Complete Handbook - Percy FitzPatrick Institute of African ...

conservationbiologyM.Sc. Course HandbookUNIVERSITY OF CAPE TOWN

The Percy FitzPatrick Institute is recognised as a Centre ofExcellence by the South African Department of Science and Technologyand the National Research Foundation. It is part of the Department ofZoology at the University of Cape Town (UCT), with a focus on researchand post-graduate education. Although the Institute focuses primarilyon ornithological research, the Conservation Biology MSc Programme isbroad-based, drawing on teaching expertise from across the academicspectrum at UCT and further afield.Nestled on the slopes of Devil’s Peak, UCT overlooks the cosmopolitancity of Cape Town. It is South Africa’s oldest university, and is one ofAfrica’s leading teaching and research institutions. It has more than15 000 undergraduate and 6000 post-graduate students, and attractsa large number of international students, with more than 4000 studentsfrom over 100 countries.UCT has a strong tradition in conservation research. Situated in theheart of the Cape Floristic Kingdom, it is well placed for research in twoglobal biodiversity hotspots, the Fynbos and the Succulent Karoo. In a2008 review, UCT ranked top among Southern Hemisphere institutionsin terms of the impact of its conservation research, equivalent to thefourth-placed institution in North America.conservationconservation biologybiologyM.Sc. Course Handbook2 Introduction2 Who is elegible to entrol?3 Structure of course4 Coursework outline6 Selection criteria6 Checklist for applicantsCONTENTS OF COURSE8 Introduction9 Ecological coreBiodiversity and the units of conservationDemography and population viability analysisCommunity EcologyEcosystem and aquatic ecologyConservation geneticsDisturbance and restoration ecologyInvasive species19 Interdisciplinary coreComplex systemsLandscape ecologyClimate change and conservationResource ecologySocieties and natural resourcesDecision analysis for conservation biology24 SynthesisInformation for international studentsUNIVERSITY OF CAPE TOWN

introductionConservation biology is thestudy of how best to sustainand manage linked systems of peopleand nature. It is a new sciencethat builds on a range of existingdisciplines, ranging from ecologyaims &objectivesOur teaching philosophy followsthe observation of William ButlerYeats: “Teaching is not the filling ofa bucket, but the lighting of a fire”.The general aims of the ConservationBiology MSc programme are to producegraduates with a broad understandingof conservation issues andto provide them with the scientificbackground and tools to be able toanalyse and solve practical, conservation-relatedproblems. A synthetic,holistic approach is encouraged toproblem solving through exposure toa variety of disciplines. Emphasis isalso placed on developing oral andwritten communication skills. Wehave found that this broad approachto postgraduate education producesgraduates who compete successfullyin the job market and go on to makea difference in the field. Althoughemphasis is given to solving conservationchallenges in an Africancontext, students are provided witha broad-based education that willstand them in good stead throughoutthe world. In 2007, in a study publishedin Conservation Biology, theUniversity of Cape Town was rankedequivalent with the fourth highestNorth American institution in terms ofthe impact of its conservation-relatedresearch publications.and evolution to sociology andeconomics. Conservation biologyis becoming increasingly importantfor human wellbeing as the impactsof human activities on the biospherebecome more significant.A programme in ConservationBiology was established at thePercy FitzPatrick Institute in 1991 toeducate students and conservationpractitioners in the fast developingfield of conservation science. TheFitzPatrick Institute is housed withinthe Department of Zoology in theFaculty of Science at the Universityof Cape Town. The Fitztitutepromotes and undertakes scientificstudies, mainly involving birds thatcontribute to the theoretical andpractical development of ecology,evolution, and conservation biology.The central focus of the conservationbiology programme at the Fitztituteis an intensive MSc degree comprising7 months of coursework and a6-month individual research project.South African society has beenthrough a set of massive changesin the last 20 years; much of the resultingdynamism and openness tonew ideas is mirrored in South Africanconservation. The disciplineof conservation biology is undergoinga similar paradigm shift, inwhich notions of preservation andpaternalism are being replaced byan ethic that recognizes the complexityof linked social and ecologicalsystems and the critical needfor solid interdisciplinary research.The Percy FitzPatrick Institute iscontributing to this disciplinarytransformation through researchand teaching, while also collaboratingwith others to support sound,action-oriented science.who is eligible to enrol?Applicants to join the coursemust hold at least a BSc Honours(or equivalent qualification).Applicants will be drawn mainlyfrom two groups: young people whohave just obtained a degree and wishto become conservation biologists,and qualified, practising natureconservators who wish to updateand/or expand their knowledge ofthe modern theory and practice ofconservation biology. The course isan intensive one, and only a limitednumber of participants are acceptedeach year. Details regarding registrationfees, and approximate accommodationand living expenses inCape Town are available on request.Prospective applicants should applyto the Director, FitzPatrick Institute,University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, South Africa 7701. Applicationsmust reach this address before the end of August each year to beconsidered for a place on the course the following year. Applicants fromoutside South Africa are encouraged to apply early so that they haveplenty of time to apply for funding and study visas. Applicants shouldplease consult the Checklist for Applicants for the relevant documentsand information that must accompany applications.structure of the courseThe coursework component isintensive and exacting, butrepresents a huge learning opportunityand the chance to interact witha wide range of excellent conservationbiologists, both within andoutside the university environment.It includes 7 months of intensivecoursework and a 6-monthindividual research project.Coursework consists of a seriesof modules, each taught by expertsin their field. Modules typicallyinclude lectures, practicals,essays, discussion groups, semi -nars and field excursions. Readinglists are provided. Emphasis isplaced on African examples andcase histories.Appropriate computer coursesare available for participants whodo not have the relevant skills,but applicants are encouraged todevelop at least rudimentarycomputer skills before enrolling.The Institute has excellent computerand library facilities.Modules fall into four differentsections: an introduction, an ecologicalcore, an interdisciplinary core,and a synthesis. Each module lastsbetween one and four weeks.The introduction occupiesthe first three weeks and includesorientation, an overview of conservationbiology, and a week studyingthe philosophy of science.The ecological coreincludes modules in communityecology, population ecology,biodiversity basics, aquaticecology, molecular ecology,disturbance and restorationecology, and invasion biology.The interdisciplinarycore includes modules incomplex systems concepts,landscape ecology and conservationplanning, climate change,resource economics, andsocieties and natural resources.The synthesis sectionconsists of a section on decisionsupport systems, discussionof “emerging issues” and areview of the course.Modules are complementedby regular Wednesday afternoonseminars, which cover additionaltopics and provide students withthe opportunity to meet currentconservation practitioners. Thecoursework component of thecourse starts in mid-January andthe modular component is completedby the end of August.From September to mid-February,students conduct and write upresearch culminating in a paper on aresearch topic chosen by the studentand supervised by a member of academicstaff. The research report is inthe format of a manuscript suitablefor publication, which should facilitatethe dissemination of results. It mustbe stressed that these researchreports are not equivalent to dissertationsproduced for the award of anMSc based on a thesis alone.Modules are examined in April-May and August. Exams are ‘openbook’, and emphasize the solvingof practical problems with a fullrange of resources available to students.The MSc degree is awardedto students who achieve grades inexcess of 50%, and is awarded withdistinction if grades exceed 75%for both the coursework and projectcomponents of the course. There isa minimum requirement for the firstexamination to allow students tocontinue with the course.2 | conservation biology university of cape town | 3

selection criteriaWe accept only 12-14 studentseach year into the conservationbiology masters programme.There are often 2-3 times this manyapplicants each year, resulting incompetition for places. In additionto academic ability, preference isgiven to candidates with experiencein the conservation arena,particularly in an African context.Because of the intensive nature ofthe programme, students spenda lot of time working closely withtheir peers. Having students from adiversity of backgrounds contributessignificantly to the success ofthe programme. Consequently westrive each year to select studentsthat combine a mix of youthful enthusiasmand mature experience, aschecklist for applicantswell as a mix of students from firstand third world countries. The idealclass comprises roughly one thirdstudents from South Africa, onethird from the rest of Africa, andone third from the rest of the world.Since its inception, almost 200students have graduated from theCB programme from more than 30countries.Applicants to the course, please check that you include all the following documents and information with yourapplication. Please note that applications must reach the Percy FitzPatrick Institute by the end of August to beconsidered for the following year.contents of course1. Letter of application to the Director, FitzPatrick Institute.2. Full Curriculum Vitae giving permanent address and telephone/fax numbers, date of birth, full names, nationality,educational history up to present date, employment history (if any) up to present date, details of computer systemsand software packages used to date, and details of any research publications.3. Names, addresses, fax numbers, telephone numbers and e-mail addresses (if possible) of at least two refereeswho can comment on your academic ability, suitability for postgraduate study, and also give a confidential personalevaluation of your sense of initiative and computer literacy.4. Undergraduate academic transcript showing marks for each course taken in each year. This should be a photocopyof the original, but the photocopy should have an original stamp certifying that it is a true copy of the original transcript.Certified copies of transcripts of any subsequent postgraduate qualifications should also be included here.5. A certified copy of the original degree certificate (and any subsequent qualifications mentioned above).6. A summary (1-2 pages, typed) outlining why you chose to apply for a place on the CB Course, what your long-termcareer aspirations are, and how you think the successful completion of the CB Course will benefit those aspirations.7. Completed UCT admission forms (with the admission fee). This will be kept at the FitzPatrick Institute until theresults of the Selection Committee are known. If successful, the forms (and fee) will then be sent to UCT CentralAdmissions Office for processing. This saves approximately one month in postal lags at a time when prompt communicationbecomes vital. Copies of UCT admission forms are available on request.8. Please provide the Percy FitzPatrick Institute with details about where you are applying for funding. If appropriate, a letterof support can then be sent to them (if your application for a place is successful) to strengthen your funding application.Address your application (or any queries) to:The Director, FitzPatrick Institute, University of Cape Town,Private Bag X3, Rondebosch 7701, South AfricaTel. (+27-21) 650 3290/1, fax (+27-21) 650 3295or e-mail the course coordinator at peter.ryan@uct.ac.za6 | conservation biology university of cape town | 7

apted genomes by genetic materialfrom translocated conspecifics(known as outbreeding depression),and the loss of genetic variationthrough failure to conserve geneticallydistinct geographical variants.BiogeographicalcomponentsBiodiversity can be representedby other factors (e.g. endemicity,rarity, degrees of species turnoverbetween adjacent biotopes andbetween similar, but geographicallyisolated biotopes). These need tobe identified and assessed. One ofthe most important biogeographicalquestions to be addressed iswhether there are indicator species(regardless of their need forconservation) whose survival is astrong predictor of the continuedpersistence of acceptable levelsof biodiversity. Biogeographicalassessments rely heavily onmultivariate numerical approaches.Throughout the methodologicalportion of this module, the emphasiswill be placed on the types ofdata which need to be collected andthe analytical approaches necessaryto transform those data into meaningfulsummaries. The mathematicaland statistical theory underpinningthe approaches employed willbe discussed.Socioeconomic componentsBiodiversity can be represented by the variety of plants and animalsneeded by human societies for economic, agricultural, medicinal, culturaland hunting purposes. Many organisms also have symbolic value forman, which is reflected in their existence value.Production of biodiversityThe ultimate processes whichcreate evolutionarily significantvariation are genetic mutation andrecombination. The ultimate processeswhich partition that variationinto the units of conservationare subspeciation (geographicalvariation) and speciation (usuallyvia reproductive isolation). Thismodule focuses on processeswhich promote subspeciation(e.g. selective gradients andpartitioning of populations bybiogeographical barriers), speciation(e.g. sympatric, parapatric,peripatric and allopatric) andhybridization.demography and population viability analysisAssessing extinction risk is acore goal of conservationists.This module considers the variousfactors, both stochastic (demographic,genetic and environmental)and deterministic (extrinsicfactors such as exploitation, habitatloss, etc.) that combine to renderpopulations and species vulnerableto extinction within the frameworkof Caughley’s small population anddeclining population paradigms.The module starts by tracing thehistory of the field, starting withthe holy grail of a Minimum ViablePopulation, moving through theinitial optimism regarding PopulationViability Analysis as a quantitativetool, to the current positionwhere demographic models areseen as valuable tools to supportqualitative management decisionrather than providing an absolutemeasure of extinction risk. Mirroringthis attitudinal shift are changesin the IUCN Red Listing criteria.Demography is the study ofthe age-specific rates of fertilityand mortality, which determinewhether a population or species isincreasing, decreasing, or remainingstable. Change in populationsize is determined by the balancebetween birth and death rates.From the starting point of simple,deterministic Malthusian and“Assessing extinctionrisk is a core goal ofconservationistslogistic growth models, we add agestructure and derive Leslie matrixmodels which are a useful startingpoint for any demographic investigation.We consider the family ofLeslie matrices that describe pulsedreproduction in populations, andtouch on the possibility of continuousreproduction. Concepts suchas stable growth rate, stable agedistribution, reproductive valueand elasticity are explained andused to understand how populationsperform. We then buildsimple harvesting or supplementationmodels, and consider the impositionof density dependence onage-structured models. Populationstypically are in a state of dynamicequilibrium, driven by intrinsicand extrinsic stochastic events. It isimportant to distinguish shorttermfluctuations from shifts in theequilibrium, but this is often hardto achieve in practice.”Estimating populationparametersBuilding demographic models isfairly easy. The hard part is populatingthem with robust demographicparameters. Even simple, deterministicage-structured demographicmodels require a large amount ofinformation. At a minimum oneneeds age-specific survival andfecundity estimates, but these entaila wealth of complexity. Survivalmay differ with sex and status (territoryholder vs floater), whereasfecundity depends on the age atfirst breeding, the proportion ofmature individuals that attempt tobreed and the frequency of reproductionas well as crude birth rateand breeding success. Estimatingdemographic parameters typicallyrequires that a large sample of individualsbe individually-marked andtheir fates followed. In most cases,maximum-likelihood techniqueshave to be used to simultaneouslyestimate apparent survival andrecapture probabilities. We havea brief introduction to these techniquesin MARK. Depending onthe distribution of sampling effort,following marked individuals mayalso give some idea about rates ofemigration and dispersal distances.There are problems dealing withvery old individuals, because toofew marked animals attain oldages to allow robust parameterestimation. Students are alertedto the limitations of estimatingparameters, and encouraged to becritical of input data when assessingpublished models.Estimating population sizeThe other parameter that needsto be estimated is population size.This requires a defensible definitionof a population (geographically, geneticallyor both). We have a quick10 | conservation biology university of cape town | 11

efresher of census techniques formobile and sessile organisms., andconsider the difference betweensampling error and population fluctuations.In many cases there aresimply insufficient data to constructa demographic model. The best wecan do is look for trends in populationsize over time, bearing in mindthat changes in the size of a populationmay occur through changes inits range, density, or both. Simpleregression analysis can be used totest for a population trend. However,if a significant trend is notdiscovered, we need to estimate thepower of the test. This is dependenton the length of the data series,the magnitude of the hypothesisedrate of change (either linear orexponential) and the coefficient ofvariation of the initial populationestimate. We use Tim Gerodette’sprogramme TRENDS to solve thistricky puzzle. In some instancesthe precision of the populationestimate may be so poor that it isnot possible to detect a change inpopulation size until it is too late.Under these circumstances, othermanagement techniques have to beemployed to assess the health of apopulation.Adding stochasticity –Population VulnerabilityAnalysisAdding stochasticity to demographicmodel adds a sense ofrealism by allowing one to explorea range of possible outcomesrather than a single, deterministicoutcome. This lends itself to theconcept of extinction risk, giventhat extinction often appears to bea stochastic process. Populationviability analysis (PVA) modelsattempt to assess the probabilityof a population of a given sizebecoming extinct within a specifiedtime frame under a definedset of possible future conditions.In conservation, we are oftenmore concerned with exceptionalpopulation behaviours rather thanthe average. The range and distributionof individual variationin demographic performance isespecially critical in the dynamicsof small populations. Giventhe limited time available for thismodule, we use VORTEX, a packagedesigned to predict extinctionrisk in small animal populationsusing an individual-based, stochasticsimulation. Students eachconduct a PVA based on real datausing VORTEX.Spatially explicit modelsAdding spatial structure adds furtherrealism, but brings with it aheavy price in terms of additionaldata demands (and concomitantloss of model power). We considerspatially-explicit differences in demographicparameters, resultingin source and sink areas, as well asthe concept of meta-populations,with movement between habitatpatches. To build a spatially-explicitmodel, one needs patch-specificsurvival and fecundity data,as well as information on movementrates, and associated risksof mortality, between patches as afunction of age, sex and status.An introduction tomodellingThis module also introducesstudents to numerical modelling.A model is a simplified representationof an object, and canbe explanatory or predictive. Inthe former case, models help toformalise our understanding ofa system and to highlight gapsin our knowledge. Such modelsdeliver qualitative rather thanquantitative data, but can still beuseful in guiding managementactions, in addition to directingfuture research efforts.Explanatory models also can beused to build null models and testthe significance of patterns observedin nature. Predictive modelstend to be more demanding ondata, and great caution needs tobe exercised in translating resultsfrom the simplified model worldinto the real world. The type ofmodel used depends primarily onthe question being asked and, to alesser extent, the amount of dataavailable. Students are exposedto deterministic and stochasticmodels, as well as population andindividual-based models.community ecologyCommunity ecology is a complexsubject that fuels muchdebate in the scientific literature.Frequently, classical theories haveproved inadequate to explainpatterns observed in nature. Thesearch for paradigms has becomeconfounded by exceptions, and thedream of a unifying theory withglobal application is far from beingrealized. Escalating anthropogenicdisturbance and exploitation of thenatural environment have highlightedthe importance of communityecology theory to conservationbiologists. There is an ever-increasingemphasis on predicting theecological consequences of certainactions; such prediction is not possiblewithout an understanding ofcommunity dynamics.This module provides anoverview of recent thinking aboutcommunity structure and dynamics,and of the theoretical and empiricalbases that have underpinnedmodern concepts in the field. Thefirst week of the 2-week module isdevoted to theoretical considerations,and the second week is spentin the field examining how theseideas can be translated into problemsolving. Underlying the entiremodule is the theme that definescommunity ecology, from identifyingpattern, to inferring processesand making predictions.The theoreticalbackgroundThe theoretical component startsby addressing the factors andforces that structure communities.This theme is developed furtherthrough an exploration of communitystructure and stability, andexamining how the way in whichpattern is investigated will affectthe interpretation of structure andstability, and organization andcomplexity. We explore food webstructure, with particular emphasison how community connectednessand compartmentalization affectcascades within communities. Weconsider why surviving interactionswithin communities are highlynon-random and address the questionsof whether different communities,containing different species,are functionally convergent.A factor underlying many elementsof conservation biology isscale – this is of paramount importancewhen considering patterns ofspecies abundances and scales ofdiversity. We consider how communitiesare structured in termsof their relative species’ abundances,and why. This incorporatesspecies-abundance patterns,Island Biogeography Theory andan investigation of the differencesbetween inventory and differentiationdiversity concepts.Diversity, however, can changeover short time scales either as aresult of intrinsic processes suchas migration, or extrinsic forcingfactors such as environmentalcrunches and climate change. Weconsider these variations and theirimplications, and also address thequestion of whether communitiesare saturated.Modern conservation biologistsare concerned about rapid changesin species’ distribution patterns andthe degree to which these are forcedby anthropogenic factors. We examinepatterns of distribution andendemism and explore why manyof these apparently fail to conformto theoretical predictions. This inturn leads to consideration of thefactors that drive local or regionalvariation in species’ densities.To round off the theoreticaltreatment of community ecology,we revisit two old ‘chestnuts’ –niches and guilds, and the thorny12 | conservation biology university of cape town | 13

issue of competition as a forcestructuring communities. In termsof niches and guilds, we concentrateon how to decide when theyare useful as concepts, and in thecase of competition, emphasis isplaced on distinguishing betweenintensity and importance.In most years, the week of theorywill include lectures from at leasttwo specialists: in 2008 these includeda guest lecture about the forcesstructuring diversification in batcommunities, one which exploredthe importance of food-web modellingin managing marine ecosystemsand a third which addressed theinteractions between competition,predation and trophic cascades.The field componentThis is the time for putting theoryinto practice! By way of example,the following field problems weretackled in recent years.• Why has a dominant alien marinecompetitor has failed to removea competitive subdominant fromthe shore?• How does fire influences the interactionbetween fynbos and forestand how does this affect managementdecisions?• Alien plant clearance program mes:why do the ‘recovering’ plant communitiesdiffer so dramatically anddoes this influence how alien clearanceprogrammes should operate?• Why is a rare, indigenous bird thrivingonly in disturbed, alien infestedriverine forests?• What will the Orange Kloof forests(heavily selectively logged by earlysettlers) look like in 150 yearstime?ecosystem & aquatic ecologyInland aquaticecosystemsThis 1-week module serves as anintroduction to inland aquaticecosystems such as rivers, lakes,floodplains and wetlands, and thenfocuses on rivers because they arethe major target of water-resourcedevelopment. As the end-pointof drainage in the landscape,inland water systems have no trueboundaries and are highly vulnerableto disturbance occurringanywhere within the landscape.Additionally, because they are thesource of most of the world’s freshwater, massive landscape-scalemodifications of their flow regimesto suit human needs result in widespreadand severe degradation ofthe rivers themselves. In developingcountries, hundreds of millionsof people are subsistence usersof rivers and the developmentdrivenchanges generally impactthem most whilst the advantagesof development are felt elsewhere,such as in cities. As we enter a newera of dam building that is focusedon developing countries, improvedand more sensitive developmentand management of the world’srivers is vital, for we are now oftenlosing more than we gain fromwater developments.The module covers the natureand functioning of river ecosystems,the impacts of developmenton them and their subsistenceusers, and modern moves towardintegrated water resource management(IWRM) that incorporatesocial and ecological issues atthe same level of importance asengineering and economic issues.Students will be introduced to thewide range of disciplines involvedin IWRM with explanations oftheir role: hydrology, hydraulics,geomorphology, sedimentology,water chemistry, bank and channelvegetation, aquatic invertebrates,fish and fisheries, aquatic andwater-dependent mammals, waterbirds, resource economics, macroeconomics,sociology, public andlivestock health, and intangiblecultural and religious issues. Othertopics covered include the goodsand services provided by rivers,scenario creation, modern DecisionSupport Systems (DSS) and how todeal with data-poor situations.Written and other research tasksand discussion groups focus onriver and catchment signatures(the unique species composition ofaquatic and riparian plant and animalcommunities in each river); thenature of and threats to a selectionof the world’s Great Rivers, how tocommunicate with engineers andpolitical decision makers, and howto approach river management witha conservation perspective.Marine systemsThe science of conservationbiology has until recently beenconcerned almost exclusively withterrestrial biodiversity and landscapes.This is changing rapidly,but the application of terrestrialparadigms and experience in themarine environments is inappropriate.Food web-structure, reproductivesystems, dispersal, biogeography,the nature of threats,property rights and human valuestogether dictate a new approach toconservation of the sea.Human-induced extinction ofmarine species is extremely rare.Is this statement correct, and if so,why? The criteria used to list speciesas threatened or critical differbetween land and sea. Fishingis regarded as the greatest threatto marine biodiversity. Fisheriesmanagement and marine conservationshould be synonymous, but inpractice the underlying philosophiesdiffer widely. How are theybeing reconciled? There is widespreadevidence of severe depletionof fish stocks by fishermen. Boomand bust is the norm for almostevery fishery. Why are these trendsuniversal, even where fisherymanagement and marine scienceis well-funded? The cessation offishing and marine protected areasare argued by many to hold theanswer to stock recovery, but suchremedies are difficult to implementand may have unexpected andundesirable consequences.This module investigates theecology of marine organisms, particularlythose targeted by fisheries.Debates between fishery managersand conservationists usually hingeon the interpretation of poor datawith low statistical power, andsophisticated mathematical andstatistical models. Conservationistsare frustrated by the lack ofprogress in the application of effectiveconservation measures. Thismodule examines some the social,economic and political processesthat have led to the deplorable stateof many marine ecosystems, andconsiders alternatives.There has been a massive recentpush for the application of MarineProtected Areas. This conservationstrategy has gained many localisedsuccesses, mostly in coastal waters,but their application in offshoreenvironments and the high seasremains problematic. In addition,there is much disagreement overthe value of such areas to fisheries.This module considers the processesby which marine protectedarea sites are selected and designed,and considers the circumstances inwhich they may be useful. Otherforms of regulation are also considered,including the controversialpractice of re-stocking.Fish farming is seen by manyas a relief for wild stocks, and ananswer to the insatiable demand forseafood. Salmon has changed froma king’s delicacy to the chicken ofthe sea. We look at the ecological,social and economic realitiesof replacing wild caught fish withfarmed products.conservationgeneticsThe subject of ConservationGenetics merges a numberof biological disciplines includingecology, molecular biology, mathematicalmodeling and evolutionarysystematics. It is both a theoreticaland an applied science; theoreticalapproaches include those of classicPopulation Genetics, the emergingtheories of Phylogeography, andPhylogenetic Systematics.Population genetics is concernedwith the application of geneticprinciples, such as Mendel’s laws, toentire populations and attempts tounderstand evolutionary mechanismsat this level. An applicationis found in conservation biologywhich is ultimately concernedwith maintaining the evolutionary14 | conservation biology university of cape town | 15

potential of species, not simply thepreservation of reasonable numbersof individuals. To achieve this weneed to know the amount anddistribution of genetic variation ina species or population and, moreimportantly, to understand theunderlying processes generatingsuch patterns.Classical population genetics,whether theoretical or empirical,focuses on the analysis of genefrequencies. Additionally, analysisof non-nuclear genes (mitochondrialor chloroplast), non-selectedportions of the genome (DNAfingerprinting) and the determinationof direct DNA sequenceshave brought the fields ofpopulation genetics and molecularsystematics closer together. Theemerging field of phylogeographyprovides a platform for analysingDNA sequence data within aspatio-temporal framework, whilemolecular systematics informs ourunderstanding of the evolutionof animal and plant lineages; inso doing these approaches helpdetermine ‘units of conservation’;these can be populations, species,ecotypes, morphotypes etc. Thismodule covers the essentials ofboth evolutionary and moleculargenetics with the emphasis on therelevance of each component tospecies in the wild. Attention isalso given to investigating adaptivegenetic variation, quantitativegenetics and the inheritance ofmeasurable morphological traits(especially fitness).Theoretical andstatistical aspectsConservation genetics aims toderive strategies for the long-termmaintenance of the genetic variabilityof species, since genetic variabilityis intimately linked to both therelative fitness of each individualand the long-term adaptability andevolutionary potential of the population.Understanding the basis forthis variability (and hence fitness)requires knowledge of the inheritanceof genes, gene frequencies inPractical applications of population geneticsWhereas mutation is the ultimate source of all genetic variation, manyother factors determine the distribution and maintenance of this variation.These factors include sexual reproduction, natural selection (and unnaturalin captive populations), migration, and genetic drift in isolated populations.Population bottlenecks may contribute to inbreeding, with consequent implicationsfor fitness (inbreeding depression).The counterpart to this is outbreeding depression which can occur as a consequenceof moving individuals into the ranges of other populations of theirspecies and also by mixing captive populations from different sources. Bothhave significant implications for conservation management, especially in theuse of concepts such as effective population size and population viability.populations, how selection actson the genome and the way theseaspects are described by the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium model.Molecular evolutionSince many of the most effectivetechniques for measuring andquantifying genetic variability arebiochemical, an understandingof the molecular basis of geneticsand evolution is required. Thisconsists of the structure of theeukaryotic genome and of the geneticmaterial (DNA) itself. In addition,some details of the DNA ofsub-cellular organelles such as mitochondriaand chloroplasts (sincethey are often the easiest to studyin practice) must be considered.The various types of mutationalevents are discussed to show howthe genome and the organismevolve, and to explain conceptssuch as that of neutral evolution(which describes changes in thegenotype that have insignificantconsequential changes in thephenotype), adaptive evolutionand the so-called molecular clock(whether molecular changesin DNA occur, on average, at aconstant rate).Computer modelling ofpopulation genetic dataThere are few better ways to gainunderstanding and insight intoconceptual problems than throughinteractive computer modelling.A number of computer-basedprograms in population and moleculargenetics are demonstratedto participants. These will provideexercises blending both theoreticaland practical aspects of populationand molecular genetics.disturbance & restoration ecologyThis two-week module is verypractical and participatory. Itcomprises three sections – theory,fieldwork and a written assignment.The 4-day theoretical introductioncovers concepts and theoriesin the disciplines of disturbanceecology and restoration ecologythrough a mixture of lectures,discussions and student seminarsbased on key papers. The conceptof disturbance includes events thatdisrupt ecosystem, community, orpopulation structures and changeresources, substratum availabilityor the physical environment. Bothnatural and anthropogenic disturbancesand disturbance regimesare considered, together with theirroles in evolution of life-historytraits, the structuring of plant andanimal populations and communities,and their influences onecosystem functioning. Ecologicalrestoration is the process of assistingthe recovery of biodiversityand/or functions of an ecosystemthat has been degraded, damaged,or destroyed. Restoration is linkedwith disturbance ecology throughits focus on damaged environmentsand through the use of managementinterventions to restore species,populations or functions.During the 4-day field trip,hypotheses relating to the applicationsof disturbance in conservationmanagement and restorationare tested. The field data are thenanalysed and a scientific paper preparedfor assessment. Skills developedor strengthened include thedesign of field experiments, use of avariety of methods for quantifyingdisturbance, vegetation cover, plantpopulation structure and habitatheterogeneity, data and metadatacompilation, critical review of publishedliterature, presentation andevaluation of mini-lectures and theart of scientific writing.An understanding of disturbanceand restoration ecology is essentialfor a career in ecological impactassessment, habitat and populationmanagement, ecological restorationand rehabilitation, conservationplanning, or protected areadesign. Predicting the effects ofmanagement interventions suchas burning, fire exclusion, culling,bush clearing, selective harvesting,livestock reductions, and speciesintroductions requires a knowledgeof disturbance ecology theoryas well as the knowledge gainedthrough practical experience.16 | conservation biology university of cape town | 17

invasive speciesThe view of Charles Elton thatundisturbed native communitiesare not susceptible to invasionby introduced species has blinkeredscientists to the realities of a veryserious conservation problem. Empiricalstudies have shown repeatedlythat this dogma is fallacious andthat, as a corollary, the phenomenonhas major implications for preservingbiodiversity. Now that the intellectualstalemate surrounding thetopic has been broken, it is apparentthat the scientific understandingof alien invasions is inadequate tomeet the challenges posed. Recentsyntheses and some novel researchhave allowed significant theoreticaladvances to be made. These aresufficient to increase markedly theeffectiveness of current programmesaimed at controlling invasives. Thismodule updates the level of currentecological understanding of invasionsand invasive species.Invasibility and itscorrelates/causesAbiotic determinants of the differentialsusceptibility of communitiesto invasion include disturbanceregimes and patterns of habitatdistribution within biomes. Bioticdeterminants of the success of invadersinclude ecological releasedue to the absence of host-specificparasites, diseases, predators and,for plants, herbivores found in theoriginal range; availability of appropriatepollinators and dispersersfor plants; the presence of generalistpredators and the level of competitionpresent in the invaded community.The greater susceptibilityof island communities to invasion,compared to mainland ones, haslong been noted. Does this leadto valid generalizations about thecommunity structure of invadedcommunities?Invasiveness and itscorrelates/causesSo far it has proved impossible tomake well-founded predictionsabout which species will provesuccessful invaders and where. Thismeans that probabilistic techniqueshave to be used. One approach is totry and match the invader’s naturalrange characteristics with those ofthe area under consideration. Bioclimaticcharacters may be importanthere. Lifestyle characteristics mayalso be used but, so far, attemptedgeneralizations have broken downtoo often. Are there biogeographicand taxonomic patterns in invasivenessof species?impacts of invasionsThe impacts of invasions can beassessed on four geographicalscales: global, regional, biome andlocal. They also may be classifiedecologically. One of the problemsin such classifications is the timelag between arrival, first appearanceof invasiveness and appearance ofnoticeable effects. It is clearly desirableto quantify invasive impacts,and techniques for doing so are discussed.It is possible to make somevalid generalizations on invasiveimpacts, with particular referenceto those related to biogeography,community structure and the priorevolutionary experience of invadedcommunities or ecosystems.Ecological basesfor controlIn dealing with biological invasions,the first point to attack is counteringthe effects of the invader’s ecological‘release’ from competitors, predators,parasites and pathogens. Thisis where biological control, properlymanaged, is invaluable. It may bepossible to manipulate the structureof the native community to makeit less susceptible to invasion. Oneway of doing this is to restore thedisturbance regime within whichthe community evolved. Globalclimatic change may hinder thisaim. Clearly, it is necessary to studyinvaders both demographically andecologically to ascertain where theweakest points are in the life cycle.Successful control programmes areusually characterized by integratedattacks at several weak points.Modelling invasionsand their controlThe use of models greatly improvesunderstanding of invasions and howto deal with them, whether they aremodels of the invasion process orones explaining invasive success.Demographic models are virtuallyessential for predicting the impactsof alternative control methods suchas biocontrol, disturbance regimemanipulations and integratedcontrol.interdisciplinary COREcomplex systemsThis one-week module offers anintroduction to the study of complexsystems. Complexity presentsa challenge for many traditionalapproaches to understanding andmanaging ecosystems. At the sametime, it highlights the importanceof people in management and theneed for approaches that take intoaccount not only the ecologicalaspects of conservation problemsbut also their human and societalaspects. The contents of the moduleare based loosely around the recentedited volume, Complexity Theory fora Sustainable Future (Norberg andCumming, 2008). Conservationrelevantcomplexity theory isconsidered in four transdisciplinarycategories: asymmetries, networks,information processing, and crosscuttingproblems such as scale andmanagement. Asymmetries refer tosystematic arrangements of systemelements and range from gradientsin landscapes through biodiversityto inequalities in livelihoods and differencesin power. Networks includeecological interactions, social interactions,physical connections suchas roads and railways, and informationnetworks such as radio and theinternet. Information processingin simple terms refers to whatoccurs between input and output,or between stimulus and response.In ecosystems it can include suchthings as the mechanisms by whichforest communities adapt to fragmentationor weeds evolve resistanceto herbicides; and in societies,it can include decision making andother political processes that influenceresponses to crises or opportunities.Lastly, questions about therole of system history, constraints,path dependencies and scale arisein each of these different realmsand influence empirical results andthe conclusions that are drawn fromthem about complex systems. Themodule includes explicit discussionsof higher-order system propertiessuch as resilience and vulnerability,and illustrates how the growingfield of complexity theory providesa logical conceptual foundation forconservation biology.landscapeecologyThis four-week module coverskey concepts, skills andmethods, and conservation-relatedapplications of landscape ecologyand associated disciplines. Theconceptual content focuses on waysof thinking about spatial variation inthe biophysical and anthropogenicenvironments, and its role as both acause and a consequence of variationin ecosystems. Key topics includescale, hierarchy theory, pattern-processlinkages, landscape functionality,and adaptive management.The skills and methods componentof the course aims to introducestudents to the tools that theywill need in order to undertake spatialanalyses of conservation-relatedproblems. The focus is on workingin a GIS (Geographic InformationSystem) environment and gettinguseful, synthetic information out ofspatially explicit data sets. Most ofthe training in this area is undertakenthrough hands-on exercisesthat include interpreting aerialphotographs, completing simple18 | conservation biology university of cape town | 19

Irreplaceability index for areas of the Western Cape, as calculated by CBstudents Hannah Thomas, Jeremy Sheldon, Lindy McGregor, and DimbyRaharinjanahary. Green indicates current protected areas; urban centres areshaded purple; and different shades of red or grey indicate irreplaceability.operations in a GIS environment,working with remotely senseddata, calculating patch metrics, andspatial statistics. Students then applysome of these skills by workingin groups to develop a rudimentaryconservation plan for the WesternCape, using CLUZ and MARXANto prioritize areas.The applications component ofthe course takes conceptual andmethodological approaches andapplies them to real-world conservationproblems. These lecturesclimate change and conservationClimate change, compoundedby land-use change andother global problems, is one ofthe gravest environmental changedrivers causing biodiversity lossand changing species distributionsand abundances. This 1-weekmodule provides an introductoryoverview of key concepts, methodsand principles for the developmentof conservation approaches to helpgive most biodiversity “a fightingchance to survive the first (andmaybe the last) few centuries of theAnthropocene era.”Climate change impacts on,and vulnerability of, biodiversityare the emphasis of the module.We also focus on ways in whichhumans can maximize biodiversity’scapacity to adapt to climatechange through conservationaction, spatial planning and othermeans. Adaptation to climatechange is an emerging field ofconservation biology, in whichfew hard and fast rules have beenrigorously tested. The urgency ofthe situation demands the wiseuse of flexible, dynamic conservationapproaches based onsound ecological and evolutionaryprinciples and a big-pictureview of human development andspecies evolution. The moduleis thus very interdisciplinary,and discussions cover such topicsas predicting species occurrences,alternative approaches to conservationplanning, difficulties inapplying landscape ecology ideas tofreshwater and marine ecosystems,the conservation of migratory species,and scenario planning.In general, the landscape ecologymodule introduces students to theanalysis of broad-scale problems.While the focus is on conservationrelatedtopics, broad-scale analysisinevitably introduces a wide rangeof other material; lectures touch ona variety of other disciplines andinclude ideas from economics, sociology,geography, and physics. Itis intended that students who havecompleted the module will havesufficient background to approachregional conservation problemsand planning efforts with a basicgrounding in theory, the abilityto work with spatial data, and ahealthy degree of skepticism.drawing on physiological tolerances,biogeography, systematicconservation planning, ecosystemmanagement, evolution, geneticsand behavioural ecology – as wellas applied sociology, scenarioplanning, environmental policyand the nature of society and humanbehavioural change.We expect that students completingthe module will be ableto start to weigh up different scenariosfor climate change impactsat different scales and proposeconcrete, on-the-ground managementand policy approaches tominimizing biodiversity loss invery uncertain and difficult times.resourceecologyEnhancing the economicwell-being of humans neednot result in environmentaldegradation. Improved economicconditions, social upliftment andempowerment of stakeholders areessential for conservation needsto become priorities in developingcountries. At the same time,conservation requires that naturalresources are valued correctly.Long-term, environmental coststypically are excluded frompresent commodity prices; theyhave to be accounted for eitherby incorporating them into thepricing structure or by offsettingcosts using taxes and/or subsidies.Similarly, decisions regardingmany potential developmentshinge on their economic viability.To compare the option of conservingan area with that of development,the true value of conservedareas has to be assessed. Untilrecently, only the direct values ofconservation areas (e.g. tourism,timber extraction, etc.) wereconsidered. Indirect values alsohave to be considered. Theseinclude factors such as improvedquality of life, maintenance of keyecosystem functions, recreational,educational and scientificvalues, the existence value offlagship species, and the optionvalue of retaining an area in itsnatural state. Incorporating thesevalues into the equation, andgiven the relatively small inputcost of the non-developmentoption, conservation often makeseconomic sense.Sustainable developmentIf the goal of resource managementis to achieve the highest possiblelevel of human well-being over thelong term, then a policy designed toadvance this goal could be termedsustainable development. The SouthAfrican Department of EnvironmentAffairs’ 1993 policy documenton Environmental Managementembraces such a policy, to whichthere are two major components:• Economic development is concernedwith the management ofman-made and environmentalcapital to satisfy human needsand aspirations;• Sustainability is concerned with themanagement of man-made and environmentalcapital to maintain thecapability of satisfying the needsand aspirations of both future andpresent generations.No topic receives more attention indiscussions of environmental managementthan ‘sustainable development’.Is sustainability a well-definedconcept? Is it an appropriate goalfor management? Are limitationsto achieving sustainability based ona lack of ecological knowledge ofwhat needs to be done, or are theysociological in origin? These are allquestions currently under debate.Controls & IncentivesOne approach to controllingenvironmental pollution andover-exploitation of resources is toset standards or prescribe certainactions. Direct controls may beeffective in implementing policy,and usually are set by the government.Unfortunately, governmentsoften have inadequate informationto establish cost-effective controls,and blanket regulations mandatingspecific control measures areinefficient as each case is unique.Monitoring and enforcement ofregulations can also be expensiveand unpopular.Another method of influencingthe utilization of natural resourcesis through applying economicincentives. Economic incentivesattempt to correct market signalswhich lead to environmentallydamaging activities, and have advantagesover regulatory approaches.Economic incentives attach acost to the damaging activity. Thiscost is related to damages sufferedas a consequence of the externalitiesresulting from the acting party’senvironmental utilization, andshould result in environmentalquality meeting the goals set by theenvironmental authorities. Thereare many different economic incentivessuited to various situations, forexample: pollution charges, subsidies,marketable permits, compensation,environmental bonds.20 | conservation biology university of cape town | 21

Evaluating proposedresource usesA major challenge in environmentalutilization is to find an acceptableyardstick for evaluating the costsand benefits of alternate uses fora particular resource. Money isthe most obvious and widely usedmeasuring rod in free-marketeconomies, because prices providelow-cost information as to the valuepeople attach to goods and services.However, price signals indicatethe value of only those goods andservices which can be owned andconsciously traded for somethingelse. In addition, people often donot perceive the links between theirproduction or consumption ofsome commodity and the damageinflicted on the environment. Evaluationtechniques should thus becomprehensive in scope, systematicin approach, and explicit in theirappraisal of all possible outcomesassociated with alternative uses ofthe resource. Several techniquesfor estimating the true values ofresources are outlined and theirrelative merits are considered.societies andnatural resourcesConserving biological diversityinvolves much more than justan understanding of the ecologyand biology of plant and animalspecies and their interactions.Gone are the days when conservationprofessionals could afford theluxury of focussing solely on the ecologicaldynamics of protected areas,safe behind fences from the restof the world (or so they thought).The contemporary challenges inThe purpose of this module is toexpose students to some of thesocial and political issues, conceptsand understandings that are crucialfor addressing biodiversity conservation.It is obviously not expectedthat biologists become experts insocial science, but awareness anda basic understanding of the complexityof the challenges faced byconservation and an appreciationof where social scientists, withinan interdisciplinary framework,can play a role is essential for goodresearch and practice.conservation, as we continue tolose biodiversity at a rapid rate, areenormous and extremely complex,and so, by implication includepolitical, social, economic and evenmoral and ethical dimensions.Over the last 10-20 years, therehave been substantial shifts in conservationthinking and practice. Theinteractions and interrelationshipsbetween society and biodiversityhave slowly achieved greater prominence.Increasingly, it is recognisedthat local people are integral to anyconservation efforts both inside andoutside of parks. With respect to thelatter, it is now widely accepted thatconservation of the world’s ecosystemscannot be achieved througha system of protected areas alone.Consequently, we are seeing thegrowing emergence of broad-scale,integrated landscape approaches ofwhich local communities form verymuch part. International protocolsand agreements have compelledconservation professionals to thinkmore laterally about the linksbetween biodiversity, developmentand poverty alleviation, particularlygiven the co-occurrence of themajority of biodiversity hot spotsand some of the most impoverishedsocieties in the world. The recentMillennium Ecosystem Assessment(MA), for example, exploredthe links between ecosystemservices (goods and services fromecosystems that provide benefits tohumankind) and human well-beingon a worldwide scale. The highdegree of interdependence betweenprimarily poor rural people andbiodiversity is now well documentedand irrefutable.The first half of the modulefocuses on the links betweennatural resources or ecosystemservices and people, particularlythe poor. The concepts of poverty,vulnerability, human wellbeing andlivelihoods are explored. The contributionthat biodiversity makesto local livelihoods and its role inreducing or mitigating povertyand vulnerability is investigated,drawing on specific case studies.The implications of these linkagesfor the conservation, or converselythe degradation, of ecosystems andbiodiversity are highlighted and relatedback to the impacts on humanwell-being and poverty alleviation.The importance of local ecologicalknowledge and how it can be incorporatedinto conservation effortsand plans and used to complementscientific knowledge is considered,again through the use of examples.Finally, students will explorecurrent debates, controversies anddiscourse at the ‘conservation-development/poverty’nexus throughreadings and formal debate.Recognising the dependence ofpoor people on biodiversity, thesecond half of the module focuseson the institutions, formal andinformal, that are critical in governingaccess to, use and sustainablemanagement of natural resources.In the past, many ecological studiesof biodiversity ignored socialaspects of their case. More recently,many natural science studies havebegun to acknowledge the importanceof governance and the needfor crafting sound institutions.However, a disturbingly high percentageof these studies concludewith a call for good governance orimproved institutions with littlediscussion of what this means. Thesecond half of this module aims toprovide a foundation to rectify thisshortcoming. The class will beginto answer questions about whatdefines good governance and howwe can think about designing institutionsto achieve these results.Drawing heavily on CommonpoolResource (CPR) management,this section of the course attemptsdecision analysis for conservation biologyMaking decisions such aschoosing one species survivalplan over another, or which areasto conserve, is an integral part ofconservation biology. In the processof making that decision, severalgoals or objectives usually need tobe considered, including biology,economics, social and politicalconsiderations. Moreover, decisionsoften have to be made with incompleteknowledge and inaccuratedata. This module introduces keymethodical approaches that havebeen developed to help resolvecomplex decision-making processes,and explores the philosophyof decision-making in the contextof conservation biology.Analysis of the decisionmakingprocessA set of heuristics is needed toensure that the decision-makingthree goals. First, it steps througha variety of rigorous social sciencetechniques which build on theresource economics module and thelocal-level case studies of the firsthalf of this module. This providesexposure to the fields of politicalecology, game theory, social sciencelaboratory experimentation, andfield work in social-ecological systems.Each of these draws on theoriesof CPR management. Second,recent work on the robustness ofsocial-ecological systems links backto earlier discussions of resilience.We examine some of the similaritiesbetween the two concepts, lookat important differences, and seeif we gain further insight from theaddition. The final goal of the courseis to study the policy process. Whilethis will be a high-level overview,the policy process steps throughthe stages of policy formation in anintuitive way and clarifies the politicsbehind policy.process reaches an adequate andacceptable solution. The first stepis to identify what it is desired todo (i.e. the ‘goal’ or goals). Therecan be no sensible resolution of aproblem until all parties can agreeon a common goal or prioritizedset of goals, which must be statedexplicitly. The next considerationis to define all alternative coursesof action, including exploring thenull option of doing nothing. Arethere insufficient resources or otherconstraints precluding some ofthe potential alternatives? Otherimportant features of the decisionmakingprocess include inclusiveness(all relevant parties must be22 | conservation biology university of cape town | 23

consulted) and transparency (allaspects of the process must be openfor public scrutiny). An impartialfacilitator, a structured decisionprocess and well-defined feedbackmechanisms also help avoid conflictbetween parties.Decision treesHistorically, decision trees havebeen the favoured approach inreaching decisions in conservationbiology. They address problemswith a single goal and knownlikelihoods of different eventsoccurring. In practice, the use ofdecision trees requires assigningprobability values to alternativeevents. The assessment of thesevalues is difficult, especially whendealing with events with very lowprobability of occurring; humansare notoriously poor estimators oflow risk events. Another problemis that decision trees provide thebest average solution, with no considerationof the range of possibleoutcomes. This is often inappropriatein conservation biology, where,without the luxury of multiple trials,it is essential to assess the rangeof risks associated with specificscenarios on a single trial basis.Other decision-makingtechniquesDecision trees address problemswhich have discrete alternative solutions.Policy options that are continuous(e.g. how much shall we doand when shall we do it to optimizereturns?) can be addressed with linearprogramming, which optimizesa single objective function. Wherethere are multiple managementobjectives, goal programming canbe used to maximize the achievementof conflicting goals. However,simplistic resolutions of these typesof mathematical functions can leadto ill-considered decisions, as hasbeen shown in alien plant priorityrankings. Other approaches have tobe employed to test the robustnessof the decision analysis process.When the problem structuringphases have generated a set ofalternatives, and a set of criteriaagainst which these alternativescan be evaluated and compared,techniques of preference modellingcan be employed. These includethe “Small Multi-Attribute RankingTechnique”, which has provento be useful in stakeholder workshops,and has a sound theoreticalfoundation.The role of models indecision analysisModels are ideal tools for assessingthe range of possible outcomesresulting from a number of managementoptions under conditionsof uncertainty. They can helpdevelop predictions of what islikely to happen, not only regardingthe average response, but moreimportantly, to identify responseextremes, e.g. using Monte Carlosimulations. Determining the limitsof possible future responses isessential given the need to err onthe side of caution in conservationbiology. Sensitivity analysesallow key features of the model tobe identified, and thus to test therobustness of decisions. Variousrule-based models are introducedto address system-level rather thansingle-species problems.synthesisThe final module reviewshighlights of the year’scourse contents and acts asa time of revision and consolidation.It also offers anopportunity to look forwardby asking which conservationissues are currently ‘hot’and which issues are likely tobecome important over thenext year. In both cases, thesynthesis is guided by thecourse organisers but largelystudent-led. Students selecttopics in consultation with thecourse organisers, researchor revise them, and presenttheir summaries as shortpresentations to the class.Information for international studentsAll applicants except South Africans and permanent residentsof South Africa require:• A valid passport and study permit. Note that you cannotobtain a study permit from within South Africa.• Medical insurance.• Proof of English proficiency if English is not your firstlanguage (TOEFL test or equivalent)• A proven ability to support themselves financially andto settle their fees.For advice and further details, international applicants are welcome to contact eitherthe FitzPatrick Institute’s Departmental Administrator at fitz@uct.ac.za or the University’sInternational Academic Programmes Office (IAPO) at iapo@world.uct.ac.za.The Conservation Biology course is exempt from International Student fees levied by theUniversity of Cape Town. This is reviewed on an annual basis, but currently internationalstudents pay the same fees as South Africans and students from SADC (Southern AfricanDevelopment Community) countries.24 | conservation biology

FitzPatrick Institute andDST/NRF Centre of ExcellenceUniversity of Cape TownPrivate Bag X3RondeboschSouth Africa 7701Tel. (+27-21) 650 3290/1Fax (+27-21) 650 3295E-mail fitz@uct.ac.za