Rare Earth Elements: A Review of Production, Processing ...

Table of Contents
List of Acronyms ......................................................................................................................................... xi
1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 1-1
1.1 Background............................................................................................................................... 1-1
1.2 Report Organization ................................................................................................................. 1-1
2. Introduction to Rare Earth Elements ................................................................................................... 2-1
2.1 Abundance of REEs in Earth’s Crust .......................................................................................2-1
2.2 Geologic Environments of REEs ..............................................................................................2-3
2.3 Applications of REEs ............................................................................................................... 2-6
2.4 REE Global Economic Supply and Demand ............................................................................2-7
3. Life-Cycle Stages of Rare Earth Mineral Mines ................................................................................. 3-1
3.1 Active REE Mining .................................................................................................................. 3-2
3.2 REE Ores .................................................................................................................................. 3-3
3.3 Mining Permitting and Life-Cycle ...........................................................................................3-4
3.3.1 Permitting Requirements for New Rare Earth Mines ................................................3-4
3.3.2 Mining Life Cycle .....................................................................................................3-5
3.4 Characteristics of Mining Waste Sources ...............................................................................3-19
3.4.1 Soil Storage Piles ....................................................................................................3-20
3.4.2 Overburden..............................................................................................................3-20
3.4.3 Ore and Subeconomic Ore Storage .........................................................................3-20
3.4.4 Waste Rock .............................................................................................................3-21
4. Resource Processing ............................................................................................................................ 4-1
4.1 Bevill Amendment .................................................................................................................... 4-4
4.2 Beneficiation Processes ............................................................................................................ 4-4
4.2.1 Bastnasite Beneficiation............................................................................................4-5
4.2.2 Monazite/Xenotime Beneficiation ............................................................................4-5
4.3 Extraction Processes ................................................................................................................. 4-5
4.3.1 Bastnasite Extraction.................................................................................................4-6
4.3.2 Monazite/Xenotime Extraction .................................................................................4-7
4.3.3 Tailings Extraction .......................................................................................................... 4-7
4.4 Reduction Processes ................................................................................................................. 4-7
4.5 Potential Environmental Impacts ..............................................................................................4-7
4.5.1 China Legacy.............................................................................................................4-8
4.5.2 United States Legacy.................................................................................................4-8
5. Rare Earth Element Recovery/Alternative Material Use ....................................................................5-1
5.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 5-1
5.2 Recycle Processing Steps ......................................................................................................... 5-3
5.2.1 Collection ..................................................................................................................5-5
5.2.2 Dismantling/Preprocessing ........................................................................................5-5
5.2.3 Processing..................................................................................................................5-7
5.3 Commercial REE-Recycling Applications ...............................................................................5-8
5.4 Environmental Implications of Recycling REEs ....................................................................5-10
5.5 Research on Alternatives to REEs..........................................................................................5-10
5.6 Emerging Policies/Programs to Support REE Recycling .......................................................5-11
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