not so plain. As it lies underthe two layers already taken off, it must stand for theleaves of a year farther back. Still the form of theleaves is there, though the material is a little mouldy.As we remove layer after layer, we shall at last come toa spot where the forms, even, have disappeared. Thereis nothing left of the leaf but the harder midrib and leafstalk.A little deeper, and even those leaf signs are wanting,but the material is a fine, loose, black mould mixedwith a little sand and clay, worked into it from below bythe insect life which delights in such places. Under thismould or humus, as it is called, is the clay or sand, orsand-clay or clay-sand, forming the bed upon which thetrees at first grew. This has given us one glimpse intonature's soil-mill. We have learned at least one way bywhich a part of the soil has been formed.Our next lesson should be taken on a portion of thenative prairie soil, that is, soil never disturbed by theplough.What has become of the grasses and the flowers

110W THE PRAIRIE SOIL WAS MADE 91that have grown from year to year for hundreds ofyearsperhaps? Each spring saw the anemone, thebuttercup, and the violet come up. Each sum- on theprairiesi i i • • • i imer brought out its lilies, mints, and roses, andeach autumn its goldenrods, asters, and gentians. Whatbecame of all these beautiful plants when their little lifehad run its course ? The black soil one turns up with aspade can give the history. What is this history ?Fig. 56. — The stony bed of a summer stream in northern Alberta.From these two sources, then, the mould, loam, orhumus that makes the soil so rich is manufactured, andthis material may even color the surface-soil to the depthof several feet by being blown by the wind into the manycracks caused by the frosts and the dry weather. Wehave to look elsewhere to find where the mud and thebits of sand come from.Let us go to the stony bed (Fig. 56) of some neighboringstream, or to the pebbly shore of the lake, and try to

92 THE CANADIAN WESTfind out something more about the manufacture of soil,son-makingExamine some of the stones. Look at theirand streamss iiap e an{i tJbeir smoothness. How have thesestones been made ? If we go up the stream a shortdistance, we shall find several places where it has underminedits bank and caused tons of earth to fall intothe stream to be carried away by the more or lessrapidcurrent. As many large stones are mixed up with thefine earth, these would also find their way into the stream.Would they not remain where they fell ? All dependsupon the strength of the current ; even a small streamcan shove a very large stone if only its current isFig. 57.swift enough, and this is what actually happens. Thestones are made to slide and roll on and over the bed ofthe stream, and as this movement is not always gentle,the stones knock and rub against each other. Everytime they do this they are worn smoother and smaller.By the time they have made a journey of several milesthey are not as large as when they set out (Fig. 57), and,being smaller, the current makes them move even fasterthan it did at first, until they are as small as the pebblespicked up.But the stream is doing another thing. It is sortingsorting the the material carried. The big stones stop altogetherwhere the current is not strong enoughto move them. These, of course, are not left in peace,

110 W THE PRAIRIE SOIL WAS MADE 93for the lighter stones on their downward journey give themmany a sharp rap, and wear them down so that the currentis again able to drag them along. The lighter and smallerstones are dropped lower down in the bed, where the streamis slower still, and the fine mud that comes from the wearingis carried farthest down only to be left in the spots wherethe stream becomes too sluggish to move even this lightmaterial. Should such a stream dry up during the summer,we would not be surprised to find a bank ofclay inone place, a bed of gravel in a second, and a pile of stonesin a third. But for this sorting by water we would notbe able to get our clay, and sand, and gravel so nicelyset apart as they are here and there over the whole country.Now, all these processes are too slow to yield the enormousquantity of soil known to be placed over the rocksof Manitoba and the North-West. There must The prairiestill be another method more rapid. To under- bouldersstand what this method is, we must firstmake a closer studour soil. Whythere so manylarge stones orboulders foundalmost everywhere? Takea good look atseveral ofthese. Youwill find theFig. 58. — A scratched boulder.majority roundish, and rather smooth. You may alsofind one now and again with a deep scratch across oneor more surfaces (Fig. 58). Now break one or two of

94 THE CANADIAN WESTthe smaller boulders with a blunt axe. The fresh surfaceis either whitish all the way through, showing it tobe limestone, or it is speckled with black, light pink andwhite, or black and white. These last are granite stones.There is no rock near which is like these granites. Thenearest rocks of granite are found in the north-east andin the northern liockies. Look at the two giant rocks inFigure 59. Where didthese and thousandsof smaller boulderscome from ? Whatbrought them here ?Fig. 59.A boulder on the shore ofLake Winnipeg.2. A boulder on the plain in southern Alberta.Boulders are foundall over the northernpart of North Americaand the northern partWhatever has brought them,of the Old World as well.has evidently been at work over a very great area. Nowonder people puzzled over these " tramp " stones for along time. Now their history is supposed to be known.What is this history ?In places where the light soil-covering of the rocks hasbeen removed it was found that the surface of the rocks

HOW THE PRAIRIE SOIL WAS MADE 95was also polished and scratched. The boulders and therocks must fit in some way, but what could Scratchedmake the stones move over the rocks, for this rocksmust have taken place ? The ice did this, and we shallexplain in what way.In some partsof the Rockies, in Greenland, and in thehigher Alps the land is so high that nothing but snow isever known to fall. Year after year snow has been falling,and were not something done to remove it, it would get sodeep and so high that it would overbalance and bury thesurrounding country. As this has not taken place, theremust be some other way by which the snow can escape.What is this ? The amount of snow in the upper part ofthe pile presses on what is beneath and turns Pressedsnowit into ice, and this ice moves slowly in a streambecomesicedown the incline until it reaches the sea, where it is brokeninto large piecescalledicebergs (Fig. 60), oruntil itgains the lowerlands where the heat ofthe sun and the air meltsit, and causes it to moveoff in muddy streams..As this river of ice, orFig. 60. — Section of a glacier enteringglacier, flows along atthe rate of a few inches or a few feetthe sea, and breaking into icebergs.each day, it gathersthe loose stones in the way (Fig. 61) and uses them toturn a glacier upside down, you would find itsgrind out its channel. This grinding will wear down thestones and will also wear the rock bed uponwhich the great ice river moves. Were you to as a soniritikcrunder surface filled with stones that it has picked up or

96 THE CANADIAN WEST

HOW THE PRAIRIE SOIL WAS MADE 97that have dropped through the large and deep cracksfound in every glacier, and you would at once understandhow much soil-making such an enormous ice-tile can do.On the back of the glacier is the moraine, which consistsof tons and tons of stones that have rolled from themountainsides and are being carried down" to the placewhere the glacier is melting, and dumped there, forminga terminal moraine, which in the course of time oftengrows to an enormous size. Any great heap of stonesfound in the country is just such a heap as we havedescribed.All the rock flour, that is, the fine material comingfrom the wearing, and the smaller stones are carriedaway by the streams that come fromthe rapid melting of the icefront (Fig. 62).These streamsdrop their load as theyslacken in current,so that thegravel IS placetlat thepja (;2_ gec ti n of glacier on mountainside. Gill one place, the is &« mountainside ;B, the moraine ;M, the, . ', terminal moraine ; S, the stream of water rlowsaild111 another, i„g from the glacier front.and the clay inanother, for rocks making clay or sand are among thoseground up by the ice-null.While this may be true of a mountainous country,our prairie region is too level and too warm for a glacierto be found here.This is true enough for the land as we find it to-day,but is it not possible that the present surface and thepresent climate were not always the surface and the climateof the West? Those who have made a study of this

98 THE CANADIAN WESTsubject tell us that our climate was at one time warmenough to support plants which can live only in countrieslike those about the equator ;that this warm climate gaveplace to another so cold that only snow could fall ; thatduring the many years of this cold climate, the northernpart of the country was high, and the wholecovered by of Canada from the Rockies to the Atlantic,an ice-sheet . .and from near the Arctic to the mouths ofthe Missouri and the Ohio rivers (Fig. 63), was coveredby an immensesheet of ice manyFig. 63. Map showing area covered by the greatice-sheet.feet in thickness.When the glacierdisappearedfrom this partof Canada, thesurface of thecountry was entirelychanged.The hills wereworn down, andthe valleys werepartly or completelyfilled up;new hills of glacialmaterial ordrift were made;some of the rivers,perhaps, hadto find new paths and begin again to wear valleys ; therock surfaces were scratched and grooved. The soil, too,was completely changed, the new soil being in many cases

110 W THE PllAllilE SOIL WAS MADE 99better than the old, but in some cases not so good; for thequality of the soil depends upon the kind of rock overwhich the glacier passed, just as the quality of Hour dependsupon the kind of wheat used in its preparation.While the ice was melting, great quantities of water weresupplied, far more than the streams of to-day carry.These floods washed away most of the clay, only to depositit in the quieter water of the stream or Surfacenelse ondbythe bottom of some ancient lake. Beds g?aC ifiof gravel and sand were left in a similar way, actlonespecially in the valleys. Some of these were built intobroad plains, others into ridges, and as a result of the iceand the water working together, we often have differentkinds of soil in a small area, even on a single farm. Thebeds of sand, clay, and gravel brought by the glacier andsorted by the water have already been of great value tothe country. Perhaps you can give a few uses of each ofthese.Where has the great ice-sheet gone ?In time the climate of this part of the world againfor some cause or other became warmer, and this changewas followed by the retreat of the glacier. TheretreatEvery now and then the melting would be ofthe g lacicrchecked by several years of colder weather, and the frontof the glacier would again move southwards, gatheringup the boulders and rubbish as it went along. Whena period of warmer years followed, the moraine formedat the ice-front would be left to tell the people whosettled in the land, long after the glacier had disappeared,something of its story. On the retreat of the glacierthe boulders carried by the ice, dropped off as it melted,and thus the land in many places was sown with this

100 THE CANADIAN WESTrubbish. This is very marked between the several haltingplaces of the great ice-sheet, which has vanished fromthe land, but has left the soil of the Canadian West allthe richer for its presence. It took many years to getrid of it altogether, as there are traces over the countryto the south showing that it must have gone backwardsand forwards a few times before finally retreating. Youwill understand how the glacier would drop its load ofrubbish, sowing the whole country with boulders, as itmoved slowly from the south to the north.This is the story of the making of the prairie soil.There are many things in it that you may not understandvery well now, but keep them in mind, think about them,and they will likely be better understood as the daysgoby.Questions. — What is soil ? How is the loam of the woodlandsmade? How that of the prairie? Why is the loam of the prairiesso light in some places and so heavy in others? Why is the loamon the hill tops more shallow, as a rule, than the loam of the valley?Show how running water has helped to make soil, and also how it hassorted the soils into clay, sand, and gravel beds. Why do the rainsrun off our prairie lands so rapidly? What effect will cultivatingthe prairies have upon the flow of water? What effect will the heavyrains have upon the fine material of the cultivated fields? What havewinds, frost, and dry weather to do with soil-making? Which is thedeepest well in your country-place, village, or town? Have you collectedsamples of the soil taken from this well? What is it like?Have you found any scratched boulders near your home? Are theremany boulders near? Is any use made of them? Are there beds ofclay, sand, and gravel near? What would you call the soil of yourneighborhood? Is any of the land alkaline? Does this make goodfanning soil? What is a glacier? What has the Great CanadianGlacier done for the Canadian West?

CHAPTER IXTHE SURVEYORWe have seen how the Dominion of Canada came toown all the lands of the West. We are now to see howthese lands were made ready for actual settlement. Thefirst man on the ground was the surveyor. It was hisbusiness to block out the country into convenient plots.This he did by running lines due north and south, and alsolines running due east and west, so that the whole wasdivided into mile-squares or sections, and eachThe sectionsection in turn-,. . -, , .was divided into,.four smaller and the townshipsquares called quarter sections. Thirty-six ofthese sections were next grouped into larger squares calledtownships, the sections in each township numbering fromone to thirty-six, as in Figure 64.In the fertile belt, that is, in the country west of LakeWinnipeg, and south of the north branch of the Saskatchewan,certain sections were granted to the Hudson's BayCompany. These are Section 8 in every town-,. .lr) nn r * • • n. * r Tne OWnership,and Section 26 in townships 5, 10, 15, etc., ship of theand the south half and north-west quarter ofSection 26 in the remaining townships. Sections 11 and29 in each township are also set apart for the benefit ofschools. The remaining even-numbered sections belong101

102 THE CANADIAN WESTto the country as a whole and are intended as free landsfor settlers, while the majority of the odd-numbered sectionsare either in the possession of the various railwaycompanies, or are held by the Dominion government.As there are hundreds of townships surveyed, there mustalso be as many sections 1, 2, 3, etc., as townships. Howcan one tell where to find the particular section, 17 say, belongingto a man by the name of Thomas Brown? Which313032s2933283427353625313.032329::fern3328342736251920222324|920212223241815J413is17161514137-10121012N W:N E2-Fig.

THE SURVEYOR 103one ? There are dozens of " Townships 1 " all the wayfrom Ontario to the foot-hills. We are obliged to bringin another factor to enable us to locate this section accurately.Let us think, also, of the rows of townshipsrunning north and south, justas sections1, 12, 13, 24, 25, and 36 are placed in Figure 64. Let uscall each of these rows of townships a Range, and let usnumber the ranges 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. Now, can we findThomas Brown's section, supposing it to be " Section 17,Township 1, Range 5 " ? We think so, because it is inthe fifth row of townships running north and south, andin the first of these. Could anything be easier thanthis? There is another matter, though, that we mustbe clear about. The townships all number from theboundary to the north. In other words, the boundaryis the starting line. Where do the ranges commence ?Where is " Range 1 " ? Were we to take the first rangeof townships adjoining Ontario as " Range 1," whatwould be the number of the ranges at the foot-hills ?Find this by using your foot-rule and the map of Canada(Fig:. 2). For greater convenience fivev ° J &Meridiansnorth and south lines are selected betweenOntario and the Rocky Mountains as lines from whichto number the ranges. These are called the principalmeridian, and the second, third, fourth, and fifth meridians.The first or principal meridian is placed a littlewest of the city of Winnipeg. The ranges east of it arecalled 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., East, and those west of it, 1, 2, 3,4, etc., West. The latter ranges number up to 34, whenthe next meridian is reached, and the ranges west of itnumber from 1 to 30, reaching the third meridian and soon. Find these meridian lines on Figure 130.

104 THE CANADIAN WESTBefore leaving this, however, we should like to knowhow it is that a settler is able to go out into the wilderness,perhaps, and pick out from among the scores of sectionsthe one he wishes to settle upon. Howwould you have the surveyor arrange this forhim ? Would you not have a post Sectionplaced in the ground at one cornerpostssectiou post.of every section, and would you not havemarked on each post the range, township, andsection ? Figure 65 is such a post. It wasfound at the north-east corner of the section.What does it say ? Is this enough ?Another feature of the survey is the markingout of what are called road allowances,or, in other words, the placing of Road allow_the strips of land reserved for theancecommon highways of the country.Two different systemsof marking out these road allowances have been followed.In the greater part of Manitoba and in one or two partsof the North-West Territories, the roadways are one chainand a half, or ninety-nine feet wide, and are situatedbetween each section running north and south and eastand west (Fig. 64, A). In a small portion of the northernpart of Manitoba, and in the greater part of the Territoriesa road allowance, one chain or sixty-six feet inwidth, is reserved between sections running north andsouth, but only between alternate sections running eastand west (Fig. 64, J5). This last method is the one nowadopted, and all new surveys will follow this plan.A glance at Figure 66 will call your attention to apeculiarity regarding the roadways running north andsouth. We will imagine that a man is driving along the

':THE SURVEYOR 105highway north from Tlf with the purpose of reaching N.At the north end of the first township at A he Correctionwould have to make a short turn to the west lmesbefore the north road could be again entered.the cause of this jog or turn ? Are these jogs found onlyin connection with the roadsrunning north and south, or arethey also found on the east andwest roadways ?Any land mapof the West will help you toanswer this.Let us now try tofind out the reason for theseturnings, as, were they not necessarythey would not be there,but here you must use penciland paper and do some thinking~^N^f\'»if 1*AAM->=>,AFig. G6.What is\-_as well. In the first place, all our north and south linescommence at the boundary line between the United Statesand Canada. Place on your paper a line representingthis starting-line. On this line, take two points M and N,two inches apart. Let MN stand for the side of a township.How long is this ? From M and N draw linesdirectly northwards. Call these MP and NQ. Now MPand NQ represent two road allowances. Continue MP andNQ as far as it is possible to produce them. They willmeet at the north pole of the earth. If you do not understandhow this can be, examine the north and south lineson your school globe. We have therefore learned thattwo road allowances running north and south, and boundingthe east and west sides of a township, will meet ifcarried far enough to the north. How will this affect theshape of our first township, which we may call MNBCN

106 THE CANADIAN WESTHow long is MN? How do you know this? How longis BO? Why must it be less than MN? Is MNBO aperfect square, then ?Will this affect the sections of thetownship as well ? Is BO much less than MN? Thinknow of the northern boundary of the second township tothe north. How will its length compare with MN? Howwith BO? It would seem, then, that the farther north wego the smaller the townships appear. If you have understoodthis, you will now know the reason for the jog. Youcan now see that it is necessary to start the north andsouth lines over again from fresh east and west lines inorder to preserve the size of the townships. Whereverjogs occur, we have the correction lines, at each of whichtownships again start with exact measurements.This, however, has not been the only plan of survey,for in a few of the earliest settlements the farms werearranged in long and narrow forms along someof the rivers and lakes.the farmhouses to the water's edge, a featureThis plan brought allwhich gaveto each owner of a farm easy access to the river and frequentlyproved of no small value during perilous times.Questions. — What is the number of your home section orquarter-section ? Are the school lands of your district purchasedor not? What are their numbers? Who are the owners of sections23, 26, or 29? From whom were these section's purchased in the firstplace? Find the sections, townships, and ranges of the lands composingyour school district. Make a map of your township and insertthe names of the owners of the various sections and quarter-sections.Mark the south-east quarter of Section 17. Make a map showing theroad allowances of your township. Are there any jogs in these roads?Are there any jogs in the township north of you? In the townshipsouth of you? Do these jogs occur on the roads running east andwest? Compare the jogs east of tlie principal or any other meridian

THE SURVEYOR 107with those west of this line. Find the section, township, and rangeof your post-office, and the township and range of your nearest town.Do jogs occur in any of the meridian lines? Is a township a six-milesquare? Make a plan of the old survey. Where was this surveyfaulty? Where strong? How are the sections west of Meridian 4located? How east of this meridian? Is the whole of Section 26,Township 17, Range 7, west of the 2d Meridian, Hudson's Bayland?Why?

CHAPTER XMAKING THE SETTLEMENTS" We'll tread the prairie as of oldOur fathers sailed the sea,And make the West, as they the East,The homestead of the Free! "Homesteads are being taken up, settlements are forming,and villages and towns are growing up all about us.These things are happening to-day before our veryFig. 67. — The first summer on the prairie.eyes, and yet we may have failed to catch their meaningjust because they are so common. It may, therefore, bea good tiling to picture a family on the ground tryingto carve out a home from the unbroken prairie. IfAve are able to grasp what making a home means, we shallafterwards be the better able to understand how settle-108

'MAKING THE SETTLEMENTS 109merits are formed, and finally how the nation itself isbuilt up.Let us select a district so placed that it is bej'ond themost distant settlement and many miles from the nearestrailway station. The surveyor has gone over thislocality, but its prairies continue to grow only the grassand the flowers, and its bluffs continue to shelter thebirds and the beasts as they have done for ages.Into this region at the close of a day in early May camea " prairie schooner " (Fig. 67) drawn by a team of horses.Behind the wagon was the cow, while a chicken-coop withhalf a dozen hens could he seen fastened to the end of thedeep wagon-box. A collie ran here and there over theprairie in search of gophers. These are all important, butthey are not the most important. On theJ r The settlerswagon-seat were a man, a woman, and a couple,of children, and under the canvas coveringandpossessions.were stored such things as settlers in a remote part ofany country would need. There were farming implements,a few pieces of furniture, a stove and its pots andpans, provisions, clothing, bedding, a few patent medicines,a small collection of books, and several other necessarythings which you will be able to suggest.A halt was called at a certain quarter-section and preparationsmade for the night's rest, for all were very tiredafter their long ride over the Indian trail from the station.Next morning, breakfast had scarcely been finished whenan examination of the homestead was carefully made.The soil of the prairie was dug into in several places ;this showed a rich, black ground, well able to supportnumerous crops of good wheat. The elbow of a springcreek entered the farm on one side. This was a very

110 THE CANADIAN WESTvaluable feature, for it made sure of a plentiful supplyof good, wholesome water for house and farm use. OnThe home- one uank of this creek there was a fine poplarsteadgrove. Here the material for dwelling-house,granary, stables, and firewood would be found withouthaving to go off the farm. A low spot had alreadygiven much promise in the way of a good yield of nativehay. All these discoveries delighted the newcomers,and more so when they had made a survey of the othersections of the wilderness and found the majority of themjust as desirable as their own.What could have brought these people to so lonely aportion of the country ? Who are they ?They have come from Eastern Canada because theyheard of the fertile soil and the cheap homes of the West.Farms in their native province were altogethertoo high in price for people who had only goodcame to the,Why they .health and ready hands to hope to own theirhomes in a short time, and these people have alwayswished to call some spot their own. It was no easymatter to make up their minds to leave the friends ofthe homeland and take up their abode in a strangecountry, but here they are in the wilderness, where tobe successful means to work hard. What are some ofthe first things that take up their attention ? No one cananswer, but we cannot go far astray when we say thatthey will be connected with man's chief wants, namelyfood and shelter.As for food, there are provisions enough in the canvascoveredwagon to last for a couple or more months, andthe wagon will do duty for a house until time can betterbe spared for the building of a more suitable shelter. But

MAKING THE SETTLEMENTS 111the provisions must be carefully used, and as roots andseeds have been taken from the eastern home, the eveningsand mornings of the first week or so are devoted to diggingand planting a small vegetable garden. The rest ofthe day is spent in breaking (Figs. 1 and 68),that is, in ploughing over the tough prairie sod,Breakingso that the June rains may help to rot the network ofgrass and other roots, and thus prepare it to be harrowedand placed inreadiness for thewheat-sowing ofthe next spring.How differentis the work ofthe homesteaderon the prairiesfrom that of theeastern settleron his heavybush farm ! Itis true, no doubt,that there are inFig. 68. — Breaking the prairie.the West many fine farms that once were well covered withtrees, but the labor necessary to remove these cannot becompared to the toil of clearing the homesteads in theeastern portion of Canada. What a world of hard workwould have to be done in felling the trees, cutting thetrunks into lengths more easily handled, piling the logsinto heaps, burning the brusli and the log-heaps,picking up all the smaller sticks and pulling farm and thex ° r j. o prame farmout the tough stumps, all before a binder couldbe allowed to venture in with safety. It would require

112 THE CANADIAN WESTyears to get sucli a farm into the same condition as theprairie when first the settler landed upon his homestead.Indeed, if he were only in time, he could have broughthis binder on the same wagon that carried his plough.Boys living on prairie farms should sometimes think ofwhat clearing an eastern bush farm means.While the man is thus busily engaged in breaking andafterwards in backsetting, his wife is equally industrious.Even in the simplest form of life a division of labor has tobe followed, and the care of the children, garden, cow,Division ofC^°S' an(l chickens all depends upon the faithfulnessof the settler's wife. As it is noeasy matter to go over the long prairie trails to thestation for everything that is needed, it is necessaryfor every family to depend as much as possible onitself. Hence, every farmer becomes an independentmanufacturer. He builds his own house and makes themost of his own09. — The lo£-house on the homestead.furniture.Hiswife has to betailor, seamstress,schoolteacher,dairymaid,and cook.In fact, thesepioneers have tomeet all the necessitiesof food, shelter, and clothing. In these earlydays of the settlement there is plenty of hard work forevery one of the family who is able to do something.When the winter season arrives, it finds this family wellprepared. The horses and the cow have plenty of good

MAKING THE SETTLEMENTS 113hay and a comfortable, though roughly built, stable. The" prairie schooner," too, has been deserted for the warmerwalls of a log shack (Fig. 69).About the middle of April spring opens, and soon theprairies are once more green and covered with blossoms.After the seed-wheat and oats have been sown, and thefarmer has only to wait for the long days of sunlight, therich soil, and the frequent rain showers to bring his fieldstothe seed-time, more prairie has to be broken, a largergarden cultivated, and a granary built to store the firstcrop.It will not be necessary to speak of the purchase of abinder, the cutting, the stacking, the threshing (Fig. 96),Fig. 70. — A modern prairie home.and the big loads hauled to the distant elevator. Otheryears come and go. Some are dry, others a little wet, andthe rest just right. Once a hailstorm spoils a few acres.At another time a summer frost injures the grain on thelower grounds. On the whole there is°fromProgress.year to year a good average yield.adds to hisThe settlerfarm in horses, cattle, sheep, and pigs, and intime purchases the remainder of the section.Other settlers come into the district. A schoolhouseis built and a teacher employed. A Sunday-school isopened in the schoolhouse. This is soon removed to the

114 THE CANADIAN WESTnew church built a year or so afterwards. A post-officeis opened in a farmhouse and a weekly mail sersettiementvice begun. A branch line of the railwaycomplete° •*reaches the settlement and at once makes theland more valuable. More substantial houses (Fig. 70)take the places of the temporary dwellings, and the settlementis complete.Questions. — What is a homestead? Find out at home what" homestead duties " are. What is land worth in your locality ?What has made it this price? What different nationalities are foundabout you? What brought these people to this particular spot?Who is your pioneer settler? When did he reach the district?How? Are any of the first houses still to be seen? When was thefirst schoolhouse built in your district? When was the first churchbuilt? How near is the nearest elevator, station, and market? Whatis the meaning of the stanza at the beginning of this chapter? ReadAppendix E.

CHAPTER XIPLANT LIFEPlants, as we know them .about our homes and in ourfields, do not grow on the bare rocks, nor in the winterseason. To be successful, plants must have a suitableclimate and soil, both of which conditions are present overthe greater part of the country. As to plant life, theCanadian West may be divided into a prairie regionat the south, a wooded country to the north and northeastof this {See Appendix D, 3), and a more or less barrenarea between the Arctic Ocean and Hudson Bay, wheremosses, lichens, and many other plants seem to thrive inspite of a short summer and a cold soil.That the prairies have long been productive is shownby the great depth of mould which covers them. Thatthey have been well covered with grass may be inferredfrom what is known of the immense herds of buffalo thatonce grazed on them. These grasses are of severalkinds, namely, the sweet buffalo grass of the third prairielevel which covers the ground like a mat ; the Nativebunch-grass which grows in tufts several inches er&sses -apart, and the long hay-grass of the damp grounds, whichis found by farmers to be an excellent winter food forhorses and cattle.116

116 THE CANADIAN WESTGrass, however, is not the only covering ofthe prairies,for scarcely has the winter snow disappeared than springrushes in with a mass of bloom of delicate tintWild flowersand rich odor. Each month of the growingseason has its own flowers, anemones, buttercups, marshmarigolds,violets, roses, potentillas, lilies, wild peas, lady'sslippers, dandelions, sunflowers, asters of all colors, goldenrods,gentians, and a host of others the boys and girlsshould know.A soil and climate so favorable to the growth of ournative flowers and grasses could not fail to be otherwiseGrain and than well suited to the production of wheat,vegetablesoats, barley, rye, pease, garden corn, potatoes,onions, beets, celery, lettuce, and such other vegetation asFig. 71. — Vegetables grown near Edmonton.northern peopleshave found necessaryto theirwell-being (Fig.71). Unfortunately,however,these are also thevery conditionsmost favorable tothe growth of themany noxiousweeds known sowell to the carefulfarmer.Many people from the eastern and the southern landsare of the opinion that no fruits are to be found in theprairie country. This is a mistake, for we have an abundanceof such native fruits as the strawberry, raspberry,

PLANT LIFE 117gooseberry, red and black currant, wild plum, pin cherry,high bush cranberry, choke cherry, and saskatoon,and to these, we have added in a fewFruitsdesirable spots, the garden raspberry, strawberry, andgooseberry, the Siberiancrab-apple and the domesticapple (Fig. 72).We have said thatthe great forest countrylies to the north of theprairie region, but itmust be rememberedthat there are in thisarea many fine stretchesof beautiful prairie land,while belts of treesareFig. 72. — Fruit grown near Nelson,Manitoba.also scattered here and there even in the prairies of thesouth. These belts are situated along the banks and inthe valleys of some of the larger rivers, in fact any placewhere a supply of moisture and a proper fire-guard exists.The trees are those common to northern latitudes, suchas the ash-leafed maple, poplar, balm of Gilead, scrub-oak,elm, basswood, and ash, growing in the smallerand more open groves and belts of the south,and the spruce, jack -pine, birch, and tamarack in thedamper and deeper areas of the north. Few, if any, ofthese can be compared to the giants of the eastern andthe western woods. Yet if we have not monarchs amongtrees, we have still a great timbered country (Fig. 73),though the length of time we shall be able to say thisdepends upon the interest our boys and girls take in ourtrees.

118 THE CANADIAN WESTIt is supposed that the earth in all the regions whichhave formed the homes of great populations, was, with veryfew exceptions, covered with a forest growth.Trees may be _, , . . , . .grown on the 1 hat this was the case even in our prairie landsis evident from the remains of ancient forestspreserved for us in the thousands of acres of coal fields ofAssiniboia and Alberta.What causes led to the removalof the forests of theplains ? No doubt, the1 ndian, the d ry weather,«nd the lightning, allW': khelped. The questionwe should be anxiousabout to-day is : Canthese meadows be againclad with a covering oftrees ? Is such a coveringneeded to-day ? If*~ «£%aRt 3S& so, we are confidentthat trees can be madeVFig. I'A. — Spruce forest near Prince Albert.to grow where grasscan find a foothold.Why should trees begrown, if grain paysbetter? While it is truethat an acre of good grass land will nourish more animalsthan several acres of bush, still there are many areas thatcan never be expected to prove good farming-lands.Name some of these. Would it not be wiser to plant onsuch places (Fig. 74) trees that would continue to grow,and be of value to the land when once they were properlyrooted? But we cannot hope to answer this properly

PLANT LIFE 119until we point out some of the features which peopleinterested in forestry have discovered.Wood is the source of much of our fuel. A timberedcountry near at hand means cheap heating, anda belt of trees on the farm is always a finething for the woodpile. Try to picture to yourself howwe should fare if our forests were all destroyed.Of the raw materials supplied by nature to be workedover by the art of man, one of the most useful is wood.Look about you and see if this is not true. No Howforestsmatter how much we may use of brick, stone,arewastedglass, and iron, there will always be a vacant space left fortimber, and timber is growing scarcer every year. Thewoodman andthelumbermanare both hard atwork sortingover the trees ofthepresent, forevery tree thatgrows is not perfectfor eitherwood or lumber.There is anotheragency at work,that pays no attentionto thesorting.Fig. 74. — Planting the seed of the ash-leaved mapleat the Brandon experimental farm.It sweeps up everything that stands in the way.This waster is fire, started sometimes by accident, butmore often through carelessness. There are laws made toregulate the setting out of fires, but these laws are usuallydisregarded. In any case the best fire-guard a country

120 THE CANADIAN WESTcan possibly have is a people thoroughly in sympathywith the meaning and use of forests. These people wouldnever set out a fire even to burn stubble without first seeingthat sufficient assistanceis at hand to control it.But forests are valuable for other things besides firewoodand lumber. They beautify our country and ourhomes (Figs. 75 and 76). They shelter theShelter beltsground upon which they are placed. They alsoshelter the land to the leeward of them. The air in thebush is quiet evenwhen a furious galeis blowing in theopen. The highwinds and drying ofsoil on the prairies1. The residence ofthe director of theIndian Head experimentalfarm.are due largelyto the scantinessof thetimber belts,2. The same house five years later.and our wisestfarmers aretrying to remedy this by planting wind-breaks orshelter-belts about their buildings (Fig- 76) and their

PLANT LIFE 121fields. Such a belt may be placed to screen the soilfrom a cold wind, but it is placed just as often alongthe south-west side of the farm to break the effects ofthe hot, dry wind that sometimes comes from thisquarter. Timberbelts alsosecure a betterdistributionofthe snow overthe ground bypreventing thewinds fro msweeping it awayfrom one spotand heaping itup in another.Again, howmany of ourrivers and streams rise in the midst of a country forestclad? Forests, as well as lakes, have a great streams anddeal to do with regulating the flow of water. forestsIn tlie shade of the trees, the snow is protected frommelting as fast as it does in the open grounds, and thewater coming from the snow isFio. 7o\ — A Manitoba home, made beautiful by trees,shrubs, and flowers.held back by the tangle ofroots, branches, logs, and leaves that cover the forest floor,and is made to go more slowly to the streams. In thisway the lower grounds of the rivers are kept from beingdrowned, and the rivers themselves are prevented fromrunning dry in the summer.These are some of the things discovered regarding ourforests. They are all worth pondering over, particularlywhen we remember that the timbered areas are the natural

122 THE CANADIAN WESTshelter of our finest birds and our most useful fur-bearinganimals. Oan we afford to lose these by destroying thatwhich protects them ?Questions. — Find out at home or from any other source whetherthe Canadian government has reserved any forest areas or not.Where are these situated? Is there any timber near your home?What is it used for ? Is it disappearing ? Can you see any way ofmaking it last longer and yet of allowing it to be used ? How ? Whatwild fruits are found in your district ? What vegetables are grown ?Have any farmers in your locality tried to grow shelter-belts? Makea map of one farm having such a belt, and try to show why it wasplaced in that particular spot. Are you familiar with all the wildflowers mentioned in this chapter? Where would you find each?What is your favorite prairie flower? Why is this your favorite?Show how forests along streams will help to make those streamsnavigable. What forested country in the Canadian West is of serviceto our streams? State the value of forests and forest-belts to acountry. Can you tell from the wild plants of a country whatdomestic plants would be likely to grow successfully? How? Thegrowers of apples and plums find a shelter-belt placed at the southof the orchard a very excellent thing during the early spring; canyou explain in what way? Pond-lilies in bloom are found in anarm of Great Bear Lake ; roses are common in the lower Mackenzievalley: do these facts tell you anything of the summer climate ofthose regions? Would this knowledge be of any use to one whowas debating whether he should settle there or not? Make a mapshowing the forest portion of the Canadian West.

CHAPTER XIIWILD ANIMAL LIFEThe prairies, wooded areas, and barren grounds of theCanadian West have long been noted for the abundanceof their animal life. In fact, there are but few Abundance ofammal llferegions anywhere which can be said to comparewith this country as a home for fur-bearing animals.Fi«. 77.— Buffalo at St. James, Winnipeg.What is there about the country that lias made it so suitableto our kindred of the wild ? Many things may accountfor this, but the chief reason lies in the fact thatthere is a variety of country. Our woodlands are moreopen than they are dense, and there is a happy mingling123

124 THE CANADIAN WESTof forests and prairies. The wild animals can, therefore,have in such an arrangement every chance for obtaininga range of food, and also a shelter to retire to in case ofbeing pursued by an enemy.Are you familiar with many of our commonest wild animals? Do you know those animals whose furs and whose. Wouldflesh have beensought after bythe Indian, theEskimo, a n dthe fur-hunter ?you liketo spend a fewminutes ingettingacquaintedwith some ofthese animals, sothat you may bein a better positiomto value animalJifeproperly,and learn to understanda littlemore of the surface, soil, and climate of this country?We shall not stop to say as much as we should wishabout the buffaloes (Fig. 5) that once dotted the prairieThe buffaloFig. 78. —The beaver.in countless herds, but are now found onlyin the national park at Banff, at St. Jamesnear Winnipeg (Fig. 77), and possibly in the quieterand more remote Peace River country. As one ofour wild animals, the buffalo has practically disappeared.It is now too late to bemoan the fate of our

;WILD ANIMAL LIFE 125largest quadruped, whose extinction must surely havebeen a case of slaughter rather than one of fair sportbut when we remember that this is not the age of thebow and the arrow, but a time when the farthest andmost hidden corners of the land are speedily reachedby the modern hunter and his matchless rifle, we shouldall be anxious asto what will becomeof the remainderof ourwild animal life.This is one of theproblems thatour boys andgirls will haveto settle for us,and they can settleit best forthemselves andalso for the wildcreatures byspending a littletime now in trying to get more familiar with the " ways ofour wood folk."Fig. 79. — The wolverine.Toiling away unceasingly along our forest-borderedstreams, but in the country far removed from the soundsof the busy settlement life, is our first Canadian lumberman,— the beaver (Fig. 78). In undisturbedyThe beaversolitude this animal builds his dam, makes hisdome-shaped house, and cuts his food supply until frightenedaway by the advance of civilization, or removed withoutany thought by hunters and trappers who see in him

126 THE CANADIAN WESTonly a beaver-skin and therefore a thing of value at thetrading-post. We still have this very peaceful animalwith us, but the remains of many old beaver-meadowsscattered throughout the settled parts of the countryshow how fast he is disappearing. Only careful huntingwill prevent the beaver from following the buffalo.Fig. 80. — The polar bear.The next animal we shall mention is the wolverine(Fig. 79), also known as the carcajou, or glutton.ThewolverineThisanimal seems very fond of the north country, where hemakes himself a general nuisance by going alongthe trappers' miles of traps and removing thecatch before the owners of the traps have had time tovisit them. Those familiar with the wolverine describehim as being of about the size of a small bear, but possessinga somewhat bushy tail. The color of his fur is a darkishbrown, banded by a lighter brown along the back andsides. There is no doubt that if the wolverine could be

WILD ANIMAL LIFE 127exterminated the fur interests would not suffer any.you give any reason for preserving him ?Along the Arctic coast and among theCanmany islands ofthis northern ocean, the polar, white, or ice bear (Fig. 80)is found. The food of this animal is obtained largelyfrom the sea, and many a sealand many a fishii i i • i -n i iThe whitecaught have proved his skill as a hunter and a and theblack bearfisher. Indeed, in the animal world the polarbear is looked upon as the monarch of the north. Hisgreatest foes are the Eskimo, whom he provides withwarm furs, good food, and the bone used for harpoons andspear-heads. Inthe southernforests, alongthe border ofthe prairie, themore commonblack bear (Fig.86) feeds uponthe wild fruits,buds, and leaves.While the blackbear is not to betrifled with, heis, as a rule,timid,Fig. 81. — The musk-ox.preferringat any time to avoid rather than to meet a stranger.In the "barren lands" between Hudson Bay and theArctic, the musk-ox finds a home (Fig. 81).imagine an animal about four feet in height, The-five or six feet in length, weighing, when full musIf you cangrown, between four hundred and six hundred pounds,

128 THE CANADIAN WESTand- with characteristics very much like those observedamong sheep, you will have a fair idea of the musk-ox.The head of the musk-ox is large and is adorned bybeautiful black-pointed horns. The body is coveredwith a thick coat of long brownish hair, and this is somatted and curled on the shoulders as to give theappearance of a hump. The legs are short and thick,but they can bring their little owner to the tops of theroughest hills in a very short time when danger is near.Fig.82. — A herd of caribou in the barren lands.The musk-ox has chosen a cold, dreary, and barren home,but perhaps this home has its advantages. Can youmention any ?There are several species of deer said to inhabit thecountry between Hudson Bay and the Rockies, but thebest known of these are the caribou and the moose.In June and July the caribou are lean and their coatsragged. By August they have thrown away their tatteredgarments and donned glossy brown coats. Fromthis time they go on adding flesh and becoming morehandsome, until their winter coats of gray and white are

WILD ANIMAL LIFE 129put on, when they become one of the noblest animals ofthe northern wilds. The caribou are of two kinds,namely, the " barren lands " caribou (Fig. 82) and thewood caribou ; botli of these names tell youThe caribouplainly where these animals are to be found.Backwards and forwards over the wide stretches of thisnorthern land the caribou range in their annual journeys,as if drivenby some powerover which theyhave.no control.They are almostas much at homein the water ason the land, andthe lake must bewide, or the riverrapid thatprovestoo much fortheir strength.As these animalsroam about ingreat herds in acountry whereFio. 83. — A moose family.no game-lawscan protect them, and where hunger is often known,thousands are slain by the Indians and the Eskimo, whotake advantage of their curiosity and want of suspicion.While the moose and the wood caribou range over agreat portion of the same country, the mooseThe moose(Fig. 83) prefers the more southern part ofthe forest region. This is a noble animal, and any form

130 THE CANADIAN WESTof honest hunting for him is full of the keenest interest.We would advise the boys and girls to make a study ofany mountedmoose-head thatmay happen toadornthe wallsof any house inthe district.Take a good lookat the horns andtry to explainhow it is possiblefor thisanimal, withsuch ahead-gear,to go crashingthrough the forest-tangleat agallop.- „, „. ... Besides theFig. 84. — The wapiti.deer alreadymentioned we have the wapiti, or as he is frequently called,The wapitithe American stag (Fig. 84), an animal fond ofthe open woods and the forest borders. Noneof our deer bear more magnificent antlers than thewapiti, and many a stag has fallen a prey to the rifle onlyfor the sake of the head that afterwards adorned the homeof the sportsman.Our wolves are of two classes, the smaller coyote (Fig.The wolves85) and the larger and fiercer timber wolf whichloves to hunt in packs and which has also noscruples about attacking animals smaller than himself.

WILD ANIMAL LIFE 131As the governments of Manitoba and the Territories haveset prices on the heads of wolves, it would be an interest-Pro. 85.— The coyote.ing matter tomake a study of one or both of these animalsto find out why this has been done.With the exception of the jumping deer and the graylynx (Fig. 87), which hunt where rocks are smallermost numerous, in the wooded country, and ammalseven on the open prairie, these are our largest wild animals.The smaller ones,including the badger(Fig. 87), skunk, foxesof many kinds, thesmaller rabbit or Americanhare, jack-rabbit(Fig. 87), mink, muskrat(Fig. 87), squirrel,gopher (Fig. 86), andfig. 86. -The gopher,marten, should also beknown ; so also should the porcupine, and the bat, toad,and frog. As the majority of these have found the prairies

THE CANADIAN WEST

WILD ANIMAL LIFE 133and the smaller groves desirable homes, they are situatedwhere you may learn to know them by a personal study,for it is only by making such a study that one learns howto place a proper value on the lives of all our animals.Questions. — What are the common animals in your district ? Onwhat do they feed? Are they beneficial or injurious to the people?If so, how ? What animals roam about in the winter as well as inthe summer? What animals hibernate, and why? What animalsremain in their dens in the winter, and how do they live? Whenare these animals first seen in the spring? Why are there both flesheatingand herb-eating animals? What would happen were these tobecome out of proportion? What do you think of setting apartseveral thousand acres of wooded laud as a preserve for our wildanimals? Can you think of a better way to preserve them? Whatdomestic animals are found on the farms about your home? Howdoes the' country seem to suit these animals? What is the wolf-bountyin your district? Do many hunters take advantage of it? How isthe bounty paid? Read Appendix C. What do you mean by the" close season " ? Which of the animals mentioned in this chapter isconsidered dangerous to human life?What reason have you for believingthat this is a correct opinion? Have you ever known a clearcase where a human life was taken by one of our wild animals, withoutthat animal being first molested? Have you ever found or doyou know of any person who has found any poisonous snakes in thecountry? If you were told that muskrats swarmed about the mouthof the Saskatchewan, could you infer what kind of surface this districthas? If you knew the wild animals of a certain district, would yoube able to tell whether that district would or would not make goodfarming-land? Are any wild animals protected by the government?

CHAPTER XIIIBIRD LIFEFew people are familiar with our birds. Indeed, itwould seem that our knowledge of bears, wolves, and deer,scanty as it may be, is yet much wider than our knowledgeof the robin, themeadow-lark,and the wren.Whyisthis? Webelieve it is becausethe livesofthe wild animalsare moreeasily under-Fig. 88. — The eagle. stood than thelives of ourfeathered friends. An animal will wait for you to studyhim, but one must learn how to go among the birds andthus find out their secrets.Perhaps, too, we have seen food and clothing procuredfrom our wild animals, but what isthe value of our birdlife? There is only one way to answer this question andthat is by learning to be so patient that we can sit stilllong enough to make the birds stop noticing us. Wemust learn to watch the birds if we would know thembetter.134

"BIRD LIFE 135We shall now mention a few of our common birds,those with which all boys and girls should be familiar,but before doing this wemay say that the royaleagle (Fig. 88), theraven, that bird of deepestsolitude, and thetrumpeter swan (Fig.89) are not total strangersto the country.Among our game birdswe have the wild goose,duck, prairie-chicken,1. The swan. 2. The pelican.sand-hill crane (Fig. 90), and Wilson's snipe (Fig. 91),all well known to the ordinary sportsman. The wildFig. 90.1. The great blue heron. 2. The sand-hill crane.geese (Fig. 92) aresure to beWild geese,noticed asthey go " honkingnorthwards in the earlydays of April intheirwishbone-shaped flocksto the marshes of the"barren lands " and thelowerMackenzie,where they build theirnests and rear theirbroods. On returningin the fall these birdsspend a few weeks among the wheat stubble before takingtheir longer flight to the south. Here many are shot asthey pass to and fro from the smaller lakes to the wheat

136 THE CANADIAN WESTfields, but a successful goose-shot is a rare person even inthe West, where so many are skilful with the rifle. Thehunters of the wild goose must first study the habits ofthe birds, not an easy matter by any means.DucksThe wild duck, of which there are severalvarieties, raises its little family in the quietersloughs and swamps of the prairie country. It isa bird muchsought after inFig. 91.the open season,and while truesport is alwaysfair, there aredoubtlessmanyso-called sportsmenwho haveyet to learn thatjustice whichman, the lord ofcreation, shouldshow towardsthe lower animals.An houror two spent inwatching thewild duck andits family will bean hour or twowellemployed.This is the onlyway in which we shall learn to know and appreciate thefeathered creatures of the country.9The waders.Wilson's snipe. 2. The marbled godwit. 3. Baird's sandpiper.4. Pectoral sandpiper. 5. Semi-palmated sandpiper.6. Lesser yellowlegs. 7. Sanderling. 8. Killdeer. 9. Ringedplover. 10. Turnstone.

BIRD LIFE 137The prairie-chickens are really the game birds of theCanadian West. They are found all the way across thecountry, and during the shooting season call prairie .out the best skill of the local sportsmen. The chickenschickens remain all the year with us. They can, therefore,be studied by the boys and girls, who may, in thisway, learn to distinguish the various kinds. Figure 94may help you.Fig. 92. — Geese and ducks.1. Canada goose. 2. White-front goose. 3. Lesser snow-goose. 4. Whistler duck.5. Canvas duck. 6. Shoveller. 1. Pintail. 8. Mallard. 9. Widgeon. 10. Graywingedteal. 11. Red-head. 12. Lesser scaup duck.Our common birds of prey are owls and hawks (Fig.95), both of which are well enough known for purposesof recognition, but we all should study these owisandbirds a good deal, for they are often perse- hawkscuted when they do not deserve to be. It is true thatboth may be guilty of paying a visit to the poultryyard. At the same time this may be but a trifling

138 THE CANADIAN WESTtoll when we consider all the mice, gophers, and insectsdestroyed by these birds in the course of a season. Someowls and some hawks are without doubt worse than others,and because of the bad things done by these the wholefamily has been persecuted.This is not fair to the birds.This brings us to a class of birds we are all trying tobecome more familiar with, namely, our song-birds (Fig.Song-birds93). JHow lonely J this western countryJwouldbe,.in spite.01 its.bustle,.were .it not enlivenedby its thousands upon thousands of beautiful singingbirds ! Do you know many of these ? Have youlearned to imitate their songs ? Do you know whereeach species nests ? Have you ever wondered why thebirds go south, and why, after becoming acquaintedwith the south, they should ever wish to return ? Thesettlers from the lands across the sea are never wearyof speaking about the wonderful songs of the lark and thenightingale. These are sweet singers, but there are singersin our groves to-day that do not come far short ofthem.What are a few of these, and where are they found ?We may begin by mentioning a bird that childreneverywhere have learned to look for as soon as the springgives signs of its approach. This bird is therobin. This bird chooses its nesting place nearour gardens. Here it carries on a great war with the insectswhich, if left undisturbed, would only too soon leaveno garden. To our ears the robin's song may not be perfect,but such as it is, it is given with so much earnestnessthat we welcome it for itself and also because itis among our first spring songs.The meadow-lark is a bird of the plains. Its nest isplaced on the ground, while its highest perch is often only

BIRD LIFE 139^ 'it r^

140 THE CANADIAN WESTMeadow-larkitHouse-wrena fence post from which it pours out some of the sweetestbird music ever heard. Study this birdand you will learn to be itsbest protector, forrequires a protector.Have you ever seen the busy, cheerful, and even pugnaciouslittle house-wren about your house ?This little bird is fond of human society, andhe will invite himself to your home if there is anythingFig. 94. — Grouse.1. Sharp-tailed grouse. 2. Pinnated grousegrouse or partridge.8. Ruffedin the shape ofan old shoe, theskull of a cow,a box, or anyother thing thatwill shelter himfrom that enemyof our birds, thedomestic cat, andalso from theEnglish sparrow.Find whatthe wren does inreturn foryourprotection..To the lover ofnature, the beautifulcolor andcheery" clonkka-1-r-r-r-r' ofthe red-winged blackbird make it an object of the greatestinterest. These birds appear in the early springtime andtake up their quarters near the sloughs and marshes, wherethey build their nests, and chase dragon-flies and mosqui-

BIRD LIFE 141toes until the grain-fields invite them to a more solid food.In their scarlet and black velvet dresses theseBlackbirdblack birds are readily recognized whereverseen, and distinguished from such other blackbirds as theyellow head and the rusty grackle.Fig. 95. — Owls and hawks.1. Western horned owl. 2. Great gray owl. 3. Goshawk. 4. Hawk owl.owl. 6. Sparrowhawk. 7. Marsh hawk. 8. Sharp-shinned hawk.5. SnowyBrilliancy of plumage, sweetness of song, and food habitsof the most valuable kind are some of the leading marks ofthe Baltimore oriole, a bird quite common wherevergroves are found near the homes of men.OrioleIts colors are black and orange-red, and its hanging nest andsweet song are known to every lover of this beautiful bird.The rich sons: of the rose-breasted grosbeakGrosbeakmay be heard in early summer rising from thecentre of every grove. Here is a beautiful bird, one wellworth our acquaintance.

142 THE CANADIAN WESTSome of our commonest birds are the sparrows. Wedo not mean here the English sparrow, that nuisance ofAmongSparrowscity andJtown life, but the native bird. e.. ., . ,these are the vesper sparrow, the white-throat,the white-crown, and the tree sparrow. The vesper sparrowsings in early morning and late evening. You mayalso know this bird by the white tailfeathers shown inflight.Listen for the bird that sings " Old Tom Peabody,Peabody," and you will be able to recognize our littlewhite-throated sparrow. The tree sparrow arrives veryearly in the spring. You may wonder how it is that sosmall a creature is able to endure the rough weather, butwatch him and you will learn the reason. You will findhim hopping about the brush pile, and can make sure ofhim by the dull splash of red on his head. The whitecrownedsparrow can be easily discovered by his markafter you have learned to know his other relatives.Thisbird and that sweet little songster, the song sparrow, willrepay you well for any trouble you may take in makingtheir acquaintance.We have also the bobolink in the southern meadows,where the " spink, spank, spink," and the " chee,chee,chee" may be heard from this beautifulbird in black, white, and yellow attire.We should like to mention also the graceful cat-bird,the happy chickadee, the fly-catcher, the warblers, anda host of other birds, but we can only refer you toFigure 93, with the hope that you will learn how to watchand to love the birds, for we have nothing in this greatcountry half so interesting as our feathered friends, andnone more beneficial. Try to do what you can to protectthem from their many enemies.

BIRD LIFE 143Questions. — What birds stay all winter near your home? Whydo these not go south ? How are they able to get food and shelterduring the coldest weather? What summer birds do you know?Have you the English sparrow in your town, village, or district?How does he behave towards the other birds? Have you seen him doany great service? Have you seen where he may do a good deal ofharm ? What birds have you found doing the greatest work amongthe insects? Have these birds any enemies? What are theirenemies? Can you do anything towards protecting these birds?Have you done anything? Do you know whether the governmenthas done anything in the way of protecting the birds? Why is thisnecessary ? For what birds is there no open season ? Can you nameany birds that are not protected by law? Why is this? What birdsare protected for stated periods each year? What is the penalty forkilling a prairie-chicken during the close season? Are there any wildanimals protected by law? Are the fish protected? What do youmean by the open season? Are you acquainted with the Americancoot or water-hen? Why has the pelican such a bill? Why has thekilldeer long legs?What have you learned about the crow?

CHAPTER XIVINDUSTRIESAgriculture. — The work of tilling the soil and growingplants for the use of man and beast has always been lookedupon as a noble occupation, and a source of much of thereal wealth of the world. When man became a farmer ofgrains, he at that moment began to understand the meaningof " home "; for in the days when he followed his flocksand his herds from pasture to pasture, and from wateringplaceto watering-place, a tent and not a home could be hisonly shelter.Grain farming has been for many years one of the chiefCanadian industries, but it was not until the fertile fieldsof the great West were opened that the world learned tolook towards Canada for a portion of its bread supply.We have here in the Canadian West one of the largestgrain areas in the world. But the grain that has reallymade this land famous is the grain that the human familyas a whole prizes most highly, namely, wheat. Now, beforewheat or any other graincan be grown successfully, weconditions ofmust have certain conditions, namely, a fertileSSful|rains

INDUSTRIES 145valley of the Red River, over many hundreds of miles, atheights varying from seven hundred to twenty-five hun-Fics. 9*i. — Harvest scenes in the West.dred feet and higher, amply testify to the exceeding richnessand fertility of the soil. Even on the hillsJFertile soiland ridges, where for the most part lighter sousprevail, and which might not be suitable to cultivation,

146 THE CANADIAN WESTthere is,with few exceptions, an abundant growth of themost nutritious grasses, on which all kinds of stock thriveadmirably ; while in low-lying parts and swamp beds asupply of the finest hay can be readily secured for winterfeeding in case of need. We surely then have a wonderfullyrich soil. Have we a suitable climate ?Our plant season is the season of abundant heat andsunlight.favorablejhmatesThese, with a sufficient rainfall over the greaterportion of the prairies, and a knowledge of thefast time and manner of cultivating the fields,give us the very best conditions for the production of awheat sample that, for color, hardness, and food qualities,has never been surpassed.Have we a large area of wheat country ?No one cansay at present just how many acres suitable to wheatgrowingare to be found in the Canadian West, but thismuch may be said :Jwe have probably the greattrArea andj r>transporta- est belt of new wheat lands in the world, andtion. ...this is being added to year by year by the discoveryof large districts hitherto thought to be ill suitedto grain-farming.We may safely conclude that the thirdcondition of successful grain-growing is fulfilled. Thequestion of transportation isconsidered in another chapter,but we can say that our great railway lines are addingmiles of steel and dozens of new engines to their roadsalmost every year, that immense elevators (Fig. 97) arebeing built everywhere to store and ship the grain, andthat a third railway line will, before many years, be usingits engines and its cars to haul our grain to the market.What becomes of the wheat after it leaves the farmers'hands ? It must first be graded before it leaves the West,and this grading is done at Winnipeg and at Fort William

INDUSTRIES 147by government grain inspectors who sample each car lotand mark it according to its quality, as " Number Onehard," "Number One Northern," etc. Several millionbushels, of course, remain in the West to be ground intoflour, and the remainder is shipped to Eastern Canada, orexported to Great Britain and to the UnitedMarketStates. To-day our wheat is moving eastwards; but who can say when a portion of it will alsomove towardsthe countriesacross the westernocean, toJapan and toChina ?Before leavingthis subject,let us ask whyso many of ourfarmers growwheat and onlyFig. 97. — Grain elevators at Indian Head.wheat? Is itnot because their lands' are suited at present to this kindof farming ? Could anything else pay them better, do yousuppose ? Are they not doing what has always been donein young countries, namely, making use of what nature hasprovided in greatest abundance ? But will these farmerscontinue to grow the same thing year after Mixedyear ? The people who settled the Mississippi farmingvalley grew at first nothing but wheat and corn, but, byand by, a farmer here and there added stock-raising, andnow this region has built up the great city of Chicago,one of the largest stock markets in the world. In time,

148 THE CANADIAN WESTwhat city or citiesin the Canadian West will likely growlike Chicago ?The wheat belt commences a little east of the Red River,and stretches away westwards in an unbroken plain almostto the Rockies.In the east thisplain is narrow,but inthe west it extendsaway tothe north sometwo hundredor more milesFig. 98. — The Canadian Northern Railway Companytile elevator at Port Arthur on LakeSuperior. The upper picture shows the immensetanks for holding the grain.beyond Edmonton.Figures 42 and 50will help you tounderstand this.Wheatwasgrown to a smallextent on the prairiesoil long ago bythose in the employof the Hudson'sBay Company. For the past thirty years it has been themain source of the country's progress. Year by year thenumber of acres given to wheat-growing has been rapidlyincreasing, and the yearly yield of wheat has risen from

INDUSTRIES 149a few hundred bushels to the enormous quantity of sixtyfivemillion bushels. Have you any idea what this bulkof grain really means ? How many cars would it requireto carry it all away ? How many freight boats on theCanadian Great Lakes would be needed ? How manygrains of wheat would there be in this quantity ? Evenif we were to find out the last of these, who could knowthe meaning of the number ? Think of trying to sow sovast a field by hand ! Think of trying to cut it with asickle or to thresh it with a flail ! Nothing but the widestof seeders, the largest of binders, and the biggest of threshing-machinesare in keeping with the task. But canwheat be grown everywhere in the West ; are all ourlands wheat lands ? What we have said regarding thesurface, drainage, soil, and climate will help us here, forwe have learned that great areas are unfit for farmingoperations of any kind, that many districts are too swampy,that others are covered with shifting sand-hills, or betteradapted to the rearing of cattle, horses, and sheep. Takingaway these districts, we have, suitable for agriculture,the greater part of the Red River valley, the Some dis .Manitoban portion of the second level, eastern fol'sfoc^thanAssiniboia, parts of western Assiniboia, much for sramof Saskatchewan, and great stretches of northern andsouthern Alberta (Fig. 99). In these districts can beseen extending for miles in every direction some ofthe finest wheat-fields of the world. In the month ofJuly these fields are a sea of green ; in the latter partof August, when harvesting is in full swing, they are ablaze of yellow ; and throughout the fall months the smokeof the steam threshers may be seen on every hand.In the thirty or more years during which this country has

150 THE CANADIAN WEST

INBUSTBIES 151been open to settlement, only about seventy -fivemillionsof acres of land have been taken up, and of this area onlya very small fraction has been put into shape for wheatculture. Again, the acreage already taken is only aboutone-fourth of the arable land available for the settler.What will be the yield when the whole country is undercultivation ? Canada then will be the " granary of theEmpire." See Appendix Gr.But wheat is not the only plant grown, although it maybe the most valuable one. The soiland climate also suitthe growing of oats, rye, peas, fodder corn, brome-grasson the drier highlands, timothy on the moister lowlands,and roots of all descriptions everywhere (Fig. 71). Thegrain lands of the Canadian West are indeed a rich heritage,a heritage that can never fail to prove a source ofwealth and strength to the Dominion, and also to themother country.Ranching.— Have you ever tamed a bird, a gopher, ora squirrel ? If so, you will know something of the joyof the man or the boy who firstsucceeded in., conqueringa wild horse. When this happened no one knows, butwhen it did take place, the tribe or race in possession ofthe secret of how to subdue the wild horse became strongerthan its neighbors and was able to rise a stepor two outof barbarism and towards civilization. It was the same,too, when the cow, the sheep, the dog, and the remainderof our domestic animals were taken from their native wildcondition, and made to be the helpers and the companionsof man.We have removed far from those early times, but evento-day the work of raising horses, cattle, sheep, and hogsis closely connected with our farming industry. In

152 THE CANADIAN WESTfact, it is considered a part of the farmer's business toincrease the supply and make better the quality of theseanimals. When he is attending to this and is also agrower of grains, he is said to carry on what is calledmixed farming. The majority of our western farmersFkHorse ranges in Alberta.farm after this fashion, but there are, in this young country,certain lands at too great a distance from the markettown or village to permit of profitable mixed or grainfarming. On these, cattle are raised instead of grain.There are other districts where the soil and climate arebetter suited to the rearing of cattle, horses, and sheep,than to the farming of grains, or to mixed farming

INDUSTRIES 153(Figs. 100 and 101). The districts particularly suitedto stock-raising were at one time the favorite Great ranch .haunts of the buffalo. These lands extend in s centresfrom the foot-hills towards the Missouri Coteau, and fromthe boundary northwards, with Calgary, Lethbridge, Macleod,Medicine Hat, Maple Creek, and Battleford asFig.101. — Cattle and sheep ranges.centres, in other words, the country in which the greatranches of western Assiniboia and southern Alberta aresituated.The nearer the foot-hills, the warmer the wind.Hence,this territory possesses a much milder winter climate thanthe country east of the Missouri Coteau, so Foodandthat cattle and horses can graze on the open waterplains all winter, — a feature of the greatest importance

154 THE CANADIAN WESTto the rancher. Here, too, the prairies are covered in theearly spring and summer by a short but thick growthof the sweet, juicy buffalo grass, which becomes witheredlater on, but being cured by nature, retains its nourishingqualities, — another fact of great value to the cattle men.Here also are many fine streams and springs where excellentwater may be had without the trouble and expense ofdigging wells.Now, the farmer of grains, or the man engaged in mixedfarming, would find a section or so of land about as muchas he could handle well, but the rancher can work withease a whole township ; in fact, he requires this area togive his cattle and his horses a wide enough range to makesure of a plentiful supply of grass and water.A ranching country is, therefore, a sparsely settledcountry; but as the years go by and farms become moreand more expensive, as they have always done in thepast, it is altogether likely that the big ranching landsin many districts Avill be divided, and grain and mixedRanching is an occupation thatfarming take their place.can be carried on only in a new country, and in the earlydays of that country.But how can grain be grown with profit in a regionwhere the rainfall is so slight ? Irrigation ditches will bedug from the rivers and the lakes so as to bring any extrasupply of water needed by the farms. To get this wateron the land at the least expense the early settlers selectedtheir farms near where the many streams of the countryentered the valleys, and with ploughs and scrapers madelittle ditches to carry some of the water out upon thelands.In the irrigated country these channels are usuallyput in by large companies and the ditches are laid out

INDUSTRIES 155according to the slope of the land, so that a proper andnot too ffreat a fall for the water may be°secured. There are now in southern Alberta.Irrigationand in western Assiniboia, four hundred and seventy-fivemiles of such ditches, capable of supplying abundantmoisture in the growing season and at the proper timeto six hundred and twenty-two thousand five hundredand fifty acres of land, not otherwise well adapted tothe growing of wheat, oats, barley, and roots, and thisnumber will be increased rapidly as the country requiresthem.If you have never visited a ranch, can you picture whatit is like ? Is it a farm beautifully kept, with fine buildings,lovely shade-trees, and the most complete of wirefences? Is it like the farm shown in Figure 76 ? It maybe, but the chances are that all you would probably see ona well-managed ranch would be a small dwelling-house,a few rough stables, and a great prairie dotted withbunches of cattle, or cattle and horses, or horses, or sheep.Sometimes the owner of the ranch lives on and directs hisfarm. More often he places a trusty man in charge andvisits his property occasionally to make certain that everythingis satisfactory.While the winters, as a rule, are favorable, yet severestorms rage over these treeless plains now and again.These are, indeed, trying times ; for the cattle, driftingwith the storm, may wander miles away, if they escapedeath by running against a barbed-wire fence or by tramplingeach other in some narrow valley where only aslight shelter is possible. These are the times when awise and watchful cowboy can be of the greatest service.In what way ?

156 THE CANADIAN WESTIn the springtime the general " round-up " takes place(Figs. 100 and 101), when all the cattle or horses wanderingover the plains are gathered together in"round-up"immense herds and sorted, so that each ranchermay get his own. There is no more stirring scene than acattleamong the bellowing and frightened animals to removeBrandinground-up, where half a dozen skilful cowboys ridethis, that, and the other beast.How can the cowboys identify the cattle of severalowners ?Not by their color or the shapes of their horns.They know the cattle and horses by their markor brand.In other words, the owner has placedhis mark, written with a red-hot iron on the animal's flank(Fig. 102), and these marks are all carefully registered,5;s»»?* ?* •fr.. - •foli^*••-Fig. 102. — Branding cattle.solittlethat there ischance forany counterfeiting.When thesorting has beencompleted, anymavericks,thatis, unbrandedanimals, aresometimes put up at auction and branded as soon as sold.This practice, however, is contrary to the laws of theNorth-West Territories, and is rapidly being given up.What becomes of the stock raised on these immensepasture grounds? Before answering this, let us ask, Howmany head of cattle, horses, and sheep are cared for ? Areyou surprised to hear that the number is over a quarter ofa million of cattle, twenty-five thousand horses, and aboutone hundred and twenty-five thousand sheep ? Where are,

INDUSTHIES 157these shipped to? A great many cattle and sheep aresent to the mining districts of British ColumbiaMarketsand the Yukon. Many more find their way tothe western abbatoirs or slaughter-houses,, and the remainderare either supplied to farmers beginning stockraising,or sent in long trains to the eastern and Englishmarkets (Fig. 103), where they are in great demand. SeeAppendix H.Fig.103. — The stock-yards at Dunmore.Dairying. — In early times cows were milked only whenout at pasture, and their owner made it usually a part ofhis business to bring them through the winter season onas little food as possible. These cows were also of nocertain breed, and were therefore as highly valued for theirflesh as for their milk. Now the dairy cow is as highlyimproved as the most perfect binder, violin, or steamengine.In other words the present dairy cow is a milkmachine (Fig. 104).Not many years ago the old fashioned dasher-churn and

158 THE CANADIAN WESTthe wooden cheese-press were as common on the farm asthe spinning-wheel and the weaving-loom of still earlierThe Cil6£S6times. To-day nearly all the cheese is made in cheesefactoriesand much of the butter in the creameries, whereimproved processes and machinery, under expert supervision,produce butter and cheese of such highfactory and excellence as to command much higher pricesthe creamerygatheredin the open market than similar productsfrom the small farms. The improvementshave not, however, all been made in the machinery.Cows have beenMi ja&av^Ltf^0,imported from>•* parts of Europewhere they have?*Sf*^jX V *-V*»'>*-«tJJjCl"Fig. 104. — Milking-time on a dairy farm.long been carefullybred, andthe breeding ofstock has beencontinued in thiscountry so as tosecure animals that should be able to turn their food intoa larger and larger yield of rich milk, instead of placingit as flesh and fat upon their bodies. Among suchanimals are our Jerseys, Ayrshires, and Holsteins. If youdo not know these, we would advise you to become acquaintedwith them as soon as you can, for much of themilk and the butter for the town and city boy and girlcomes from one or other of these wonderful milk-makers.Many farmers near the larger towns make a business ofselling milk to town customers. When at a distance fromsuch a market, the most of this milk is manufactured intocheese and butter, both of which may be sent long dis-

INDUSTRIES 159tances with profit. Creameries and cheese factories aretherefore more or less numerous throughout the country,and will, as the population increases, become even morecommon.Some districts are more favorably situated than otherswith respect to these industries (Fig. 99), but any settle-Fig. 105. — Interior of the government creamery at Wetaskiwin.A. Milk tank. B. Cream separator. C Skim-milk tank. D. Heater. E. Churn.ment where good grass and a plentiful supply of pure waterare found should make a successful dairying country.In Manitoba, the government has established a DairySchool in the city of Winnipeg, and this has alreadyproved of great benefit to the province, where about sixtycreameries and cheese-factories are in operation. In theTerritories the government has been equally active in pro-

160 THE CANADIAN WESTmoting these industries (Fig. 105), and both eastern andwestern Assiniboia, Saskatchewan, and northern Albertahave proved especially suitable to dairying. A large proportionof our western butter is sent to British Columbiaand the Yukon, while some of it has even found a marketacross the western ocean. See Appendix I.Pork-packing and Sheep-raising. — In the early days ofthe settlement, it was no unusual thing for dozens ofthrifty wheat-growers to be entirely dependent for theirsupplies of bacon, and even of butter, upon the villagegrocery stores. But these days are only steps in the progressby which the original prairie soil is gradually convertedinto beautiful farms where domestic animals areraised, as well as crops of wheat, oats, and barley. Asthe country fills up and hired help is hard to get, thefarmers will be drawn more and more to the raising ofcattle, sheep, and hogs, and less and less to the work ofgrowing hundreds of acres of wheat. Again, it is alwayspossible that the grain will be frozen, or damp, or willbe injured in some way that will reduce the price. Whatbetter way to change all this cheap material into an articlethat will always ship well and bring a good market price,than the raising of hogs ?As farmers are yearly paying greater attention to theraising of hogs, the natural result is the erection of porkpackingestablishments in the cities and towns and a moregeneral prosperity in the country. There is a considerablehome market for dressed and cured pork, and also an excellentdemand for it in the mining regions of BritishColumbia.We have been told that the sheep of the ranches numberabout one hundred and twenty-five thousand, a very small

INDUSTRIESlt>lnumber when you consider the population of the country(Fig. 101). Does Western Canada care for mutton? Iswool-growing out of favor ? The trouble is not in thecountry, for there is always an abundance of good pasture,and wholesome water in the summer, and plenty of curedgrass for the winter season. Sheep-raising has not beenencouraged, because grain, cattle, and hogs pay better.We believe that the near future will somewhat changethis order of things ; that sheep will be on almost everyfarm, and that factories devoted to the manufacture ofcloth and other woollen goods will be more plentifulthan they are at present. See Appendix If.The Fur Trade. — The story of the Canadian West fromthe hour of its discovery until within a few years ago waslargely the story of the fur trade, a story that is beingcontinued to-day with great success on the more remoteplains, woodlands, and unsettled regions of the north.While it is true that French and English traders soughtfor a portion of this wealth in the days preceding thecoming of the " Great Company," still, it was the Hudson'sBay Company that actually placed the industry on a firmfoundation. Shortly after obtaining the right to trade inRupert's Land, in other words, the country drained byHudson Bay and its tributaries, this company pushed itsway into the wilderness. To-day the whole of the countryis covered by scores of trading-posts, each of which is thenatural centre of a fur-trading district, and all in touchwith those points best located for receiving the raw fursfor future shipment. Of the latter are Athabaska Landingand Edmonton, the great depots of the Mackenziebasin ;Prince Albert and Battleford, the shipping pointsof the middle Saskatchewan and the country to the north;

162 THE CANADIAN WESTYork Factory and Fort Churchill, thecollecting stationsof the Hudson Bay region ; Grand Rapids, the centre ofthe lower Saskatchewan country, and last, but not least,Winnipeg, the business centre of the Company in Canada.The furs collected at these main centres are sent toEngland by two routes. Those on Hudson Bay are carriedto England by the Company's steamers, while theremainder are sent by rail and steamship to the same destination.Here they are sold, and afterwards preparedand sent over the home-land and abroad to provide the furgarments which a northern people find a necessity duringthe cold winter seasons. But this is not all. You willnow have toXFT/£MACPp£RSp1* »/ •

INDUSTRIES 163Fort Chipewyanof furs taken every year up the river to(Fig. 18). Look at the dozens of Hudson's Bay Companyposts dotting the map (Fig. 106), and you will thenhave some slight idea of the meaning of the fur industry.See Appendix 0. In addition to the Hudson's Bay Company,there are many smaller companies and firms whoare interested in the fur trade, and who carry on a veryextensive business in the far north.Lumbering. — A person living in Eastern Canada doesnot as a rule imagine the country west of the Great Lakesas one where lumbering may be carried on.idea regarding thisland isthat it is a vast treelessprairie,covered, when cul-The popularSawmill at Leduc.1. Waiting for the break-upof the ice on the LittleSaskatchewan.tivated, withfields of wavinggrain. To thea. a boom of ioS s on the north of the prairie belt, however, is anLSaskatchewan River..vextensive forest country (tigs. 42 and id)that has already contributed to the wants of the settlerin fuel and lumber.Sawmills employing a large number of men are situatedin all the lumber districts communicating freely with the

164 THE CANADIAN WESTleading centres by water or by rail. Some of these arefound in eastern Manitoba, along the western side of LakeWinnipeg, in the Riding Mountains, along portions of thenorthern and middle Saskatchewan valley and elsewhere.Spruce is the timber used in all these mills, and in manytowns planing factories complete what the sawmills haveprepared (Fig. 197).Besides lumbering, our timbered areas have to supply agreat deal of our firewood, and it is quite a common thingfor wood dealers to send whole armies of wood-cutters intothe bush in early winter to get ready the annual supply oftamarack, jack-pine, poplar, oak, ash, and birch.Quarrying. — The rock underlying the soil in the countrynorth and north-east of the city of Winnipeg is limestone.This is workedextensively at Stonewall,Stony Mountain,and at Tyndall, andshipped east and westwherever it is needed(Fig. 108). As limestoneoccurs in layers,all that is necessary inquarrying is to pry theselayers apart. This isFig. 108. — A quarrying scene.done by drilling a holeor several holes into the rock, and blowing it up by meansof blasting powder. There are also valuable quarries ofa gray sandstone, much prized as a building stone, nearCalgary, Edmonton, and Macleod, in Alberta. This stone,when freshly quarried, is easily cut. On exposure to theair for some time it becomes as hard as flint. Besides

INDUSTRIES 165these building materials, there are, as you are nodoubt already aware, a great abundance of graniteboulders found almost everywhere. These are of greatuse in the foundations of barns, and the walls of privateresidences and business blocks. Indeed, in many townsand villages thisbuildingmaterialtakes thelead and addsmuch to thebeauty of thebuildings. Fromcertain kinds oflimestoneweget our quicklime,from whichmortar for plasteringand forFig. 109. — A lime kiln.brick and stoneworkis made. Broken limestone is dumped into themouths of large stone furnaces (Fig. 109) and heated redhot, when it slowly changes into quicklime.Brickmaking. — The first building material used in anynew country is obtained from timber. When, in time,something more lasting is needed, bricks, instead of boards,are used. As towns grow, the making of bricks becomesmore and more of an industry (Fig. 110). Bricks aremade out of a special kind of clay, and this clay is foundin great abundance from Ontario to the mountains. Incertain places, too, pottery clay of an excellent quality isfound, and the results have thus far been so gratifyingthat, before long, this industry will also be added.

166 THE CANADIAN WESTIce Harvesting. — Think of the long, hot summer seasonand its effect upon perishable fish, fruit, and meats. Think,too, of the carloads of these materials that have to crossthe country, and you will be in a position to understandwhy it is necessary to have a' supply of ice ready for summeruse. Ice isFig. 110. — Brick yard at St. Boniface.and own the ice, if he is only able to cut it.nature's gift toall who live innortherncountries.There isno property in it,no ownership ofit by any one untilit has beenmarked off forcutting.Anyone may do thisAs soon, then,as the ice has reached a suitable thickness, preparationsare at once made for its harvesting.The field is carefully marked off, with a grooving machinedrawn by a horse, into regular squares of a suitablesize. Saws are then used, and as the blocks are separatedthey are seized by large pinchers, placed on sleighs andtaken to the storehouses, where they are placed closetogether on their sides and left a few inches apart at theirends. In this way a crop costing nothing for the seed,and nothing for the ground, is harvested, and employmentgiven to a large number of men during the year.Coal Mining. — The country we have been picturingis well suited to the various kinds of farming. It cansupport great numbers of fur-bearing animals. It has

INDUSTRIES 167also valuable mines of building stone,and splendid areasof brick-clay; but has it coal? We have, it is said, fullysixty-five thousand square miles of coal-bearing lands.Commencing with south-western Manitoba, where thereis a considerable area of inferior coal country, coveringFig.111. — Coal mine at Lethbridge.south-eastern Assiniboia and extending to the Rockies,and northwards in a broad belt from the southern boundaryof Alberta to the Peace River and even beyond, thereare stretches of coal-bearing land of wonderful value(Fig. 111). Indeed, coal is procured so readily that incertain places in Alberta the rivers, by wearing theirbanks, have uncovered the seams (Fig. 112), and theresidents of the neighborhood have only to drive to the

168 THE CANADIAN WESTplace, and load up all the coal they may need. Wherevercoal is mined in great quantities, advantage is takenof all such cuttings, and the coal seams, if thick enough,are dug into from the valley or hillside. If this is notpossible, shafts have to be sunk into the ground, until theseam is reached, when the coal is raised to the surface andloaded on the cars.There are several varieties of coal found in the country,and these grade all the way from the lignite, or very soft:;::->>V:^^A : //.^laBLi River jdJBBWfWWcoal to the bituminousorharder coal, andeven tothe anthraciteof thehardest variety.The first namedis mined at Estevan,Medicine Hat, and at Lethbridge ; the second amongthe foot-hills nearest the Rockies ; and the third at Anthracite,nearFig. 112.Banff, and at Canmore in the same district.At Blairmore, in south-western Alberta, coke is beingmanufactured for the first time in the North-West Territories.See Appendix J.Coal-oil and Salt. — These industries are only in theirinfancy, but there are abundant signs of abountiful supplyof coal-oil all the way along the foot-hills of theRocky Mountains, from the boundary to the far north.Indeed, so vast are the oil-bearing lands believed to be,that many people think the day will yet come when thiscountry will be able to supply the greater part of thecontinent with petroleum. Salt also has been discoveredin several places, very promising springs being about

INDUSTRIES 169lakes Winnipegosis and Manitoba, and in the neighborhoodof Fort Smith on the Slave River. At the latterplace, several briny streamlets flow from the base of aridge over a clay flatsample of table salt.heavily sprinkled with an excellentGold and Other Minerals. — Considerable quantities ofgold are found in the sands and gravels of the northernSaskatchewan (Fig. 113) and Peace rivers and theirtributaries, but as these waters cannot be worked in thewinter seasonnor during highwater, the returnshave notbeen as large aswe should expect.See AppendixK. Gypsum,the stonefrom which weprocureplasterof Paris, is foundFig. 113. •Dredging for gold in the sands of theSaskatchewan River.in the neighborhoodof Lake Manitoba, and on the north shore of LakeAthabaska, while iron has been discovered on Black Island,Lake Winnipeg, and in a few places in the North-WestTerritories.The Fisheries. — In the lakes and rivers of the CanadianWest an abundance of fish is to be had. In fact the onlywaters in which fish are not found are some of the lakeswithout an outlet. These are of too alkaline a characterto serve as a desirable home for our fish.The most valuable fisheries are located in the lakes

170 TUB CANADIAN WESTforming the Manitoba system (Fig. 114), but there isevery reason to believe that the waters of the Mackenzieand its group of large lakes will be able, at some laterdate, to add abundantly to the annual catch.The principal fish caught in Manitoba and the North-West are the whitefish, trout, pickerel, pike or jack-fish,sturgeon, catfish,tullibee, perch,and certaincoarser fish. Inall about thirtymillion poundsof fish are caughtFig. 114. — Fishingscenes on LakeWinnipeg.1. The day's catch.annually.Ofthis amount ourmost importantfish, namely,whitefish, stands2. A fishing village.first, forming one-third of the total weight caught.Onlya small portion of this remains for home consumption, thebalance being sent chiefly to the United States. SeeAppendix L. To secure this catch, over a score of largefishing-tugs, about one thousand boats, and over ten thousandnets and lines are employed, and about one hundred

1NDUSTIUES 171and fifty freezers and ice-houses are required to preservethe fish until shipment can be made.How long can the fisheries stand this heavy fishing ?Not long, if every person were allowed to fish in any way andat any time he pleased.Severe rules are imposed, and fishinginspectors make every effortto carry out these rules.Again, the government fish hatchery at West Selkirk triesto prevent the supply from giving out, by placing millionsof young fry in the best fish waters every year.Market Gardening. — This is an industry peculiar to theconditions found in towns and cities where the land isusually so valuable that the ordinary householder cannotafford to devote much of his small lot to the garden wherethe vegetables for the family table may be grown. Again,many people do not own land and many more have not thetime to devote to this industry even had they the land.How are all these people, then, to be provided with theirdaily allowance of potatoes, cabbage, beets, onions, corn,parsnips, pease, celery, radishes, carrots, cauliflowers, etc.(Fig. 71)? This is the business of the market-gardenerwho looks after his customers as attentively as the bakeror the milkman attends to his. The gardens are locatednear the toswn or city in order that a convenient marketmay be found, and also to furnish an article as nearly likethe home-grown product as it is possible to be. The planting,cultivating, watering, weeding, gathering, and distributing,accompanying this industry, give employment tomany persons during the entire summer season.Manufacturing. — While this is mainly an agriculturalcountry, there are evidences on every side showing thatmanufacturing may yet be carried on to a considerableextent. There are numerous fields of coal between Mani-

172 THE CANADIAN WESTtoba and the Rocky Mountains ( Fig. 99).Fig. 115. —Flour mill at Portage la Prairie.This coal maybe carried to any part of the country by water or by rail.There are numerous streams also, with rapids sufficient todrive allthe machineryneeded. All these areat hand waiting for theday when the countrywill require them. Asyet there are no districtslike the great manufacturingcentres ofGreatBritain and the UnitedStates,devoted entirelyto the making of speciallines, as for example, woollens, cottons, cloths, boots, andshoes. Our manufacturing, so far, has arisen simply fromthe needs of the farm and the city. We have flour millsin every large villageand town (Fig. 115).These not only supplythe local need, but shipflour to Eastern Canada,the United States,Great Britain, and toSouth Africa.In a few places, forFig. 116.— Binder-twine factory at Brandon.example at Winnipegand Brandon, shopswhere threshing-machines,engines, and farming implements are manufactured,are doing an increasing business. At Brandon there isalso a large factory where binder-twine is made (Fig. 116),

INDUSTRIES 173and at Raymond, in southern Alberta, a beet-sugar factory(Fig. 117), capable of working over four hundred tons ofroots each day, is now in operation.Look about your village, town, city, or district and notethe various building materials used. Among these youmay find Portland cement. Where does this come fromand what is its value? For a long time we had to goabroad for this cement, but now we have works at Miami,Fio. 117. — Beet-sugar factory at Raymond.Manitoba, engaged in manufacturing an excellent sample,and lately §, magnificent deposit of marl was discoveredin the Pemjbina Mountains, about twelve miles south ofMorden. Since this discovery, the hill (Fig. 118) hasbeen carefully examined, and the marl severely tested byexperts, and both the examination and the test have provedso highly satisfactory that a company has been formedto manufacture cement. Immense buildings providedwith the best machinery will be built at Morden, and aspur of the Pembina Mountain branch will be laid so as

174 THE CANADIAN WESTto connect the works with the mountain.At the mountainsteam-shovels will load the cars, which will thenconvey the material to the manufactory, where it will bechanged into the Portland cement of trade at the rate of oneFig. 118.- •Marl deposit in Pembina Mountains nearMorden.thousand barrelsa day. This productwill then beshipped by railto all parts of thecountry, to bebuilt into thewalls of houses,floors of cellars,culverts, etc.These are onlya few signs of thetimes, but theyshow what maybe attempted asthe country increases in population and in wealth, and asour coal mines and water-power are brought into moregeneral use.Questions. — Why is grain farming more common in the easternpart of the Canadian West than in the western part?Show wherethe drill is better than hand sowing, the binder better than the cradle,and the threshing-machine better than the flail. Compare farmingon the lowlands with farming on the highlands. Show in what way afarming life is better than a city life. When does the wheat-harvestopen? What have the elevators at Fort William and Port Arthurto do with our wheat? What kinds of wheat are grown? Whereis fall wheat grown? Why can fall wheat not be successfully grownin Manitoba ? When is the grain sown ? When cut ? When threshed ?Find out the wheat-yield of Manitoba and the Territories during this

F rA\ Kasia L. \1*JRAILWAY LINESOF THECANADIAN -WESTCanadian Pacific ^.^ „„Canadian Northern ir~-., . _ , -„ ,„ Finished ProposedGrand Trunk PacificSaltnf Milts.,\S»>** £ 50 100 IjQ 2y0

1NDUSTIUES 175year. Where is our wheat sent to ? Is it sent as grain or as flour ?What is a ranch? Do you live on or near such a farm? Whatwill become of the ranches as the country becomes more settled?What people living in Manitoba may carry on a ranching occupation?Why is ranching followed so much in southern Alberta?Where Tare the cattle of the ranches sent? Is the country whereyou live adapted to sheep ? What are some of the drawbacks inraising sheep? Are hogs raised? Poultry ? What are your nearestmarkets for these? What do you mean by irrigation? When is irrigationused? Make a map showing how a southern Alberta farmmay be supplied with water from a stream. Are there any cheesefactories or creameries near your home ? Make a map showing thelocations of these. Are these under the government or are theyprivate concerns ? Have you ever visited any of them ? What didyou see? What is done with the products? Where are the milkand cream procured? How are these taken to the factory or creamery?If you live in the country, do your parents make butter?Have they any to sell? To whom is it sold ? What kind of cows doyou keep? Where do they pasture? What water do they drink?Will Alberta be a good dairying district? Why? Will Saskatchewan?Why? Locate any brickyard near you. Give any reason forthe selection of this yard. What is mortar? From what you knowof our industries, what can you tell of our imports? What is theleading industry of the country? Why is this the leading industry?Make a map of the Canadian West and insert the various products ofeach great region. Are iron, gold, and natural gas found? Where?How is the gold obtained? Make a map showing the coal fields, oilregions, and quarries. What hard work can coal do for us? Whatkind of coal burns with a good deal of smoke and flame? Whatkind gives out great heat and little blaze? Where are the bestlands for cattle farming? For grain farming? Why are these thebest? Would it be wise to place whitefish spawn in a lake wherepike were common? Give reasons. Locate the Pembina Mountains.What is the value of Portland cement? How is it to be manufactured?How will this help the town of Morden ? Why were notthe works placed at the mountain ? What foundries are near yourhome? What are made in them? What other manufactories is thecountry ready or about ready !x> support?

CHAPTER XVHOW OUR PRODUCTS ARE CARRIEDHowever desirable the conditions of climate, these areof no value for agricultural purposes unless the soil isfertile, and unless, too, there is a large area of fertility;Fig. 120. — York boat used by the earlyfurtraders and explorers.forproductiveness is of littleaccount if the productcannot be marketed, andit is only when there isa bountiful product thatfacilities for marketingcan be provided.All our boys and girlsshould know by thistime what the resourcesof the Canadian Westare•, all should understandthat grain and cattle will always form our heaviestand most valuable shipments. Still we must rememberExports and tfta* we have other things : lumber, fish, coal,importscordwood, building-stone, lime, dairy products,and many other materials that must be moved from theirseveral localities to other places. Again, we must takeinto consideration that the country, kind as it is, cannotsupply allour wants, and that many things must be im-176

HOW OUR PRODUCTS ARE CARRIED 177ported, that is, brought into the country, to help us tolive more comfortably. In other words we must bear inmind that while train loads of cattle, grain, fish, etc., aremoving eastwards and westwards, carrying our produceto market, other loads of furniture, groceries, dry goods,boots and shoes, hardware, machinery, etc., are cominginto the country. See Appendix M.Next in importance to having a thing to sell is to havethe means of getting that thing to the buyer. This demandsthat we must have a rapid, easy, and cheap methodfor the carriageof our goodsbackwards andforwards. Whatmeans of transportationhavewe ? Can thesebe improved ?In the earlydays advantagewas taken of thenaturalways,namely, the riversand the lakes.Fig. 121.Sailing barge and birch-bark canoe on theLesser Slave Lake.Canoes and boats on the rivers (Figs.120 and 121), dog-sleighs and wagons (Fig. 122) on theland, and a few British ships once a year in Eariy trans-Hudson Bay, were all that were needed to carryP° rtatl0na product that could never bulk much, nor weigh much,however successful the year's hunting and trapping mighthave been. Why are not our rivers used more than theyare for the carriage of our forest and our farm products ?The answer is found in the nature of the rivers them-

178 THE CANADIAN WESTselves, and also in the fact that the country has not yetgrown large enough to make the placing of many boatson its streams a pressing necessity.The Mackenzie, though navigable for the greater partof its length, is free from ice but a few months each year.Besides, it flows northwards into a sea that has never beenNavigableriverscounted safe enough for our shipping. Still,the Mackenzie has been used as a waterwayand will be more used as thefor many years (Fig. 123),country develops and the value of this basin becomesbetter known.There are onlytwo dangerousplaces in thewhole river, andbothFig. 122. — Freighters leaving Prince Albert.may beovercome byshort lines ofrailway builtalong the Grand Rapids of the Athabaska, and the SlaveRiver Rapids. The Saskatchewan, too, is already navigablein long stretches, and it can be made more so,should the country demand it. The main difficulties liein the rapids near its mouth, in the character of its outlet,the Nelson River, and in the length of time HudsonBay, and more particularly, Hudson Strait, are open tonavigation each year. The rapids are at present overcomeby a tramway (Fig. 36); the Nelson is navigablein stretches, and the bay and strait have been used forupwards of two hundred years by the vessels of theHudson's Bay Company. This matter of a railway fromWinnipeg to Hudson Bay is much talked of to-day, and

HOW OUR PRODUCTS ARE CARRIED 179indeed surveyors, sent out by the Canadian NorthernRailway Company are already at work on the line; butthe future will have to prove whether it is workable ornot. There is no doubt, however, that the rivers capableof carrying boats will be used more and more as thebusiness ofcreases. Thisseen in thetobring thepeg shippingWinnipeg byin the Redrapids ofSt.8. Scow running the rapids on Slave River.Fig. 123. — Transportation in the farNorth.the West inisalreadyeffort madeLake Winnitothe city ofputting locksRiver at theAndrews, —a work that will be completed in a few years.Except in the northern country where the dog-sleighs(Fig. 124) are still a necessity, railways are our chief modeof transportation ; and when we remember how young thispart of the country really is, we cannot help com- Theing to the conclusion that our railways, over- railwa y sworked as they no doubt are at certain seasons of the

;;180 THE CANADIAN WESTyear, have yet been built as rapidly as the country neededthem. Place the old conditions with the horse, ox, RedFig. 124. — Coming in from the North.River cart (Fig.125), the riverfreighter(Fig.126), and thehome-madeferry (Fig.127),beside our modernrapid travelling,with itscomfortable cars (Fig. 128), firm roadbed, and steel bridges,and you will see just how fast we have been going ahead.While railways are very valuable for all long-distancecarriage, we must not forget that good countryGood roadsroads are also a necessity. In what way ? Badroads are among the greatest drawbacks to country lifeby the want ofgood roads thefarmer suffersmore than anyother person.Districts wheregood highwayshave been builtare richer, moreprosperous, morethickly settledwhile those notpossessing theseFig. 125. — Red River cart.advantages are still at a standstill or are growing poorerand poorer. Good roads, like good streets, make living

HOW OUR PRODUCTS ARE CARRIED 181along them more desirable ; they save time in the transportationof goods, they lessen the wear and tear ofhorses, harness, and wagons, and increase the value of theland. These are some of the values of good roads ;perhapsyou can mention others.Now, our great market lies to the east; and we areplaced in touch with it by means of the Canadian Pacific,the Canadian Northern, the Great Lakes, and the lines ofrailway enteringfrom the UnitedStates.All boysand girls shouldknow somethingof oar main linesand their largestbranches. Thismuch is expectedof every intelligentpersontoday.In our descriptionofthe railwayswe expectFigure 119 and Appendix N to be consulted at every stage.Let us begin with the Canadian Pacific Railway, or, as weknow it best, the C. P. R. This road enters•Tir-iic •-v i i« The CanadianiManitoba from Ontario and runs a little north- PacificRailwaywestwards towards the Red River. At EastSelkirk it turns sharply southwards to Winnipeg. Leavingthe " Gateway of the West," the Canadian Pacific keepsto the north of theFig. 126. —A Red River freighter.Assiniboine, passing through Portagela Prairie, Macgregor, Carberry, and crosses to the south

182 THE CANADIAN WESTside of the river at Brandon.It then continues westwardsthrough Virden, enters the North-West Territories, and passingthrough Moosomin, Broadview, Indian Head, Regina,Moose Jaw, Swift Current, Maple Creek, Medicine Hat,Fig. 127. — A home-made ferry.from Winnipeg, Portage laCalgary, and Banff, entersthe Rockies throughthe Kicking Horse Pass.No sooner was themain line open to trafficthan little villages andtowns sprang up likemagic, and settlementswere formed farther andfarther away from therailway. This increaseof population demandedextra additions to themeans of carriage.Branch lines were thereforebuilt north and southPrairie, Macgregor, Brandon,Kirkella, Regina, Medicine Hat, and Calgary, to keep pacewith the development of the country. These branchesare being extended from year to year, and new branchesadded to meet the country's needs.The other great railway system is the Canadian Northern,or C. N. R. The eastern end, or terminus of this roadis at Port Arthur on Lake Superior (Fig. 98).'Northern This line passes through Winnipeg, Portage laPrairie, Gladstone, and Dauphin. At the GilbertPlains junction, a few miles north of Dauphin, themain road turns westwards, and after passing through the

HOW OUR PRODUCTS ARE CARRIED 183Gilbert Plains country and by the town of Grand View,enters the Saskatchewan valley through the gap betweenthe Riding and the Duck Mountains. It is the intentionto continue the Canadian Northern in the direction ofSaskatoon, Battleford, and Edmonton, and finally throughthe Rockies to a point on the Pacific far north of Vancouver,the western end of the Canadian Pacific Railway.From the Gilbert Plains station an important branch, witha spur to Winnipegosis, on Lake Winnipegosis (Fig. 129),Fig.128. — A modern railway train.follows the eastern side of the Duck Mountains and thePorcupine Hills to the northern boundary of the province,where it turns sharply to the west with a view to reachingPrince Albert.The main feeder of the Canadian Northern Railway tothe south is what was at one time called the Brandon-Morris branch of the Northern Pacific Railway. Thisbranch runs to Winnipeg, Brandon, and Hartney, and, likethe Canadian Pacific Railway, connects with the lines fromthe United States.Have we in these lines sufficient means of carriage ?This is the very question which Canada as a whole is

184 THE CANADIAN WESTthinking about to-day, and some persons have even goneso far as to say that by 1911, when the next census willbe taken, there will be in the Canadian West over a millionpeople, over one hundred and fifty million bushels ofwheat grown, and over two million head of cattle on thefarms and ranches. To meet, therefore, present difficultiesand also to provide for the future, our railways areFig.129. — Winnipegosis harbor.being pushed out into regions unsettled a few years ago,The GrandTrunkPacificand in addition to the trunk lines already mentionedthere is another likely to be laid downbefore many years have passed. This is theGrand Trunk Pacific, and it is purposed to build this line,for the greater part, north of the existing Canadian railways,but connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans andpassing through Winnipeg, Prince Albert, and Edmonton.

BOW OUR PRODUCTS ARE CARRIED 185It will, therefore, be wise for us to follow the building ofthis new Canadian transcontinental road, that we mayobserve how closely the welfare of the country is wrappedup in its means of transportation.Questions. — Make a map ofManitoba and the Territories andshow the main lines of the two great railway systems.Place on eachthe principal centres. Give reasons why each centre has been solocated. Do the settlements follow the railways, or the railways followthe settlements? Show in what ways both are benefited. Hadthe Canadian Pacific crossed the Red River at Selkirk, would thishave affected Winnipeg? In what way is Winnipeg naturally situated?Why has the Canadian Pacific in Manitoba followed the directionof the Assiniboine? Why was the first great railway placed sonear the south of the Canadian West? What materials will be shippedat the greater centres marked on your railway map? What goods willbe imported at these points? What means of transportation are therein your part of the country? What is the condition of the countryroads? Whose business is it to take care of them? Locate whereyour building material and fuel are procured. Describe the firstwagon roads used. Why were these abandoned? What use is madeof the river nearest to your home ? Why do so many railways runfrom Portage la Prairie? Why does a line run from Molson toLac du Bonnet? From Regina to Prince Albert? From Calgary toEdmonton? From Dunmore to the Crow's Nest? What is thelargest town near your home? How do you reach it? How longwill it take you to journey from your home to Winnipeg, Edmonton,Macleod ? How would you reach these places by rail ? Are ourrailways in connection with the roads from the United States?Where? What advantage is this? How does the slope of the CanadianWest assist the transportation of produce to the east? Can youtell why the Canadian Pacific was built in the first place? Haveyou heard of the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway? Where is it to beplaced ? What will be its value to the country ? Show that thisroad will be superior to more southern lines as a short route betweenEurope and Japan ; as a military road. See Appendix N. Whyshould the Grand Trunk Pacific be built to the north of the two other

186 TUE CANADIAN WESTtrunk lines? Why is it better to ship grain by the lakes rather thanby rail? Where do we get our binder-twine, binders, boots and shoes,harness, wagons, sleighs, spades, rakes, hoes, lumber, gloves, cottons,woollens, sewing-machines, chairs, tables, steam threshing-machines,wash-tubs, stoves, lawn-mowers, wire fencing, apples, pears, oatmeal,flour, silverware? Make a list of twelve things needed at home andmade in the country. Make another list of twelve things used inconnection with city, town, or country life not produced in the country.

,'*%&.%?*(H.fco.}",.-A>H «VL.ANDNORTH-WEST TERII,Trom\L.)? Ft.McMurrav L rl e lC*«'XHB.Co.)JBtu,,r «-B.Co:)-V.1 ;r r> v. 'ar^*^jfejkll «_•''-;r\>fiWliftefish__Y *yAth„u,XJl-aiij/l!M^l-\BIaiienu!ix'-'-i-^\Leciuc^,DuhamellPbnoka, TofLaconrf' Ke **0

''IES.us: @ays:.:ale ol101' 402° 100"Cities with over 25,000:' "0^7Winnipeg"Cities V.UI1." with Willi 5,000 J,UUU to IU 25,000; ..yiUir- AtlUlIM Ilrillldoil ""^3Ci iesM " d!'^'^'"''WitTilwit'h 2.000 2,000 to 5.000: 5,000: Keiriiin KeffinaTowns with 1,000 to 2,000: NeejmnaSmaller Places: DuumoreOther Places: •100 150 200Miles?K^Gra«t>>|erlamMi£yff rv (H.B.C^p-7^r?i ,,tft»»fi.B"'' A -> -l (HB.CO.)) 1 u*S^^s\t1 ^(b^.5o.)/ \%1SP^;lw,-* i;roR» &•^bb- Co 'fegr,^Cols WWi*?* niUVfi1 *"Se^T*Waurh*-S\ F^®iV"It.^~ TduchuioodXjiillsjXuii MMOtam Yorkto . _/ £..A\\\(IV*"J

CHAPTER XVICITIES AND TOWNS OF MANITOBAGreat cities have not been placed where they are foundsimply by accident. Cities, as well as people, have to befed to make them grow. They are therefore placed soas to command some natural advantage over their surp^^Jj *f*w^?l*J:«pn W% jg|^r^"5gipf-*•mST mFig. 131. — Winnipeg about 1875. Notice the river steamer, the ferry, andthe Red River cart.roundings. Let us try to remember this when thinkingabout the cities, towns, and villages which we are about tomention.Winnipeg is situated at the junction of the Assiniboineand the Red rivers. These rivers were the highwaysleading into the country to the south, west, and north.187

188 THE CANADIAN WESTIt was natural, then, that this point should be fixed uponas an important one by the Indians and afterwards occupiedand built up by the white traders.Sixty miles tothe south is the international boundary ; forty miles inthe opposite direction is Lake Winnipeg ; equally distant,east and west, are the two great oceans (Figs. 2 and 50).The location is almost at the very eastern entrance ofthe prairie country.Itis, therefore, the naturalroute of the great linesof railway running eastand west. The cities ofEastern Canada are toofar away to serve as collectingand distributingcentres for the West.Some site farther westhad to be chosen. Couldthere be a better sitethan Winnipeg for these purposes ? From it railwaysextend in all directions (Fig. 132), like the spokes of awheel, and these will be added to as the years come andgo.Fig. 132. — Radial map of Winnipeg.In the Lake of the Woods district are great lumberingand milling industries. To the north are the limestonequarries of Stonewall and Tyndall, and the fish,wood, and lumber of the Manitoba lake country. To thewest, and the far west, are the immense grain farms andcattle ranches, whose products must pass towards Winnipeg.In Winnipeg are situated the big wholesale and bankingconcerns. Here every branch of business is represented :—flour-milling, soap works, biscuit works, foundries, planing-

CITIES AND TOWNS OF MANITOBA 189mills, pork-packing houses, abattoirs, etc. This, also, isthe political and educational centre of a great province,and the public buildings are all in keeping with the spiritof the country. Among the many are the University ofManitoba (Fig. 134), St. John's, Wesley, and ManitobaColleges, Manitoba Medical College, Business Colleges,the Parliament Buildings (Fig. 153), Post-office, Courthouse,Public Schools, Deaf and Dumb Institute (Fig.134), Normal School, General Hospital, City Hall, PublicLibrary, etc. The Crown Timber Office, the DominionLand Office, and the Dominion Immigration Offices forthe West are also situated in Winnipeg, as are also theLand Offices of the Canadian Pacificand Canadian NorthernRailways and thegeneral offices ofthe Hudson's BayCompany.Fig. 133. — Main Street, Winnipeg, looking north. Notice the very widestreet.

190 THE CANADIAN WESTAlthough the surroundings are flat, there is an excellentsewerage system. The best of water is procured from alargeartesian well in the north-west quarter of the city.The streets are wide, and all modern conveniences in theway of telephones, electric cars, and electric lights are provided(Fig. 133). Winnipeg has grown from a populationof two hundredand fifteen in 1870to a population ithousand at theSt.Boniface,Fig. 134.1. Deaf and Dumb Institute, Winnipeg.of Manitoba, Winnipeg.2. Universitynearlyseventypresent time,thehistoricFrench town,and one of theoldest in the West,is situated acrossthe Red River fromthe city of Winnipeg,with which itis connected by severalbridges and anelectric street railway.It possesses animportant woollenmanufactory, andon its outskirts areseveral valuable brickyards where twenty-seven millionbricks were manufactured in 1903. The town is the residenceof the archbishop of St. Boniface, and the seat ofthe French college of the same name. Here is also avery fine general hospital, and the French Normal Schoolfor the province. Here, in the earlier days, from thecathedral, since burned down, rang out: —

CITIES AND TOWNS OF MANITOBA 191" The bells of the Roman MissionThat call from their turrets twain;To the boatman on the river,To the hunter on the plain."Portage la Prairie is situated near the Assiniboine River,on the main lines of the Canadian Pacific and CanadianWBSmFig. 135. — Scenes in Portagela Prairie and Brandon.1. Main Street, Portage la Prairie.2. Home for Incurables.3. Kosser Avenue, Brandon.Northernrailways,about fifty-six milesfrom Winnipeg andfifteen miles from LakeManitoba. It thusoccupies an important position between the country to thewest and the north-west, and the east, — a fact readilyseen by an examination of Figure 130. In the earlierdays, even, Portage laPrairie was looked upon as a valuablepoint in connection with the fur supplies of the upperAssiniboine and the north-western country. To-day the

192 THE CANADIAN WEST" Portage," as it is commonly called, is a railway centreand also the local market of the rich agricultural districtof the "Portage plains." Here are found many finestores (Fig. 135), a large flour-mill (Fig. 115) and elevators,Indian Industrial School, and the Provincial Homefor Incurables (Fig. 135).Brandon, the second city in size in Manitoba, is beautifullysituated on the gravelly slopes of the south bankof the Assiniboine andFig. 136. — Brandon College, Brandon.within sight of theblue hills of Brandon.Around it is a fertilefarming country, ofwhich it is the centre,and with which it isconnected by numerouslines of railway. Brandonhas an excellentsystem of water supplyand sewerage. Its mainstreet has numerous finebusiness blocks (Fig. 135), and its residential portion containsmany beautiful homes. In the city itself are suchbuildings as Brandon College (Fig. 136), Central School,Post-office, General Hospital, binder-twine factory (Fig.116), Brandon machine works, and woollen, flour, andsawmills. Across the valley is the Experimental Farmfor Manitoba, consisting of about six hundred and seventyacres of land, lying partly in the valley of the Assiniboineand partly on the bluffs. Here valuable experiments havebeen made in grain-growing, flower, tree, and root culture,feeding and caring for stock, etc., with the result that

1'—CITIES AND TOWNS OF MANITOBA 193the province everywhere has been benefited. On thesame side of the valley are the Indian Industrial Schooland one of the Provincial Asylums for the Insane.West Selkirk is located on the Red River, about twentyfourmiles from Winnipeg, with which it is connected bya branch of the Canadian Pacific Railway. It is themost southern port for the boats running on Lake Winnipeg.Here are situated one of the largest fish-freezersin Canada, the Dominion Fish Hatchery, planing-mills,and one of the Provincial Asylums for the Insane.'rr fc _ ^.j^Ars ""_~ 5!«KonnB! JWfflI—Fig. 137. — Morden.Morden lies in the centre of a rich farming district to theeast of the Pembina Mountains and on the Pembina Mountainbranch of the Canadian Pacific Railway (Fig. 137).The town is well built, and possesses all the facilities forhandling the various farm products of the broad countrysurrounding it. Morden has also a large woollen-mill, apump factory, a cannery, flour-mills, and a tannery.addition it is the headquarters of a company engaged inthe manufacture of cement from the rich marl deposits ashort distance from the town (Fig. 118). The chief publicbuildings are the Land Titles Office and the MasonicHospital.Carberry is a thriving town on the main line of theCanadian Pacific Railway, about twenty-five miles east ofIn

194 THE CANADIAN WESTBrandon. It is the natural centre of a large agriculturalcountry, and has all the elevator and other conveniencesfor handling the grain and stock about it. The buildingsof the business portion of the town are for the most partof brick, the principal street presenting a fine, compactappearance.Neepawa, so named from an Indian word meaning"plenty," is situated on the Portage la Prairie-Yorktonbranch of the Canadian Pacific and on a branch of theCanadian Northern, in the midst of the magnificent wheatgrowinglands of the "Beautiful Plains." This is one ofthe largest wheat-markets of the Canadian West, the yieldfor 1902 being placed at about a million and a quarterbushels. From the town can be seen the spurs of theRiding Mountains, rising in a north-westerly direction.The southern slopes of these hills are cultivated to thevery summit.Dauphin is situated on the main line of the CanadianNorthern between the Riding and Duck Mountains andLake Dauphin. It is therefore the natural market-centreof the great country to the north-west. The land aboutDauphin is finely adapted to mixed farming.Minnedosa, one of the most beautifully situatedtownsin the province, is on the Little Saskatchewan, a tributaryof the Assiniboine. It lies in the midst of a lovely valleyand is surrounded by a varied agricultural country. It isalso a divisional point on the Yorkton branch of the CanadianPacific Railway and the Rapid City line to Brandon.Carman has the advantage of being located on both theCanadian Pacific and the Canadian Northern railways bymeans of the Glenboro branch of the former and the Carmanbranch of the latter. Around Carman is an extensive

CITIES AND TOWNS OF MANITOBA 195farming country. The town is well laid out, and is consideredone of the most beautiful in the province.On account of agriculture being the leading industry ofManitoba and the West generally, it naturally follows thatthere will be considerable sameness in any description ofvillages and towns. Each centre has its series of elevators,and many centres have each their flour mill. The remainingcentres are the following:Stonewall, St.Norbert,St. Anne, Gladstone,Shoal Lake, Birtle,Winnipegosis, Russell,Macgregor, Elkhorn,Virden,Oak Lake, Alexander,Griswold, Treherne,Cypress River,Holland, Glenboro,Souris, Hartney, Wa-Fig.138. — A scene on Lake Killarney insouth-western Manitoba.wanesa, Melita, Napinka, Deloraine, Boissevain, Killarney(Fig. 138), Cartwright, Clearwater, Pilot Mound, Manitou,Gretna, Emerson, St. Jean Baptiste, Gimli, Altona, Winkler,Baldur, and Miami, — all important points likely to growsome day into busy towns and great cities.Note. — Teachers are asked to make a selection of such towns in theforegoing as are of greatest interest to the students of their respectivedistricts.Questions. — On an outline map of Manitoba place all the centresmentioned in the chapter. Account for the location of West Selkirk,Souris, Birtle, Emerson, and Gretna. Show how railways increase thevalue and the productiveness of farms. Name the centres alongsouthern Manitoba. What divides the province into a northern andsouthern Manitoba? Name the larger towns and villages twenty

196 THE CANADIAN WESTmiles north of the Assiniboine. Make a map of your own municipalityand place on it its railways and elevator points. Accountfor such town sites as Winnipegosis, Lac du Bonnet, Deloraine,Portage la Prairie, Gitnli, Selkirk, and Virden. Answer each of thefollowing cmestions for Brandon, Minnedosa, Rapid City, and Macgregor,namely: (a) On or near what river? (6) Causes of locationand growth ? (c) For what noted ? Why are there not more villagesand towns in eastern Manitoba and in the Dauphin country? Is thecountry south of the Canadian Pacific a better farming country thanthat to the north? Give reasons. Where are York Factory andFort Churchill situated? See Appendix 0, 4.

CHAPTER XVIICITIESAND TOWNS OF THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORIESDescriptions of the cities of older lands, made, perhaps,ten or more years ago, are often, in the main, true picturesof those cities to-day. This is not possible, however,- inthe case of the cities and towns of young countries, wherethe growth is often so rapid that the picture of to-day isin no way a true description of the young giant of a fewyears hence.villageIndeed, we feel that not even the smallestshould be omitted, for who can tell where it maystand in the course of a few years ? In trying, therefore,to picture the following centres, ask of each : Why wasit placed there ? What kind of country surrounds andnourishes it?Is the situation the very best in the districtfor mining, farming, manufacturing, etc. ?To what extentis it a distributing point ? Is it likely to be a greatcentre ?Regina, the principal city in the district of Assiniboia,the seat of the Territorial Legislature, and the headquartersof the mounted police, is situated on the CanadianPacific Railway three hundred and fifty-seven miles fromWinnipeg and four hundred and eighty-three miles fromCalgary, in a district admirably suited to successful grainand mixed farming. Branch lines connect with Saskatoonand Prince Albert on the north, and with Areola on the197

198 THE CANADIAN WESTsouth-east. The city is therefore finely located as themarket and wholesale centre of the surrounding country.A good system of water supply and sewerage is beingadded, and every effort put forth to make Regina worthyof its name, and worthy,too, of its place as thecapital of the North-West Territories. Theprincipal buildings arethe Government Buildings,Land Titles Office,Dominion Land Office,Court-house (Fig. 139),Fig. 139. — Court-house, Regina. and the Public Schools.Regina is also the educationalcentre of the country, the Territorial NormalSchool being situated here.Indian Head. — Wheat is the main product of the districtaround Indian Head (Fig. 97), and the neighboringtowns of Qu'Appelle and Sintaluta. About a mile tothe north of Indian Head is the government ExperimentalFarm (Fig. 140), where various experiments are carefullyconducted on new varieties of grain, grasses, flowers, andtrees for the benefit of the whole western country. Thetown has a large flour mill, planing-mills, sash and doorfactory, and the elevator accommodation necessary for thedistrict.Yorkton is situated on the Yorkton branch of theCanadian Pacific Railway, three hundred miles northwestof Winnipeg and forty miles west of the Manitobaboundary, and is in the midst of a fine rolling country wellwooded in parts. Here the government has established a

CITIES AND TOWNS OF THE TERRITORIES 199creamery and a patrol station of the mounted police.Yorkton is also an important cattle-shipping centre.The other important centres of eastern Assiniboia areMoosomin, Estevan, Carlyle, Areola, Wapella, Wolseley,Saltcoats, Oxbow, Carnduff, Whitewood, and Grenfell.Moose Jaw, on the main line of the Canadian PacificRailway, is a railway centre, being a divisional point onthe main lineof the railway,and also a terminalpoint of thePasqua or Soobranch, whichruns south-eastfrom Pasqua,eight miles eastFig. 140. — Indian Head from the Experimental Farm.of Moose Jaw, through Estevan to the boundary line atPortal, where connection is made with the Soo line forSt. Paul. From an agricultural point of view, as well,Moose Jaw is one of the most flourishing cities in thewestern country.Medicine Hat, the most westerly town of Assiniboia, isthe centre of a great ranching district (Fig. 141).Nearit are extensive coal-fields. In this modern town are tobe found a complete sewer system, water works, naturalgas, fine business blocks, and beautiful residences. Theclimate is very healthful. Medicine Hat is situated onthe south branch ofthe Saskatchewan, on the main lineof the Canadian Pacific Railway. It is also connected, byDunmore Junction, with the country of southern Alberta.Maple Creek. — The ranching district of Maple Creekis the largest in Assiniboia, covering, as it does, a block

200 THE CANADIAN WESTof land one hundred and forty miles from east to westand two hundred miles from north to south. Throughthe southern part of this district, the Cypress Hills extendin a long chain about one hundred and fifty miles in length,an ideal formation for a ranching country. The town ofMaple Creek isFig. 141. — Medicine Hat.the natural shipping-pointof thehorses, cattle,and sheep of theranches.Calgary is avery progressivecity, situated inwestern Albertaat the junctionof the Bow andElbow rivers, eight hundred and forty miles from Winnipeg,six hundred and forty miles from Vancouver, and onthe border-line between the great farming and ranchingcountry of Assiniboia and Alberta, and the mining andlumbering regions of British Columbia. It is, therefore,naturally a distributing centre or wholesale depot for thegreater part of the territory mentioned. It is also themarket town of the surrounding ranching country, is adivisional point on the Canadian Pacific Railway, hasbranches running to Edmonton and Macleod, is a stationfor a section of the mounted police, and is the seat of theWestern Canada College. Calgary has water works, alarge flour mill, abattoir, and cold storage, a fine creamery,and several other conveniences and manufactories (Fig.142).

CITIES AND TOWNS OF THE TERRITORIES 201Lethbridge, on the Crow's Nest Railway, is situated inthe centre of large coal-fields (Fig. Ill), farming andranching lands. The mines here give employment to severalhundred persons, and supply soft coal to the largerportion of southern Alberta and western Assiniboia. Lethbridgeis the terminus -of the Alberta Railway and CoalFig. 142. — Stephen Avenue, Calgary.Company's line, a road independent of both the CanadianPacific and the Canadian Northern railways, runningsouthwards to the boundary line. From Lethbridge amagnificent view of the Rocky Mountains can be had.To see this mighty chain, eighty miles to the west,stretching far to the north and to the south against theblue sky, is a sight never to be forgotten.

202 THE CANADIAN WESTMacleod, on the Crow's Nest Pass Railway, liesa shortdistance to the west of Leth bridge, at the southern terminusof the Calgary and Edmonton branch of the CanadianPacific Railway. It is the business centre andprincipal market of the great ranching interests to thesouth.Edmonton is situated on the north bank of the NorthSaskatchewan River, and overlooks the valley from aFig. 143. — Edmonton.height of abouttwohundredfeet(Fig. 143). Itscommand of theupper Mackenzieand Saskatchewanvalleyswill, there isnodoubt, raise itbefore manyyears into a greatrailway, wholesale,and manufacturingcentre. Here about a hundred years ago theHudson's Bay Company erected one of its principal westernposts, and here at the present time is one of the largestfur-collecting depots of the West (Fig. 106). The countryround about is rich in coal, in wood, and in all the productsof the farm, and these find their home market in the town.The principal buildings are built of brick manufactured inthe neighborhood. Besides its brickyards, Edmonton hasthe following important industries : pork-packing houses,foundry and machine shops, flour and sawmills. Herealso has been chosen the site for Alberta College, where

CITIES AND TOWNS OF THE TERRITORIES 203an education for a business profession and in the higherarts is provided. Edmonton is at present connected withCalgary by a branch of the Canadian Pacific Railway, butbefore long itwill also be an important point on both theCanadian Northern and Grand Trunk Pacific lines.Strathcona is the northern terminus of the Calgary andEdmonton branch of the Canadian Pacific Railway. Thesite of the town is admirably chosen on the high southbank of the North Saskatchewan almost across the riverfrom Edmonton, with which it is connected by a steelbridge. The country in the neighborhood is well adaptedto grain-growing, stock-raising, mixed farming, and otherindustries exactly similar to those mentioned in connectionwith Edmonton. What products will be shipped fromthe place ? To what market ?In northern Alberta south ofStrathcona are Wetaskiwin,Lacombe, Red Deer, Innisfail, and other towns on theCalgary-Edmonton branch of the Canadian Pacific Railway.All are the centres of large farming interests. Inthe southern part of Alberta, bounded by the internationalboundary line, the Rocky Mountains, the Crow's Nest PassRailway, and the Alberta Coal Company's line are Stirling,Cardston, Magrath, and Raymond, in a district made morevaluable for grain, cattle, and vegetables by an elaboratesystem of irrigation ditches. Stirling lies six miles eastof Raymond, at the junction of the Alberta Coal Company'sline and the St. Mary's River Railway. Cardstonwas an unknown town a few years ago ; now it has apopulation of about fifteen hundred. Raymond has hada similiar history, a history that will in the future bemore or less connected with an immense sugar-beet factory(Fig. 117), capable of converting yearly the root

204 THE CANADIAN WESTBmv «ni HMll ,Fig. 144. —Scenes in the National Park, Banff.

CITIES AND TOWNS OF THE TERRITORIES 205crop of three thousand five hundred acres into sugar.Nearer the mountains, south-west of Macleod, are thefamous ranches of Pincher Creek, now growing smaller asthe settlements devoted to mixed farming are extending.Banff. — Away up in the Rocky Mountains, in westernAlberta, on the main line of the Canadian Pacific, is Banff,the centre of a large tract of country full of magnificentmountains,lovely lakes, andshady trees. Thishasbeensetapartby the DominionGovernment asa great nationalpark, to be usedfor purposes ofpleasure and recreationonly.Since this districtwas setaside for thepurposes of aFig. 145.— A beautiful scene at Banff.park, many improvements have been undertaken, with theresult that roads have been made, bridges built, brushwoodremoved, a museum opened, and buildingserectedat the Hot Springs and other places for the pleasure andconvenience of visitors (Figs. 144 and 145).Prince Albert, the chief town of the district of Saskatchewan,is beautifully situated on the North Saskatchewan(Fig. 146), a short distance above the junction of this riverwith the south branch. Around it is an extensive agriculturalcountry that of late has been rapidly developing.

206 THE CANADIAN WESTIt is connected with Regina by rail. It is also going tobe an important point on the Portage la Prairie-Yorktonextension of the Canadian Pacific and also of the CanadianNorthern Railway. This town is a divisional pointfor the mounted police. It is well supplied with sawmills,flour mills, grain elevators, and brick yards.PrinceAlbert is certain to be one of the most important pointsin the Territories.Battleford, at the junction of the Battle and NorthSaskatchewan rivers is in the centre of a country wellsuited to mixed farming and ranching. It is also aFig.146. — A street in Prince Albert on the Saskatchewan River.mounted police post. At one time Battleford was theseat of government of the Territories. It is in the midstof a country that isbeing rapidly settled, and is likely tobe an important point on the Canadian Northern andGrand Trunk Pacific lines. North-west from Battleford,in the country bordering on the Saskatchewan River, the" All-British Colony " or Britannia, is situated.Saskatoon, an important distributing point on the PrinceAlbert branch, is the centre of the large farming countryof south-central Saskatchewan. It is expected that boththe Canadian Northern and the Grand Trunk Pacific willpass through or near Saskatoon.

CITIES AND TOWNS OF THE TERRITORIES 207Note. — Teachers are asked to make a selection of such towns in theforegoing as are of greatest consequence to the students of their respectivedistricts.Questions. — Make a map of the North-West Territories, insertthe railways, and the important centres.In what respects are smallercentres like larger centres? In what way are they different?What causes have led to the selection of such centres as Edmonton,Regina, and Calgary? What materials are shipped from MedicineHat, Lethbridge, Prince Albert, and Estevan? Why was the IndianHead Experimental Farm located where it is? How do the farmingconditions here differ from those at Brandon ? Compare the farmingof eastern Assiniboia with that of western Assiniboia. What makesthe difference? Contrast farming about Cardston with farming atEdmonton. Do you think the people of these two districts will differmuch ? Give reasons. What do you know of agriculture in Saskatchewan?What centres are connected with the coal and stone industries?Where are the leading banking centres? Why do you thinkso? What are likely to be the manufacturing centres of this partof Canada? Why do you think so? What railways are found inthe valley of the Red River? In the valley of the North Saskatchewan?South Saskatchewan? Why is there no town at the junctionof the two branches of the Saskatchewan? Is there any village ortown near your home that has reached its full growth and is nowslowly going behind ? Have you tried to find why ? See Appendix 0, 4.

208 THE CANADIAN WEST

CHAPTER XVIIITHE PEOPLEIn" order the better to understand the social life andthe progress of the Canadian West, it is necessary tobecome acquainted with the various peoples who havemade it their home. These are Indian, Eskimo, nativesor mixed races, Canadians from the eastern provinces, andsettlers from the United States and from almost everycountry inEurope.We have already mentioned the Indian and the Eskimo.We have also had a glimpse of the fur trader, who saw inthese broad acres of prairie and woodland a great gamepreserve. Many of these traders settled in thecountry,and. ,married, ,dusky. ,maidens,ot,theThe nativesIndian race. The descendants of these unions form aconsiderable part of our population in the older settleddistricts of the West. These people have been calledhalf-breeds, a name that should be set aside for a betterone. We would suggest . natives as the most suitablename.We have also had something to say about the " SelkirkSettlement," when a real farming class was placed on thesoil.So stout-hearted were these strangers that, in spiteof many hardships and dangers, this little colony remainedon, to prove that a successful living could be madeon the Canadian prairies.p 209

210 THE CANADIAN WESTThe plains of the North-West, which for countless ageshave been roamed over by numerous herds of buffalo or bythe scarcely less wild tribes of Indians, are now beinginvaded by the white races. From the south and the eastthousands of new settlers are entering the country withthe intention of making it their home. But why havethe prairies of the Canadian West been soup in comparison with the lands of the south ?slow in fillingThere areseveral reasons. New countries depend much upon easycommunication with the outside world. This was impos-sible until a few years ago, when the eastern andwhy thesettled*earlierso far to8 not southern railways reached the country. Again,people were strongly of the opinion that a landthe north could never prove a pleasant place tolive in. In the last place, it takes a great deal to convincepeople as a body. They have to be shown over and overagain that a particular portion of a country is really good,before they will muster enough courage to break up theirold home surroundings.The western and northern portions of the United States,being farther to the south, were first invaded by peoplefrom Britain, Germany, Europe generally, and even EasternCanada. Now the "freehands" of the United Statesare all taken up, and improved lands have become toovaluable for home-seekers to think of buying.°^ emigration has gradually shifted to the Cana-settlersfiowinginThe tide^ian pia j ns? and.for over thirty years this tidehas been growing, so that to-day people from all thenorthern countries of the world are entering the Westwith the intention of making it their home. Who aresome of these people and where have they settled?

THE PEOPLE 211We are all well enough acquainted with our own peoplefrom Eastern Canada, both English and French ; and weare also familiar with the English, Scotch, and Irish people.Some of us know the energetic and progressive settlersfrom the country to the south, who have been lately pourin£ into the country in such large numbers.Among: these in the country about Cardston the unitedStatesand Raymond of southern Alberta are a largenumber of Mormon settlers. The plan of settlementfollowed by these people is modelled on that of theirnative state, Utah. A town site is selected and markedoff into plots of an acre and a quarter each. On each ofthese a house is built and a large vegetable and fruitgarden worked.Besides this lot, each family of the townhas taken up a homestead, where cattle, grain, and rootsare successfully grown in spite of the scanty rainfall ofthe country, for the Mormons are skilful in the workingof irrigation ditches, by means of which the water of theneighboring lakes, ponds, and rivers, is made to assist theordinary rains. As a people, the Mormons are progressivefarmers. They are also interested in the manufacture ofbeet-sugar, — an industry likely to be of great value tothe country. We have also met the industrious andfrugal-living German. We are not, however, so well acquaintedwith the Icelander, Mennonite, Crofter, Galician,and Doukhobor. All these we shall describe so far aswe have seen them in business, in the field, and at home.The Icelandic people have now been residents of theWest for over a quarter of a century. They have, therefore,been among us long enough to permit of Tneour forming a fair estimate of their worth. It Icelandersis admitted by every one that they are worthy of their

212 THE CANADIAN WESTadopted Canada, and Canada is all the better for theindustry, sober living, and downright worth of the Icelandicpeople. They are also an education-loving classand have already measured themselves in many ways withtheir other Canadian neighbors. This is shown in thesuccess that has followed them in farming (Fig. 148),Fig. 148. — Atypical Icelandic homestead.in business, and in professionallife. The Icelandicpopulation is overten thousand, distributedlargely in the countrybetween lakes Manitobaand Winnipeg, in WestSelkirk and Winnipeg,in the district lying betweenBaldur and Glenboro,near Yorkton in Assiniboia and near Red Deer innorthern Alberta.The Mennonites of southern Russia were among theTheMennonitespioneer settlers of Manitoba ; and their thrift and industryhave made the settlements about Steinbach(Fig. 149), Gretna, Rosenfeld, and Winkler,among the most prosperous in the country. These people,being somewhat like the Quakers in belief, had to leavetheir native land, Germany, and settle in Russia to escapea forced military service.In turn they were obliged toseek a new home in the Canadian West, where theirpeculiar ideas have never been interfered with.At firstthe Mennonites settled in villages, where their houses,built of mud and sticks, and thatched with straw, stoodwith ends facing the one main street or roadway. Theland belonging to each village was divided into arable,

''THE PEOPLE 213pasture, and hay land, and was allotted to each head offamily in strips, great or small, according to what eachperson was able or willing to cultivate. For some yearspast many of these villages have been broken up, andtheir residents have gone to the originalahomesteads, butthere are yet many villages following the old order ofthings. Though as a rule opposed to any state control,they areyearly growing more in sympathy with our educationalsystem.Hi— 1 1 II\^t^:-^^»>-l tf^r .^JM^>flQjjpBB^'. -.-..•:.-^3P*"»_•(tegEBBMft~JffBff^^^^^^^Fig. 149. — Steinbach, a typical Mennonite village.Scotch "crofters," the former tenants of crofts orsmall farms in barren and beautiful Skye, have settled inthe Territories and in certain districts in southwesternManitoba, not far from Pelican Lake,where they have made considerable progress, and havefound on the prairies a kinder soil and climate than thoseof their home land.The Galician settlers have come from one of the Austrianprovinces, and already over forty thousand have settlednorth of Teulon between Shoal Lake and LakeWinnipeg, about Stuartburn in south-eastern GaliciansManitoba, in north-western Manitoba, in south-centralSaskatchewan, and on the Saskatchewan below Edmonton.These people (Fig. 150) may seem to the ordinary wideawakeCanadian a little slow of movement and a little

214 THE CANADIAN WESTover-cautious in matters of trade, but they have the excellenthabit of never giving up until their end is gained.As a race they are careful and saving in all their domesticaffairs, thinking that "a penny saved is a pennygained."It is, perhaps,too early inthe day to give adecided opinion asto what progressthe Galicians willmake intrying tomaster a highercivilization thanthat in which they2. The first Galician home in Western Canada.were born. This much may be said: The Galicians arenot indolent ; they all seem anxious to learn the Englishlanguage and to act like the people about them.Of the same race, but speaking a different dialect, arethe Doukhobors (Fig. 151), who have also come to usTheDoukhoborsfrom the land of the Czar to escape persecution,and to settle in the country between the westernend of the Swan River valley and the town of Yorkton,and also within the southern bend of the North Saskatchewan,north-west of Saskatoon.are also characteristics of these people.Thriftiness and carefulnessTheir whole lives

;THE PEOPLE 215are modelled in accordance with their religious ideas, anda Doukhobor will sacrifice everything he owns to what hethinks is right. For a long time the Doukhobors refusedto take out homesteads, but of late this matter is beingattended to rapidly, — a movement towards the higherCanadian civilization that is likely to be followed byothers.Fig. 151. — A group of Doukhobors.These settlers, who now number eight thousandthree hundred persons, have many peculiarities, the removalof which will likely take some time, on account oftheir being allowed to settle in distinct colonies (Fig. 152)but when these peculiarities are abandoned, the Doukhobor,with his truthfulness, industry, and thriftiness, shouldbecome a worthy citizen of our great North-West land.

216 THE CANADIAN WESTFig. 152. — A model Doukhobor village.Questions. — What do yon know about the settlers of the CanadianWest? In your answer say something about their native country,why they left it, where they are now settled, what they do, andwhat their home life is like. What are these settlers doing for education?What for agriculture? What for manufacturing? Howwere farms taken up by them ? How are these settlements connectedwith the largest centres? Answer this for the Mormon, Icelandic, andDoukhobor settlements. Why have some of the Icelandic peoplesettled about Lake Winnipeg? Why have the Mormons not chosennorthern, instead of southern Alberta for their settlements? Showwhy it is better for the Dominion to have all the people Canadian,than to have an Iceland, a Russia, and a Germany, within itsboundaries.

CHAPTER XIXGOVERNMENTWe have seen how the whole of this great land cameto belong to the Dominion of Canada. We are now to seehow it has been parcelled out for the purposes of easiermanagement ; for without laws and the means of puttinglaws into force, a people, and particularly a mixed people,would soon become a mob : every man would be a lawunto himself and justice would be an impossibility.The country, as you may see from the map (Fig. 2),has been plottedout into ninegreat districts ;but as time goeson and progressis made, t)aesedistrictswillagain have to bechanged. Thenames of theseblocks of landare Manitoba,Fig. 153. — Government buildings, Winnipeg.Assiniboia, Saskatchewan,Alberta, Athabaska, Mackenzie, Franklin,Ungava, and Keewatin. Of these Manitoba is the onlyone that has been given the rank of province, the name217

218 THE CANADIAN WESTby which the greatest divisions of the Dominion are known.The district of Keewatin, a region of harsh climate andbarren soil, but rich in fur-bearing animals and minerals,is under the care of the lieutenant-governor of Manitoba.The remaining divisions, the districts of Assiniboia, Saskatchewan,Alberta, Athabaska, Mackenzie, Franklin, andUngava are grouped together under the name of the North-West Territories, but only the first three of these districtsare as yet organized.Fig.154. — Government buildings, Regina.Both Manitoba and the North-West Territories havetheir own local Parliament, which meets at Winnipeg(Fig. 153) and Regina (Fig. 154), respectively, to makelaws and ordinances for the country, and discuss such improvementsas are needed. For the purpose of electingrepresentatives to this Parliament or Legislative Assembly,Manitoba is divided into forty, and the Territories intothirty-five divisions, from each one of which a member iselected.Both Manitoba and the Territories also elect men torepresent them in the Dominion Parliament which meets

220 THE CANADIAN WESTat Ottawa. Manitoba has ten members in the House ofCommons and four members in the Senate. The membersof the House of Commons are elected in the same wayas members of the Legislative Assembly, the provincebeing divided into ten divisions for the purpose. TheTerritories have a similar representation in both the Houseof Commons and the Senate (Fig. 155).In the earlier days of a country the government providesfor the roads, bridges, etc., but with the growth of theFig. 156. — Mounted Police at Regina.country this work is handed over to what are called municipalities,in other words, to groups of townships joined forthe purpose of attending more particularly to certain localmatters — matters of common interest to the townshipscomprising the municipality. This division of the countryinto municipalities has been followed in Manitoba, but inthe Territories little more than a beginning has as yetbeen made. The officers of a municipality are chosen bythe vote of the people, and consist of a reeve and hiscouncillors, or in cities and towns, the mayor and hisaldermen. These officers form the council.

GOVERNMENT 221While Manitoba has its own special service for carryingout the laws, the Dominion government has placed in theTerritories a fine body of men known as the MountedPolice (Fig. 156), whose duties are to see that the lawsare obeyed, to check smuggling, to guard settlers, and tosee that the Indian behaves himself.Questions. — What is the name of your province or district? Inwhat municipality do you live? In what provincial electoral division?In what Dominion electoral division? What is the name of thelieutenant-governor of your pi-ovince or district? Where does helive? Who is the premier of Manitoba? Of the Territories? Canyou name the members of the government of Manitoba? Of theTerritories? What is the name of the reeve of your municipality?Who represents your district at Ottawa? At Winnipeg or Regina?Who built your great bridges and roads? How does the municipalityraise money for local improvements? What cases of direct taxationare there in your locality? Mention some of the officers of a citywhich a small village would not need. Mention other officials of thecouncil and state the duties of each.

APPENDIXA. COMPARATIVE LAND AREASA representsthearea of Great Britain,and B that ofWestern Canada.Compare.B represents thearea of Western Canada,and C that ofCompare.the North-West Territories.ABCD representsAreas of Districts inthe Canadian WestSquareMilesManitoba . . 73,732Assiniboia . . 88,879Saskatchewan . 107,618Alberta . . . 101,883Athabaska . . 251,965Mackenzie . . 562,182Keewatin . . 470,416Ungava . . . 346,280Franklin. . . 500,000ARslthe area of the North-West Territoriesand Manitoba, EFGHrepresents the area of Manitoba.Compare.

224 APPENDIXB. THE INDIANSABCD represents thelands in Manitoba andthe North-West Territoriescapable of cultivation,and EFGH showswhat portion is nowbeing cultivated.If ABCD represents150,000,000 acres ofland, find the area ofEFGH.According to the report of the Superintendent-General ofIndian Affairs there were, in 1902, in Manitoba and the North-West Territories 24,676 Indians who are included in the treatieswith the Dominion government, and about 22,084 Indians whohave not yet entered into any treaty. In 1902, also, 1718pupils attended the Indian schools in Manitoba, and 2596 theschools in the North-West Territories. During the same yearthe Indians in Manitoba cultivated 1635 acres, and in theNorth-West Territories, 29,328 acres.C. THE FUR TRADEThe following quantities of furs were offered for sale at London,England, by the Hudson's Bay Company and by Lampson& Co. in 1887. Most of the fur-bearing animals are distributedover the whole northern part of the continent, from Labradorto the Pacific ;a very large proportion of these fursmust then, of necessity, have come from the Canadian West,and particularly from the district of Mackenzie. What use ismade of all these skins ?

.APPENDIX 225Otter . .Sea otterFisher .Silver foxCross foxRed fox .White foxKitt foxLynxSkunkMartenMinkBeaverFind the14,4393,8687,1921,9676,78585,02210,25729014,520632,79498,342376,223104,279Muskrat . . . .Extra black muskratWolf. . . .Wolverine . .Bear (all kinds)Musk-ox . .Badger . . .Ermine . . .Swan . . .American rabbitHair seal (dry)Sable . . .Gray fox . .total number of furs in the foregoing.2,485,368D. AREA OF LAKES, HUDSON BAY, ANDSPRUCE WOODS13,9447,1561,58115,9421983,7394,11657114,82413,4783,51731,597(1) Area of Lakes in Manitoba and North-West TerritoriesAcresAcresAthabaska .... 1,818,880 Lac la Biche . . 80,000Beaver . . . 57,000 Lac la Martre 784,000Buffalo . 35,000 Lesser Slave . . 307,000'Cedar . . 182,000 Mackay .... 627,000Chaplin . . 42,000 Manitoba 1,163,000Cree . . . 260,000 Moose . 353,000Cumberland 106,000 Pelly . . 211,680Dauphin 128,000 Reindeer 1,559,000Dore . . . 155,000 Shoal 65,000Great Bear7,565,600 Sullivan 60,000Great Slave 6,680,000 Swan 54,000He a la Croix 120,000 Winnipeg 6,054,000Johnston . 84,000 Winnipegosis . . 1,335,000Lac de Gras . . 431,200 Wollaston . . . 580,000How manyQiqi ;in ) miles in e ich of these lakes ?

226 appendix:(2) Area of Hudson BayHudson Bay has an area of 350,000 square miles.Includingits two arms (what are they?) it is 1000 miles from north tosouth, and about 600 miles across its widest part. Think ofthis when you are reading Chapter VII.(3) Area of Spruce WoodsThe Canadian spruce woods extend through the easternprovinces, going as far north as Ungava Bay on the eastside of Hudson Bay, and as far north and north-west on thewest side of Hudson Bay as Coronation Gulf and the mouthof the Mackenzie. This is therefore one of the greatest pulpwood regions in the world. What does this mean?E. TEMPERATURE, RAINFALL, AND SNOWFALL(1) The average temperature of Manitoba is 60° in summer, and8° in winter. For the same seasons, the temperature of BritishColumbia is 61° and 32°, and that of Nova Scotia 65° and 25°.(2) Rainfall and Snowfall for the Years 1897 to1903 InclusiveYearManitobaNorth-West TerritoriesRain Snow Rain Snow1897 9.6 in. 59.1 in. 11.8 in. 53.2 in.1898 6.7 53.8 10.8 52.41899 12.3 44.4 18.0 56.91900 15.5 38.1 14.4 50.21901 16.8 40.3 15.9 58.91902 13.0 51.0 17.8 48.21903

APPENDIX 227When snow falls in still weather it makes an even layer onthe ground, and we can measure the depth of the layer in feetand inches. But as snow may be wet and heavy, or dry andlight, such measurement does not tell how much water the snowrepresents ; therefore, for exactness, the snow resting on a definitespace is melted, and the resulting water measured. Tofind the amount of rain that falls, a vessel like a bucket, withstraight sides, isplaced out of doors, and after each rain thedepth of the water caught is measured.F. LAND EEGULATIONS(1) "All surveyed, even-numbered sections, excepting sections8 and 26, which have not been hoinesteaded, reservedto provide wood-lots for settlers, or otherwise disposed of orreserved, are to be held exclusively for homesteads.(2) "Homestead entries for one quarter-section (160 acres)may be obtained by any person who is the sole head of afamily, or by any male who has attained the age of eighteenyears, on application to the local agent of Dominion lands, andon payment of an office fee. of ten dollars.(3) " The homesteader must perfect his entry by beginningactual residence on his homestead and cultivating a reasonableportion of it within six months of the date of entry, unlesssuch entry shall have been made on or after the 1st day of September,in which case residence need not commence until thefollowing June."In addition to the lands owned by the Dominion government,there are in Manitoba over one million acres of land inthe possession of the provincial government, and for sale atreasonable prices. The greater part of the hundred and fiftythousand acres granted to the University of Manitoba is notfor sale at present.

228 APPENDIXG. THE GRAIN CROP IX THE CANADIAN WESTAND OTHER COUNTRIES(1) Area and Yield of the Principal Crops during theYears 1899 to 1903 InclusivewheatYearManitobaNorth-West TerritoriesAcres Yield Acres Yield1899 1,629,995 27,922,230 363,523 6,915,6231900 1,457,396 13,025,252 412,864 4,028,2941901 2,011,835 50,502,085 504,697 12,808,4471902 2,039,940 53,077,267 625,758 13,956,8501903 2,442,873 40,116,878 727,998 15,042,000OATSYearManitobaNorth-West TerritoriesAcres Yield Acres Yield1899 575,136 22,318,378 134,938 4,686,0361900 429,108 8,814,312 175,439 4,226,1521901 689,501 27,796,588 229,439 11,113,0661902 725,060 34,478,160 310,367 10,661,2951903 855,431 33,035,774 365,719 11,803,000[In 1902 Manitoba raised 564,440 bushels of flax, 49,900bushels of rye, 34,154 bushels of pease, 3,459,325 bushels ofpotatoes, and 3,230,995 bushels of roots.]

APPENDIX229BARLEYYearManitobaNorth-West TerritoriesAcres Yield Acres Yield18991900190119021903182,912155,111191,009329,790326,5375,379,1562,939,4776,536,15511,848,4228,707,25214,27617,04424,70236,44542,445337,521353,216795,100870,4171,116,300(2) Comparative Areas and Yields of Grain for 19021. NUMBER OF ACRES IN CROPWheat Barley OatsOntario . .Great BritainUnited StatesRussia . .Germany . .France . .1,051,7071,726,35646,202,41441,925,6495,061,42516,954,253661,6221,909,4334,661,06318,130,1624,124,9821,870,2672,500,7583,057,04028,653,14438,003,98010,183,3699,735,3072. YIELD OF GRAINWheat Barley OatsOntarioGreat Britain . . .United States . . .RussiaGermanyFrance26,465,10860,065,000670,063,008648,707,000143,315,000379,716,08021,890,60266,494,606134,954,023188,843,326137,850,19039,584,380106,431,439130,383,682987,842,712494,992,377459,723,933242,862,280

230 APPENDIXH. FARM STOCK(1) ManitobaHorses Cattle Sheep Swine1900190119021903118,629141,080146,591237,560263,168282,34325,81622,96020,51877,91294,68095,598(2) North-West TerritoriesHorses Cattle Sheep Swine1900190119021903276,462 591,739 154,152 73,926I. DAIRY PRODUCTS(1) ManitobaCheeseCreamery ButterDairy Butter19001,021,258 lbs.1,254,311 lbs.2,083,920 lbs.1901190219032,748,0901,093,6531,382,3042,460,6501,406,4501,532,8352,748,0902,509,4252,738,868

.APPENDIX 231(2) North-West TerritoriesCheese Creamery Butter Dairy Butter1900190119021903637,052 lbs.672,125586,171PRODUCTION OF COAL IN MANITOBA AND THENORTH-WEST TERRITORIESTons1886 43,2201900 351,9501901 391,139K. YIELD OF GOLD IN SASKATCHEWAN SANDS18951896$50,00055,0001900 $5,0001901 ..... 15,000L. THE FISHERIES(1) Ktnds of Fish Caught in 1901, and Amount of EachPoundsWhitefish . . . 10,546,600Trout . . . 101,700Pickerel . . . 5,270,900Pike . . . . 4,208,300Sturgeon . »: 727,600Perch . . . 34,000Tullibee . . 926,000PoundsCatfish. . . . 550,000Mixed and coarsefish 5,558,000Caviare (the roe ofthe sturgeon) . . 20,000Gold-eyes .... 200,000Home consumption 738,600

232 APPENDIX(2) Value of Catch of FishIn 1900 the value of the catch of fish was $718,159; and in1901, $958,410.(3) Fishing Tugs, Boats, Nets, etc., used in the Fisheriesduring 1901Fishing tugs .... 24Fishing boats ... 927Gill-nets 9,807Sound nets .... 2Night lines .... 1,000Freezers and ice-houses 148Seines 15 Piers and wharfs 50A gill-net is a flat net which hangs in the water so as topermit the meshes to allow the head of the fish to enter, butcatches in the gills Avhen the fish tries to remove its head.A seine is a large net, one edge of which is provided withsinkers, and the other with floats. Can you tell how this netis used ?M. VALUE OF GOODS IMPORTED AND EXPORTED(1) ImportsManitobaNorth-West Territories1878 $1,171,113 . . . $112,3071888 1,750,048 . . . 56,1641902 8,703,488 . . . 2,500,2601903 ...(2) ExportsManitobaNorth-West Territories1900 $612,124 . . . $4,1741901 1,084,992 ... 1,520,9361902 4,896,149 . . . 1,183,6481903 ...

APPENDIX 233N. RAILWAYS IN THE CANADIAN WESTCanadian Pacific RailwayMilesMain Line East . . Winnipeg to Fort William 426Main Line East . . Winnipeg to Montreal 1424Main Line West . . Winnipeg to Vancouver . 1482Main Line — West. . Winnipeg to Laggan . . 957North-western Branch Portage la Prairie to Yorkton 223Rapid City BranchMinnedosa to Brandon . 52Sheho Branch . . . Yorkton to Sheho . . . 42Winnipeg Beach Branch Winnipeg to Winnipeg Beach 52Teulon Branch . . . Winnipeg to Teulon . . 40Brookdale Branch . . Macgregor to Brookdale . 36Pheasant Hills Branch Kirkella to Esterhazy63Lenore Branch . . .Lyleton Branch . . .Mowbray Branch . .Lac du Bonnet BranchMiniota Branch . . .Emerson Branch . .Carman Branch . . .Winnipeg & Sonris Branch .Brandon & Souris Branch .Areola BranchSonris & Napinka Branch .Winnipeg & Napinka Branch(Sonth-w'rn viaRosenfeld)Napinka & Estevan Branch .Gretna Br. (via Rosenfeld) .Prince Albert Branch . . .Portal BranchCalgary & Edmonton BranchCalgary & Macleod Branch .Kootenay Branch . . .Forrest to Lenore . . .Deloraine to Lyleton . .La Riviere to Mowbray .Molson to Lac du BonnetChater to Miniota . . .Winnipeg to EmersonElm Creek to Carman . .Winnipeg to Souris . .Brandon to Souris . . .Souris to Areola . . .Souris to Napinka . . .Winnipeg to Napinka . .Napinka to Estevan . .Winnipeg to Gretna . .Regina to Prince Albert .Portal to Pasqua . . .Calgary to J3tratheonaCalgary to Macleod . .Dunmore to Cranbrook (B. C.)413726227166121502410235

234 APPENDIXCanadian Northern RailwayMain Line — East .... Port Arthur to WinnipegMain Line—West .... Winnipeg to Grand View-Swan River & Erwood Branch Dauphin to Erwood . .Neepawa Branch • . . . Neepawa Junct. to NeepawaWinnipegosis Branch . . Sifton to Winnipegosis .Morris & Emerson Branch . Winnipeg to EmersonBrandon & Hartney Branches(via Morris) Winnipeg to Morris . .Morris to Belmont . . .Belmont to Hartney . .Belmont to Brandon . .Delta BranchPortage la Prairie to DeltaGolden Stream Branch . . Golden Stream to GlencairnCarman Branch Winnipeg to Leary's . .Ridgeville Branch .... Emerson to RidgevilleAlberta Railway and Coal CompanyMain Line Lethbridge to Coutts . .Main LineSt.Mary's River RailwayStirling to Spring CouleeMiles439208194342166411020. STATISTICS OF PEOPLE, CITIES, TOWNS, VILLAGES(1) Population of Manitoba and North-West Territories54431640•7312m20ManitobaAlbertaAssiniboia ....Saskatchewan . . .Athabaska ....Eranklin and KeewatinMackenzie ....Ungava1871 1881 189125,228 62,260 152,50625,27718,000 25,515 30,37211,1501901255,21165,87667,38525,6796,6158,5465,2165,113

:APPENDIX 235(2) Nationalities in the Population of the CanadianWest as given by the Census of 1901H

:.::236 A PPENDIX(3) Population of the Cities, Towns, Villages, andOthek Centres according to the Census of 1901,and Estimated Population 1904CitiesMANITOBAPopulation Population Population Populatio1901 1904 1901 1904Brandon . . 5,020 . 0,200 Winnipeg . . 41,340 . 05,000Incorporated TownsBirtle .... 400 500 Neepawa . . . 1,418 . 1,900Dauphin . . 1,136 . 1,300 Portage laEmerson . . 840 803 Prairie . . . 3,901 . 4,200. 731 850 Rapid City . 500 . 000GladstoneMinnedosa . 1,052 . 1,350 St. Boniface . 2,019 . 2,300Morden . . . 1,522 . 1,550 Selkirk East (Disorganized)Morris . . . 405 500 Selkirk West 2,188 . 2,254Incorporated Vi llagesBoissevain . 898 . 1,000 Manitou . . 017 . 584Carberry . . 1,023 . 1,100 Melita . . . 485 . 520Carman . . 1,439 . 1,040 Plum Coulee 394 . 300Deloraine . 078 850 Souris . . . 839 . 1,100Gretna . . . 000 817 Virden . . . 901 . 1,250Centres not IncorporateaI;Alexander . 200 250 Glenboro . . 450 . 500Altona . . . 350 .. 315 Griswold . . 257 . 257Austin . . . 203 Hamiota . . 375 .Baldur . . . 299 325 Hartney . . 505 . GOOBelmont . . 300 Headingly .Binscarth . 300 Holland . . 385 . 495Cartwriglit400 Killarney . . 585 . 900Clearwater . 80 103 Macgregor . 441 . 500Crystal City 300 375 Miami . . . 351Cypress Rivci 304 350 Napinka . . 300Dominion Cit y 300 Oak Lake . 311 . 400Elkhorn . . 389 000 Pilot Mound 44C . 485Gimli .... 210 278 Roland . . . 310 . 500

.:.API>ENDIX 23Population Population Population Populati1901 1904 1901 1904. 700Russell . . . 427 . . Stony Mountain 359 .St. Anne . . 380 . . Stonewall . . 589Shoal Lake 380 . . 400 Swan River . 254 .Sidney . . . 300 Treherne . . . 438 . 500Steinbach . 366 . . Winkler . . .Winnipegosis391 .362 .Incorporated CitiesNORTH-WEST TERRITORIESCalgary. ... 4,152Moose Jaw . . 2,0427,450 Regina . . . .2,7502,645 . . 4,000Incorporated Towns:Areola ....Cardston ... 601Edmonton . . 2,620Indian Head .. 768Innisfail . . .Lacombe . . . 450Lethbridge. . 2,279Macleod ... 796Maple Creek 308Medicine Hat 1,975Moosomin . . 868Prince Albert 2,193476 Qu'Appelle1,300 South . . .5,250 Raymond . .1,200 Red Deer . .429 Rosthern . . .750 Saskatoon .2,500 Strathcona . .1,300 Wapella . . .600 Wetaskiwin .2,500 Wayburn. .1,400 Whitewood2,000 Wolseley . .Yorkton . . .8511,5506303594597009421,9631,0008421,0003,0004042,0004606001,000Incorporated Villages:Alameda .Balgonie .Battleford . . 513BlairmoreBroadview .Carievale .Carlyle . .. 217257 ChurchbridgeClaresholmCochrane . .Coleman . .Craik ....130 Didsbury . .425 Duck Lake400Carnduft" .Carstairs .500 Esterhazy . .Estevan . .348275

:,238 APPENDIXPopulat: oiPopulationPopulationPopulation1901190419011904Fleming . . .Fort Saskatchewan . . .Frank ....Gainsboro .Gleichen . .Grenfell . .Hague . . .High River.Irvine ....LangenburgLeduc. . . .LloydminsterLumsden .Macoun. .Magrath .Manor . .Mel fort . .Milestone452200331423250300750500150Morinville . .Mountain ViewNantonNorth Portal . .NutanaOkotoks . . %.Olds. ....'.Oxbow ....Pincher CreekPonoka ....Qu'Appelle, FortRiverside . .Rouleau . . .Rouleauville .Saltcoats . . .Stafford . . .St. Albert. . .Stirling ....Swift Current396532250207335145441450551450300Millet . .Yellow GrassUndergoing EstablishmentCaronShehoDavidsonP. KEY TO FIGURE 931. Bobolink. 2. Cat-bird. 3. King-bird. 4. Oriole. 5. Peewit.6. Robin. 7. Meadow lark. 8. Evening grosbeak. 9. Pine grosbeak.10. Fox sparrow. 11. Black-crowned sparrow. 12. Songsparrow. 13. White-crowned sparrow. 14. Swamp sparrow. 15. Whitethroatedsparrow. 16. Savannah sparrow. 17. Junco. 18. Rosebreastedgrosbeak, mate and nest. 19. Chickadee. 20. Wren.21. Hermit thrush. 22. Water thrush. 23. Shore lark. 24. Snowbird.25. Wilson's thrush. 26. Oven bird. 27. Golden-crownedkinglet. 28. Ruby-crowned kinglet. 29. Brown creeper. 30. Whitebreastednuthatch. 31. Red-eyed vireo. 32. Black-poll warbler.33. Black-and-white warbler. 34. Magnolia warbler. 35. Bluebird.36. Cedar waxwing. 37. Towhee.

APPENDIX 239Q. NAMES AND THEIR HISTORIESNames of rivers, lakes, villages, and towns are sometimes chosen atrandom ; sometimes they commemorate their discoverer, or are given toremind the settlers of the land of their birth ; sometimes fancy helps tomake a choice, and in other cases an incident or natural feature is seizedupon, and the name, often modified, becomes at last fixed. The followingare but a few of the many names used in this text-book. Every settlementcan supplement the list —:Alameda. — The name of a Spanish town and district in California.Alberta. — One of the names of H. R. H. the Princess Louise. The districtwas so named by order-in-council dated May 8, 1882, at whichtime the Marquis of Lome was governor-general of Canada.Anthracite. — The town was called by this name on account of hard coalbeing found in the neighboring coal mines.Appalachians. — This name was applied to the mountains by the Spaniards,who learned it from the Indians. The Appalache, or "people onthe other side," dwelt in the South-Eastern States.Areola. — The name of a town in northern Italy.Arctic. — From the Greek arctos, " a bear." Hence applied to the oceanbeneath the cluster of stars known as the "Great Bear," "Dipper,"or " Charles's Wain."Assiniboine. — From assini, the Cree word for "a stone," and bwan, thenative name of the Sioux or Dakotas. The name therefore means the" Stony Sioux." Some say that assini was given to a ti'ibe of Indiansmaking use of heated stones in cooking their food, and that the namemeans "stone-roaster."Peace Riverdelta, and afterwards applied to the lake and the river. Athabaskameans the "place where there is an amount of high grass here andAthabaska. — A Cree name given to the country about thethere."Back. — Named in honor of its discoverer, Sir George Back. The riverwas formerly called the Great Fish, having been so named by Backhimself.Battle River. — The banks of this river were formerly the scene of manyfierce combats between the Blackfeet and the Crees, and received itsname from this fact.Battleford. — The ford or crossing-place of the Battle River. The townwas formerly the seat of government of the North-West Territories.

240 APPENDIXBelly River. — Named from theportion of the country.Gros Ventre Indians who lived in thatBinscarth. — Named in compliment to Mr. W. B. Scarth, who was at thetime manager of a land company that held land in the vicinity.Birtle. — A shortened form of " Bird Tail," the little river on which thetown is situated.Boissevain. — So named from Count Boissevain, a German, one of theearliest settlers.Bow River. — Named either from the fact that the wood which grew onits banks was suitable for the making of bows, or, more probably, fromthe shape of its course which resembles a bow.Brandon. - -Given in the first place in 1794 to Brandon House, a tradingposton the Assiniboine River, thirteen miles east of Brandon City, andgiven also to the range of hills to the south — the "blue hills of Brandon."May have had something to do with the town of Brandon,England.Calgary. — Originally a post of the North-West Mounted Police, establishedon the site of the present city in 1875. It was named by Colonel Macleod,who was then commissioner, the name being taken from anestate in the Isle of Mull, Scotland, called " Calgarry," owned by oneJohn Mackenzie, a brother-in-law of Colonel Macleod's.Canada. — Either from the Indian Kanata, a " collection of wigwams," orfrom Cantata, "welcome."Canmore. — A Scottish word meaning " big head " — probably given, likemany other names, by accident, to this town.Carberry. — Named by the officials of the Canadian Pacific Railway, inhonor of Carberry Hall, the estate of Lord Elphinstone in Scotland.Cardston. — The town is named in honor of its founder, Mr. Card.Carman. — Named in honor of Dr. Carman, the general superintendentof the Methodist Church in Canada.Chicago. — Indian Ciskagong, means "skunks" ; the swamp upon whichthe city was built was subject in the early days to offensive odors arisingfrom the presence of the above-mentioned animals, or from theprevalence of garlic.Chinooks. — The name of a tribe of Indians living south of British Columbia— warm westerly and south-westerly winds from the country of theChinooks.Chipewyan. —The Athabaskan Indians are also called the Chipewyans.The name is derived from a contemptuous epithet given to the tribe bytheir enemies the southern Crees. The word means "you dead dog."

APPENDIX 241Churchill. — Bestowed on the river in honor of John Churchill, the greatDuke of Marlborough, a former governor of the Hudson's Bay Company.Coppermine. — So named by Hearne, its discoverer, on acount of the factthat the mines from which the Indians obtained the specimens of copperwhich they brought to the Hudson's Bay Company trading-posts weresupposed to be located somewhere in the vicinity.Coronation. — Applied to the gulf by Sir John Franklin, its discoverer, hehaving entered it on the day when George the Fourth of Great Britainwas crowned.Cypress Hills. — Named from a species of jack-pinehills, and somewhat resembles the cypress.that grows on theDakotas. — An Indian word meaning "friends," "our friends or allies,"or "confederate people," and used by the several Indian tribes formingthe great nation of the North-Western States.Dauphin. — V^randrye, the French explorer, who discovered the lake,named it in honor of the Dauphin, the eldest son and heir of the Kingof France.The town and municipality took its name from the lake.Delcaine. — So named by the first postmaster, whose early home was inDeloraine, a small village near Hawick, Scotland. In Scott's " Lady'of the Lake" there is mention of " William of Deloraine."Dunmore.— Named after Lord ^unmore, who was, in the early days ofthe country, connected with the Canadian Pacific Railway.Edmonton. — The North-West Co ipany originally had a post on the siteof the present town which later p -ssed into the hands of the Hudson'sBay Company. Its first known name was "The Fort of the BeaverHills," and later the Canadian French called the place " Fort Augusta,"and then " Fort la Prairie." The name " Edmonton" is supposed tohave been given in honor of an official of the Hudson's Bay Company.Elbow River. — So named from the shape of its course, which resemblesan elbow.Emerson. — Named in honor of Ralph Waldo Emerson, the Massachusettsphilosopher nd essayist.Eskimo. — Th« " eater of raw flesh."Estevan. — The tame was made up from the names of Sir George Stephen,now Lord Mount-Stephen, and Sir William Van Home, at that timethe president .id general manager of the Canadian Pacific Railway.Franklin. — The name was given by the Dominion government inmemory of Sir . ohn Franklin, the explorer, who met his death in thenorthern seas.

242 APPENDIXGimli. — Icelandic for the " haven of rest."Gladstone. — Originally given the name of Palestine, but renamed in theearly eighties in honor of William Ewart Gladstone.Glenboro. — Named by Mr. James Duncan, the first postmaster of thetown, in honor of the village in Fifeshire, Scotland, from which hecame : The Borough of the Glen.Great Bear Lake. — Given first to the largest river emptying into the lakeand probably, as the name suggests, because of unusually large bearsbeing seen or slain in the vicinity.It may also have been given for thesame reasons as the ocean to the north was called the "Ocean of theGreat Bear."Great Slave Lake. — The Dog-rib Indians were driven this distance northby their enemies the Crees, who contemptuously nicknamed themslaves. The lake in turn was named after the Slave Indians.Gretna. — Named from Gretna Green in Scotland, the settlement beingsituated onthe border-line between Canada and the United States.Hartney. — Named after Mr. James Hartney, ex-M.P.P. and now agentfor the government of Manitoba at Toronto.Hudson Bay. — Named in honor of Henry Hudson, its discoverer, whoentered the bay in 1610.Keewatin. — Keewaytin, an Indian word for the "homeland wind," or"the wind going back"; that is, the wind from the north-west.Kicking Horse Pass.— So named from the river where the geologist Hectorwas severely kicked by a horse.Kildonan. — Named by Lord Selkirk, in 1817, from the settlers' old homein Sutherlandshire, Scotland.Killarney.— The town takes its name from the lake, which was namedby Mr. John Sidney O'Brien, in honor of the lakes of the same name inIreland.Lac Du Bonnet. — "Bonnet or Hat Lake."Named either from the shapeof the lake or from the custom of the Indians of crowning with flowersand leaves stones placed on the highest rocks of the portages.La Grande Prairie. — " The Big Prairie."La Salle. — So named after La Salle, the great French explorer.Lethbridge.—Named after William Lethbridge, the first president of theNorth-West Coal and Navigation Company.Liard River. — The name of the river in French is Riviere des Liards, or" River of Poplars."Macgregor. — Named by the officials of the Canadian Pacific Railway inhonor of the Rev. Dr. Macgregor of Edinburgh, Scotland.

"APPENDIX 243Mackenzie. — Discovered by Alexander Mackenzie, and called by him the"Great River." Called the Mackenzie in 1825 by Sir John Franklin.Macleod. — Named in honor of Colonel Macleod, commissioner of theNorth-West Mounted Police.Manitoba. — Indian for "the spirit of the strait" ; manitou, a spirit, andwaban, a strait. The lake is so named on account of the strange soundsheard at the Narrows, supposed to be due to supernatural agency.Manitou. — Indian for a " spirit."Marquette. — Named after Father Marquette, the French missionary andexplorer.Medicine Hat. — Numerous stories are told about the origin of this name.One of these is that the hill east of the town resembles the hat of anIndian medicine-man, and was so called, the name being afterwardsapplied to the town.Melita. — The ancient name of the island of Malta, Mediterranean Sea.Miami.— Named by the Post-Office Department in 1877; probably suggestedby the Miami Indians who lived to the south-west of Lake Erie, orby the Miami River in the same locality. The word means "mother."Minnedosa. — Indian for "running water," the town being situated onthe rapid flowing Little Saskatchewan.Mississippi. — The "great river" ;not, however, as many suppose, the"father of waters."Missouri.— First applied to the river ; afterwards to the Cdteau. Missourimeans " muddy river."Moose Jaw. — The name commemorates an event very wonderful to theIndian, " The -place -where -the -white -man-mended-the-cart-with-thejawbone-of-a-moose.Moosomin. — An Indian word meaning " the crossing of the trails." Thetown is situated at the intersection of the north and south trails.Morden. — Named after Mr. Alvey Morden, who, in 1878, homesteadedthe section on which the town is built.Morris. — Named after Sir Alexander Morris, one of the early lieutenantgovernorsof Manitoba.Napinka. — The name was originally given by the Post-Office Departmentat Ottawa. It is an Indian word which signifies "mitts."Neepawa. — An Indian word meaning " plenty," although some say thatit means " wet place " or "marsh."Nelson. — Named in memory of Nelson, an officer of the ship Resolution,sent into Hudson Bay in charge of Commander Bolton, in order to followup the discoveries of Henry Hudson, in whose honor the bay was

.chosen"244 APPENDIXnamed. The name " Nelson" was first applied to the post, and afterwardsto the river.Oak Lake. — The settlement takes its name from the lake, so called fromthe scrub-oak that grows in abundance along its shores.Ohio.— The "beautiful."Ontario. — Indian for the " beautiful lake."Oxbow. — The Souris River takes the form of the bow used in yokingoxen, at the place where the settlement is situated.Pasquia. — " Narrow ridges or bluffs.Pembina. — From an Indian word nipemina, meaning " watery berries" ;high-bush cranberries.Pilot Mound. — The hill on which Pilot Mound is built, owing to itsprominence in the landscape, served as a guide or pilot to the earlysettlers.Plum Coulee. — Named from a ravine near the settlement, which containedan abundance of wild plum trees.Portage la Prairie. — Fur traders from. the Assiniboine and from LakeManitoba crossed backwards and forwards across the " prairie portage"between the river and the lake. This name was afterwards applied tothe post on the river, called at firstFort la Reine by Verandrye.Prince Albert. — So named in honor of the Prince Consort, by the Rev.Mr. Nesbitt, the first missionary to the district, in 1866. The Indianname for the town is Stubbannan, which means "stopping-place."Qu'Appelle. — A French translation of the Cree, Katapaywie Sepe,— Katapaywiemeaning "who calls," and Sepe, meaning "river." Hence,Qu'Appelle means the " river that calls," the Indians believing it to behaunted by a spirit whose voice was often heard wailing in the night.Rapid City. — Named from the rapid on the Little Saskatchewan Rivernear the town.Red River. — The river takes its rise in Red Lake, which owes its nameeither to the color of the sand at its bottom, or to the bloody battleswhich took place on its banks between the Chippeways and the Sioux.Some say that the river is so named from the color of its waters whenagitated by the wind. The river is known in French as Piviere Pouge.Regina. — Latin for "queen." The city was so named when it wasas the seat of government for the North-West Territories.St. Boniface. — The town was originally formed by the De Meurons regiment,made up largely of Germans and Swiss, who had been brought tothe West by Lord Selkirk. The name was given in honor of Boniface,the patron saint of Germany.

APPENDIX 245Saskatchewan. — Indian, Ki-sis-kah-che-ican, meaning theflows rapidly.""river whichSaskatoon. — The Indian name of a species of Juneberry found growingin abundance in the West.Selkirk. — Named after Lord Selkirk, the founder of the first farmingsettlement in Manitoba.Souris. — A French word meaning " mouse." The portion of the riverin the United States is generally called the Mouse River.Strathcona. — Named in honor of Sir Donald A. Smith, Lord Strathconaand Mount Royal, governor of the Hudson's Bay Company, and highcommissioner for Canada in England.Ungava. — An Eskimo word meaning " the place to the south."Vancouver. — Called after Captain George Vancouver, who, as midshipmanin Cook's last voyage, visited this coast in 1776, and later, as captain,surveyed it in 1792.Virden. — Named after the country-seat of the Duke of Manchester, whowas, at the time that the town was named, one of the shareholdersof the Canadian Pacific Railway.Wawanesa. — The "nest of the whip-poor-will." The town lies on theSouris River, at the bottom of a beautiful valley. The whip-poor-will isa frequent visitor to this locality. These circumstances may have suggestedthe name to the Indians.Wetaskiwin. — Indian ;meaning the "place where leggings can be had,or are made."Winnipeg. — Indian; meaning the "muddy water," or the "shadowedwater." Wi or icin means "muddy," and nipi means "water." Appliedby the Indians to the lake, the waters of which are clouded forvarious reasons. The lake is shallow, hence the bottom mud is oftenagitated in a storm. The Red and Saskatchewan rivers are loadedwith sediment.Winnipegosis. — " Little Winnipeg."Yorkton. — Named by the colony from York County, Ontario, which undertookin the early eighties to settle that part of the country.

;;INDEXAgriculture, 144-151.Arctic Plain, the, (56-68; situation of,66, 67; nature in, 67; tundras of,67 ; rivers of, 67, 68.Assiniboine River, the, 38.Athabaska, Lake, 62, 63.Athabaska River, the, 61, 62.Banff, description of, 205.Battleford, description of, 206.Battle River, the, 50.Belly River, 54.Bird life in the Canadian West, 134-143 ; why birds are less known thanwild animals, 134; eagle, raven,swan, goose, duck, prairie-chicken,sand-hill crane, Wilson's snipe,135 ; wild duck, 136 ;prairie-chickens,137 ; owls and hawks, 137song-birds, 138-143.Boulders. See Soil.Bow River, 53, 54.Brandon, description of, 192, 193.Brickmaking, 165.Calgary, description of, 200.Carberry, description of, 193, 194.Carman, description of, 194, 195.Chipewyans. See Indians.Churchill River, 67, 68.Cities and towns of Manitoba, 187-196.Cities and towns of the North-WestTerritories, 197-207.Climate of Western Canada, 71-87;sun as affecting, 72-74; distance247from equator operating on, 74, 75;elevation as affecting, 75-77 ; airas carrier of heat, 77; winds, 78-81chinooks, 79; south and south-westwinds, 79; north, north-west, andwest winds, 79; east and northeastwinds, 80 ; air as a carrier ofmoisture, 80 ; moist and dry winds,80,81; the air as a cover, 81; lakesas storehouses of heat, 82 ; the seasons,83; rainfall, 84; climate ofPeace River country, 84, 85.Coal mining, 166-168.Coal-oil and salt, 168-169.Coppermine River, 28, 67, 68.Cypress Hills, the, 55, 56.Dairying, 157-160.Dauphin, description of, 194.Districts of the Canadian West, 217,218.Division of land in Canadian West.See Surveyor.Doukhobors in the West, 214, 215.Edmonton, description of, 202, 203.Eskimo, the, 16-23; his home, 16, 18,21; his character, 16; his food andweapons, 18; manner of huntingdeer, 19; manner of hunting walrus,19: his husky, 22.Exports of the West, 176, 177.Fisheries, 169-171.Forests. See Plant life.

:;248 INDEXFraser crosses Rockies, 28.Fur trade, the, 101-163.Fur traders, the, 25-30; as pathfinders,25 ; the country they occupied,25, 26.Galicians in the West, 213, 214.Glaciers. See Soil.Gold and other minerals, 169.Government in the West, 217-220.Grain, etc. See Plant life.Great Bear Lake, 66.Great Central Plain, the, 31-70; itsformation, 32; its direction, 32;the Canadian portion of it, 32.Great Fish River, 67.Great Slave Lake, 63.Hearue reaches Coppermine River, 28.Homeland, the, 1-3.Homesteads. See Settlement.Hudson's Bay Company in oppositionto North-West Company, 27 ;grantslaud to Lord Selkirk, 28; resignsclaim on Canada, 29, 30.Hunter of the Plains, the. See Indians.Ice harvesting, 166.Icelanders in the West, 211, 212.Imports of the West, 176, 177.Indians, 4-11; Crees, 4; Blackfeet, 4;Athahaskans, 4; Assinihoines, 4;what they have done for America,5-7; as hunters, 5; as wanderers,6; as road-makers and guides, 8,9 ; their reserves, 9, 10.Indian Head, description of, 198.Industries of the Canadian West, 141-175.Keewatin, southern, 68, 69.Kildonan, first settlers of Manitobain, 28.Legislative Assembly, 218.Lethbridge, description of, 201.Liard River, the, 65.Lumbering, 163, 164.Mackenzie River, the, discovered, 28;basin of, 57-

;INDEX 249Pork-packing and sheep-raising, 100-101.Portage la Prairie, description of, 191-192.Prairie levels, the first and second,34-43; their formation, 34-30; theirdrainage, 30-43; the third, 43-48;its surface, 43-45; its drainage, 45-48 ; boundaries, width, and area ofthe three prairie levels, 46-48.Prairie soil. See Soil.Prince Albert, description of, 205, 206.Qu'Appelle River, the, 38.Quarrying, 164, 165.Ranching, 151-157.Red Deer River, 53, 55.Red River, the, 37 ; valley of, 34, 35.Regina, description of, 197, 198.Rocky Mountains, first expedition to26, 27; crossed, 28.Saskatchewan River, the, Verandrye'ssons reach, 26; the north branchof, 48, 50; the course of, 50; thebanks of, 50; the Grand Rapids of,51 ; basin of north branch of, 52basin of south branch of, 52, 53;tributaries of south branch of, 53,54; irrigation canals of, 54, 55;course of south branch of, 55.Saskatoon, description of, 207.Selkirk settlement, 28, 29.Settlement in the West, 108-114 ; howsettlement began, 109,110; reasonfor emigration to the West, 110;breaking of the soil, 111 ; the bushfarm and the prairie farm, 111, 112;division of work among the settlers,as formed on prairies, 91 ; as affectedby streams, 92, 93; sortingexplanation of presenceof, 92, 93;of boulders, 93-95 ; effect of snowand ice on soil, 95-100; effect ofglaciers, 95-100.Souris River, the, 38.Strathcona, description of, 203-205.Surveyor, work of, in the West, 101-106; division of land into sectionsand townships, 101; ownership ofthe land, 101-103; ranges, 103; divisionof land by meridians, 103;how sections were marked, 104;marking out of roads, 104-100;river lots, 106.Thompson crosses Rockies, 28.Transportation facilities in the West,177-185; transportation by river,178, 179; by railway, 179, 180; CanadianPacific Railway, 181, 182;Canadian Northern Railway, 182-184 ; Grand Trunk Pacific Railway,184, 185.United States immigration, 211.Verandrye, Sieur de la, 26, 27.West Selkirk, description of, 193.Wild animal life in the West, 123-133; buffalo, 124, 125; beaver, 125,126; wolverine, 126, 127; white andblack bears, 127; musk-ox, 127,128; caribou, 128, 129; moose, 129,130; wapiti, 130; wolves, 130, 131;gopher, lynx, badger, skunk, etc.,131, 133.Winnipeg, description of, 187-191.Winnipeg River, the, 36, 37.Winnipeg, Verandrye reaches site of,112, 113; progress of the settlers,113, 114; why the West was notsettled earlier, 210; influx of settlers,210-215.Slave River, 63.26.Wood Mountain, 55-57.Soil, formation of prairie, 88-100 ; depthof, 88-90; as formed in forest, 90; Yorkton, description of, 198.

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