Rare Earth Elements: A Review of Production, Processing ...
Rare Earth Elements: A Review of Production, Processing ...
Rare Earth Elements: A Review of Production, Processing ...
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<strong>Rare</strong> <strong>Earth</strong> <strong>Elements</strong> <strong>Review</strong> Section 3 – Life-Cycle Stages <strong>of</strong> <strong>Rare</strong> <strong>Earth</strong> <strong>Elements</strong> Mines<br />
quality <strong>of</strong> the human environment, then the EID and/or EA is used by the lead government agency to<br />
develop an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS); however, additional environmental baseline and<br />
engineering studies may be needed. The EIS is then reviewed by EPA and other agencies, if applicable, as<br />
part <strong>of</strong> the NEPA process to determine if unavoidable adverse impacts will occur, and if irreversible and<br />
irretrievable commitments <strong>of</strong> resources are likely, considering connected actions, cumulative actions, and<br />
similar actions. A period <strong>of</strong> public review and the issuance <strong>of</strong> a Record <strong>of</strong> Decision (ROD) follows. If an<br />
EIS is implemented, monitoring is required for any mitigation steps required and implemented.<br />
Common baseline studies performed to support the EID might include an evaluation <strong>of</strong> aquatic resources<br />
(including wetlands), terrestrial habitat, ground water quality and supply, air quality, and human<br />
population and demographics. Each <strong>of</strong> these studies focus on characterizing the environment that<br />
potentially may be affected by the operations and activities at the site. The information from baseline<br />
studies is then used in the EID to assess the potential impact that the operations and activities may have<br />
on the site and surrounding environment, relative to the potential impacts identified and anticipated for<br />
the mining method used and the associated operations and processes. Impact may include degradation <strong>of</strong><br />
habitat or habitat alteration or loss; however, in some special cases, habitat may actually be enhanced or<br />
created. Water use for mining operations may also cause flow alterations that have adverse impacts to<br />
aquatic habitat, or in-stream structures used for water control may obstruct fish movement, migration, and<br />
spawning patterns. An aquatic resource study generally evaluates the distribution, abundance, and<br />
condition <strong>of</strong> fish species, benthic macroinvertebrates, and amphibians, along with the distribution and<br />
extent <strong>of</strong> the habitat and riparian zones. To assess existing stress on the aquatic environment, water<br />
quality criteria are evaluated against the actual condition <strong>of</strong> the water body, and toxicity studies and<br />
metric analysis <strong>of</strong> macroinvertebrates may also be performed. Aquatic impacts from mining and mine<br />
processors are <strong>of</strong>ten considered to be the most significant.<br />
Milling and processing operations are sometimes shared by multiple mines, and ore must be conveyed to<br />
the mill or processor site. The impacts to health and safety from the method used for ore conveyance,<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten by heavy truck or railway, through in-route communities and sensitive areas must be considered in<br />
relation to existing traffic patterns, spillage <strong>of</strong> loads along routes, and the degradation <strong>of</strong> air quality. This<br />
generally includes the release <strong>of</strong> windblown air particulates and vehicle exhausts. However, in addition to<br />
air particulates, other studies may be necessary to evaluate the potential impacts from stationary and<br />
mobile sources <strong>of</strong> air emissions that could emit any <strong>of</strong> the hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) that are<br />
regulated under the Clean Air Act.<br />
In order to determine the severity <strong>of</strong> potential impacts to nearby human receptors, a population study is<br />
usually performed. Land-use mapping is also a common analysis performed to aid with population studies<br />
and to help identify farming areas, parks, schools, hospitals, and other potentially sensitive areas (both<br />
human and ecological habitat) adjacent to the proposed mine site. Evaluation <strong>of</strong> local demographics is<br />
generally performed to insure fair treatment <strong>of</strong> racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic groups.<br />
NEPA stipulates that 3 months may be needed for review <strong>of</strong> an EID, but that a longer period may be<br />
required. NEPA also describes the preparation <strong>of</strong> the EIS and the intra-agency review process as<br />
potentially requiring 12 months or longer. Therefore, there could be a period <strong>of</strong> several years between<br />
initial exploration steps and startup <strong>of</strong> a REE mine that is located on federally managed lands. If needed,<br />
land, mineral leases, and all regulatory permits would be acquired pending acceptance <strong>of</strong> the EIS. Any<br />
environmental audits required would also be performed.<br />
The USGS (2011) evaluated the time it took to develop metal mines that opened in the United States<br />
since 2000. It was found that even if expedited permitting occurs, the period to obtain a permit could take<br />
7 years. It was also found that periods <strong>of</strong> 1 month to 17 years may be required before commercial<br />
production. Ramp-up times for new mines might take from 2 to 12 months.<br />
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