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PROPERTY OF MAIN LIBRARY, DEPARTMENTOF AGRICULTURE, OTTAWALent loDate...PLEASE RETURNSHEEP HUSBANDRYIN CANADA630.4C212P 5611937c. 3Published byauthority of theHon. James G. Gard<strong>in</strong>erM<strong>in</strong>ister of AgricultureOttawa, Canada
PUBLICATION 561 ISSUED MAY, 1937FARMERS' BULLETIN 30REVISIONDOMINION OF CANADA, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURESHEEP HUSBANDRY IN CANADAEIGHTH EDITIONFIELD SERVICESLIVE STOCK BRANCHPublished by authority of the Hon. JAMES G. GARDINER, M<strong>in</strong>ister ot"Ottawa, CanadaAgriculture
OTTAWAJ. 0. PATENAUDE, I.S.O.PRINTER TO THE KING'S MOST EXCELLENT MAJESTY1937
LIVE STOCK BRANCHLive Stock Commissioner Geo. B. RothwellAssistant Commissioner and Chief, FieldServices R. S. HamerAssociate Chief, Field ServicesA. A. MacMillanChief, Market Services J. M. McCallumChief, Poultry Services W. A. BrownThe orig<strong>in</strong>al edition of <strong>this</strong> bullet<strong>in</strong> was prepared by J. B. Spencer who wasAssistant to the Live Stock Commissioner. The present edition has been revisedand re-edited by A. A. MacMillan, Associate Chief, Field Services, Live StockBranch.35001—n
amaP*30?
SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN CANADATHEHISTORICAL REVIEWsheep <strong>in</strong>dustry <strong>in</strong> Canada dates back almost to the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of heragriculture, for the first settlers, as soon as they were able to do so,established little flocks of sheep to supply both food and cloth<strong>in</strong>g fortheir families. The first sheep to <strong>com</strong>e to Canada, accord<strong>in</strong>g to record, werebrought from France <strong>in</strong> the middle of the seventeenth century. Others followedfrom time to time dur<strong>in</strong>g the French regime, but for nearly one hundred yearsafterwards no other sheep were brought <strong>in</strong>. These French sheep were small,and are said to have much resembled the Cheviot <strong>in</strong> size and con<strong>format</strong>ion,particularly <strong>in</strong> the shape of the head, while the quality and weight of the fleecewere much the same.Toward the end of the eighteenth century, colonies of United EmpireLoyalists that settled <strong>in</strong> the Maritime Prov<strong>in</strong>ces, Quebec and Ontario, broughtwith them from New York, Pennsylvania and other Eastern States, such sheepas were <strong>com</strong>mon <strong>in</strong> the districts from which they came. These, as a rule, weregrades of the lead<strong>in</strong>g English breeds <strong>in</strong> those days, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g Cotswold, Leicester,Hampshire and Southdown.As early as 1830, British immigrants <strong>com</strong>menced to br<strong>in</strong>g small stocks ofsheep, and by these the quality of the established Canadian flocks was improved.About the year 1842, a small number of Leicesters and Cotswolds were importedfrom England, and a few years later, Southdowns began to appear. From thattime onward, shipments were landed almost every year. A report of the firstprov<strong>in</strong>cial exhibition held <strong>in</strong> Toronto <strong>in</strong> 1846 states that the exhibits ofLeicesters and Southdowns were of excellent quality and well adapted to thecountry.Two years later, <strong>in</strong> addition to the two breeds already named, Mer<strong>in</strong>oswere shown at the prov<strong>in</strong>cial exhibition. The numbers <strong>in</strong>creased year by year,until the exhibit at London <strong>in</strong> 1854 amounted to 400 head, divided as follows:Leicesters, 200; Southdowns, 44; Cotswolds, 30; the last named be<strong>in</strong>g newlyimported by George Miller, of Markham. In addition to a small exhibit ofCheviots, made that year by George Ruddick, of Northumberland county, t<strong>here</strong>ma<strong>in</strong>der consisted of grades. The follow<strong>in</strong>g year the show of Leicesters wasnot quite so large but the entries of Southdowns, Cotswolds and Cheviots weremore numerous than <strong>here</strong>tofore. The prize w<strong>in</strong>ners were as follows:Leicesters.—Chris. Walker, London; Wm. Miller, Picker<strong>in</strong>g; Geo. Miller,Markham; and Jas. Dickson, Clark.Southdowns.—John Spencer, Whitby; R. W. Gordon, Paris; R. W. Stanley,Haldimand; Richard Coats, Oakville, and A. Burroughs, Brantford.Cotsiuolds.—John Snell, Edmonton, Ont.; Wm. Smith, Clark; Wm. Miller,Picker<strong>in</strong>g; F. W. Stone, Guelph, and Geo. Miller, Markham.Cheviots.—Wm. Ruddick, Markham.A number of these men occasionally showed at the New York State Fairand brought away much of the prize money <strong>com</strong>peted for. The entries of purebredskept up well. In 1858, the show of Leicesters numbered 188; Cotswolds,39; Cheviots, 15; Southdowns, 49; Longwools, not pure-bred, 68; Mer<strong>in</strong>os, 29and fat sheep, 19. The Longwools, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g grade Cotswolds, Leicesters andL<strong>in</strong>colns, were magnificent sheep, equal <strong>in</strong> many respects to the pure-bred5
6classes. The Mer<strong>in</strong>os and Cheviots did not ga<strong>in</strong> ground, but all of the otherbreeds improved, multiplied and <strong>in</strong>creased <strong>in</strong> popularity until the sheep <strong>in</strong>dustryof the country <strong>in</strong> the early 'sixties had be<strong>com</strong>e a very popular and profitablebranch of farm<strong>in</strong>g.To encourage importation, the Board of Agriculture of Ontario <strong>in</strong> the early'fifties resolved to double, and a few years later to triple, the amount of anyfirst prize won at the prov<strong>in</strong>cial exhibition by an animal imported dur<strong>in</strong>g theyear. An <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g number of enterpris<strong>in</strong>g men, year after year, took advantageof the opportunity to <strong>in</strong>troduce improved blood <strong>in</strong>to their flocks, which by<strong>this</strong> time had grown numerous and many of them fairly large. County agriculturalsocieties also took a keen <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> stock improvement by purchas<strong>in</strong>gand distribut<strong>in</strong>g improved males among their members. For example, <strong>in</strong> 1854,Grey County Society bought ten rams and sold them for $285. Three yearslater the Kent County Society paid $320 for twenty-one rams and sold themfor $175. Much good resulted from <strong>this</strong> public-spirited effort.As early as 1883, sheep were <strong>in</strong>troduced <strong>in</strong>to Manitoba, when the Hudson'sBay Company was <strong>com</strong>menc<strong>in</strong>g to develop the country. Governor Simpson ofthat Company, with the object of benefit<strong>in</strong>g the little band of settlers that <strong>com</strong>prisedthe Selkirk colony, organized a jo<strong>in</strong>t stock <strong>com</strong>pany and sent agents south<strong>in</strong>to the United States to buy sheep. These agents went first to Missouri andthen to Kentucky, w<strong>here</strong> they purchased 1,745 sheep at about $1.50 each, andstarted to drive them back to the colony on the banks of the Red river. Throughbad management most of the sheep died on the journey, only 251 arriv<strong>in</strong>g attheir dest<strong>in</strong>ation. Subsequently the shareholders of the <strong>com</strong>panv quarrelledand the Governor took over what was left of the flock. These were sold atauction, and brought as high as $2 each, a high price <strong>in</strong> those days. Somew<strong>here</strong>about 1840, the Hudson's Bay Company is said to have brought from Englandsome pure-bred rams for the improvement of the sheep of the colony.A few years later, sheep arrived <strong>in</strong> the Pacific prov<strong>in</strong>ce under somewhatsimilar circumstances. The Hudson's Bay Company, and later the Puget SoundAgricultural Company, the latter <strong>com</strong>posed of Hudson's Bay employees, establishedfarms at Fort Nisqually, on the pla<strong>in</strong>s of what is now Wash<strong>in</strong>gton state,a few miles distant from the city of Ta<strong>com</strong>a. At that time <strong>this</strong> territory wasunder the control of the Hudson's Bay Company, the <strong>in</strong>ternational boundarybetween the United States and the British possessions on that part of the cont<strong>in</strong>entnot hav<strong>in</strong>g been decided. Sheep driven from California were purchased bythe agents of the <strong>com</strong>panies, until <strong>in</strong> the early 'forties the flocks numbered somethousands. The quality of these sheep was improved by the importation fromtime to time of well-bred rams from Great Brita<strong>in</strong>, via Cape Horn on sail<strong>in</strong>gships, which brought for the <strong>com</strong>panies their annual mail and fresh stocks ofgoods. When the boundary l<strong>in</strong>e was f<strong>in</strong>ally agreed on, these flocks were disposedof, a large number of sheep go<strong>in</strong>g to Oregon, w<strong>here</strong> they played an importantpart <strong>in</strong> form<strong>in</strong>g the great sheep <strong>in</strong>dustry of that state, and from t<strong>here</strong> werescattered over the neighbour<strong>in</strong>g states. It will thus be seen that the earlyBritish settlers were among the first promoters of improved sheep husbandry <strong>in</strong>the Pacific northwest.On the establishment, <strong>in</strong> 1843, of a Hudson's Bay post on the site of thepresent city of Victoria, British Columbia, at the southern end of VancouverIsland, farms were located by the two above-named <strong>com</strong>panies and sheep broughtfrom Fort Nisqually to stock them. These sheep were pr<strong>in</strong>cipally of the Mer<strong>in</strong>o.Southdown and Leicester blood, and were the foundation of the sheep-breed<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>dustry <strong>in</strong> that prov<strong>in</strong>ce. They did well, and, <strong>in</strong> 1849, numbered several hundredhead, <strong>in</strong> spite of the depredations of panthers, wolves and bears, andoccasionally of vagrant dogs. The sheep were herded by armed Indian shepherds<strong>in</strong> the day time and corralled at night. Indians from early times showedtheir appreciation of a change of diet from fish and venison by occasionally raid<strong>in</strong>gflocks. This love of mutton made a little British Columbia historv <strong>in</strong> the
early 'fifties, when a warlike band of Indians swooped down from their villagea short distance up the coast to Victoria, and raided a flock, murdered theshepherd, and carried off a number of sheep. Their village was visited by aBritish gunboat from Victoria some time afterwards, and the murderers werecaptured and hanged on a tree nearby. The first experience of British justicemade a deep impression on the natives, which was shown by their carv<strong>in</strong>gand pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g a large figure of a British mar<strong>in</strong>e stand<strong>in</strong>g at attention. Thisadorned a prom<strong>in</strong>ent spot <strong>in</strong> the village for years afterwards.The Hudson's Bay Company cont<strong>in</strong>ued to assist the farmers <strong>in</strong> <strong>this</strong> prov<strong>in</strong>ceby establish<strong>in</strong>g small private flocks near Victoria. These were owned and keptby employees of the Company. This Company, as well as the Puget Sound <strong>com</strong>paniesand private <strong>in</strong>dividuals imported improved rams from Great Brita<strong>in</strong> forthe use of the Pacific coast settlers.As early as 1671, Acadia (Nova Scotia), is credited with 407 head of sheep.Eight years later, New France (Quebec) had 719 head. One hundred yearslater, Quebec flocks conta<strong>in</strong>ed 84,696 head, which after another sixty years had<strong>in</strong>creased to more than 600,000 head.The adjo<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g prov<strong>in</strong>ce of Upper Canada(Ontario) at that time supported about 500,000 sheep. In 1851 Lower Canada(Quebec), is credited with about 650,000 head and Nova Scotia with 282,000.Ten years later Upper Canada had 1,170,000 head and Lower Canada 683,000.The sheep <strong>in</strong> those days corresponded closely with the number of cattle kept,which was considerably more than either the hogs or the horses ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed onthe farms.While sheep rais<strong>in</strong>g is carried on chiefly with small flocks along with otherstock <strong>in</strong> " mixed " farm<strong>in</strong>g, it is also conducted under the ranch<strong>in</strong>g system <strong>in</strong>Southern Alberta, w<strong>here</strong> it has reached its greatest development, as well as <strong>in</strong> theprov<strong>in</strong>ces of Saskatchewan and British Columbia. Ranch flocks vary <strong>in</strong> sizefrom one thousand up to twenty thousand head <strong>in</strong> a few cases. The foundationof the stock mak<strong>in</strong>g up the ranch<strong>in</strong>g bands came largely from the adjo<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>gstates of the Ameri<strong>can</strong> Union, and was chiefly of Mer<strong>in</strong>o breed<strong>in</strong>g. The orig<strong>in</strong>alstock produced small carcasses and heavy fleeces of f<strong>in</strong>e wool. In order to<strong>in</strong>crease the weight of carcasses and lengthen the wool staple Down and Longwoolledsires have been <strong>in</strong>troduced. The bands are grazed under the careof herders the year round. In w<strong>in</strong>ter the sheep are expected to " rustle a liv<strong>in</strong>g,"which they <strong>can</strong> usually secure with a little assistance on the part of the shepherd,who, when necessary, by the use of a snow plough, breaks the crustuncover<strong>in</strong>g the grass, and at times provides an allowance of fodder put up theprevious season. The produce of these bands, f<strong>in</strong>ished on screen<strong>in</strong>gs and othersuitable foods, develop a very high quality of fleece and carcass.The follow<strong>in</strong>g table gives the number of sheep kept on farms, by decades,from 1871 onward:1871 3,155,5091881 3,048,6781891 2,563,7811901 2.510,2391911 2,174.3001921 3.675,8601931 3,608,0001935 3,401,695The distribution by prov<strong>in</strong>ces <strong>in</strong>1935 was as follows:—Pr<strong>in</strong>ce Edward Island 50,200Nova Scotia 132,800New Brunswick 110,900Quebec 666.800Ontario.. 945,700Manitoba .. .. 218,000Saskatchewan 459.700Alberta 639.600British Columbia 17.1.400Indian Reserves 2.595
8With the exception of the Rambouillet, the sheep that have been imported<strong>in</strong>to Canada are of the British breeds, and <strong>com</strong>prise Shropshire, L<strong>in</strong>coln, Cotswold,Oxford, Leicester, Dorset Horn, Suffolk, Hampshire, Southdown, Cheviot,Romney Marsh, and Corriedale. For all these breeds pedigree registrationhas been established under the National Live Stock Record system.Government Assistance <strong>in</strong> the IndustryPrevious to 1910, government aid to the sheep <strong>in</strong>dustry took the form off<strong>in</strong>ancial assistance to sheep sales <strong>in</strong> certa<strong>in</strong> of the prov<strong>in</strong>ces. This resulted <strong>in</strong>the distribution of large numbers of breed<strong>in</strong>g sheep, particularly <strong>in</strong> the MaritimeProv<strong>in</strong>ces and <strong>in</strong> Quebec. At that time, considerable general lecture work wasbe<strong>in</strong>g carried on, a sheep bullet<strong>in</strong> had been issued, and special work was be<strong>in</strong>gundertaken through the medium of the w<strong>in</strong>ter fairs, <strong>in</strong> the form of lectures, andthe supply<strong>in</strong>g of judges. The registration of sheep of the various breeds hadalso been well organized.About <strong>this</strong> time, Mr. Wm. A. Dryden, of Brookl<strong>in</strong>, Ont., and Mr. W. T.Ritch, were appo<strong>in</strong>ted a <strong>com</strong>mission to <strong>in</strong>quire <strong>in</strong>to the sheep <strong>in</strong>dustry. Theirreport was pr<strong>in</strong>ted and widely distributed. Follow<strong>in</strong>g the re<strong>com</strong>mendations ofthe <strong>com</strong>mission, a Sheep Division, with a chief at its head, was created <strong>in</strong> theDom<strong>in</strong>ion Live Stock Branch. This move was made with the idea of develop<strong>in</strong>ga plan for the market<strong>in</strong>g of wool and for the improvement of sheep conditionsgenerally.In accordance with the policy of development laid down at that time local;wool growers' associations were formed and wool grad<strong>in</strong>g demonstrations given.Shortly afterwards, many of these associations were contribut<strong>in</strong>g wool <strong>in</strong> quantityfor grad<strong>in</strong>g and co-operative sale. Co-<strong>in</strong>cident with <strong>this</strong> development, woolgraders were added to the staff of the Sheep Division, and the Branch undertookthe grad<strong>in</strong>g of all wools offered by co-operative associations. In addition,- forseveral years, Sheep Division officers gave advice to and were associated withthe local directorates of the wool growers' associations <strong>in</strong> connection with thesale of the wool clip.By 1918, knowledge of wool grad<strong>in</strong>g and its benefits had be<strong>com</strong>e generalamong sheep men, and the organization of wool growers' associations had developedto the po<strong>in</strong>t w<strong>here</strong> sheep raisers <strong>in</strong> all the prov<strong>in</strong>ces were organized for theco-operative market<strong>in</strong>g of wool. A vast improvement had also been broughtabout <strong>in</strong> the preparation of Canadian wools for market, and as a result, gradedwools were sell<strong>in</strong>g at good market prices both <strong>in</strong> Canada and abroad.It was felt that the time had now arrived to provide a permanent market<strong>in</strong>gagency for Canadian graded wools. Representatives of the various associationswere called <strong>in</strong> conference, and the Canadian Co-operative Wool Growers, Limited,was organized <strong>in</strong> 1918 under the Dom<strong>in</strong>ion Companies Act. With <strong>this</strong>organization all the local wool growers' associations are affiliated. The board ofdirectors and the officers are appo<strong>in</strong>ted by the wool producers. The membersof the adm<strong>in</strong>istrative staff are engaged from year to year, and have charge of thesale of wool for each of the associations. The head office is <strong>in</strong> Toronto, Ont., andbranch offices are located at Reg<strong>in</strong>a, Sask., and Lennoxville, Que. In additionto sell<strong>in</strong>g wool, the organization handles shepherds' supplies and woollen goods.The Dom<strong>in</strong>ion Live Stock Branch still supplies graders for grad<strong>in</strong>g all co-operativeconsignments of wool.After the <strong>format</strong>ion of the Canadian Co-operative Wool Growers. Limited,the Sheep Division was re-organized to take care of the sheep <strong>in</strong>dustry as a whole.Additional sheep promoters were appo<strong>in</strong>ted with headquarters <strong>in</strong> the variousprov<strong>in</strong>ces, assistance was cont<strong>in</strong>ued <strong>in</strong> the preparation of wool for market, and<strong>in</strong> addition, a number of policies were <strong>in</strong>stituted to assist <strong>in</strong> improv<strong>in</strong>g the quality
9of Canadian sheep and <strong>in</strong> market<strong>in</strong>g lambs of superior type. The Ram LoanPolicy <strong>in</strong>troduced <strong>in</strong> 1913 was responsible for <strong>in</strong>troduc<strong>in</strong>g the purebred <strong>in</strong>hundreds of districts. Purebred sheep were still more widely distributed underthe Premium Policy and latterly under both the Ram Club and Ram Premiumpolicies so that farmers all over Canada are be<strong>in</strong>g encouraged to use a purebredram. The organization of ram clubs and the much more general use of purebredrams has made it possible to promote <strong>com</strong>munity breed<strong>in</strong>g and to <strong>in</strong>auguratea def<strong>in</strong>ite sheep improvement scheme, which <strong>in</strong>cludes the dipp<strong>in</strong>g, dock<strong>in</strong>g, andcastration of lambs.As breed improvement work was extended, it was found that the localmarket<strong>in</strong>g agencies did not, <strong>in</strong> most cases, provide for the sale of lambs on aquality basis. This condition was found to be decidedly pronounced <strong>in</strong> the MaritimeProv<strong>in</strong>ces, w<strong>here</strong> the lack of stock yard facilities and distance from marketmade it more difficult for the farmers to acqua<strong>in</strong>t themselves with market prices.A number of co-operative shipments were made, and these proved so successfulthat <strong>in</strong> a short time many co-operative shipp<strong>in</strong>g centres were established <strong>in</strong> eachof the three Maritime Prov<strong>in</strong>ces. In other prov<strong>in</strong>ces, <strong>in</strong> isolated districts, thesame conditions prevailed, although generally speak<strong>in</strong>g somewhat better averagemarket prices were realized, and, accord<strong>in</strong>gly, it was felt that some project wasnecessary to concentrate attention more def<strong>in</strong>itely on breed<strong>in</strong>g and market<strong>in</strong>g.The first Sheep Fair and Market Lamb sale was held <strong>in</strong> Quebec <strong>in</strong> 1921. Thissale proved to be so effective as a means for demonstrat<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>creased marketvalue of lambs from pure-bred sires and the premium obta<strong>in</strong>able through dock<strong>in</strong>gand castrat<strong>in</strong>g, that, <strong>in</strong> 1922, a Sheep Fair Lamb Sales Policy was <strong>in</strong>auguratedand applied <strong>in</strong> the prov<strong>in</strong>ces of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Quebec, Ontario,and Manitoba. The m<strong>in</strong>imum exhibit of lambs required under <strong>this</strong> policy wasthree hundred head, and prizes were awarded for pens of five head, for pens often head, and for a pure-bred ram and progeny. The lambs after be<strong>in</strong>g judgedwere graded, and either offered for sale locally or shipped to the best availablemarket. Probably no one policy did more to educate the farmers to the<strong>com</strong>mercial importance of the f<strong>in</strong>er po<strong>in</strong>ts of sheep husbandry and to establishconfidence <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>dustry than these fairs and sales, which are be<strong>com</strong><strong>in</strong>g anannual event <strong>in</strong> certa<strong>in</strong> districts.Throughout the development of sheep promotion work, t<strong>here</strong> has beeD veryclose co-operation with the prov<strong>in</strong>cial departments of agriculture, and especiallywith the agricultural representatives and agronomists of these departments.Field men have made it possible to centralize the work locally <strong>in</strong> a very def<strong>in</strong>itemanner, thus add<strong>in</strong>g stability and cont<strong>in</strong>uity to the various projects.THE MUTTON SHEEPThe production of mutton has be<strong>com</strong>e very largely a question of furnish<strong>in</strong>glambs to the market. As <strong>in</strong> beef and pork, the demands of the market call foryoung meat and <strong>com</strong>paratively light weights of carcass. The premium paidfor baby beef and bacon hogs applies with even greater force to sheep. Thickfleshed, but rather light jo<strong>in</strong>ts are what the cook calls for whether for the hometable or the restaurant. The tastes of the consumer have been cultivated todiscrim<strong>in</strong>ate <strong>in</strong> favour of the tasty, tender lamb until we f<strong>in</strong>d that from 70 to80 per cent of the sheep that reach the market are less than one year old. Theage of heavy mutton seems to have passed—a condition most favourable to thesheep raiser, who is thus enabled to reap quick returns from his flock. In thevery nature of th<strong>in</strong>gs t<strong>here</strong> will always be mature sheep sold as mutton as thebreed<strong>in</strong>g stock must, sooner or later, reach the block. The <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g demandfor lamb meat augurs well for the future of the <strong>in</strong>dustry, provided care istaken to keep up and improve the grade of the product. What is needed is
10careful attention to not only the production of the rapidly grow<strong>in</strong>g lamb, butto see that it possesses the qualities called for by the high-class trade. A primelamb is <strong>in</strong> demand and will always <strong>com</strong>mand a high price, while the sk<strong>in</strong>ny, lank,and bare-backed lamb is not wanted at all. The market wants flesh <strong>in</strong> anycase, and when it <strong>com</strong>es from the back, the lo<strong>in</strong> or the leg so much the more isit prized.The rais<strong>in</strong>g of lambs for the market requires first of all a strong uniformflock of ewes that are active foragers, uniform and regular breeders, and copiousmilkers. It is also important to pay careful attention to the shear<strong>in</strong>g qualitiesof any flock of sheep.As with other classes of stock, the matrons of the flock must be vigorous<strong>in</strong> order to produce lambs that will take hold of life courageously. In additiona ewe requires a strong maternal nature which is shown <strong>in</strong> prompt and readycare for the newly-born offspr<strong>in</strong>g and a copious supply of milk. Such ewes aredeep and wide <strong>in</strong> the chest, fairly <strong>com</strong>pact but with sufficient length togive considerable size to their middles. Their heads should be pronounced <strong>in</strong>breadth between the ears, they should have large, mild, wide-open eyes andwell-expanded nostrils. They should be free from coarseness, as also overref<strong>in</strong>ementwhich suggests delicacy of constitution. These are the characteristicswhich the breeder needs to look for <strong>in</strong> order to get thrifty, well-do<strong>in</strong>g offspr<strong>in</strong>g,but the other side of the question—that of the market—has also to receiveattention.Viewed from Market Standpo<strong>in</strong>tTo form a basis for estimat<strong>in</strong>g the good and bad qualities of sheep, it isbest to consider the carcass and that from the po<strong>in</strong>t of view of the butcher.The different parts of the lamb show a wide variation from the butcher's standpo<strong>in</strong>t.The most valuable meat is found over the back, lo<strong>in</strong> and h<strong>in</strong>d-quarters.The butcher, t<strong>here</strong>fore, calls for a broad back, a broad full lo<strong>in</strong> and a heavilyfleshed leg of mutton. The shoulder is not so valuable as the cuts farther back.The neck is a cheap part and is valuable accord<strong>in</strong>g to thickness, but s<strong>in</strong>ce itsells for little it is not important to breed for neck development. On the otherhand, a th<strong>in</strong> neck is to be avoided, because it <strong>in</strong>dicates weakness of constitution,and a th<strong>in</strong> neck usually goes with a slenderness of body. The neck,t<strong>here</strong>fore, should be short and thick, which condition is likely to characterizethe entire carcass. The carcass is usually divided by the butcher between thesecond and third ribs. The front part is worth about three to seven cents per poundless than the h<strong>in</strong>d part. It t<strong>here</strong>fore follows that from the market standpo<strong>in</strong>t thedevelopment of the back, lo<strong>in</strong> and h<strong>in</strong>d-quarter must be kept <strong>in</strong> m<strong>in</strong>d In allthe parts smoothness of con<strong>format</strong>ion is important. Roughness or angularity<strong>in</strong>variably go with bareness of back and an excess of bone <strong>in</strong> the carcass. Arough lamb is usually very open at the top of the shoulder, show<strong>in</strong>g a pronounceddepression between the shoulder blades. This part for six or seven<strong>in</strong>ches should be flat and well covered with flesh <strong>in</strong> a fatted lamb. The ribsshould show good spr<strong>in</strong>g and be well covered with firm flesh. The back boneshould not stand prom<strong>in</strong>ent at any po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>in</strong> a sheep even <strong>in</strong> only moderateflesh. A groove over the sp<strong>in</strong>al column frequently seen <strong>in</strong> well-fleshed sheep isnot objectionable although fatness and smoothness are rather to be preferred.While a full, fleshy lo<strong>in</strong> is most desirable a high arch<strong>in</strong>g lo<strong>in</strong> is not the <strong>format</strong>ionto be looked for and perpetuated. The level smoothness re<strong>com</strong>mended for theshoulder and back over the ribs, should characterize the lo<strong>in</strong>. A high lo<strong>in</strong> is<strong>in</strong>cl<strong>in</strong>ed to be bare rather than fleshy, or the lo<strong>in</strong> may appear high <strong>in</strong> <strong>com</strong>parisonwith a low, sagg<strong>in</strong>g back which is always to be condemned as bad<strong>format</strong>ion. The lo<strong>in</strong> should have width and thickness <strong>in</strong> order to yield a good
11quantity of flesh. Among the <strong>com</strong>mon flocks of the country droop<strong>in</strong>g rumpsare frequently seen. This is most undesirable whether the fall<strong>in</strong>g away istowards the tail-head or down the thigh. The h<strong>in</strong>d-quarter should cont<strong>in</strong>uestraight and full both on the top and side l<strong>in</strong>es. From the hip to the hock asheep <strong>in</strong> good flesh should be especially strong. Not only should the " leg ofmutton " be plump and full with muscle on the outside, but between the legs, <strong>in</strong>the twist, the flesh should fill well down to the hock, <strong>com</strong>pell<strong>in</strong>g the h<strong>in</strong>d legsto stand well apart. When grasp<strong>in</strong>g the leg on the <strong>in</strong>side a decided plumpnessshould be found.The Feeder'sSideFrom the market standpo<strong>in</strong>t the chest, breast and underl<strong>in</strong>e require littleconsideration, but from the side of the feeder or breeder these parts are ofgreat importance. A sheep to be profitable to the feeder must have vigorousconstitution and be able to consume, a large amount of food and transform it <strong>in</strong>tovaluable meat at the lowest possible cost. These characteristics are <strong>in</strong>variablyassociated with a wide, deep chest, good depth of barrel, and well-sprung ribsto give ample room for the lungs, heart and digestive organs. The wise feederor breeder will also look for a good size, because he wants an animal that willatta<strong>in</strong> a good weight at an early age. A short, broad head, full, bright eyes,and open nostril, strong lips and a short, thick neck, deep body and short legsall go to <strong>in</strong>dicate a vigorous, thrifty animal which will give a good return forfood consumed and kill out a valuable carcass of mutton.The breeder who wishes to establish a pure-bred flock, besides requir<strong>in</strong>gall these marks of excellence which the butcher and feeder require, needs topay much attention to the character of the fleece, the colour and cover<strong>in</strong>g ofthe head and legs, the colour of the sk<strong>in</strong>, and correctness of breed type.Scale of Po<strong>in</strong>ts for Mutton SheepPo<strong>in</strong>tsA. General appearance, 24 po<strong>in</strong>ts.Estimated weight, pounds, accord<strong>in</strong>g to age and breed.Score, accord<strong>in</strong>g to age and breed 4Form—long, deep, broad, low set, and uniformly smooth: on top l<strong>in</strong>e from neckto turn of rump, and underl<strong>in</strong>e from po<strong>in</strong>t of brisket to h<strong>in</strong>d flank, straightand parallel 3Quality—bone f<strong>in</strong>e and clean-cut; hair on face, ears and legs soft; sk<strong>in</strong>, f<strong>in</strong>e andmellow; all fleshy parts well developed, show<strong>in</strong>g even cover<strong>in</strong>g of firm flesh 3Style—active, alert, vigorous but not restless, exhibit<strong>in</strong>g aristocratic bear<strong>in</strong>g.. 4B. Head and neck, 9 po<strong>in</strong>ts.Strong, without coarseness; nostrils large 1Eyes—large, prom<strong>in</strong>ent, clean and placid 1Face—rather short than long; features clear-cut and attractive 1Forehead—broad and prom<strong>in</strong>ent1Ears—f<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> texture, medium size for the breed, carried with lively back andforth movement\Neck—short, thick, round with full neck ve<strong>in</strong>, free from folds at throat, carry<strong>in</strong>gthe head well erect; stronger and more arched <strong>in</strong> rams than <strong>in</strong> ewes. ..... 4C. Forequarters, 6 po<strong>in</strong>ts.Shoulders—large, plump and smooth; wide above, rounded out from above, forwardand below to the centre, well filled before and beh<strong>in</strong>d, unit<strong>in</strong>g withneck and back imperceptibly 4Legs—arm broad and well muscled: leg straight, short, wide apart and yet wellplaced under the body, stand<strong>in</strong>g firmly on hoofs of good shape and' qualitv 2
12Po<strong>in</strong>tsD. Body. 30 po<strong>in</strong>ts.Chest—deep and full, <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g abundance of heart and lung capacity; breastfull; brisket prom<strong>in</strong>ent and broad; heart girth large 9Back—level, wide, well covered with firm flesh, with sp<strong>in</strong>al column hidden andeven depressed from the lo<strong>in</strong> to the tail head 9Ribs—well sprung from backbone, nicely arched and well covered with flesh.... 4Lo<strong>in</strong>—broad, full and thick 6Flank—well developed <strong>in</strong> thickness and even with side and underl<strong>in</strong>e 2E. H<strong>in</strong>dquarters, 16 po<strong>in</strong>ts.Hips—far apart, level, smooth, well covered with flesh 2Rump—long, broad, carry<strong>in</strong>g width and topl<strong>in</strong>e well back to tail, deeply andevenly fleshed 4Thighs—broad, and well filled, carry<strong>in</strong>g plumpness well down to underl<strong>in</strong>e of body 3Twist—full and deep, nearly as low as flank 3Legs—short, straight and strong, wide apart, yet well under the body, stand<strong>in</strong>gfirmly on hoofs of good shape and quality; pasterns, strong and only slightlyslop<strong>in</strong>g 2Sk<strong>in</strong>—a rich p<strong>in</strong>k <strong>in</strong> colour and possessed of mellow handl<strong>in</strong>g qualities 2F Wool, 15 po<strong>in</strong>ts.Quantity—long for the breed, dense and even 6Quality-—f<strong>in</strong>e for the breed, pure crimp regular and uniform 5Condition—bright, sound, clean, soft and lustrous 41. Muzzle.2. Mouth.3. Nostril.4. Lips.5. Nose.6. Face.7. Forehead.8. Eve.9. Ear.10. Neck.11. Neck ve<strong>in</strong> or shoulder ve<strong>in</strong>.12. Top of shoulder.13. Shoulder.14. Arm.15. Shank.Po<strong>in</strong>ts of the SheepFig. 2.—Po<strong>in</strong>ts of the Sheep(side and front view)Fig. 3.— Po<strong>in</strong>ts of the Sheep(rear view)16. Brisket or breast.17. Top l<strong>in</strong>e.18. Crops.19. Ribs.20. Girth, or heart girth.21. Fore flank.22. Back.23. Lo<strong>in</strong>.24. Ll<strong>in</strong>d flank.25. Underl<strong>in</strong>e.26. Hip.27. Rump.28. P<strong>in</strong> bones.29. Dock or tail.30. Thigh, or leg of mutton.31. Twist.
13LEADING BREEDS OF SHEEPTHEIR ORIGIN, DEVELOPMENT AND CHARACTERISTICST<strong>here</strong> are a great number of varieties of domestic sheep, all of which aredoubtless descended from one wild form. Domestication of <strong>this</strong> class of animals<strong>com</strong>menced almost at the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of the human race, when the second sonof Adam chose sheep herd<strong>in</strong>g as an employment. With the migration of thehuman family sheep were taken to different parts of the world and under theFig. 4.—Representatives of British Breeds of Sheep.
14vary<strong>in</strong>g environments <strong>in</strong> which they were perpetuated they assumed characteristicsand properties quite different from one another. With improvement <strong>in</strong>agricultural practice sheep as well as other farm animals were kept and developedalong special l<strong>in</strong>es. This go<strong>in</strong>g on simultaneously <strong>in</strong> different portions of Europeand Asia it was but natural that varieties of quite different characteristicswould evolve. The probability is that domesticated sheep orig<strong>in</strong>ated throughthe domestication of several races <strong>in</strong> many parts of the world, the peculiaritiesand valuable properties of each hav<strong>in</strong>g been developed by selection, until a moreor less perfect type was obta<strong>in</strong>ed. The cross<strong>in</strong>g of species of sheep orig<strong>in</strong>allyfurther <strong>in</strong>creased the number of our recognized breeds.dist<strong>in</strong>ct has no doubt stillThe lead<strong>in</strong>g breeds of sheep found <strong>in</strong> Canada, with the exception of theMer<strong>in</strong>o, which is kept to some extent only <strong>in</strong> the northwestern prov<strong>in</strong>ces, havebeen developed <strong>in</strong> Great Brita<strong>in</strong>. They are classified as long and mediumwoolled, the Mer<strong>in</strong>o <strong>in</strong> its various forms be<strong>in</strong>g classed as f<strong>in</strong>e woolled.Throughout the British Isles t<strong>here</strong> is found <strong>in</strong> a state of greater or lesspurity more than a score of breeds, the chief of which are as follows: Blackface,Herdwick, Gray, Lonk, Devon, Longwool, Exmoor, Welsh, Cheviot, Suffolk,Leicester, L<strong>in</strong>coln, Cotswold, Oxford, Shropshire, Hampshire, Southdown, andDorset. Of these only the last ten breeds named are at all <strong>com</strong>mon <strong>in</strong> Canada.A small number of Black-face and Ryeland are also to be found, and the Ryelandgives promise of <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> some sections of the west.The L<strong>in</strong>coln, the Leicester and the Cotswold are known as the Long-wooledbreeds, while the Oxford, the Shropshire, the Cheviot, the Dorset, the Hampshire,the Suffolk and the Southdown are classed as medium-woolled, the fleece shorten<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong> length <strong>in</strong> the order named. The fleece of the Cheviot and also of theSuffolk is medium <strong>in</strong> length, but the former is the longer of the two. These twosorts are, t<strong>here</strong>fore, placed with the medium-woolled varieties.The LeicesterThe Leicester is the oldest of the long-woolled races of sheep. It appearsto have <strong>in</strong>habited Leicestershire, England, and the adjo<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g counties even priorto 1660, when the districts referred to were noted for the excellent quality oftheir sheep, which are said to have possessed large bone, rangy frames andheavy fleeces of strong texture. They were slow to mature and to fatten. It isgenerally believed by authorities that the sheep found <strong>in</strong> these counties, knownas the Midlands, were used by Robert Bakewell, of Dishley, as the foundationof the New Leicester or Dishley breed.Mr. Bakewell <strong>com</strong>menced the improvement of the sheep of his district <strong>in</strong> orabout 1755. The merit of his work consisted <strong>in</strong> his realization of the fact that theproperties of parents may be transmitted to their offspr<strong>in</strong>g until fixity of type isthe result; also <strong>in</strong> his <strong>in</strong>nate power of discern<strong>in</strong>g by an animal's external formand "quality" that it possessed the properties he desired to perpetuate. He wasable to discrim<strong>in</strong>ate between size and quality and had always an eye for thelatter when select<strong>in</strong>g breed<strong>in</strong>g animals. In order to render permanent thedesired qualities of the selected stock he resorted to <strong>in</strong>-and-<strong>in</strong> breed<strong>in</strong>g to analmost <strong>in</strong>cestuous degree. The qualities sought by Bakewell were greatersymmetry of form, improved qualities of fatten<strong>in</strong>g, and an earlier maturity, areduction of the proportion of bone and fat, and a greater development of theparts of the carcass of most value on the block. These characteristics wereundoubtedly secured, but others of greater importance were to some extentoverlooked; these were strength of constitution, prolificacy, as well as quantityand quality of fleece. The breeders of Leicesters <strong>in</strong> later years have over<strong>com</strong>ethese defects.It is recognized that no other breed possesses a greater expansion of heartgirth than the Leicester. Nor is prolificacy lack<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the present-day Leicester,
15as triplets are of frequent occurrence, and from 150 to 175 per cent of <strong>in</strong>creaseis not un<strong>com</strong>mon <strong>in</strong> well-kept flocks. Whatever weakness marked the fleeces ofLeicesters <strong>in</strong> Bakewell's time these have long s<strong>in</strong>ce been over<strong>com</strong>e. As a rulegood specimens are thoroughly covered <strong>in</strong> all parts except head and legs; lengthand density are also present <strong>in</strong> a high degree, while the wool of no other breedexcels <strong>in</strong> lustre.Fig. 5.—Leicester Ram.Fig. 6.- —Leicester Ewe.In order to extend the blood of the improved stock as rapidly as possible,Mr. Bakewell <strong>in</strong>stituted a system of hir<strong>in</strong>g rams of his flock for the breed<strong>in</strong>gseason to farmers <strong>in</strong> the district. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the first year or two, farmers wereslow to take advantage of the use of improved sheep, and all Mr. Bakewellcould get for the season's use of rams was some 17 shill<strong>in</strong>gs and 6 pence each,but the improvement effected by these crosses was so evident that <strong>in</strong> a few years
16the demand for the sheep became so keen that the price rose to one hundredgu<strong>in</strong>eas per head, and <strong>in</strong> a s<strong>in</strong>gle season, 1789, it is said that a total of sixthousand gu<strong>in</strong>eas was paid for the services of Bakewell rams.The Leicester sheep as it came from the hands of Mr. Bakewell, near theend of the eighteenth century, is described as a white-faced hornless race ofexcellent mutton sheep with short thick neck, wide level back, thick deep chest,deep quarters and f<strong>in</strong>e bone and bear<strong>in</strong>g a fleece measur<strong>in</strong>g about seven to eight<strong>in</strong>ches <strong>in</strong> length of somewhat lashy wool, but term<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g with a short twistedcurl.About the time of Bakewell's death, one George Culley <strong>com</strong>menced us<strong>in</strong>gLeicester rams from Dishley on the Teeswater breed, which was at that time<strong>in</strong> high favour as a long-woolled sheep. The stock evolved from <strong>this</strong> cross isbelieved to have been the foundation of the Border Leicester, although onaccount of the proximity of the home of the Cheviot it is not unreasonable tosuppose that <strong>in</strong> the early years of the Leicester the blood of its white-facedneighbour entered <strong>in</strong>to many of the best flocks. Border Leicester rams soonbecame as popular as Bakewell's had been, as much as one hundred gu<strong>in</strong>easbe<strong>in</strong>g paid for the use of a s<strong>in</strong>gle animal for a season. From that time until thepresent the Border Leicester has stood <strong>in</strong> high favour as a mutton and woolproduc<strong>in</strong>gbreed. The Bakewell Leicester, later be<strong>com</strong><strong>in</strong>g known as the EnglishLeicester, was perpetuated <strong>in</strong> its pure state and is to-day raised <strong>in</strong> large numbers<strong>in</strong> Great Brita<strong>in</strong> and <strong>in</strong> other countries.The difference between the English Leicester and the Border Leicester isseen <strong>in</strong> the head, which <strong>in</strong> the Border variety is white, and boldly carried, thenose slightly aquil<strong>in</strong>e, the muzzle full, the nostrils wide and the ears erect. Thehead is clean and free from wool. The English Leicester usually carries a tuftof wool on the head and is also woolled on the shanks. The English Leicesterhas a bluish-white face; w<strong>here</strong>as the Border Leicester's face is clear white. Incarcass the Border Leicester is larger and longer and the belly is not quite sofull <strong>in</strong> outl<strong>in</strong>e, be<strong>in</strong>g carried rather higher.No other race of sheep has been so largely employed as a means of improv<strong>in</strong>gother breeds as the Leicester; the Cotswold, the L<strong>in</strong>coln, the Shropshire andthe Hampshire and many others, directly or <strong>in</strong>directly, hav<strong>in</strong>g through itsblood been improved.Canadian Leicesters are among the best of the Leicester family. Now<strong>here</strong><strong>in</strong> the world are f<strong>in</strong>er specimens to be found. This is largely due to the factthat until recent years the Ameri<strong>can</strong> demand for Canadian Leicesters has notbeen strong and the Canadian breeders have reta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> their flocks the bestof each year's crop of lambs. By selection and careful weed<strong>in</strong>g many goodflocks have been built up. The excellence of the Leicester proves conclusivelythat if Canadian breeders of other breeds of sheep would follow the samepractice, Canadian flocks of all sorts would equal or excel those to be foundelsew<strong>here</strong>.The characteristics of the Leicester should, like all mutton breeds, conform<strong>in</strong> a general way to the standard for all mutton sheep appear<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the firstpart of <strong>this</strong> work. The Leicester is one of the large breeds, the average weightfor mature rams <strong>in</strong> good flesh be<strong>in</strong>g 250 to 300 pounds, and for ewes 175 to 200pounds.The head is small for the size of the body and is carried with pronouncederectness and statel<strong>in</strong>ess. The nose is slightly Roman <strong>in</strong> rams but almoststraight <strong>in</strong> ewes. The ear is th<strong>in</strong>, moderately long and carried decidedly erectand alert. The head and legs are snowy white <strong>in</strong> young animals but be<strong>com</strong>edarker with age.The Leicester is classed among the long-woolled breeds. Its fleece, however,is of somewhat less length than that of the Cotswold or the L<strong>in</strong>coln. The wool
17is glossy and of good fibre and should cover the entire carcass save the headand legs, although a small amount of quite short wool on the forehead and theshanks is allowable. The wool of <strong>this</strong> breed hangs <strong>in</strong> dense spirals which carrytheir crimp or wave to the sk<strong>in</strong>; the fleece should consist of a mass of dist<strong>in</strong>ctcurls all over the body and without the " part<strong>in</strong>g " at the back as <strong>in</strong> some otherlong-woolled breeds.The CotswoldThe Cotswold sheep takes its name from the range of bare hills <strong>in</strong> Gloucestershireand Worcestershire, England, which it has <strong>in</strong>habited for a very long period.It is said that the hills take their designation from the sheep rather than thesheep from the hills. They derive their names from the " cote," a sheep-fold and11wold," a naked hill. Historians of the breed describe the orig<strong>in</strong>al stock asbe<strong>in</strong>g long-necked, rangy, square of build with strong bone and clothed with:By* *MlIliML-:',
18standpo<strong>in</strong>t. About <strong>this</strong> time many of the old pastures were be<strong>in</strong>g broken up,turnips and cereals began to be cultivated, br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g about conditions favourableto an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> weight of carcass and length and strength of wool. Cotswoldbreeders have for a long time preferred and bred for a bold and open curl<strong>in</strong> the fleece rather than the close spiral of the Leicester. In the early yearsof the breed grey or light brown speckles on the face or shanks were not lookedupon with disfavour, and even at the present day these mark<strong>in</strong>gs are to be seen<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividuals of many of the best flocks, although the Cotswold is looked uponas a white-faced breed.Whatever the orig<strong>in</strong> of <strong>this</strong> sheep it is certa<strong>in</strong> that for the past seventyyears at least it has been kept pure, so that the type has long s<strong>in</strong>ce beenthoroughly fixed. The Cotswold may be described as a big, upstand<strong>in</strong>g sheep.Compared with the Leicester the Cotswold is somewhat larger and stronger ofbone. It is not so broad <strong>in</strong> the back but possesses greater depth of body. InFig. 8.—Pair of Cotswold Ewes.addition the h<strong>in</strong>d quarters are more squarely developed. A dist<strong>in</strong>guish<strong>in</strong>gcharacteristic of the Cotswold is the topknot or forelock which is seldom shornclose to the head but allowed to hang over the face, extend<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> some casesto the po<strong>in</strong>t of the nose. The fleece is heavy, wavy and rather coarser thanthat of the Leicester, and should weigh from 10 to 15 pounds of fairly cleanbut unwashed wool. It should cover the body <strong>in</strong> all parts. As a rule the bestspecimens are clothed to the fetlocks of the h<strong>in</strong>d legs. As <strong>in</strong> the Leicester thehead is carried quite erect. The neck is rather long and <strong>in</strong> many cases showslack of plumpness, giv<strong>in</strong>g a " ewe-necked " appearance which should be reducedas rapidly as possible whenever it is found to exist.The Cotswold breed stands <strong>in</strong> high favour both <strong>in</strong> Great Brita<strong>in</strong> andabroad. Numerous flocks of pure-breds and grades are to be found <strong>in</strong> France,Germany, Australia, New Zealand, the United States, and Canada. They arequite hardy and sufficiently prepotent to stamp their characteristics upon theiroffspr<strong>in</strong>g when crossed with other breeds. The demand for lighter carcasses oflamb and mutton is reduc<strong>in</strong>g the use of rams of <strong>this</strong> breed <strong>in</strong> the grade flocks
19of Canada, The chief market for <strong>this</strong> stock cont<strong>in</strong>ues to be the Western UnitedStates. The average weight of a mature Cotswold ram <strong>in</strong> good flesh is about250 to 300 pounds, and of a ewe 190 to 225 pounds. Highly fitted show-yardspecimens reach higher weights than these. They require good pasture but dowell on moderate elevations that are not too rugged. The mothers are, as a rule,good nurses and are, t<strong>here</strong>fore, adapted to the production of lambs for the earlymarket. The fatten<strong>in</strong>g qualities of the breed are good although the flesh isonly moderately f<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> gra<strong>in</strong> if allowed to reach more than maturity. As arule stock that is not to be kept for breed<strong>in</strong>g should be fattened and marketedbefore they are six months old.The L<strong>in</strong>colnThe orig<strong>in</strong> of the L<strong>in</strong>coln breed was a race of heavy-bodied sheep which<strong>in</strong>habited the low alluvial lands of L<strong>in</strong>colnshire, and the adjo<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g localities,on the eastern coast of England. These sheep were large and coarse, carry<strong>in</strong>gragged, heavy fleeces of oily wool that nearly swept the ground. They had flat« HPw . &. «... .-'•..*^Fig.9.—L<strong>in</strong>coln Ram.sides, hollow flanks and big shanks and feet and were deficient <strong>in</strong> the leg ofmutton. They grew and fattened slowly but made much <strong>in</strong>ward fat, althoughtheir flesh is credited with be<strong>in</strong>g well flavoured and f<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> the gra<strong>in</strong>. When theimproved Leicester came came <strong>in</strong>to prom<strong>in</strong>ence, toward the end of the eighteenthcentury, lead<strong>in</strong>g L<strong>in</strong>coln sheep breeders obta<strong>in</strong>ed rams which they crossed upontheir flocks.By <strong>this</strong> means the coarseness of their stock was much reduced and<strong>in</strong> time a new and f<strong>in</strong>er type of the breed was produced.With improvement <strong>in</strong> the sheep stock t<strong>here</strong> came a more advanced systemof farm<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>in</strong> which heavy crops of roots and fodders were the chief production.With the consequent better feed<strong>in</strong>g of the stock and the <strong>in</strong>creased care given tobreed<strong>in</strong>g, the improved L<strong>in</strong>coln became fixed <strong>in</strong> character as the heaviest producerof mutton and wool <strong>in</strong> the world. It is chronicled that <strong>in</strong> the early days ofthe breed two-shear sheep frequently dressed over 90 pounds to the quarter,and a ram 14 months old gave a fleece weigh<strong>in</strong>g 26 \ pounds.35001—2*
20The L<strong>in</strong>coln was first recognized as a pure breed by the Royal AgriculturalSociety of England <strong>in</strong> 1862. Previous to that date all of the long-woolled breedswere shown together, and accord<strong>in</strong>g to reliable history the L<strong>in</strong>colns were usuallyvictorious. They were then, as now, an excellent breed of wool and muttonsheep. They mature early, fatten easily and make rapid ga<strong>in</strong>s for the foodconsumed, but on account of their size require plentiful supplies of food. Theirflesh <strong>in</strong>cl<strong>in</strong>es to coarseness after the animals have reached maturity, but lambsand yearl<strong>in</strong>gs dress well and produce meat of good quality.The wool of the L<strong>in</strong>coln is unexcelled for weight of fleece and length offibre, and its f<strong>in</strong>eness is about equal to that of the Cotswold. It is highly valuedFig. 10.—L<strong>in</strong>coln Ewe.for the manufacture of coarse worsteds and is <strong>in</strong> special demand for braids andother manufactures which call for long fibre and great strength. The usual clipof well kept flocks runs from 10 to 14 pounds for ewes, and 12 to 18 pounds forrams, of unwashed wool. A year's growth of wool is about eight <strong>in</strong>ches.As a grad<strong>in</strong>g sheep the L<strong>in</strong>coln stands high w<strong>here</strong> greater weight of carcassand fleece are desired, but ow<strong>in</strong>g to the changes that have <strong>com</strong>e about <strong>in</strong> marketdemand, rams of <strong>this</strong> breed are be<strong>in</strong>g less used than <strong>here</strong>tofore on Canadiangrade flocks. L<strong>in</strong>coln rams have for many years been <strong>in</strong> keen demand for<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g the size and fleece of grade Mer<strong>in</strong>os <strong>in</strong> the Western States of theAmeri<strong>can</strong> Union, Argent<strong>in</strong>a, and Australia. At the annual sales of some of thelead<strong>in</strong>g breeders <strong>in</strong> England rams br<strong>in</strong>g very high prices, many of the bestspecimens go<strong>in</strong>g to Argent<strong>in</strong>a. The chief outlet for the Canadian breeders is thewestern range States, which each year take a good number at pay<strong>in</strong>g values.The breed is white-faced and has a conspicuous tuft on the forehead. Thehead is massive, but not coarse; the nose is somewhat arched and bare of wool.The brisket is full and deep, the body round and well proportioned, and whileit is a heavy sheep it is not coarse. Mature rams <strong>in</strong> good flesh reach averageweights of 250 to 325 pounds, while good specimens of ewes tip the scales atfrom 220 to 250 pounds. Highly fitted show-yard specimens frequently reachgreater weights.
21Compared with the Leicester and the Cotswold, the L<strong>in</strong>coln is moremassive than either but more nearly resembles the latter <strong>in</strong> outl<strong>in</strong>e. It is ratherless active, carry<strong>in</strong>g the head lower on account of possess<strong>in</strong>g a shorter, thickerneck.The Oxford DownThe Oxford Down sheep is the product of a cross between the HampshireDown and the Cotswold. The union was deliberately made by two or threedist<strong>in</strong>guished sheep breeders about the year 1833.It was the desire of these menFig.11.—Oxford Ram.to <strong>com</strong>b<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> one breed the divers qualities of the long wool and the short woolclasses of sheep. In great measure they were successful <strong>in</strong>asmuch as a largesheep of dark countenance and legs, with Down con<strong>format</strong>ion, and wool ofmoderate f<strong>in</strong>eness has been evolved. The founders of the breed were Messrs.Samuel Druce, of Eynsham; John Gillet, of Braize Norton; William Gillet, ofSouthleigh, and Nathaniel Black, of Stanton Harcourt. These leaders <strong>in</strong> thesheep breed<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dustry lived with<strong>in</strong> half a dozen miles of each other and werejo<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> their enterprise by Messrs. John Hitchman, of Little Hilton, and J. L.Twyman, of Whitechurch Farm, Hampshire. It is claimed by historians thatSouthdown blood entered <strong>in</strong>to the foundation stock, but s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>this</strong> breed and theHampshire Down <strong>in</strong>habited districts only a short distance apart, and the type ofneither was well fixed at that early date, it may be safely <strong>in</strong>ferred that neitherwas strictly ad<strong>here</strong>d to <strong>in</strong> the search for suitable animals for the Down cross.
In the first22crosses the male was Cotswold and the female Hampshire Down, or<strong>in</strong> a few cases Southdown. T<strong>here</strong> appears to have been a good deal of <strong>in</strong>term<strong>in</strong>gl<strong>in</strong>gof blood before Oxford Down breeders settled <strong>in</strong>to a l<strong>in</strong>e of their own.Mr. Druce decided the best results were secured when cross-bred animals onboth sides were employed. It was not un<strong>com</strong>mon for cross-bred rams to beused on cross-bred ewes that possessed the desired qualities; ewes that wereundersized were bred to Cotswold sires, and Down rams were mated with thegraded females of coarser type.Fig.12.—Oxford Ewe.For many years the breed was known by various names. As late as 1853they were known by some as "Half Breeds," and by others as "Down-Cotswolds."Some four years later at a meet<strong>in</strong>g of breeders held <strong>in</strong> Oxford the name "OxfordshireDown" was agreed upon. Soon after <strong>this</strong> the more easily pronounced"Oxford Down" designation was adopted. S<strong>in</strong>ce that time no outside bloodhas been <strong>in</strong>troduced, development and improvement be<strong>in</strong>g ac<strong>com</strong>plished byperpetuation of carefully selected stock with<strong>in</strong> the breed itself.For many years the flocks of various breeders bore dissimilar characteristics<strong>in</strong>dicated <strong>in</strong> fleece and face due to a preponderance either of the long- or theshort-woolled parentage. This, however, had practically disappeared before theclose of the past century. The speckled face has given way to an even brownwhich may vary slightly <strong>in</strong> shade without risk of disfavour. The f<strong>in</strong>ely-cutprofile and th<strong>in</strong>ner nose, together with the long and moderately f<strong>in</strong>e ear areundoubtedly vestiges of the Cotswold parent, while the dark face and <strong>com</strong>parativelyclose fleece are derived from the Down. Until recent years the upstand<strong>in</strong>gcharacteristics of both parent breeds were conspicuous <strong>in</strong> the Oxford, but thew<strong>in</strong>ners at lead<strong>in</strong>g shows at the present day are of more <strong>com</strong>pact form not unlike
23the larger type of Shropshire <strong>in</strong> general con<strong>format</strong>ion.This more solid form hasbeen striven for <strong>in</strong> the effort towards earlier maturity <strong>in</strong> accordance with thegeneral tendency <strong>in</strong> the breed<strong>in</strong>g of all meat produc<strong>in</strong>g animals of the farm.The Oxford Down is one of the largest and heaviest of the Down breeds,approach<strong>in</strong>g very close to the Hampshire <strong>in</strong> <strong>this</strong> regard. A well fleshed typicalram should weigh from 250 to 275 pounds and a ewe about 175 to 220 pounds atmaturity. On account of its large size and the environment of its home theOxford Down is better adapted to arable than rugged land. It matures earlyand fattens well on moderate feed. Its flesh resembles that of the Down <strong>in</strong> f<strong>in</strong>enessof quality and even admixture of fat and lean. As a grad<strong>in</strong>g sheep theOxford Down f<strong>in</strong>ds favour when <strong>in</strong>creased size and good mutton quality aredesired and the lambs are to be reared amid luxuriant pastures or rich forage.Ewes of the breed are prolific and good nurses. The wool is longer and coarserthan that of any of the other Down breeds and is less dense over the body. Inwell-kept flocks the average fleece unwashed should weigh from 9 to 12 pounds.Well-developed rams frequently exceed these weights at their first shear<strong>in</strong>g.Compared with the Shropshire, which breed they most nearly resemble,the Oxford is larger <strong>in</strong> every way, its fleece is more open and longer at shear<strong>in</strong>gtime; its head and face are not so dark nor so <strong>com</strong>pletely covered with wool, andthe head and the ear are longer.Oxford Downs are to be found <strong>in</strong> almost every country w<strong>here</strong> improved sheepare reared. They are numerously kept <strong>in</strong> almost all the prov<strong>in</strong>ces of Canada,the United States, Australia, and South America.The Hampshire DownThe Hampshire Down and the Southdown are closely related. The ancestorsof the two breeds <strong>in</strong>habited the chalk lands of the Southdown counties of Englands<strong>in</strong>ce the time of William the Conqueror. The soil on the more easterly ofthese counties was th<strong>in</strong> and rugged, furnish<strong>in</strong>g s<strong>can</strong>ty herbage. The sheep raisedon these were small <strong>in</strong> size, <strong>com</strong>pact <strong>in</strong> form, and noted for the excellence of theirflesh. These were the progenitors of the modern Southdown. As the chalk landsextended westward <strong>in</strong>to Hampshire, Berkshire, and Wiltshire, the soil becamedeeper and more fertile, afford<strong>in</strong>g better pasturage and heavier cultivated crops.The sheep reared on these lands were larger and coarser than the Southdowns.These were the progenitors of the Hampshire Downs. Farther west were to befound <strong>in</strong> those early days the horned sheep of Dorset and Somersetshire. Throughgenerations the sheep along the border l<strong>in</strong>es of these territories <strong>in</strong>term<strong>in</strong>gled tosome extent so that a well-def<strong>in</strong>ed division of breeds was impossible. Earlywriters state that the flock's of the more northern and eastern of the Hampshiredistrict were more <strong>com</strong>pact and symmetrical <strong>in</strong> form, with f<strong>in</strong>er wool, than werethose <strong>in</strong> the western portion, w<strong>here</strong> white and speckled ears and faces andcurl<strong>in</strong>g horns were not un<strong>com</strong>mon. Farther east horns were unknown and thefaces and ears of the sheep were of very dark colour. These differences existedthrough the period from 1815 to 1835. About <strong>this</strong> time farm<strong>in</strong>g lands began tobe enclosed and more careful attention was given to stock rais<strong>in</strong>g. A class ofsheep was desired that would thrive well on exposed pastures and when put onroots or cultivated crops would take on flesh of a high quality economically.It was observed that w<strong>here</strong> the blood of the Southdowns had long been mergedwith their horned neighbours <strong>in</strong> Berkshire and Wiltshire, the flocks were bestadapted to the ends desired. Improvement by selection and breed<strong>in</strong>g wascarried on by many farmers. For a time different sections had somewhat differentideals, and thus the breed lacked entire uniformity, but ultimately the besttype was demonstrated and generally acknowledged. It was these animals.
24claimed to be a cross between the Southdown and the old Wiltshire horned sheepas well as the Berkshire Knot, which formed the foundation of the Hampshirebreed.Foremost among the farmers who undertook the establishment of the Hampshirebreed was Humphrey, of Oak Ash, a man who unquestionably possessedthe peculiar genius required <strong>in</strong> a first improver of stock. Contemporaries ofFlG. 13.—Hampshire Ram.Fig. 14.—Hampshire Ewes.Humphrey were Messrs. Lawrence, of Bullbridge, and Morrison, of Fonthill.Humphrey's first pronounced improvement of the breed was effected by the<strong>in</strong>troduction <strong>in</strong>to his flock of a Southdown ram, bred by Jonas Webb, which wonfirst prize at Liverpool about 1834. The difficulty aris<strong>in</strong>g from <strong>this</strong> cross wasloss of size, and to obviate <strong>this</strong> only the largest of the Hampshire Down ewesthat suited his fancy were selected for his breed<strong>in</strong>g flock. These were bred tothe most mascul<strong>in</strong>e and robust of the rams of his own breed<strong>in</strong>g. This policysucceeded even beyond the hopes of Humphrey himself. He seldom boughtewes, and never unless possessed of extraord<strong>in</strong>ary qualities. A ewe thus bought
25ooM
26bred Jack Tar, by a ram of famous stra<strong>in</strong>. Such blood was used with greatcaution and never directly. Thus Jack Tar was given a few ewes and their ewelambs were saved as dams for rams. It was. t<strong>here</strong>fore, only after be<strong>in</strong>g wellmixed with the blood of the flock that new blood was allowed to permeate it.The greatest possible care was exercised <strong>in</strong> select<strong>in</strong>g the animals that wereto be perpetuated. Lambs were judged at birth and those show<strong>in</strong>g weakness ordefects were marked for the feed<strong>in</strong>g pen. Only the best of those rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g wereplaced <strong>in</strong> the breed<strong>in</strong>g flock, all others be<strong>in</strong>g sent to the butcher, and none of<strong>this</strong> class were ever sold to other breeders.In us<strong>in</strong>g sires Humphrey exercised the utmost caution. Lambs were triedon a small number of ewes and if their offspr<strong>in</strong>g promised well the ram wasaga<strong>in</strong> used as a shearl<strong>in</strong>g, and <strong>in</strong> subsequent years, but if not he was sent to thebutcher. He never bought rams from others and he never <strong>in</strong>troduced strangeblood straight <strong>in</strong>to his flock. Humphrey died <strong>in</strong> 1868, when his flock was dispersed.Many of his rams sold from 40 to 60 gu<strong>in</strong>eas each, one of the keenestpurchasers be<strong>in</strong>g Rawl<strong>in</strong>gs, whose methods of breed<strong>in</strong>g had been much the sameas those of Humphrey. His success as a breeder lay <strong>in</strong> rigorous selection andcareful <strong>in</strong>troduction of the best obta<strong>in</strong>able rams, which were usually securedfrom Humphrey.The Hampshire is the heaviest of the Down breeds, and is excelled <strong>in</strong> weightonly by the L<strong>in</strong>coln and the Cotswold among the long-woolled races. Maturerams <strong>in</strong> good flesh should weigh from 250 pounds to 300 pounds, and matureewes 175 pounds to 225 pounds. The breed matures very early and for thatreason is a favourite for gett<strong>in</strong>g heavy lambs for the spr<strong>in</strong>g trade. The ewesbreed well and yield an abundance of milk. While the Hampshire stands welloff the ground, it feeds up readily and carries a thick fleshy body of primemutton. The fleece of the Hampshire is dense and about equal <strong>in</strong> f<strong>in</strong>eness tothat of the Shropshire. Well kept flocks shear fleeces of about 8 to 10 pounds ofunwashed wool. The colour of the head is a dark brown with a small top-knotwhich should consist of white wool. The ears are large, free from mottles andf<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> texture; they are carried lower than <strong>in</strong> other breeds. The shanks alsoshould be of dark brown colour and free from mottles.The breed is well adapted to either pasture or pen feed<strong>in</strong>g. In its nativehome on many farms more than a breed<strong>in</strong>g ewe per acre, besides large herds ofcattle, are ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> excellent condition <strong>in</strong> seasons when fodder is plentiful.A society for the promotion of the breed and the regulation of a Flock Bookwas established <strong>in</strong> Great Brita<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> the year 1889, <strong>in</strong> which a similar organizationwas formed <strong>in</strong> the United States.The ShropshireThe Shropshire as a pure breed is a production of the n<strong>in</strong>eteenth century. Itappears to have had a mixed orig<strong>in</strong>, the foundation be<strong>in</strong>g a rather dim<strong>in</strong>utivebreed, described <strong>in</strong> 1792 as the Morfe Common sheep, then raised <strong>in</strong> large numbers<strong>in</strong> the district of Shropshire, England. These active hardy sheep hadat that time black, brown or spotted faces and carried horns. The carcasses ofwell-fed wethers would weigh from 10 to 14 pounds per quarter, and the fleeceabout 2^ pounds. This appears to have been the parent form, and the work ofimprovement <strong>com</strong>menced with cross<strong>in</strong>g with the Leicester and Southdown.While these crosses were be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>troduced and for a number of years afterwards,the stock produced was of somewhat uncerta<strong>in</strong> tvpe, but by the middle of thepast century a well fixed and very desirable class of the Shropshire had beenevolved. Soon after <strong>this</strong> time, through the efforts of their breeders they wererecognized as a dist<strong>in</strong>ct breed. They were at that time described as be<strong>in</strong>gwithout horns, with faces and legs of grey or spotted colour, the neck thick withexcellent scrag, the head well-shaped rather small than large with ears well set
27Fig.16.—Shropshire Ram.Fig. 17.—Shropshire Ewe.Fig. 18.—Group of Shropshire Rams.—A Power for good <strong>in</strong> Mutton-rais<strong>in</strong>g District.
28on; breast broad and deep; back straight, with good carcass; h<strong>in</strong>d-quartershardly as wide as the Southdown, and the legs clean with strong bone. Theywere hardy, thrifty, and matured early, produc<strong>in</strong>g from 80 to 100 pounds percarcass and about 7 pounds per fleece.By careful selection and judicious mat<strong>in</strong>g of its own species, the Shropshiresheep seems to have been brought to a very high state of perfection. In 1853they received their first recognition as a pure breed by the Royal AgriculturalSociety of England. Until about 1870 grey and speckled legs and faces and openfleeces were not un<strong>com</strong>mon, but these mark<strong>in</strong>gs and other evidences of mixedbreed<strong>in</strong>g gradually disappeared. For the past forty years the colour of the facehas been a rich brown, unless covered with wool, as are many of the f<strong>in</strong>est specimensof the breed at the present day, almost to the po<strong>in</strong>t of the nose. A littlegrey or " mealy " colour about the muzzle is not considered objectionable.The Shropshire breed was given a classification separate from the Southdowns,Hampshires and Oxfords, as early as 1859, and soon after that year farsurpassed any other breeds exhibited <strong>in</strong> po<strong>in</strong>t of numbers. In 1884 the displayof Shropshires at the Royal Show, held at Shrewsbury, numbered 875 aga<strong>in</strong>st lessthan half that number of all other dist<strong>in</strong>ct breeds <strong>com</strong>b<strong>in</strong>ed. The breed rapidlyspread to every part of the United K<strong>in</strong>gdom and is now to be found <strong>in</strong> largenumbers <strong>in</strong> all parts of the world w<strong>here</strong> improved mutton sheep are kept.No s<strong>in</strong>gle outstand<strong>in</strong>g breeder, like Bakewell, Ellman or Humphrey, who arecredited with br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g out the Leicester, the Southdown and the Hampshire,respectively, actually ac<strong>com</strong>plished the chief improvement of the Shropshire.This was shared by many and progress seems to have been gradual.Go<strong>in</strong>g back to the 'fifties of the past century, we f<strong>in</strong>d the names of prom<strong>in</strong>entbreeders as follows: Messrs. Henry Smith, of Sutton; Green, of Marlow; Harton,of Shrewsbury; Farmer, of Bridgnorth; Adney, of Harley, and others whose eweswere at that time sold at auction at prices from $40 to $75 per head. Theflocks of these breeders and others may be looked upon as the foundation of thepresent breed and their blood flows <strong>in</strong> the flocks of the present day.As a <strong>com</strong>b<strong>in</strong>ed wool and mutton sheep the Shropshire holds a prom<strong>in</strong>entplace. The body, though larger, is like that of the Southdown, be<strong>in</strong>g low-set,thick and fleshy. It carries a large proportion of lean meat which is held <strong>in</strong> highfavour by butchers. The fleece is dense and uniform and approaches that of the1Southdown <strong>in</strong> f<strong>in</strong>eness; ewes shear from 7 to 10 pounds and rams from about9 to 12 pounds of unwashed wool.For cross<strong>in</strong>g and grad<strong>in</strong>g the Shropshire occupies a wide field. Rams of thebreed are very generally used upon <strong>com</strong>mon and grade Mer<strong>in</strong>o stock <strong>in</strong> the rangedistricts. Even from quite <strong>in</strong>ferior ewe foundation the offspr<strong>in</strong>g from Shropshiremales is blocky, thrifty and early matur<strong>in</strong>g, almost <strong>in</strong>variably show<strong>in</strong>gdark faces and legs. At many of the fat stock shows grades bear<strong>in</strong>g Shropshirecharacteristics w<strong>in</strong> many of the best prizes. The early matur<strong>in</strong>g qualities ofthe Shropshire are peculiarly valuable ow<strong>in</strong>g to the extent to which they areused <strong>in</strong> cross<strong>in</strong>g.Shropshire breed associations are strong, both <strong>in</strong> Great Brita<strong>in</strong> and America,and pedigree registration is carefully ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> both countries. The Ameri<strong>can</strong>Shropshire Registry Association was organized <strong>in</strong> 1884, and up to the endof 1909, about 30,000 animals, bred chiefly <strong>in</strong> Canada and the United States,had been registered. A large number of pedigrees have also been registered <strong>in</strong>the Canadian National Records.
29The SouthdownThe Southdown is the oldest of the improved medium-woolled dark-facedbreeds of sheep. It bears much the same relation to the Down breeds as doesthe Leicester to the other long-woolled races. It is one of the <strong>in</strong>digenous racesFig.19.—Southdown Wethers.Fig. 20.—Southdown Ram.peculiar to the chalk hills of the southern counties of England. It appears tohave been conf<strong>in</strong>ed to the Down lands and to have given way to a larger andlooser framed animal, as the cha<strong>in</strong> of chalk hills on which it browsed passed<strong>in</strong>to the neighbour<strong>in</strong>g county of Hampshire.
30Orig<strong>in</strong>ally, the Southdown was horned, but these appendages have long s<strong>in</strong>cedisappeared unless as slugs which occasionally appear on rams of the coarsertype. The breed, before improvement, was small, long <strong>in</strong> neck, light <strong>in</strong> shoulder,bare of back, droop<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> rump, but hav<strong>in</strong>g a big leg of mutton. The fleece wasnot so close and firm as now, and <strong>in</strong>cl<strong>in</strong>ed to curl<strong>in</strong>ess.One of the earliest improvers of the breed was John Ellman, of Glynde, <strong>in</strong>Sussex, who <strong>com</strong>menced his work about 1789, and died <strong>in</strong> 1832. This breederlaid great stress upon the form of the neck and fore-quarters, which he felt shouldbe bold, high <strong>in</strong> the crest, muscular and thick. These qualities he aimed todevelop as well as spr<strong>in</strong>g of rib, girth, breadth and fullness of quarter. The leg ofmutton, accord<strong>in</strong>g to Ellman, must be well filled <strong>in</strong>side and out, and as round asa " cricket-ball." The fleece under his care became boardlike <strong>in</strong> its firmness, andshowed cracks down to the sk<strong>in</strong> as the animal turned, present<strong>in</strong>g a firm andspr<strong>in</strong>gy surface. Follow<strong>in</strong>g Ellman came the late Jonas Webb, of Babraham,Cambridgeshire, as an improver of the breed. It was through him <strong>in</strong> a greatmeasure that the true type was handed down to the present generation.Fig.21.—Southdown Ewe Lambs.The Southdown is one of ihe most beautiful sheep exist<strong>in</strong>g; its smooth, evenbody; its round, clean barrel; its short legs, f<strong>in</strong>e head and broad saddle, with itssweet, tender seldom overfat meat, give the qualities which make it desirable forthe lawn of the gentleman, while its early matur<strong>in</strong>g and easy feed<strong>in</strong>g qualitiesgive it a place on the farms of the men who must make profit from the productsof the land. It is the smallest of the medium-woolled breeds, but ow<strong>in</strong>g to its<strong>com</strong>pact form it weighs remarkably well for its size. A well developed ram <strong>in</strong>breed<strong>in</strong>g condition should weigh about 200 pounds, and <strong>in</strong> show form from 225to 240 pounds. Mature ewes should weigh from 150 pounds to 200 pounds,accord<strong>in</strong>g to condition. It is best adapted to undulat<strong>in</strong>g, roll<strong>in</strong>g or broken andhilly land bear<strong>in</strong>g a short, f<strong>in</strong>e herbage, but it adapts itself well to more levelareas that are not wet. It matures early, its feed<strong>in</strong>g qualities are unsurpassedand itstands crowd<strong>in</strong>g both <strong>in</strong> pen and field better than most breeds.The fleece of the Southdown is the f<strong>in</strong>est and shortest of the Down breeds.Unless at times of shortage of coarser wools the wool of <strong>this</strong> breed br<strong>in</strong>gs a higherprice than any of the others. It is dense and as a rule very uniform over thebody. An average Southdown will clip from 5 to 7 pounds of unwashed wool.For cross<strong>in</strong>g purposes the Southdown has been particularly useful and itsblood exists <strong>in</strong> every improved Down breed. On account of its long establishedcharacteristics it stamps its good qualities upon its offspr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a remarkabledegree.
31The face, ears and legs of the Southdown are of a uniform shade of greyishbrown or mouse colour. The forehead and cheeks are well covered with woolof the same density and whiteness as found on other parts of the body. The earsare rather small, tolerably wide apart, covered with f<strong>in</strong>e hair and carried with alively back and forth movement.The Southdown represents the ideal form of mutton sheep, <strong>in</strong>asmuch as it isadmirably proportioned, of perfect symmetry, very <strong>com</strong>pact and short <strong>in</strong> leg.It is spirited and attractive, with a determ<strong>in</strong>ed look and proud firm step.The SuffolkThe Suffolk sheep, of which t<strong>here</strong> are an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g number of flocks <strong>in</strong>Canada, belongs to the Down breeds <strong>in</strong>habit<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> their early days the southerncounties of England. Although larger, more rangy and darker <strong>in</strong> po<strong>in</strong>ts than theSouthdown, the blood of <strong>this</strong> latter breed entered largely <strong>in</strong>to the foundation ofthe Suffolk. The only other breed that entered <strong>in</strong>to the <strong>com</strong>b<strong>in</strong>ation was theNorfolk, which appears to have passed out of the list of modern breeds of sheep.The old Norfolks are described as upstand<strong>in</strong>g, robust, active and prolific, bear<strong>in</strong>ghorns <strong>in</strong> both sexes, jet black faces and legs, clothed with fleece of f<strong>in</strong>e, softwool which would weigh at shear<strong>in</strong>g time about three pounds. Their home wasthe chalky downs <strong>in</strong> the counties of Suffolk, Norfolk, Cambridge, and Essex.The Southdown <strong>in</strong>habit<strong>in</strong>g adjacent counties, as already described, is a thickerlower-set sheep, hav<strong>in</strong>g strong powers of prepotency. Rams of <strong>this</strong> latter sortwere crossed upon ewes of the old Norfolk to form the newer breed of Suffolk.For the establishment of the Suffolk much credit is given to George Dabito,of Lydgate, who is said to have been an enthusiastic advocate of the Southdownand Norfolk <strong>com</strong>b<strong>in</strong>ation. While the name Suffolk was not generally adopteduntil 1859, when classes were created for <strong>this</strong> breed by the Suffolk AgriculturalSociety, flocks are said to date back <strong>in</strong> purity of blood to 1790.In recent years the Suffolks have held their own <strong>in</strong> British show r<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong><strong>com</strong>petition with other short-woolled breeds. In 1883, 1884, and 1885, theydefeated all others at the shows of the Royal Agricultural Society, and have s<strong>in</strong>cewon valuable awards <strong>in</strong> the wether sections <strong>in</strong> open <strong>com</strong>petition at the SmithfieldFat Stock Show. Appear<strong>in</strong>g somewhat spare of body on account of bareness ofhead and legs and <strong>com</strong>parative shortness of wool, <strong>this</strong> breed does not appeal asfavourably to one unaccustomed to them as most of the other Down sorts, but itis on the block, the true test of all meat animals, that they give a good accountof themselves. Their flesh is seldom or never over-fat, but f<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> the gra<strong>in</strong> andof strik<strong>in</strong>gly f<strong>in</strong>e flavour.Be<strong>in</strong>g active and very hardy the Suffolk subsists well on either sparselyclothed hill sides or more luxuriant pasture. The strong <strong>in</strong>fusion of Southdownblood, together with the care exercised <strong>in</strong> breed<strong>in</strong>g dur<strong>in</strong>g recent years,have given the Suffolk early matur<strong>in</strong>g qualities. Flocks produce a high percentageof vigorous tw<strong>in</strong>s, which usually develop rapidly on account of thegenerous supplies of milk produced by their mothers.The Suffolk Sheep Society of England was established <strong>in</strong> 1886. The firstimportation was made to Canada <strong>in</strong> 1888, and a few flocks have s<strong>in</strong>ce beenestablished <strong>in</strong> Ontario, Pr<strong>in</strong>ce Edward Island and British Columbia. The firstSuffolks taken to the United States were imported <strong>in</strong> 1888, but many havebeen imported s<strong>in</strong>ce, and <strong>in</strong> 1892 the Ameri<strong>can</strong> Flock Registry Association wasestablished.Compared with other Down breeds the Suffolk more nearly resembles theHampshire, and at some of the large shows even yet these two sorts are classedtogether. They are, however, somewhat less <strong>in</strong> size and weight, but areheavier than the Southdown or the Shropshire. Mature rams <strong>in</strong> good flesh
32OS'odop.oSiOC
33should weigh from 240 pounds to 260 pounds, and ewes 190 pounds to 210pounds. They are longer than the Shropshire <strong>in</strong> body and limb. The head islonger, narrower and bare of wool, although a small patch of short white woolon the forehead is not objectionable. The head and legs are glossy black. Inwool production they shear a little more than the Southdown, of a qualityabout equal to the Hampshire or the Shropshire.The DorsetThe Dorset Horn is one of the oldest of the British breeds of sheep. It<strong>in</strong>habited from a very early date the fertile counties of Dorsetshire and Somersetshire,situated <strong>in</strong> the southwest of England. The home of the breed is diversifiedby hill and dale afford<strong>in</strong>g th<strong>in</strong> chalk highlands and rich clay slopes andFig. 23.—Dorset Ram.valleys. The orig<strong>in</strong>al Dorset sheep was large, rather coarse, long-legged breedwith wonderful powers of maternity. Both sexes have reta<strong>in</strong>ed horns from theearliest years until the present day. They belong to the medium wool breeds,but unlike most of the others, possess white faces and legs. Efforts to improvethe breed by means of out-crosses proved unsuccessful, although accord<strong>in</strong>g toauthorities, both Leicester and Southdown blood were used. While greatimprovement <strong>in</strong> form and early matur<strong>in</strong>g has been ac<strong>com</strong>plished <strong>in</strong> the Dorsetsheep dur<strong>in</strong>g the past quarter of a century it has been effected entirely with<strong>in</strong>the breed itself.The Dorset surpasses all other breeds of sheep <strong>in</strong> breed<strong>in</strong>g qualities. Unlikeother sorts the ewes may be bred at almost any time of the year, and it is notun<strong>com</strong>mon for ewes to produce two crops of lambs with<strong>in</strong> twelve months. InEngland it is not un<strong>com</strong>mon to f<strong>in</strong>d Dorset lambs on the Smithfield market atChristmas when they <strong>com</strong>mand fancy prices. A number of breeeders both on<strong>this</strong> cont<strong>in</strong>ent and <strong>in</strong> Great Brita<strong>in</strong> aim to have autumn lambs, some as earlyas September, although many prefer not to have them earlier than January.The Dorset ewe is a most excellent mother, produc<strong>in</strong>g seldom less than twolambs and not un<strong>com</strong>monly three. She is a very copious milker and whenwell fed her lambs go forward at a very rapid rate. For <strong>this</strong> reason the Dorsetfills a special field as a producer of what are known as " hot-house " lambs,which frequently dress from 40 to 45 pounds each at four months old.35001—3
34In general con<strong>format</strong>ion the Dorset is of the mutton type, approach<strong>in</strong>g thatof the Southdown more nearly than any of the other breeds. It is larger thanthe Southdown, be<strong>in</strong>g almost equal to the Shropshire, and it has less symmetrythan either of these sorts. The average weight of mature rams is about200 pounds and of ewes about 170 pounds.The wool of the Dorset is much like that of the Shropshire <strong>in</strong> quality.The fleece is quite dense, very white and elastic. The crown and jaws arecovered about the same as <strong>in</strong> the Southdown. Well-bred lambs clip about 10pounds, and ewes from 7 to 8 pounds of unwashed wool.Fig.24.—Dorset Ewe.The horns of the Dorset curve gracefully forward rather close to the jaws.They are small and flat <strong>in</strong> the female, but considerably longer, stronger andmore angular <strong>in</strong> the male and curve spirally outward from the top of the head.As a cross<strong>in</strong>g or grad<strong>in</strong>g sheep the Dorset stands <strong>in</strong> high favour <strong>in</strong> theUnited States, more particularly w<strong>here</strong> Mer<strong>in</strong>o grades exist. They impart theirfecundity, vigour, excellent milk<strong>in</strong>g qualities and thick mutton form to theiroffspr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a marked degree. On account of their horns they are not wellsuited for cross<strong>in</strong>g with hornless breeds. If used at all for cross<strong>in</strong>g with thelatter sort the Dorset should occupy the female part of the union. Darkfacedlambs produced <strong>in</strong> <strong>this</strong> way meet with a readier sale than the lambs ofpure Dorset breed<strong>in</strong>g, and when fed for the show-r<strong>in</strong>g they frequently w<strong>in</strong> prizes<strong>in</strong> the classes for grades and crosses.Until about 1885 the Dorset was little bred outside of its native counties.Dur<strong>in</strong>g recent years small flocks have been established throughout other portionsof the British Isles. They were imported to Canada as early as 1885,and to the United States <strong>in</strong> 1887. T<strong>here</strong> are now a number of well-kept flocks<strong>in</strong> various parts of Canada and many <strong>in</strong> the United States.The CheviotThe Cheviot, although not familiar to the sheep farmers of Canada, isbe<strong>com</strong><strong>in</strong>g a favourite breed w<strong>here</strong>ver given a fair trial. Com<strong>in</strong>g as they dofrom a rugged country they possess a peculiar adaptability for hilly sectionsw<strong>here</strong> daily attention <strong>can</strong>not be given.The Cheviot is one of the oldest of the modern breeds of sheep. It isclassed with the mounta<strong>in</strong> breeds and <strong>com</strong>es next <strong>in</strong> hardihood to the Black-
35Fig. 25.—Cheviot Ram.Fig.26.— Cheviot Ewe and Lamb.35001— 3i
36face that <strong>in</strong>habits the Highlands of Scotland. Its home is the hill lands border<strong>in</strong>gScotland and England, w<strong>here</strong> they have been reared from a very remoteperiod. In their native homes they are given no shelter and graze the yearround on the mounta<strong>in</strong> sides and <strong>in</strong> the valleys. This open air life has developed<strong>in</strong> the Cheviot one of the hardiest of the medium-woolled breeds of sheep.It was about 1756 that an effective attempt was made to improve theCheviot. Dur<strong>in</strong>g that year four lead<strong>in</strong>g breeders visited L<strong>in</strong>colnshire andreturned with fourteen rams which they used upon their flocks with great success.It is stated that the flock of James Robson, of Philhope, was so muchimproved by the L<strong>in</strong>coln cross that for many years he sold more rams than onehalfof the hillfarmers put together.The breed was named about 1792, when it was described as a f<strong>in</strong>e-woolledbreed. From 1800 to 1860 the Cheviot sheep was more and more on theascendant and the Black-faces disappeared from nearly all of the best farms <strong>in</strong>the south of Scotland, except <strong>in</strong> the mounta<strong>in</strong> district of Ayrshire and Lanarkshire.Ow<strong>in</strong>g to a series of severe seasons the tide turned <strong>in</strong> favour of theBlack-faces on all but the lower and grassy slopes of the mounta<strong>in</strong>s, w<strong>here</strong> theCheviot until <strong>this</strong> day ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>s its position.They are of medium size, approach<strong>in</strong>g the Shropshire <strong>in</strong> weight. Ewesweigh from J ^0 to 160 pounds and rams from 180 to 215. They are whitefacedand hornless and are possessed of unusual length of body <strong>in</strong> contrast withthe heath sheep of North Brita<strong>in</strong>. Like most mounta<strong>in</strong> breeds, they are relativelylight <strong>in</strong> the fore-quarters, but their h<strong>in</strong>d-quarters are very well developed,produc<strong>in</strong>g legs of mutton of very high quality. The mutton of the Cheviot,like that of other mounta<strong>in</strong> breeds, is of excellent quality. It seldom be<strong>com</strong>estoo fat, develop<strong>in</strong>g rather a plump carcass of mixed fat and lean which is possessedof f<strong>in</strong>e flavour and tenderness.The wool of the Cheviot belongs to the middle class. The fleece has atendency to openness and is somewhat longer and coarser than the best type ofShropshire staple, and is rather superior <strong>in</strong> quality to that of the Oxford. Ewesshear from 6 to 9 pounds and rams from 8 to 12 pounds of unwashed wool.The Cheviot is possessed of extraord<strong>in</strong>ary constitutional vigour. It ishighly prolific, the ewes yield<strong>in</strong>g tw<strong>in</strong>s more than s<strong>in</strong>gle lambs. The ewes areunusually attentive to their offspr<strong>in</strong>g, which are rapid growers, mak<strong>in</strong>g a dressweight of 50 to 60 pounds at six months old.In a general way the form of the Cheviot is much the same as other goodmutton breeds. The head, while not too heavy, should be bold and broad,well set off by bright dark eyes and erect ears of moderate length. The noseis Roman <strong>in</strong> type, the sk<strong>in</strong> around the mouth be<strong>in</strong>g black. The legs, face andears are covered with clean, hard, white hair.The Cheviot is peculiarly adapted to hilly and roll<strong>in</strong>g sections. It thriveswell on even s<strong>can</strong>t pasture, provided it has access to an extended area, andfattens readily on roots or good pasture or fodder even without a gra<strong>in</strong> ration.The breed is thoroughly at home <strong>in</strong> the Maritime Prov<strong>in</strong>ces and the more ruggedportions of Quebec, w<strong>here</strong> a few flocks are now be<strong>in</strong>g kept.The Mer<strong>in</strong>oWhile the Mer<strong>in</strong>o has made great progress <strong>in</strong> the Ameri<strong>can</strong> Republic it hasnot be<strong>com</strong>e a popular breed <strong>in</strong> <strong>this</strong> country. In Canada, as <strong>in</strong> Great Brita<strong>in</strong>, asheep has to possess at least a fair degree of mutton quality <strong>in</strong> order that it betaken up either by the breeders or the general farmers who keep a few head ofsheep. On the ranges, however, the major part of the foundation stock is Mer<strong>in</strong>o,and though the mutton ideal is predom<strong>in</strong>ant over Canada as a whole, t<strong>here</strong> areevidences that t<strong>here</strong> will cont<strong>in</strong>ue to be periodical, if not steady, reversions toMer<strong>in</strong>o blood as long as open range is available. This is not due entirely to the
37superior herd<strong>in</strong>g qualities of the Mer<strong>in</strong>o, but to the demand of our grow<strong>in</strong>gmanufacturers for a grade of wool above coarse or medium. Range wool? havegreatly <strong>in</strong>creased <strong>in</strong> value with<strong>in</strong> recent years. This should encourage theprogress of sheep husbandry, and <strong>in</strong> <strong>this</strong> work the Mer<strong>in</strong>o will perform anFig. 27.—Mer<strong>in</strong>o Ewe.Fig.28.—Mer<strong>in</strong>o Ram.important part. While our <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> the sheep bus<strong>in</strong>ess has been up to thepresent almost exclusively concerned with the meat side, it must be rememberedthat mutton is only one, and not the most important one, of our meat products,while wool is a characteristic and peculiar product and it is on the wool side thatwe should expect to see the general improvement <strong>in</strong> sheep husbandry secured.
38The Mer<strong>in</strong>o is a f<strong>in</strong>e-woolled sheep. It is known to have been bred almostentirely for its fleece s<strong>in</strong>ce early <strong>in</strong> the Christian era. For a number of yearsattention has been paid to the mutton qualities of some families, but as a meabproducerthe Mer<strong>in</strong>o ranks <strong>in</strong> sheep no higher than the strictly dairy breeds <strong>in</strong>cattle. It is quite conceivable, however, that the <strong>in</strong>troduction of the Mer<strong>in</strong>ofamilies of sheep to the rich grasses and more rigorous air of the upper temperatelatitudes will be attended with an improvement <strong>in</strong> flesh<strong>in</strong>g qualities and generalrotundity of form.The Mer<strong>in</strong>o is of Spanish orig<strong>in</strong>, but large numbers have been so longbred <strong>in</strong> Germany and France that certa<strong>in</strong> varieties are now looked upon asbelong<strong>in</strong>g to these latter countries. For many years importations from variousEuropean countries have been made to the United States, w<strong>here</strong> they are bred<strong>in</strong> more or less dist<strong>in</strong>ct classes. These are known as the Ameri<strong>can</strong>, the Dela<strong>in</strong>eand the Rambouiilet. The Ameri<strong>can</strong> or Spanish is the smallest and lightest<strong>in</strong> weight and are still bred almost entirely for f<strong>in</strong>e wool. The Dela<strong>in</strong>e is aheavier bodied sheep with fewer or no wr<strong>in</strong>kles and of vary<strong>in</strong>g uniformityaccord<strong>in</strong>g to the view po<strong>in</strong>t of breeders as regards the relative importance offleece or flesh. The Rambouiilet or French Mer<strong>in</strong>o is the largest of the breed,hav<strong>in</strong>g been bred and fed for mutton production for many generations both <strong>in</strong>France and the United States. Weights of <strong>in</strong>dividual rams are recorded as highas 400 pounds, and fleeces as heavy as 60 pounds. These, however, are quiteexceptional and abnormal. It is probable that such a ram was loaded to theutmost extent with fat and such a fleece with oil or yolk and dirt.Mer<strong>in</strong>os are reared <strong>in</strong> large numbers <strong>in</strong> Australia, New Zealand and Argent<strong>in</strong>a,but as already stated, their popularity <strong>in</strong> North America ischiefly conf<strong>in</strong>edto the United States, w<strong>here</strong> some thirty or forty years ago about 95 per cent ofthe sheep were from Mer<strong>in</strong>o foundation stock. In recent years the English breedshave been so rapidly <strong>in</strong>troduced and so numerously bred <strong>in</strong> the United Statesthat the ratio is greatly changed <strong>in</strong> favour of the mutton sorts. Over the westernpla<strong>in</strong>s mutton rams are be<strong>in</strong>g used more extensively until thousands uponthousands of the sheep and lambs that reach the large United States marketsbear one or more English crosses upon Mer<strong>in</strong>o foundation. Lambs bred <strong>in</strong> <strong>this</strong>way readily partake of the mutton form, and when well fed frequently top themarket.From time to time small flocks of pure Rambouiilet have been started <strong>in</strong>Canada and a small number are be<strong>in</strong>g perpetuated <strong>in</strong> their pure state at thepresent day, but only as a foundation stock for grad<strong>in</strong>g purposes has <strong>this</strong> breedreached the Dom<strong>in</strong>ion <strong>in</strong> any considerable numbers. To stock up ranges <strong>in</strong> the•western prov<strong>in</strong>ces low-priced Dela<strong>in</strong>e ewes with some admixture of Rambouiiletblood have been imported <strong>in</strong> large numbers from Montana and other westernStates, and these are be<strong>in</strong>g graded up with rams of the Rambouiilet breed. Underrange conditions young stock matures slowly and the great bulk of the lambs aredisposed of as feeder lambs. Few of the lambs are sold off <strong>in</strong> the fall for immediatekill<strong>in</strong>g, but dur<strong>in</strong>g the past few seasons many thousand head have been fedthrough the w<strong>in</strong>ter on hay, gra<strong>in</strong> or screen<strong>in</strong>gs at elevator centres and have <strong>com</strong>eout <strong>in</strong> excellent condition for the late w<strong>in</strong>ter and spr<strong>in</strong>g trade.The Mer<strong>in</strong>o as a breed is among the lightest of registered sheep, theaverage ram weigh<strong>in</strong>g from 150 to 200 pounds, and ewes from 90 to 130 pounds,but among the Rambouillets as high as 200' pounds <strong>in</strong> ewes and over 300 poundsm rams are occasionally met with. The breed has proved itself adaptable to awide range of conditions, do<strong>in</strong>g about equally well on sparsely clothed hills andfertile pla<strong>in</strong>s. It withstands crowd<strong>in</strong>g and neglect and travell<strong>in</strong>g long distancesfor food better than other classes of sheep. For these reasons the Mer<strong>in</strong>o multiplieswell <strong>in</strong> large bands under range conditions w<strong>here</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividual attention<strong>can</strong>not be given to the members of the flock, though it is not as prolific by habitas are the English breeds.
39Favoured Pure BreedsIn the development of the sheep <strong>in</strong>dustry <strong>in</strong> Canada, the <strong>in</strong>troduction anddistribution of the various purebred breeds has been unrestricted and theirnumbers <strong>in</strong>creased as they atta<strong>in</strong>ed popular favour among the breeders themselves.Breeders of purebred flocks and breed associations naturally sought topopularize the breed<strong>in</strong>g of their own breeds with the result that, <strong>in</strong> most of theolder districts, frequently several pure-bred flocks of different breed<strong>in</strong>g have beenestablished. In such districts, rams of the different breeds have been used on thegrade flocks with the result that market lambs lack uniformity and a def<strong>in</strong>itesystem of flock improvement has not been made operative. Of late years, sheeppromotion work has been directed with a view to establish<strong>in</strong>g a* dist<strong>in</strong>ct breedfor each <strong>com</strong>munity and an effort has been made to curtail the multiplicity ofbreeds <strong>in</strong> districts or prov<strong>in</strong>ces by encourag<strong>in</strong>g those breeds which have be<strong>com</strong>emost generally popular and, <strong>in</strong> addition, which produce wool and lambs thatare highly desirable from a market standpo<strong>in</strong>t. The different prov<strong>in</strong>ces havevaried somewhat <strong>in</strong> their selections, but generally speak<strong>in</strong>g those breeds mostfavoured have been: Shropshire, Oxford, Hampshire, Suffolk, Southdown, andLeicester. In British Columbia, the Dorset Horn has also been named and <strong>in</strong>Quebec the Cheviot. On the range the Rambouillet is the accepted breed.ESTABLISHING A FLOCK OF COMMERCIAL SHEEPThe advantages at the hand of any <strong>in</strong>telligent farmer who wishes to establisha flock of sheep for use <strong>in</strong>a <strong>com</strong>mercial way at the present time are very muchgreater than prevailed many years ago <strong>in</strong> the older prov<strong>in</strong>ces of the Dom<strong>in</strong>ion.Then the only material at hand for the foundation of a flock of grade sheep wasthe "Common Sheep," as they were frequently called; and <strong>com</strong>mon they were<strong>in</strong>deed <strong>in</strong> at least two important ways <strong>in</strong> which the word is used. They prevailedeveryw<strong>here</strong> on the farms of the Dom<strong>in</strong>ion and they lacked every <strong>in</strong>dicationof good breed<strong>in</strong>g as evidenced by the qualities mak<strong>in</strong>g for a present-dayfirst-class carcass. But they were hardy and looked out for their own sustenance.Yet they were nimble at scal<strong>in</strong>g the fences of those days, and often madetrouble between neighbours by feed<strong>in</strong>g on the grow<strong>in</strong>g crops.They were rather long-legged, shallow-bodied and th<strong>in</strong>-fleshed. Their woolwas not very f<strong>in</strong>e, though dense and short and usually quite coarse on the hipsand thighs, and worse still, became very scarce before two years old. and quitebare on the under parts of the body.Those who used these sheep as a foundation for flocks found that it tookseveral generations from the use of good mutton type rams of the pure breedsbefore their crop of lambs would have the uniformity necessary to success.At the present time it is quite different, and the beg<strong>in</strong>ner has grade flockspractically pure of the several breeds to choose from, and <strong>can</strong> <strong>com</strong>mence with aselected flock of grades of whichever breed he may fancy, practically true to thetype of the pure-bred. For many years the best breeders of all the breeds havebeen striv<strong>in</strong>g to establish <strong>in</strong> their respective flocks the same ideal form of carcass,varied only <strong>in</strong> size. It will be necessary to have <strong>this</strong> ideal <strong>in</strong> view when mak<strong>in</strong>gselections. A well-covered back is required, broad because of well sprung ribs,and wide lo<strong>in</strong>, the flesh smooth and elastic to the touch—if <strong>in</strong> good condition,and not soft and blubbery, nor yet hard. In no case should the back bone be <strong>in</strong>evidence to the touch, if the animal is <strong>in</strong> good flesh. We should look for long,deep full quarters, well filled <strong>in</strong> the twist, and <strong>in</strong>side and outside muscles of thethighs. In the po<strong>in</strong>ts given we have the most valuable parts of the carcass.But <strong>in</strong> addition we require a good depth of rib, good depth and width <strong>in</strong> frontand at the heart, to give room for the vital organs, so we may have sturdy constitution.With these will go a medium length of neck, stronger at the shoulders
40odfewOid
41and well set on. A clean <strong>in</strong>telligent head and eyes, with noth<strong>in</strong>g sluggish <strong>in</strong>appearance, bright eyes with reasonable prom<strong>in</strong>ence are all desirable.We must be careful to select ewes with good firm bone, and strong, shortpasterns, not set back too far, feet of fair size and good shape, the legs straightand set squarely under them.We must pay a great deal of attention to the wool also, <strong>in</strong> mak<strong>in</strong>g selections.The heavy shearers—when the quality is right—of whichever breed we have, arethe most profitable, and <strong>in</strong> order to get weight of fleece we must have density offibres, as well as length of staple. It is of great importance to have it uniform<strong>in</strong> quality all over the body, not runn<strong>in</strong>g to coarseness on the thighs.After we have clearly <strong>in</strong> m<strong>in</strong>d the type we want, then the th<strong>in</strong>g of greatestimportance to us, is to have our selections uniform. T<strong>here</strong> is profit <strong>in</strong> <strong>this</strong>because we <strong>can</strong> sell a uniform bunch of lambs to better advantage, and for ahigher price. By uniformity more is meant than that the flock be of the sametype, and similar <strong>in</strong> size. It means not only they look alike, but that the<strong>in</strong>dividual sheep be uniform <strong>in</strong> itself, that it has general uniformity, good con<strong>format</strong>ion,not weak <strong>in</strong> places and extra good <strong>in</strong> others.Select<strong>in</strong>g a RamIn select<strong>in</strong>g a ram, too, <strong>this</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividual uniformity isparticularly important,s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>in</strong> <strong>this</strong> at least he is really half the flock, and with his better breed<strong>in</strong>g islikely to reproduce his con<strong>format</strong>ion and type <strong>in</strong> the lambs.A medium size will be found the most desirable, with an <strong>in</strong>cl<strong>in</strong>ation to goodsize rather than undersize if vary<strong>in</strong>g any from medium. Room<strong>in</strong>ess should belooked for <strong>in</strong> the eyes, as those of that form will be more likely to be goodmothers. Avoid a ewe that is short <strong>in</strong> the ribs and has a " tucked-up " appearance.In the ram we must have the same good qualities of carcass and of wool,and should look for more <strong>com</strong>pactness and strength, <strong>in</strong> appearance a good lot ofmascul<strong>in</strong>ity, a strong, bold carriage, stronger bone, and with all not any abovethe average size for rams of his breed. He must be pure-bred and typical of thebreed we have selected. It is almost <strong>in</strong>variably a mistake to cross, except for aspecial purpose. Cont<strong>in</strong>uous <strong>in</strong>discrim<strong>in</strong>ate cross<strong>in</strong>g is always suicidal.The Size of the FlockA flock of fifteen ewes should be the m<strong>in</strong>imum on a farm of one hundredacres which is devoted to mixed farm<strong>in</strong>g. Such a flock <strong>can</strong> be <strong>in</strong>creased withexperience, but not beyond twenty to twenty-five, unless it is desired to make aspecial bus<strong>in</strong>ess of sheep rais<strong>in</strong>g. With good management and good care, an<strong>in</strong>crease through lambs <strong>can</strong> be expected of from 150 per cent to 175 per cent,and it should be the latter.A flock of <strong>this</strong> size will, if given opportunity, clean up a very great numberof the weeds on a farm, yet we must not make the mistake of expect<strong>in</strong>g them toget all their liv<strong>in</strong>g off the weeds and waste places of the farm, even though it isa good help. Provision for feed supplementary to the pasture, such as rape,which <strong>can</strong> be very cheaply produced, is generally very profitable, and shouldalways be counted on. Lambs after be<strong>in</strong>g weaned ga<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> weight very rapidlyon rape, and when oats are fed along with it towards the f<strong>in</strong>ish<strong>in</strong>g for the market,the flesh is firm and good, likely to br<strong>in</strong>g the highest price. If fed on formarket<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> w<strong>in</strong>ter and spr<strong>in</strong>g, which is usually the most profitable, the rapemakes a good foundation for the w<strong>in</strong>ter feed<strong>in</strong>g. These supplementary foods aredesirable to develop the flock profitably.
42Time toPurchase EwesThe best time to purchase the ewes is August, just after the lambs havebeen weaned. We <strong>can</strong> purchase then as cheaply as at any time and <strong>can</strong> makethe best selection if choos<strong>in</strong>g ewes that have raised lambs as their milk<strong>in</strong>gqualities and strength <strong>can</strong> be ascerta<strong>in</strong>ed. Besides we will have them <strong>in</strong> goodtime to prepare for the next crop of lambs.While t<strong>here</strong> is one additional year's usefulness <strong>in</strong> a shearl<strong>in</strong>g ewe—one that issixteen or seventeen months old, if she has not had a lamb—as a rule two-shearewes are to be preferred <strong>in</strong> select<strong>in</strong>g. We have then a guarantee that they arebreeders, and have the advantage of be<strong>in</strong>g able to judge of those likely to be thebest breeders and best milkers. However, very few shearl<strong>in</strong>g ewes prove nonbreeders.These ewes should have the run of the stubble fields, not sown to clover,or old pastures, until near the middle of September and then given access to arape or clover field. If <strong>this</strong> green food is not plentiful, it will pay to feed a smallquantity of gra<strong>in</strong> to make sure the ewes are strong and thriv<strong>in</strong>g well when bred.This is the secret of hav<strong>in</strong>g a large percentage of tw<strong>in</strong>s dropped. It may be well,as claimed by some, to breed from ewes themselves tw<strong>in</strong>s, but even so, they mustbe strong and thriv<strong>in</strong>g well to have the best results because not only will we havelarger returns, but the lambs will be stronger and more likely to live and do well,provid<strong>in</strong>g the treatment of the ewes cont<strong>in</strong>ues good up to lamb<strong>in</strong>g time.Mat<strong>in</strong>gThe ram should be hearty, rugged and healthy at the time of coupl<strong>in</strong>g.Usually stronger lambs are sired by rams one year old or over, yet for a flockof about fifteen ewes, a well developed lamb will give good results, and may bemore cheaply purchased, as well as be<strong>in</strong>g a year younger and perhaps morevaluable when a change of ram is to be made. But when the number of ewesruns up to twenty or more, then an older ram should be secured.In case a lamb is used on from fifteen to twenty-five ewes, which should beavoided if possible, he should not run with them, but should be kept separate orwith, say one ewe for <strong>com</strong>pany, and allowed with a flock only long enough eachmorn<strong>in</strong>g to serve once such ewes as are ready. More than that is needless andhelps to destroy the vitality and usefulness of the ram. If short of help, or ifone does not wish to take the time, which need not be much, a ram may beallowed to run with a small flock of ewes dur<strong>in</strong>g the mat<strong>in</strong>g season without muchapparent <strong>in</strong>jury, if the ram be matured. However, it is profitable to control alamb, as he is often more ambitious, and more likely to <strong>in</strong>jure himself, andnaturally produces weaker lambs. The profit from the flock is largely dependentupon the number of uniformly well-grown lambs we raise, and which we <strong>can</strong>have by these reasonable precautions, and after care and attention, if the ewesare good milkers.W<strong>in</strong>ter<strong>in</strong>gThe flock should be strong and <strong>in</strong> good flesh when w<strong>in</strong>ter sets <strong>in</strong>, and theywill be, if reasonable provision has been made for fall feed. If <strong>in</strong> good conditionthey will be the more cheaply w<strong>in</strong>tered. They <strong>can</strong> be kept do<strong>in</strong>g well onclover hay and a few roots—say three pounds per head each day and a liberalfeed of pea straw. If a little gra<strong>in</strong> be fed for about four weeks before theylamb—one pound per head each day of mixed oats and bran is good—they willbe <strong>in</strong> good condition when lamb<strong>in</strong>g time <strong>com</strong>es. The gra<strong>in</strong> feed should bedoubled after lamb<strong>in</strong>g and the quantity of roots (mangels or turnips) <strong>in</strong>creasedto nearly all they will eat. This will ensure a good flow of milk, and it is dur<strong>in</strong>gthe first two months a lamb is sent on the road to profit or be<strong>com</strong>es stunted andsmall. After that age they <strong>can</strong> more easily be helped by other foods.
43The reason for not feed<strong>in</strong>g the ewes largely with roots before lamb<strong>in</strong>g is thatthey are bulky and cold, be<strong>in</strong>g largely <strong>com</strong>posed of water and when eaten <strong>in</strong>large quantities seem to affect the foetus so the lambs are born soft and weak andvery difficult to save. Either turnips or mangels may be fed to ewes with safety,although very many prefer turnips before lamb<strong>in</strong>g and mangels after, becausethe latter are considered better milk producers. But mangels should never befed to rams. They have the effect of produc<strong>in</strong>g stone <strong>in</strong> the bladder, and sometimescause serious loss. Turnips do not have <strong>this</strong> effect and sheep should havesome succulent feed when not on pasture. Ensilage is not a safe food; it often orgenerally is too acid, and will cause severe <strong>in</strong>digestion, which will <strong>in</strong> turn cause aloosen<strong>in</strong>g of the wool by feverish heat <strong>in</strong> the sk<strong>in</strong>, and much of the fleece isoften lost besides lower<strong>in</strong>g the vitality of the sheep.Lamb<strong>in</strong>g TimeThe lamb<strong>in</strong>g time is the only one when for a few weeks the flock is exact<strong>in</strong>gof the time of the shepherd and his attention. It is very profitable to be oftenwith the ewes at that time to see that the lambs when they are dropped are notallowed to get chilled or be<strong>com</strong>e weak for want of a little nourishment soon afterthey are born. It is well to have a few little pens, which <strong>can</strong> be readily madewith movable hurdles <strong>in</strong> one end or corner of the large pen. The ewes seldomrefuse to mother their lambs when they are separated from the flock, and alonewith them. Ewes seldom require any assistance <strong>in</strong> lamb<strong>in</strong>g but often a littleprompt help to a weakly lamb will save its life, and after they are once on theirfeet, and have found the teat, are very little more trouble, unless the ewe is apoor milker, when it will be profitable to assist the lambs with a little cow's milkuntil they eat well.Their tails should be docked when the lambs are not more than ten days old.If left longer, or until they get very plump and fat death sometimes ensues fromthe shock, and occasionally from loss of blood. The latter <strong>can</strong> often be preventedby ty<strong>in</strong>g a cord tightly around the tail just above the place of cutt<strong>in</strong>g, and dangerfrom the former is lessened by cutt<strong>in</strong>g one jo<strong>in</strong>t or so longer. The ram lambsshould be castrated at the same time.Shear<strong>in</strong>g and Dipp<strong>in</strong>gShear<strong>in</strong>g should be done as early <strong>in</strong> the spr<strong>in</strong>g as possible. The beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g ofApril is usually a good time. Very soon after the ewes have lambed, or, if they<strong>com</strong>e <strong>in</strong> later than that, then before they have lambed. If not shorn until afterlamb<strong>in</strong>g, then all tags should be trimmed from around the udder before or immediatelyafter lamb<strong>in</strong>g. If <strong>this</strong> is neglected, the lamb sometimes will suck thesetags and swallow them, frequently caus<strong>in</strong>g balls of wool to form <strong>in</strong> the stomach,which causes <strong>in</strong>flammation and death. This occurs also sometimes when sheepare allowed to get very much <strong>in</strong>fested with lice or ticks, caus<strong>in</strong>g them to bite andpull out their wool, swallow<strong>in</strong>g a portion of it, and the balls form <strong>in</strong> the sameway.Just as soon as the weather is warm enough <strong>in</strong> the spr<strong>in</strong>g, all the sheep andlambs should be well dipped <strong>in</strong> some of the good dips that are sold. A vat <strong>can</strong>be very cheaply made for <strong>this</strong> purpose and the work quickly done.They shouldbe dipped aga<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> the fall, before the weather gets very cold. A half-day forthe purpose is a very profitable <strong>in</strong>vestment; verm<strong>in</strong> left on the sheep to go <strong>in</strong>tothe w<strong>in</strong>ter will be very expensive for the owner.The Flock at PastureAfter the flock has gone to the pasture, they will not be much troubleexcept to se'e that they have plenty of clean water and salt. To have plentyof clean water all the year round is very important to <strong>in</strong>sure the thrift of the
44flock. Do not let them depend on snow <strong>in</strong> the w<strong>in</strong>ter—they will not do so wellnor let them dr<strong>in</strong>k from a stagnant pool at any time. They are very liable totake parasites <strong>in</strong>to their system, which will cause trouble. If it <strong>can</strong> be arrangedto give the flock a change of pasture every two or three weeks, and not necessarilyto better pasture, they will thrive and do much better. To alternate thembetween two fields every few weeks will answer the purpose.Wean<strong>in</strong>gAugust, from 1st to 15th, is a good time to wean the lambs. They will dobetter after that if separated from the ewes, and are given a nice fresh bit ofclover or rape to run on, and besides it gives the ewes a chance to recuperateand ga<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> flesh. The ewes' udders should be watched closely for a short timeafter wean<strong>in</strong>g, and stripped out, when necessary, until the milk has left them.If any have bad or spoiled udders they should be marked for draft<strong>in</strong>g out, andcareful note should be made of which are the best milkers; one of the mostimportant th<strong>in</strong>gs that make for success is <strong>in</strong> hav<strong>in</strong>g the ewes milkers; otherth<strong>in</strong>gs be<strong>in</strong>g equal the good milkers raise the best lambs. The lambs' as wellas the ewes' tails should be trimmed neatly square across up to the stump ofthe tail before be<strong>in</strong>g turned on fresh green feed such as rape or clover, so theywill not soil their wool so much beh<strong>in</strong>d if they be<strong>com</strong>e soft <strong>in</strong> their dropp<strong>in</strong>gs,which they often do.Precautions <strong>in</strong> Rape Feed<strong>in</strong>gWhen lambs or ewes are turned <strong>in</strong>to rape they should have access to otherpasture, else sometimes their ears, and occasionally the whole head will swell,and blister as when frozen, and often the ears will drop off. If allowed otherpasture with the rape t<strong>here</strong> is very little danger. Sometimes losses <strong>com</strong>e frombloat<strong>in</strong>g when the sheep or lambs first have access to the rape, or even to freshclover. But <strong>this</strong> <strong>can</strong> be avoided by a little reasonable care. They should neverbe allowed to feed on the rape the first time when any moisture from dew orra<strong>in</strong> is on the leaves. A nice sunny afternoon is a desirable time, and then theyshould have had a hearty meal of some other food before be<strong>in</strong>g turned on. Theywill eat greedily of the rape at first, but afterwards will take several days beforethey will fill up on it aga<strong>in</strong>, and then the danger is past if they have otherpasture on which they <strong>can</strong> feed at will. Further reference to precautionarymeasures necessary <strong>in</strong> rape feed<strong>in</strong>g appears <strong>in</strong> the section on "Feeds andFeed<strong>in</strong>g."Before the sheep are allowed <strong>in</strong>to any field after July first, w<strong>here</strong> they havenot been before that summer, all burrs of any k<strong>in</strong>d or "pitchforks" should becarefully removed. If permitted to get <strong>in</strong>to the fleece they are unsightly look<strong>in</strong>g,and depreciate the value of the wool.Cull<strong>in</strong>gOutThe ewe lambs from the best ewes and the best milkers should, if welldeveloped, and promis<strong>in</strong>g, be marked at wean<strong>in</strong>g time, and from these the selectionsshould be made to keep <strong>in</strong> the flock, always be<strong>in</strong>g careful to reta<strong>in</strong> those asnear the ideal type as possible. They should be liberally fed to <strong>in</strong>sure growthand development, but it is not necessary to feed extravagantly at all. Theyshould not be bred until they pass one year old. If bred when lambs they areretarded <strong>in</strong> their growth and seldom make as vigorous ewes. Their lambs areoften smaller, and not of so much account. The best of these shearl<strong>in</strong>g ewesshould be selected <strong>in</strong> the fall to replace those drafted from the ewe flock for anyreason. But do not cast out an old good ewe that is also a good breeder andmilker for a young ewe unless her teeth have failed or for spoiled udder.
45The ewes will now be used the same way as described for the first year.Those with defective udders or which have proved unthrifty and those that arenot good milkers should be drafted and fed with the wether and ewe lambs formarket, their places for <strong>this</strong> year be<strong>in</strong>g filled by purchase.If the lambs are to be sold <strong>in</strong> the fall,say October, they will generally givea profit for a small feed of gra<strong>in</strong> each day, yet if the green feed be plentifulthey will usually be fat and heavy enough without any gra<strong>in</strong>.Before be<strong>in</strong>g offered for sale they should be made as presentable as possible,by trimm<strong>in</strong>g their tails nicely, as well as all tags, etc., that may detract fromtheir appearance. Some successful shepherds say it pays well to wash themcarefully if they be long wools, and probably they are right; it certa<strong>in</strong>ly improvestheir appearance very much. Small, th<strong>in</strong> lambs usually make most profit whenkept over until March, feed<strong>in</strong>g them well with clover hay, roots andsome gra<strong>in</strong>. In addition to the large ga<strong>in</strong> they will make <strong>in</strong> weight theyusually br<strong>in</strong>g a much better price per pound. If it is desired to establisha special sheep farm, or devote the whole farm to sheep rais<strong>in</strong>g it willbe still better for the beg<strong>in</strong>ner, if without sheep-keep<strong>in</strong>g experience, tohave only a small flock at first, as already described, and the flock willusually <strong>in</strong>crease as fast as the average man <strong>can</strong> prepare and ac<strong>com</strong>modatehis farm to the special purpose, and furnish suitable hous<strong>in</strong>g, yards, etc. Possibly,if the farm be not suitable for any other k<strong>in</strong>d of farm<strong>in</strong>g, that is, very roughand hilly, he may beg<strong>in</strong> with a larger flock, but even under such conditions, hehad better go slowly until he has had a year or two of experience. In any case,to have success with sheep rais<strong>in</strong>g, as with any other bus<strong>in</strong>ess, a man's closeobservation and <strong>in</strong>dividuality will play a very large part as well as a free useof good judgment.TYPES OF MUTTON SHEEPType <strong>in</strong> mutton lamb and profit <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>dustry are closely associated andthese are greatly <strong>in</strong>fluenced by the character of the breed<strong>in</strong>g of the flock. Thestandard of type or quality is the fitness of the animal for the purpose for whichit was raised. Unless the sheep yields a plump carcass of palatable and nourish<strong>in</strong>gmutton and a fleece of wool suitable for the manufacture of high-class fabricsit is a failure and not worthy of the shepherd's care. Unless it <strong>can</strong> do <strong>this</strong>economically, or sufficiently so as to leave a profit to its feeder, it lacks someth<strong>in</strong>gthat its owner should endeavour to supply <strong>in</strong> the succeed<strong>in</strong>g crop of lambs.Fortunately the better the breed<strong>in</strong>g, or the more improved blood a sheepconta<strong>in</strong>s, the better carcass it yields and the more economically it is reared andf<strong>in</strong>ished for the market. Improvement of breeds has been <strong>in</strong> the direction ofdevelopment of the parts of most value on the block together with <strong>in</strong>crease ofcarcass to live weight and the hasten<strong>in</strong>g of maturity. The pure-bred sheep, orthe animal that possesses the characteristics of the pure-bred, and these arenever found <strong>in</strong> the <strong>com</strong>mon unimproved specimen, is the cheapest to raise, earliestto mature, and sells for the highest price per pound. The advanced muttonraisers recognize <strong>this</strong> and <strong>in</strong>variably use the pure-bred sire, know<strong>in</strong>g it is theprofitable course even though the ram cost two or more times as much as evena good grade could be bought for. He knows the improvement he will make isassured and <strong>in</strong> large measure permanent even to all the generations that follow.With every succeed<strong>in</strong>g improved cross uniform excellence is more firmly establisheduntil the flock ceases to give <strong>in</strong>ferior, unprofitable stock. Each ewe isa good mutton sheep and when mated with strong, pure-bred male, barr<strong>in</strong>gaccident, ill-health and bad treatment, she yields a lamb of assured excellence.The type has be<strong>com</strong>e fixed and she <strong>can</strong>not do otherwise.
4GHow many sheep raisers fail utterly to appreciate <strong>this</strong> simple, self-evidenttruth, and how dearly they pay for their backwardness. In every prov<strong>in</strong>ce thegrade, and <strong>in</strong> many cases the scrub sire is still <strong>in</strong> use. In like proportion are<strong>in</strong>ferior lambs be<strong>in</strong>g raised. To learn the causes of the differences <strong>in</strong> the qualityof lambs from different sections the writer visited districts noted for poor, fairFig. 30— Group of Scrub Ewes.Fig.31.—Scrub Ram.and good lambs. Directed by extensive sheep dealers familiar with the severalsources of supply, camera <strong>in</strong> hand, journeys were taken and farms visited.Unfortunately the wildness of some of the most <strong>in</strong>ferior specimens made photograph<strong>in</strong>gdifficult and representatives of a number of run-out flocks seen <strong>can</strong>notbe published. Enough are shown, however, together with the figures represent<strong>in</strong>gthe weights of shipments to teach the important lessons.
District No. 1, represent<strong>in</strong>g wide areas <strong>in</strong> each of several prov<strong>in</strong>ces, turnsout a class of lambs of unspeakably poor quality. The weight run <strong>in</strong> Octoberand November from 50 to 75 pounds, with' an average of little more than 60pounds. They are not only light, but poor, unprofitable specimens, alike to theraiser and the butcher that sells them to the householders. Their legs are long,thighs th<strong>in</strong> and backs bare, present<strong>in</strong>g little for the cook to do much with. Inthe shambles they dress out very light carcasses—not over 45 per cent of theirlive weight. For <strong>this</strong> reason the dockage by the drover is heavy, which leavesthe grower a very small return for his lamb crop, so small <strong>in</strong>deed that he doubtswhether or not sheep rais<strong>in</strong>g is a profitable <strong>in</strong>dustry.The camera reveals some of the secrets of the <strong>in</strong>ferior stock. Such a th<strong>in</strong>gas a pure-bred sire is unknown <strong>in</strong> <strong>this</strong> district, and it is difficult to f<strong>in</strong>d even apassable grade at the head of the flock. As a rule the most upstand<strong>in</strong>g, lustylamb of his or his neighbour's unimproved flock is brought <strong>in</strong>to requisition yearafter year, with the sure result of a run-out, degenerated race. It is <strong>in</strong> thesesections that the black lamb is most <strong>com</strong>mon, and he is almost <strong>in</strong>variably a lightFig. 32.—Group of Scrub Lambs.weigher w<strong>here</strong>ver found.Figs. 30 and 31 show a ram and group of ewes typicalof the stock <strong>in</strong> district No. 1, while Fig. 32 truly represents the lambs from these.Bad breed<strong>in</strong>g is not entirely to blame for the <strong>in</strong>ferior lambs produced. Theflocks are little valued and are fed and housed accord<strong>in</strong>gly. In the w<strong>in</strong>ter theyreceive little more than straw, and no matter how bare the pasture be<strong>com</strong>es <strong>in</strong>summer no extra food is given. Ticks hold full sway, and the divisions of thesexes is not thought of until the lambs are shipped out to market. It may benoted that the average clip <strong>in</strong> many unimproved flocks is not higher than from4 to 5 pounds per head.From district No. 2 lambs runn<strong>in</strong>g from 60 to 80 pounds are produced.Here the value of improved blood and better methods of feed<strong>in</strong>g are beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>gto be recognized. The <strong>com</strong>mon ram is giv<strong>in</strong>g place to the grade, and occasionallya low-priced pure-bred is brought <strong>in</strong>. With <strong>this</strong> forward step better feed<strong>in</strong>gand care are naturally exercised, with improv<strong>in</strong>g stock as a consequence.Grade sires are be<strong>in</strong>g used <strong>in</strong> <strong>this</strong> district, which is slowly but surely emerg<strong>in</strong>gfrom primitive methods. Here we f<strong>in</strong>d an occasional man grow<strong>in</strong>g roots andclover hay for w<strong>in</strong>ter feed<strong>in</strong>g, while some attention is be<strong>in</strong>g given to castrationand the general welfare of the stock, with the result that the majority of thelambs surpass the weight limit that entitles them to the top market price. Theflocks shear from 6 to 8 pounds per head, and on the whole the sheep <strong>in</strong>dustryis<strong>in</strong> a prosperous condition.
48Fig. 33.—Group of Grade Ewes.34.—Group of Grade Lambs.35.—Leicester Ram at Head of Grade Flock." 36.—Oxford Ram at Head of Grade Flock.
49District No. 3 produces a very good class of lambs, many of which f<strong>in</strong>d theirway to the most discrim<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g markets. They are well fleshed; many of themwethers, which <strong>com</strong>mand the best price <strong>in</strong> any market. They weigh from 80 to100 pounds each <strong>in</strong> October and November, and dress out from 47 to 53 percent of carcass The owners <strong>here</strong> have long s<strong>in</strong>ce given up the use of grade sires,and many are not afraid of a fairly stiff price for a good ram. While siresof most of the mutton breeds, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the Shropshire, Southdown, Oxford andLeicester, may be found <strong>in</strong> perhaps only slightly vary<strong>in</strong>g proportion, the photographsof only two breeds, Leicester and Oxford, were secured. Figs. 35 and 36represent rams <strong>in</strong> service <strong>in</strong> grade flocks. Fig. 33 shows a group of grade ewes,while Fig. 34 represents lambs produced by such parentage. In these flockslambs grad<strong>in</strong>g as culls are never found; <strong>in</strong> fact practically one hundred per centof the lambs are of good quality, <strong>com</strong>mand<strong>in</strong>g not <strong>in</strong>frequently a price slightly<strong>in</strong> advance of the highest published quotations. Even on a glutted market thesewell bred lambs will sell, as buyers are constantly on the outlook for choice stock.Many of the grade flocks show the result of chang<strong>in</strong>g from long wool toDown sires. Broad-backed, massive dams, some with brown, others withspeckled or grey faces, are the pride of their owners on many good farms. Theyshear from 8 to 10 and occasionally 12 pounds of good wool, and when theirusefulness <strong>in</strong> the flock is past they quickly fatten up and sell for a good price.The highest quality of carcass is produced by these ideal mutton sheep. It givesa thick cut of muscle or lean meat, and has sufficient fat to suit the fastidiouspalate.Districts Nos. 1, 2 and 3 are not circumscribed by def<strong>in</strong>ite geographicalboundaries. The first, as may be <strong>in</strong>ferred, represents the thoroughly backwardlocalities, w<strong>here</strong> the soil is <strong>in</strong>ferior, farmers poor and lack<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> enterprise. Thesecond occupies a wide and scattered territory, even reach<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to good agriculturalsections w<strong>here</strong>, unfortunately, second-rate farmers are too often found.As a rule district No. 2 occupies what may be termed the " back townships "of moderately progressive counties. In <strong>this</strong> district ow<strong>in</strong>g to peculiarly favourableconditions for sheep husbandry many good lambs are raised, but the highpercentage of culls renders the average of quality <strong>com</strong>paratively low.MUTTON PRODUCTION IN GREAT BRITAINIn Canada the rais<strong>in</strong>g of mutton has not received the attention that hasbeen accorded to the production of beef, pork or dairy products. In GreatBrita<strong>in</strong>, and to a considerable extent <strong>in</strong> the United States, <strong>com</strong>mercial muttonrais<strong>in</strong>g constitutes an important branch of agriculture. In Canada it is conf<strong>in</strong>edchiefly to a limited branch of mixed farm<strong>in</strong>g, "and as such receives <strong>com</strong>parativelylittle attention.Now<strong>here</strong> is better mutton produced than <strong>in</strong> Great Brita<strong>in</strong>, and no branchof the live stock <strong>in</strong>dustry <strong>in</strong> the " Old Land " is more profitable than sheep rais<strong>in</strong>g.T<strong>here</strong> it is conducted as a highly specialized <strong>in</strong>dustry for the purpose ofga<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g a livelihood after pay<strong>in</strong>g high rents and other heavy expenses.Both <strong>in</strong> England and Scotland the flocksof breed<strong>in</strong>g ewes run high up <strong>in</strong>tothe hundreds, and each is <strong>in</strong> charge of an <strong>in</strong>telligent shepherd tra<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> many<strong>in</strong>stances from his boyhood <strong>in</strong> the management of sheep for profit. In manycases one or more under-shepherds are engaged and these men devote theirwhole time to the tend<strong>in</strong>g of the sheep. It is realized that what is worth do<strong>in</strong>gshould be well done, and with <strong>this</strong> idea only the profitable members of the flocksare ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed and these are made to yield their best returns. The crop rotationfollowed is dictated by the needs of the sheep and when food is purchaseddue consideration is given to secur<strong>in</strong>g only the sorts that best suit the purposefor which they are fed. So long has the sheep <strong>in</strong>dustry been established <strong>in</strong>35001—4
50Brita<strong>in</strong> upon an extensive <strong>com</strong>mercial basis that the general system of feed<strong>in</strong>gand breed<strong>in</strong>g varies <strong>com</strong>paratively little and then only as the conditions ofthe land and environment demand. Everyw<strong>here</strong> the succulent root is extensivelygrown, and w<strong>here</strong>ver sheep are reared specially sown pasture grassesare to be found. It is also a rule of the mutton maker to feed " cake " to thefatten<strong>in</strong>g stock, though its purchase demands a heavy expenditure of money.It has been learned that a thrifty condition of the system is of first importanceand after that nourish<strong>in</strong>g food. The outdoor life of the stock, together withsucculent root and pasture rations guarantee the health of the sheep, while thegenerous use of the highly nutritious <strong>com</strong>pressed l<strong>in</strong>seed or cottonseed mealgiven with other concentrated food is turned to good account <strong>in</strong> the systems ofthe animals.While more or less uniformity characterizes the methods of old countryshepherds most flocks have a character of their own. The breeder carries histype of sheep about with him <strong>in</strong> his m<strong>in</strong>d's eye and it is the impress on them<strong>in</strong>d of the breeder reduced to palpable form that guides his selection of breed<strong>in</strong>gstock. Defects from a breed<strong>in</strong>g or market<strong>in</strong>g standpo<strong>in</strong>t are quickly noticed,and such rams as are strong w<strong>here</strong> the ewes are weak are <strong>in</strong>variably selectedfor the <strong>com</strong><strong>in</strong>g generation. A successful shepherd will not forgive pronouncedweak po<strong>in</strong>ts, as he sees them, and hence his flock will strongly reflect his fancy.The old established flocks do not vary much <strong>in</strong> their make-up from yearto year. The same farm visited at the same season <strong>in</strong> different years willpresent about the same appearance so far as the flock is concerned. Ewes thatreach a certa<strong>in</strong> age are put <strong>in</strong>to market condition and disposed of and carefullyselected ewe lambs are called <strong>in</strong> to fill the breach. Haphazard methods f<strong>in</strong>d noplace on the British sheep farm and def<strong>in</strong>ite uniform results are consequentlylooked for and <strong>in</strong> large measure realized.Sheep rais<strong>in</strong>g undoubtedly f<strong>in</strong>ds its highest development on the farms w<strong>here</strong>pure-bred flocks are reared. Most, if not all of these, are <strong>com</strong>mercial flocks,that is to say, large numbers of sheep are annually fatted and sold to the butchertrade. Only the choice representatives carry<strong>in</strong>g a maximum of breed type andexcellence are ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed and perpetuated as pedigreed stock.The pure-bred flocks of England run from two or three hundred up to onethousand head or more of ewes. This number <strong>in</strong> addition to quite an extensivestock of cattle and horses is ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed on farms of 450 to 500 acres. Thesystem of herd<strong>in</strong>g very <strong>com</strong>monly adopted, makes it possible to carry <strong>this</strong>heavy stock. Such crops as rye grass, orchard grass, red clover and sa<strong>in</strong>fo<strong>in</strong>produce luxuriantly on the rich soil made so by years of <strong>in</strong>tense sheep culture.Rape, roots, cabbage and the like are also grown for the sheep, and unless atsuch seasons of the year as rapid ga<strong>in</strong>s or development are desired the variousbranches of the flock are <strong>in</strong>closed with<strong>in</strong> the hurdles, receiv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> addition tothe generous forage a bite of oilcake or other strong ration- Dur<strong>in</strong>g the earlysummer and aga<strong>in</strong> after the lambs are weaned the matrons and perhaps theyoung ewes usually have their liberty on pasture but even <strong>here</strong> much travelis not necessary to secure a belly-full. Feed seems abundant everyw<strong>here</strong> andit is kept so by frequent changes of run and judicious management <strong>in</strong> otherways.After the lambs are weaned they are constantly conf<strong>in</strong>ed to the hurdles,w<strong>in</strong>ter vetches, tall oat grass and clovers almost hid<strong>in</strong>g the youngsters <strong>in</strong> theirlot from that time onward. In addition they receive once or twice daily anallowance of crushed oats and oilcake. The hurdles are moved each day,leav<strong>in</strong>g beh<strong>in</strong>d closed cropped ground and tak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> an abundance to eat. Onmany farms the ewes that are pastur<strong>in</strong>g on grass are given access to the plotsgone over b> the lambs eagerly pick<strong>in</strong>g off the stems which they relish by wayof change. Their constant chang<strong>in</strong>g has much to do with the thrift so much
,.. i51<strong>in</strong> evidence <strong>in</strong> the average British flock. By tak<strong>in</strong>g advantage of <strong>this</strong> noth<strong>in</strong>g islost and the ground is aga<strong>in</strong> given opportunity to reclothe itself, to be aga<strong>in</strong> goneover <strong>in</strong> the course of a few weeks. To <strong>this</strong> end successions of crops are sownw<strong>here</strong>ver opportunity offers. Mangels and turnips frequently follow a pasturecrop and these <strong>com</strong>e on to be fed off either w<strong>here</strong> they stand <strong>in</strong> the field or aredoled out day by day <strong>in</strong> troughs dur<strong>in</strong>g the w<strong>in</strong>ter and spr<strong>in</strong>g and even well<strong>in</strong>to the summer follow<strong>in</strong>g. Mangels seem to be almost perpetually on handon the English sheep farm. They are fed on pasture as well as on dry feedand are highly valued for the variation <strong>in</strong> the diet and their beneficial <strong>in</strong>fluenceupon the digestive organization.A^^ —'''1 kmf^Blm m2 m ;i'
52Mutton Mak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>ScotlandCommercial mutton rais<strong>in</strong>g isa highly developed <strong>in</strong>dustry <strong>in</strong> parts of Scotland.Some sheep farms carry only what is known as a "fly<strong>in</strong>g stock"—that isto say the sheep whether bred on the place or bought <strong>in</strong> are kept upon the farmfor only one year or less. On other farms stocks of ewes of regular ages arema<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed. W<strong>here</strong> the former practice is <strong>in</strong> vogue, ewes that have raised threecrops of lambs are bought <strong>in</strong> September, and with their lambs are sold fatthe next spr<strong>in</strong>g or early summer. By many, half-bred (Leicester-Cheviot orLeicester-Blackfaced) ewes are preferred, but Oxford Downs and Suffolks arealso purchased to turn off. Pure-bred Leicester and Oxford rams are generallyemployed on these ewes. And the autumn lambs also are bought <strong>in</strong> to consumewhat turnips and grass t<strong>here</strong> may be available and to be marketed when fat <strong>in</strong>the w<strong>in</strong>ter or spr<strong>in</strong>g. The practice described is especially adaptable to richland on which a short crop rotation is the rule. Here the grass land lies onlyone year, or two at most.On higher ly<strong>in</strong>g or poorer farms which ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> a considerable area of oldgrass pasture, flocks are ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed throughout the year and from year to year.As a rule the ewes are half-breeds of the same crosses as already mentioned.These are mated with pure-bred Leicester or pure-bred Oxford rams, or <strong>in</strong> somecases Hampshires, Suffolks or Shropshires. It is the practice of many to dividethe flock <strong>in</strong>to two divisions about equal <strong>in</strong> number. On the old pasture thehalf consists of one-third brought-<strong>in</strong> shearl<strong>in</strong>gs to have their first crop of lambs,one-third two-year olds and one-third a year older to have their third crop oflambs. The progeny of <strong>this</strong> half of the sheep stock is mostly kept on for feed<strong>in</strong>gfor the market on turnips.The second half of the ewe stock is made up of first, three-crop ewes thathave been transferred from the first to the second half of the stock, <strong>in</strong> whichthey form about one-third of the necessary number; and second, double <strong>this</strong>proportion of ewes of the same age bought <strong>in</strong> from farmers who dispose of theirewes after their third crop of lambs. The old ewes are bred early <strong>in</strong> the fallso as to have their fourth crop of lambs ready for the fat market, to which bothewes and lambs are sent.The feed grown upon the farm consists of grass and turnips. Great care isexercised <strong>in</strong> seed<strong>in</strong>g to grass. For a s<strong>in</strong>gle season's pasture a mixture <strong>com</strong>posedof 12 pounds Italian rye grass, 14 pounds timothy, and 10 pounds of red cloveris sown per acre. When seed<strong>in</strong>g for a longer period a favourite mixture is 12pounds of Italian rye grass, 6 pounds perennial rye grass, 14 pounds timothy, 4pounds red clover, 4 pounds alsike, 3 pounds white and 2 pounds trefoil oryellow clover. This seems a heavy seed<strong>in</strong>g, but the Scottish farmer f<strong>in</strong>ds sucha seed<strong>in</strong>g pays <strong>in</strong> mutton. It enables a heavy stock to be carried on the landand the variety provided ensures rapid ga<strong>in</strong>s of the sheep and lambs.The turnip crop is of great importance. For the fall months the whitevariety known as Greystone is used. When <strong>this</strong> is eaten off a later sort of greentop white <strong>com</strong>es <strong>in</strong>to use, and by the new year the swedes may be turned uponor fed by hand. To use swedes early is found to be <strong>in</strong>jurious to the lambs,prov<strong>in</strong>g even fatal at times.FlocksRenewed Each SeasonIn seasons of good grass about two ewes per acre are purchased <strong>in</strong> September.These are kept upon grass until bred. A supply of turnips is hauled to the fieldfor a short time before the mat<strong>in</strong>g season, which <strong>com</strong>mences about the middleof September, to build them up. It is believed that ewes produce more tw<strong>in</strong>swhen thriv<strong>in</strong>g well at mat<strong>in</strong>g time. From 40 to 50 ewes are allowed to eachram.
53After the mat<strong>in</strong>g time as the w<strong>in</strong>ter advances hand-feed<strong>in</strong>g is necessary.Turnips are supplied <strong>in</strong> moderate quantity, about 700 pounds be<strong>in</strong>g given to100 ewes. They also receive cotton-cake up to a pound each. Near lamb<strong>in</strong>gtime about a quarter of a pound per head of a mixture of bran and oats isgiven. In frosty weather the supply of turnips is reduced and hay is liberallyfed.As lamb<strong>in</strong>g time approaches the most forward ewes are drawn out to beenclosed <strong>in</strong> small groups to avoid crowd<strong>in</strong>g, and as these are able to leave forthe open field others are brought <strong>in</strong> to take their place.When the lambs are able to look after themselves they are turned withtheir mothers <strong>in</strong>to pastures, w<strong>here</strong> hurdles laced with straw are erected forshelter. The most forward lambs are selected for the earliest and best younggrass pasture <strong>in</strong> order to be rushed along to catch the high prices early <strong>in</strong> theseason. All are brought along as rapidly as possible and disposed of as theyareready.The treatment of store lambs bought <strong>in</strong> is <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g. The sales of these<strong>com</strong>mence about the end of July and cont<strong>in</strong>ue <strong>in</strong>to the autumn. Care is t.^kennot to over-stock, as rapid ga<strong>in</strong>s are desired. These are placed <strong>in</strong> good pasture,and gra<strong>in</strong> feed<strong>in</strong>g is <strong>com</strong>menced. Oats, bran and cotton-cake or oilcake arefed <strong>in</strong> very moderate quantities at first and gradually <strong>in</strong>creased at the discretionof the shepherd. Large flocks together are avoided, the numbers not exceed<strong>in</strong>gone hundred head. The lots are made up accord<strong>in</strong>g to size and condition, anddisposed of one lot after another as they be<strong>com</strong>e fitfor market without disturb<strong>in</strong>gtheothers.The space given each lot depends upon the length of the field to be fedoff and the number of lots; the breadth of each division is usually about fiftyyards—the length of hurdle nets employed. In the district referred to wire netsare used for the side divisions and str<strong>in</strong>g nets <strong>in</strong> front, w<strong>here</strong>as <strong>in</strong> many partsof England wooden hurdles woven from wands are used.The amount of attention devoted to the fatten<strong>in</strong>g lambs would astonishmany Canadian sheep raisers. Every <strong>in</strong>ducement is given the sheep to consumeas many turnips as possible, as rapid ga<strong>in</strong>s are desired <strong>in</strong> order to get the stockoff to market with the least possible delay. Baskets are filled <strong>in</strong> the even<strong>in</strong>gto be ready for early feed<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the morn<strong>in</strong>g. As early <strong>in</strong> the morn<strong>in</strong>g as lightwill allow, the shepherd feeds <strong>in</strong> separate boxes as much cotton-cake as will beeaten up clean <strong>in</strong> an hour. At the same time the turnips prepared the previouseven<strong>in</strong>g are fed <strong>in</strong> the proper troughs. Only a few are given the first round <strong>in</strong>order to get all the lots busy at the troughs. The feeder then <strong>com</strong>es back tothe first lot and leaves as many cut turnips as will cover the bottom of thetroughs two or three <strong>in</strong>ches deep, and cont<strong>in</strong>ues to serve all the lots <strong>in</strong> the samemanner aga<strong>in</strong> and aga<strong>in</strong> dur<strong>in</strong>g the whole day. By <strong>this</strong> system of frequentlysupply<strong>in</strong>g freshly cut roots, the sheep are <strong>in</strong>duced to partake of more food. Atthree o'clock <strong>in</strong> the afternoon a supply of cotton-cake is given as <strong>in</strong> the earlymorn<strong>in</strong>g and <strong>in</strong> the even<strong>in</strong>g the turnip troughs are filled for the night. A rackof hay is placed <strong>in</strong> each <strong>in</strong>closure and is replenished every afternoon. This dailyrout<strong>in</strong>e is cont<strong>in</strong>ued until the sheep are sent fat to the market.
54FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS INCANADAA large percentage of sheep and lambs produced <strong>in</strong> Canada are still soldfrom the farms right off pasture with no special preparation <strong>in</strong> the way offatten<strong>in</strong>g. Fortunately Canadian pastures are such that fully eighty per centof our domestic lambs are considered suitable for the market. The rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>gfifteen to twenty per cent would be improved greatly by six weeks to two monthsfeed<strong>in</strong>g. In Western Canada it is <strong>com</strong>mon practice to run iambs on the gra<strong>in</strong>fields and <strong>in</strong> <strong>this</strong> way a large proportion of western lambs are placed <strong>in</strong> betterf<strong>in</strong>ish. In Eastern Canada t<strong>here</strong> is a grow<strong>in</strong>g tendency to wean the lambs earlierand put them on the aftermath of hay fields with access to gra<strong>in</strong> fields. Eachyear an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g number of those that are not ready at the freeze-up are put<strong>in</strong>to feedlots for a short f<strong>in</strong>ish<strong>in</strong>g period.From year to year the market be<strong>com</strong>es more discrim<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> regard toquality. The f<strong>in</strong>ished market lamb of to-day like the f<strong>in</strong>ished select bacon hogis not the heavy over-fat animal that was looked for years ago. Ow<strong>in</strong>g tothe steady improvement <strong>in</strong> the quality of lamb, consumers have be<strong>com</strong>e morediscrim<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> their taste. More is known about the proper weight of carcassand the quality of roasts, steaks and stews. Most markets now discrim<strong>in</strong>ateaga<strong>in</strong>st heavy lambs, buck lambs and light lambs so that more care must betaken to market lambs from eighty to one hundred pound weights that kill outmeaty plump carcasses yield<strong>in</strong>g nicely fleshed tender and juicy cuts. The truck<strong>in</strong>gof live stock to market makes it possible for farmers to market a few lambsat a time and <strong>this</strong> has ac<strong>com</strong>plished a great deal <strong>in</strong> improv<strong>in</strong>g the average weightand f<strong>in</strong>ish of market lambs.After the lambs are weaned the wethers, and others to be fattened, shouldhave access to a variety of pasture. An old grass field is very useful by wayof a change, but an additional plot of aftermath clover, lucerne or rape or a<strong>com</strong>b<strong>in</strong>ation of these will supply an excellent bill-of-fare. A feed <strong>in</strong> themorn<strong>in</strong>g of oats and bran is not lost on fatten<strong>in</strong>g lambs—it will <strong>in</strong>crease thega<strong>in</strong>s and reduce the risks of illness from an over-succulent diet. Salt shouldbe supplied regularly at <strong>this</strong> season of the year preferably <strong>in</strong> a box w<strong>here</strong> theyhave access to it at all times or salt may be supplied by plac<strong>in</strong>g a block of rocksalt <strong>in</strong> the field. Autumn is the natural season for all animals to flesh up, and everyadvantage should be taken to aid the process. With the advent of frosty nightscare must be taken not only to hold the weight made, but to cont<strong>in</strong>ue the<strong>in</strong>crease as rapidly as possible. The appetites are keen and unless flesh is be<strong>in</strong>gdeposited each and every day the food that is eaten is lost to the owner. Toguard aga<strong>in</strong>st any check it is well to furnish a morn<strong>in</strong>g feed of well saved cloveror alfalfa. The animals will relish it and beg<strong>in</strong> to thrive anew. It is the practiceof many cautious feeders, anxious to keep down the mortality to a m<strong>in</strong>imum, tobr<strong>in</strong>g up the flock to a grass plot <strong>in</strong> the even<strong>in</strong>g and have a feed of hay readyWhen they arrive, or <strong>in</strong> a separate yard to be turned <strong>in</strong>to the first th<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> themorn<strong>in</strong>g. It is not a bad practice to provide a feed of gra<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> the even<strong>in</strong>g andthe hay or both <strong>in</strong> the morn<strong>in</strong>g before turn<strong>in</strong>g out for the day. Lambs caredfor <strong>in</strong> <strong>this</strong> way will put on weight very rapidly. It is remarkable how manysheep <strong>can</strong> be fattened on a <strong>com</strong>paratively small area of land sown to the propercrops.W<strong>in</strong>ter Fatten<strong>in</strong>gThe pr<strong>in</strong>ciple of avoid<strong>in</strong>g extreme changes of diet observed by all carefulfeeders should be strictly ad<strong>here</strong>d to when the hous<strong>in</strong>g season arrives. Thedaily feeds of hay and gra<strong>in</strong>, for a few weeks before w<strong>in</strong>ter seals up the groundand renders pastur<strong>in</strong>g unprofitable, is a f<strong>in</strong>e preparation for <strong>com</strong>plete hand
55feed<strong>in</strong>g. As the rape, lucerne or whatever outside crop has been the chief dietfails, roots may be gradually substituted. The hay will have to be <strong>in</strong>creasedto all that the lambs will clean up twice or three times daily and the gra<strong>in</strong>ration may be gradually augmented as well. The chief th<strong>in</strong>g to aim at is tokeep the feeders ga<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g and thus pay<strong>in</strong>g for their diet as they go along.The selection of a gra<strong>in</strong> ration is a matter depend<strong>in</strong>g upon the market andthe crops grown at home. It is generally wise to avoid purchas<strong>in</strong>g feed if it<strong>can</strong> be satisfactorily raised on the farm. In plann<strong>in</strong>g the sow<strong>in</strong>g of the differentfields of the farm <strong>in</strong> spr<strong>in</strong>g the fatten<strong>in</strong>g lambs should be provided for asfar as is consistent with the suitability of the soil and other conditions.Oats are peculiarly suited to sheep feed<strong>in</strong>g. This gra<strong>in</strong> is nourish<strong>in</strong>g andsafe to feed. Two parts oats, one part peas and one part bran is a good rationfor sheep of any class. Corn substituted for the peas anwers well. Towardsthe end of the f<strong>in</strong>ish<strong>in</strong>g period the heavy part of the ration may be <strong>in</strong>creasedto fully three-quarters by weight. Oilcake is highly valued by many sheepfeeders. It may be substituted for the bran, when the proportion of heavygra<strong>in</strong> should accord<strong>in</strong>gly be dim<strong>in</strong>ished. From half a pound to one and onehalfpounds of gra<strong>in</strong> per head per day accord<strong>in</strong>g to the ends to be atta<strong>in</strong>ed constitutesa fatten<strong>in</strong>g ration, when the coarse fodder used is fed liberally andisof good quality.It is of the first importance that for the well-do<strong>in</strong>g of any class of livestock the animals be <strong>com</strong>fortable. Unless proper precautions are taken sheepare almost sure to be more or less <strong>in</strong>fested with ticks, and perhaps the morem<strong>in</strong>ute form of verm<strong>in</strong>—lice—a more irritat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>sect than the former. Torid sheep of these pests they should be thoroughly dipped with one or otherof the reliable <strong>com</strong>mercial preparations, which not only destroy the verm<strong>in</strong>but clean the sk<strong>in</strong>, reduc<strong>in</strong>g irritation and unrest to a m<strong>in</strong>imum.Feed to a F<strong>in</strong>ishMarket lambs should not be sold until f<strong>in</strong>ished nor should they be fed forlonger period. If a portion of the flock is beh<strong>in</strong>d the others <strong>in</strong> <strong>this</strong> respectand it is desired to ship out the entire flock at once the leaner ones should beseparated out and pushed along more rapidly. One requires some tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g tobe able to judge when a sheep is f<strong>in</strong>ished. In well-bred sheep the back is a safeguide, but <strong>in</strong>ferior ones may be bare on the back and still be fairly fat. Toexam<strong>in</strong>e a sheep for fatness the hand should be laid firmly on the back, palmdownwards, and moved from side to side. In a f<strong>in</strong>ished sheep the sp<strong>in</strong>e iswell covered, present<strong>in</strong>g a cushiony, rubbery feel. In addition the tail andbreast should be exam<strong>in</strong>ed. In a f<strong>in</strong>ished sheep the tail carries considerableplumpness, while an exam<strong>in</strong>ation of the brisket shows fullness on either side,fill<strong>in</strong>g the space between that and the leg.An over-fat sheep carries a considerabledepth of fat low down on the fore ribs and a sagg<strong>in</strong>g condition on each sideof the brisket. The market does not want extremely fat sheep. Fig. 41 showsa cross-section of a highly f<strong>in</strong>ished sheep, Fig. 39 shows a carcass much toofat for the trade, while Fig. 40 shows a condition of fatness suitable for theaverage consumer. Very many lambs are sold <strong>in</strong> a much th<strong>in</strong>ner condition.aFatten<strong>in</strong>gEwesEwes <strong>in</strong>tended for slaughter should be handled <strong>in</strong> much the same manneras lambs. Good pasture with forage crops, hay and gra<strong>in</strong> will br<strong>in</strong>g about thedesired results. With the development of the fatten<strong>in</strong>g of range lambs <strong>in</strong> feedlotst<strong>here</strong> has been a grow<strong>in</strong>g tendency to <strong>in</strong>clude <strong>in</strong> each carload of feeder
56lambs a percentage of old ewes, say up to 25 per cent <strong>in</strong> some cases. The ewesas f<strong>in</strong>ished are marketed with the lambs and <strong>in</strong> <strong>this</strong> way some very choice muttonis prepared for the market return<strong>in</strong>g a nice profit to the feeder as well as moremoney to the owner.Early Lamb ProductionAt present the bulk of the spr<strong>in</strong>g lamb crop is sold <strong>in</strong> the fall of the year.Commenc<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> October any surplus not needed for immediate consumption isput <strong>in</strong>to storage. Storage lambs supplemented with feedlot lambs provide anample supply of good quality lamb until the end of April or some time <strong>in</strong> May.The need at the moment is the production of a larger market. Early lambswhen nursed by good milk<strong>in</strong>g ewes and fed gra<strong>in</strong> will ga<strong>in</strong>, with good management,three-quarters of a pound a day. A good objective to aim for is a 90-pound lamb <strong>in</strong> 130 days.Lambs to be f<strong>in</strong>ished for sale <strong>in</strong> May, June or July must be dropped dur<strong>in</strong>gthe months of January, February and March. This means that the ewes mustbe bred <strong>in</strong> August, September or October. In the United States ewes fromwestern ranges are bought by sheep raisers <strong>in</strong> the eastern states, particularlythe states of Kentucky, Tennessee and Virg<strong>in</strong>ia. In Canada early lambs areraised ma<strong>in</strong>ly from ewes of our <strong>com</strong>mon breeds, Leicester, Hampshires andOxfords be<strong>in</strong>g the breeds most <strong>com</strong>monly used.Two months after the lamb crop of the current year has been weaned theewes may be bred aga<strong>in</strong>. It takes about 10 days to dry off the ewes dur<strong>in</strong>gwhich time they have to be left on dry s<strong>can</strong>ty pasture. A month to six weeksbefore the ram is turned with the ewes they should be fed gra<strong>in</strong> twice dailystart<strong>in</strong>g with a half pound per ewe daily and <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g to a pound to a poundand a half depend<strong>in</strong>g on the size of the ewes. Oats are the most <strong>com</strong>mon gra<strong>in</strong>available for <strong>this</strong> purpose although a mixture of equal parts oats, barley andwheat will br<strong>in</strong>g the ewes <strong>in</strong>to heat faster.^iigjMHim ,MB'fft'f'i t'ifnAfh.''MFig. 38.—A Group of F<strong>in</strong>ished Ewes.Farmers <strong>in</strong>tend<strong>in</strong>g to raise early lambs should have all ewes identified withtags and the breed<strong>in</strong>g dates should be carefully recorded for each ewe so thatprospective lamb<strong>in</strong>g dates are known.As soon as the ewes are bred they <strong>can</strong> then be run <strong>in</strong> and handled much thesame as any ewe flock until a month to six weeks before lamb<strong>in</strong>g when theyshould be fed some gra<strong>in</strong>. Ewes lamb<strong>in</strong>g early have to be lambed out <strong>in</strong> awarm part of the barn. Most early lamb raisers prefer to shear about a weekbefore lamb<strong>in</strong>g. The ewes, of course, are handled very carefully at shear<strong>in</strong>g timeand precautions are taken to make sure they do not get a chill.The production of alfalfa or clover hay and oats with other gra<strong>in</strong>s areessential for the production of early lambs. Corn silage and mangels addvariety to the ration and make it possible to provide a better balanced ration.
57Fig. 39.—Cross Section of a Carcass much too fat.Fig. 40.—Cross Section of a Carcass fat enough for the average trade.Fig. 41.—Cross Section of a highly F<strong>in</strong>ished Carcass.
58Ewes with lambs at foot should be fed for heavy milk production after the firstweek. They will eat 1^ to 2 pounds of gra<strong>in</strong> to wihich oilcake from 5 per cent to 10per cent may be added. They should also be fed liberally with silage and roots<strong>in</strong> addition to all the clover or alfalfa hay they will clean up. At 10 days to two#weeks the lambs will beg<strong>in</strong> to nibble at the gra<strong>in</strong> and they should be providedwith a creep so that they <strong>can</strong> be fed gra<strong>in</strong> separately. Rolled oats and f<strong>in</strong>elycracked corn equal parts to which is added 25 per cent bran and 10 per centoilcake makes a good grow<strong>in</strong>g gra<strong>in</strong> feed for early lambs.Fatten<strong>in</strong>gRange LambsUntil recently range lambs were carried over as yearl<strong>in</strong>gs and sold asyearl<strong>in</strong>g mutton. The production of alfalfa hay and mixed gra<strong>in</strong>s on theirrigated lands <strong>in</strong> Southern Alberta made it possible to develop an extensivelamb feed<strong>in</strong>g enterprise which has latterly been extended to Eastern Canada andembraces practically the total lamb production of the west.Feedlots <strong>in</strong> whichrange lambs are fattened carry from a m<strong>in</strong>imum of 25 to 50 head up to a carloadto several carloads. In the west, straw sheds provide ample shelter while <strong>in</strong> theeast ac<strong>com</strong>modation is provided from a part of the regular stabl<strong>in</strong>g or <strong>in</strong> oldbarns or sheds.Range lambs weigh<strong>in</strong>g 50 to 70 pounds at the range require 100 to 150 days<strong>in</strong> the feedlot. Ga<strong>in</strong>s of 20 pounds to 50 pounds are put on; the ideal weightsfor feedlot lambs be<strong>in</strong>g 90 to 100 pounds. In addition to alfalfa or clover hayand home grown gra<strong>in</strong>s some use is made of elevator screen<strong>in</strong>gs and screen<strong>in</strong>gsfrom seed clean<strong>in</strong>g plants. Corn silage and roots are used quite extensively <strong>in</strong>Eastern Canada, also beet pulp <strong>in</strong> the west.Feedlot lambs usually have the run of a yard which should, if possible,face the south and be protected from prevail<strong>in</strong>g w<strong>in</strong>ds by a tight fence or farmbuild<strong>in</strong>gs. The hay and silage is usually fed under cover and the gra<strong>in</strong> outside.The larger operators use self feeders and <strong>in</strong> a number of cases gr<strong>in</strong>d both hay andgra<strong>in</strong>, feed<strong>in</strong>g a mixture which <strong>in</strong>cludes more gra<strong>in</strong> as the fatten<strong>in</strong>g periodadvances. Lambs not ready for market before March are usually shorn; it be<strong>in</strong>gclaimed that shorn lambs make better ga<strong>in</strong>s.FROM THE BLOCK TO THE TABLEWhile mutton is one of the most healthful of meat foods produced upon thefarm, it is not as popular as beef or pork with the average Canadian family.In Brita<strong>in</strong> and other countries w<strong>here</strong> sheep of the mutton breeds are <strong>in</strong>telligentlyreared and fattened, and the meat properly prepared, <strong>this</strong> class of flesh holds itsplace with the other staple sorts that enter <strong>in</strong>to the daily consumption of thepeople. In countries w<strong>here</strong> wool production is the chief consideration of thesheep raiser, mutton is not so desirable a food, because the quality of the flesh isof low order, lack<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> desirable flavour and texture. It is only <strong>in</strong> recent yearsthat mutton jo<strong>in</strong>ts have won a place on the bills of fare of the best restaurants<strong>in</strong> the United States cities. Until the Ameri<strong>can</strong> sheep grower <strong>in</strong>troduced themutton breeds and f<strong>in</strong>ished the product of his flocks as he did his cattle and hishogs before market<strong>in</strong>g, mutton was an unpopular food <strong>in</strong> the United States.Mutton may be palatable and nourish<strong>in</strong>g or, on the other hand, a tough, woollytast<strong>in</strong>g-product,accord<strong>in</strong>g to the method of its production and preparation. Noother class of meat is so subject to improvement as mutton. In recent years thegeneral market<strong>in</strong>g of sheep before one-year old has <strong>in</strong>creased mutton consumption<strong>in</strong> Canada many fold. This is more particularly true <strong>in</strong> towns and citiesthat have the advantage of discrim<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g markets and well conducted abattoirs.Butchers that secure their stock of mutton from these sources are able to offertheir customers mutton of a quality that appeals to a ref<strong>in</strong>ed and discrim<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>gtaste.
59The development of the <strong>in</strong>dustry from the standpo<strong>in</strong>t of the consum<strong>in</strong>g trade,<strong>in</strong> so far as it <strong>com</strong>es <strong>in</strong>to contact with the <strong>in</strong>fluence of the modern abattoir andtra<strong>in</strong>ed butcher, is mak<strong>in</strong>g satisfactory progress. This is <strong>in</strong>dicated by theimprov<strong>in</strong>g prices paid for f<strong>in</strong>ished mutton. It is on the farm—the source of themutton supply—that the consumption of <strong>this</strong> nutritious, healthful product stands<strong>in</strong> need of development. No other class of animal so readily lends itself to thedemands of a rural household for a supply of fresh meat as a young sheep. Itis of the highest importance that it be <strong>in</strong> good kill<strong>in</strong>g condition and that thebutcher<strong>in</strong>g and cur<strong>in</strong>g be promptly and properly executed.The Butcher'sAnimalFirst-class meat <strong>can</strong>not be obta<strong>in</strong>ed from animals that are poor <strong>in</strong> flesh.A reasonable amount of fat must be present to give juic<strong>in</strong>ess and flavour to theflesh, and the fatter an animal is, with<strong>in</strong> reasonable limits, the better will be themeat. "Never kill an animal that is los<strong>in</strong>g flesh," is a maxim followed bybutchers, and observation po<strong>in</strong>ts a logical reason for the say<strong>in</strong>g. With an animalfail<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> flesh the muscle fibres are shr<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> volume, and conta<strong>in</strong> correspond<strong>in</strong>glyless water. As a consequence the meat is tougher and dryer. When ananimal is ga<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> flesh the opposite condition obta<strong>in</strong>s, and a better quality ofmeat is the result. Also a better product will be obta<strong>in</strong>ed from an animal <strong>in</strong> onlymedium flesh, but ga<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g rapidly, than from a very fat animal that is at astandstill or los<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> flesh.Quality <strong>in</strong> meat is largely dependent on the health and condition of theanimals slaughtered, and yet the best quality of meat is rarely, if ever, obta<strong>in</strong>edfrom poorly-bred stock. The desired " marbl<strong>in</strong>g," or admixture of fat and lean,is never of the best <strong>in</strong> scrub stock, nor does the highly fitted show animal furnishthe ideal <strong>in</strong> a carcass of meat. T<strong>here</strong> seems to be a connection between a smooth,even, and deeply fleshed animal and nicely marbled meat that is not easilyexpla<strong>in</strong>ed.Age affects the flavour and texture of the meat to quite an extent. Whileit is not possible to state the age at which an animal will be best for meat, it is awell-known fact that meat from old animals is more likely to be tough than thatfrom young ones. The flesh of very young animals frequently lacks flavour, andis watery. An old animal properly fattened and <strong>in</strong> good health be preferableto a young one <strong>in</strong> poor condition.Preparation forKill<strong>in</strong>gIt is important that sheep <strong>in</strong>tended for slaughter should be kept off feedfrom twenty-four to thirty-six hours. If kept on full feed the system is gorgedand the blood loaded with assimilated nutriments which are driven to theextremities of the capillaries. In such a condition it is impossible to thoroughlydra<strong>in</strong> out the ve<strong>in</strong>s when the animal is bled, and a reddish coloured, unattractivecarcass will be the result. Food <strong>in</strong> the stomach de<strong>com</strong>poses very rapidly afterslaughter, and when the dress<strong>in</strong>g is slow the gases generated often flavour themeat. This is frequently the source of the " woolly" flavour <strong>in</strong> mutton to whichmost people express a pronounced dislike. Water should be given freely up tothe time of slaughter, as it keeps the temperature normal and helps to wash theeffete matter out of the system, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a nicely coloured and good-flavouredcarcass.The care of animals previous to slaughter has considerable effect on thekeep<strong>in</strong>g qualities of the meat. It is highly important that they be not excited<strong>in</strong> any way sufficiently to raise the temperature of the body. Excitementprevents proper dra<strong>in</strong>age of blood vessels, and may cause sour<strong>in</strong>g of the meat
60very soon after dress<strong>in</strong>g. In no <strong>in</strong>stance should an animal be killed immediatelyafter a long drive or after a rapid run about the pasture. If heated by such causeit is far better to allow it to rest overnight before kill<strong>in</strong>g than to risk the meatspoil<strong>in</strong>g. It is also essential that the animal be carefully handled so as not tobruise the body. Bruises cause blood to settle <strong>in</strong> that portion of the bodyaffected, present<strong>in</strong>g an un<strong>in</strong>vit<strong>in</strong>g appearance, and often caus<strong>in</strong>g the loss of aconsiderable portion of the carcass. A thirty-six hour fast, plenty of water,careful handl<strong>in</strong>g, and rest before slaughter<strong>in</strong>g are all important <strong>in</strong> secur<strong>in</strong>g meat<strong>in</strong> the best condition for use, either fresh or for cur<strong>in</strong>g purposes.Only simply butcher<strong>in</strong>g appliances are necessary. A proper stick<strong>in</strong>g knife,a sk<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g knife, a small hoist<strong>in</strong>g pulley, a supply of skewers and a small numberof home-made brackets and gambrel sticks <strong>com</strong>plete the outfit for farm sheepkill<strong>in</strong>g.Avoid<strong>in</strong>g theWoolly FlavourAs already <strong>in</strong>dicated, much of the sheepy flavour of mutton <strong>com</strong>es from thegeneration of gases <strong>in</strong> the stomach after the sheep is killed. For <strong>this</strong> reason, <strong>in</strong>addition to proper fast<strong>in</strong>g, it should be dressed as rapidly as possible. A platform6 or 8 <strong>in</strong>ches high is convenient to work on, and aids <strong>in</strong> keep<strong>in</strong>g the carcassclean. A clean, dry place is necessary for neat work. Water or blood on thewool makes it very difficult to dress the animal nicely.If the sheep is an old one, it may be stunned before bleed<strong>in</strong>g. If a youngone, the same purpose is served by dislocat<strong>in</strong>g the neck after cutt<strong>in</strong>g the throat.This is ac<strong>com</strong>plished by putt<strong>in</strong>g one hand on the top of the head and the otherhand under the ch<strong>in</strong>, give a short twist upward. Lay the sheep on its side onthe platform, with its head hang<strong>in</strong>g over the end. Grasp the ch<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> the lefthand and stick a knife through the neck just back of the jaw. The cutt<strong>in</strong>g edgeof the knife should be turned toward the sp<strong>in</strong>al column and the fleshbone. In <strong>this</strong> way it is possible to avoid cutt<strong>in</strong>g the w<strong>in</strong>dpipe.cut to theSk<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g and Dress<strong>in</strong>gIn sk<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g, split the sk<strong>in</strong> up the back of the front legs from the dew-clawsto a little above the knees. Open the sk<strong>in</strong> over the w<strong>in</strong>dpipe from brisket to ch<strong>in</strong>,start<strong>in</strong>g it slightly on the sides of the neck. Split the sk<strong>in</strong> over the back of theh<strong>in</strong>d legs to the middle l<strong>in</strong>e and sk<strong>in</strong> the buttock. The sk<strong>in</strong> should also be raisedover the cod and flanks. Sk<strong>in</strong> around the hocks and down to the hoofs, cutt<strong>in</strong>goff the h<strong>in</strong>d feet at the fetlock jo<strong>in</strong>ts. Run the knife between the cords andbone on the back of the sh<strong>in</strong>s, and tie the legs together just above the hockuntil after the carcass is hung up. Hang the sheep up by the h<strong>in</strong>d legs and splitthe sk<strong>in</strong> along the under middle l<strong>in</strong>e. Start at the brisket to " fist off " the sk<strong>in</strong>.This is done by grasp<strong>in</strong>g the edge of the pelt firmly <strong>in</strong> one hand, pull<strong>in</strong>g it uptightly and work<strong>in</strong>g the other with fist closed between the pelt and the body.The " fist<strong>in</strong>g off " should be downward over the fore-quarters and upward andbackward over the h<strong>in</strong>d-quarters and legs. It is unwise to pull down on thesk<strong>in</strong> over the h<strong>in</strong>d legs, as the membrane cover<strong>in</strong>g the flesh is sure to be rupturedand an unsightly appearance given to the carcass. The wool should always beheld away from the flesh for the sake of cleanl<strong>in</strong>ess. The sk<strong>in</strong> on the legs shouldbe pulled away from the body rather than towards it, <strong>in</strong> order to preserve thecover<strong>in</strong>g of the meat. When the pelt has been loosened over the sides andback it should be stripped down over the neck and cut off close to the ears. Thehead may then be removed without be<strong>in</strong>g sk<strong>in</strong>ned by cutt<strong>in</strong>g through the neckjo<strong>in</strong>t.Beg<strong>in</strong> remov<strong>in</strong>g the entrails by cutt<strong>in</strong>g around the rectum and allow<strong>in</strong>g itto drop down <strong>in</strong>side. Do not split the pelvis. Open down the belly l<strong>in</strong>e from
61the cod to the breast bone and take out the paunch and <strong>in</strong>test<strong>in</strong>es, leav<strong>in</strong>g theliver attached to the carcass. If the mutton is for home use split the breastbone and remove the heart, lungs and diaphragm together. Reach up <strong>in</strong>to thepelvis and pull out the bladder. Wipe all blood and dirt from the carcass witha coarse cloth wrung nearly dry from hot water. Double up the front legs andslip the little cord, found by cutt<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to the fleshy part of the forearm, over theankle jo<strong>in</strong>ts.Cool<strong>in</strong>g and Cutt<strong>in</strong>gLamb benefits to such an extent by be<strong>in</strong>g cooled <strong>in</strong> a refrigerator that whenat all possible it should be placed <strong>in</strong> an ice cooled chamber for at least 24 hoursbefore cutt<strong>in</strong>g. W<strong>here</strong> a considerable number of carcasses are slaughteredlocally from time to time, cold storage facilities should be taken advantage of ifat all possible. Lamb may be kept <strong>in</strong> a temperature of 40° for two weeks, butis good to eat as* soon as the carcass is thoroughly cool. When lamb has to beheld longer than two weeks itshould be frozen.To do neat work <strong>in</strong> cutt<strong>in</strong>g up meat one should have a short curved knife(a sk<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g knife is as good as any), a meat saw, and an 8-<strong>in</strong>ch cleaver. An axemay take the place of the cleaver, but is not nearly so useful. If a cross sectionof a large log <strong>can</strong> be had it will answer for a block. A table, however, <strong>can</strong> beused <strong>in</strong> most cases.In cutt<strong>in</strong>g one should always cut across the gra<strong>in</strong> of the meat.Follow<strong>in</strong>g<strong>this</strong> pr<strong>in</strong>ciple will result <strong>in</strong> uniform pieces and the jo<strong>in</strong>ts will be more easilycarved after cook<strong>in</strong>g. Cut to the bone with the knife, and use a saw ratherthan an axe for cutt<strong>in</strong>g the bone.Keep<strong>in</strong>g the MeatMutton used while fresh is more nutritious and palatable than whensalted or cured. It is t<strong>here</strong>fore desirable to use as much of it uncured aspossible. It is very difficult to keep mutton fresh dur<strong>in</strong>g the summer monthswithout the use of ice, and even then not more than a carcass <strong>can</strong> be handledW<strong>here</strong> an ice room or family refrigerator <strong>can</strong>at one time on the ord<strong>in</strong>ary farm.be kept at a temperature of 40 deg. with good ventilation and circulation of air,fresh mutton <strong>can</strong> be kept for two weeks. It is very important that the circulationbe free and the air dry. Moisture <strong>in</strong> a refrigerator tends to develop wetmould or slime, and a little decay soon contam<strong>in</strong>ates the whole piece.W<strong>here</strong> an ice house is filled each year a small portion of it may be partitionedas a cold-storage room. With the ice properly packed on three sides ofit, and with good dra<strong>in</strong>age, <strong>this</strong> makes a very satisfactory place for keep<strong>in</strong>g meat,and it may be used for stor<strong>in</strong>g butter and other perishable products.Corn<strong>in</strong>g MuttonMutton may be successfully corned by a number of methods. Mutton maybe kept sweet several weeks by simply rubb<strong>in</strong>g well with dry salt and closelycover<strong>in</strong>g. The pieces should be turned whenever the vessel is uncovered. Follow<strong>in</strong>gare three reliable recipes for corn<strong>in</strong>g mutton by the use of pickle:1. Make a br<strong>in</strong>e strong enough with salt to carry a potato about half out.To half a barrel of br<strong>in</strong>e add one-half pound of saltpetre. Mutton left <strong>in</strong> <strong>this</strong>br<strong>in</strong>e ten to twelve days will be <strong>com</strong>pletely cured. When cured it may be kept<strong>in</strong> a clean new weak br<strong>in</strong>e.
622. To every 4 gallons of water allow 2 pounds of brown sugar and 6 poundssalt; boil about twenty m<strong>in</strong>utes, tak<strong>in</strong>g off the scum; the next day pour it on themeat packed <strong>in</strong> the pickl<strong>in</strong>g tub; pour off the br<strong>in</strong>e, boil and skim every twomonths, add<strong>in</strong>g 3 ounces brown <strong>can</strong>e sugar and J pound <strong>com</strong>mon salt. Spr<strong>in</strong>klethe meat with salt before turn<strong>in</strong>g the pickle over it. Let it entirely cover themeat; add 4 ounces saltpetre.3. Prepare a br<strong>in</strong>e by add<strong>in</strong>g to each gallon of cold water one quart of rocksalt, one ounce saltpetre and four ounces brown sugar. As long as the saltrema<strong>in</strong>s undissolved the meat will be sweet. If scum rises, scald the liquid andskim well, add<strong>in</strong>g more salt, saltpetre and sugar. Each piece of mutton shouldbe well rubbed with salt before be<strong>in</strong>g placed <strong>in</strong> the br<strong>in</strong>e. If the weather is hotthe meat should be gashed to the bone and salt rubbed <strong>in</strong>. The meat should bekept immersed <strong>in</strong> the pickle by means of a weight. A <strong>can</strong>vas lid kept on thevessel is <strong>com</strong>mendable, as it admits air and excludes flies.SpicedMutton HamsMutton hams are easily cured. As mutton takes salt very readily caremust be taken not to get the hams over-salt. Select the leg of mutton, and cutoff the leg at the hock. Some prefer to remove the entire bone. The cur<strong>in</strong>gtreatment is as follows:Spr<strong>in</strong>kle and rub <strong>in</strong> a teaspoonful of saltpetre; rub on two teaspoonfuls equalparts ground allspice and cloves; then rub on brown sugar, about a teacup, thenapply salt. Turn and rub with application every second day for three or fourweeks. Meat thus cured is delicious boiled or sliced and fried.HANDLING SHEEPIt is remarkable how few sheep raisers understand how to properly catchThe old shepherd's crook, so humane and useful <strong>in</strong> theno longer to be seen on more than a very few Canadianand handle their stock.years that are past, issheep farms. In many British flocks the crook still has its place, and with <strong>this</strong>and the <strong>in</strong>telligent dog the sheep are driven, caught and handled with <strong>com</strong>fortand facility for both man and beast.To the sheep man it is pa<strong>in</strong>ful to witness the rough, even brutal usageaccorded the gentle, timid sheep on many mutton-rais<strong>in</strong>g farms. Apart fromthe pure-bred flocks, which are waited upon and cared for with the same gentleconsideration as the family horse and the favourite cow, many of the sheepflocks are rushed and driven, grabbed and dragged <strong>in</strong> the most <strong>in</strong>human way.When the flock is to be divided or an <strong>in</strong>dividual separated from the others thebunch is usually rushed <strong>in</strong>to a corner and the victims, one by one, grabbed byTo many sheepthe wool and hauled struggl<strong>in</strong>g and kick<strong>in</strong>g to the po<strong>in</strong>t of exit.raisers and farm hands the wool appears to be a natural handle. If the torture<strong>in</strong>flicted by catch<strong>in</strong>g a sheep by the wool could be appreciated doubtless manywould seek a better method. The exam<strong>in</strong>ation of a carcass of a newly killedsheep that has been lifted by its wool reveals an <strong>in</strong>flamed and congested arearesembl<strong>in</strong>g the effects of a severe jam or bruise at every po<strong>in</strong>t over which thewool was pulled, due to the ruptur<strong>in</strong>g of the t<strong>in</strong>y blood vessels and creat<strong>in</strong>g asoreness that must of necessity cause a stagnation <strong>in</strong> ga<strong>in</strong> if not an actual lossof weight. Apart from <strong>this</strong>, if the animal is immediately slaughtered the carcassis <strong>in</strong>jured <strong>in</strong> a greater or less degree accord<strong>in</strong>g to the roughness accorded theanimal.The proper method of catch<strong>in</strong>g a sheep is by the h<strong>in</strong>d leg or the head. If<strong>in</strong> a close pen <strong>in</strong> which the sheep are closely crowded it is an easy matter tosecure the selected animal by the head, hold<strong>in</strong>g it fast until the others have moved
63Fig. 43.—Catch<strong>in</strong>g a Sheep." 44.—Throw<strong>in</strong>g a Sheep." 45.—Lead<strong>in</strong>g a Sheep.Fig. 46.—Catch<strong>in</strong>g a Sheep with a Shepherd's Crook.Fig. 47.—Shepherd's Crook.
64away, clear<strong>in</strong>g an avenue by which it may be taken. In a larger pen or yarda sheep should be caught by the h<strong>in</strong>d leg just above the hock or gambrel jo<strong>in</strong>t,as shown <strong>in</strong> Fig. 43. A properly made shepherd's crook is of great assistance <strong>in</strong><strong>this</strong>. The hook (Fig. 47), which usually has a handle six or more feet long, <strong>can</strong>be extended forward without approach<strong>in</strong>g the sheep sufficiently closely to causeit to plunge to make its escape. When caught by the hock jo<strong>in</strong>t it is drawn backuntil it is easily grasped by the neck. When a sheep is caught <strong>in</strong> <strong>this</strong> way thenot frightened, as is the case when one rushes <strong>in</strong> to grasp a member.flock isTo convey a sheep after it is caught the shepherd should place his left handbeneath the lower jaw. If the animal plunges it may be gently grasped by thewool on the farther cheek. The right hand should grasp the side of the tail orthe end of the stub. In <strong>this</strong> position a sheep will almost <strong>in</strong>variably walkforward at the will of the person <strong>in</strong> charge. A sheep handled <strong>in</strong> <strong>this</strong> way (Fig.45) is neither <strong>in</strong>jured nor frightened, and is conveyed <strong>in</strong> <strong>com</strong>parative <strong>com</strong>fort foritselfand the shepherd.Much cruelty is exercised <strong>in</strong> haul<strong>in</strong>g sheep from place to place. Moreespecially is <strong>this</strong> the case when be<strong>in</strong>g taken to market. Few except owners ofpure-bred flocks have on their farms a properly equipped sheep wagon. T<strong>here</strong>sult is that when sheep have to be hauled their legs are probably tied and theyare tumbled <strong>in</strong>to wagon or sleigh and jolted along to their dest<strong>in</strong>ation. Thedis<strong>com</strong>fort and bruis<strong>in</strong>g thus effected is noth<strong>in</strong>g short of severe, and quiteunnecessary cruelty.Sheep should travel on their feet even when be<strong>in</strong>g hauled. A wagon to haulsheep should have slatted sides sufficiently high to prevent their jump<strong>in</strong>g out, orboards, if necessary, may be laid on the top, form<strong>in</strong>g a cover to the wagon. Thewriter for many years used a wagon rack about 14 feet long and as wide as awagon box, the sides and ends of which were slatted and about three feet high.The end gates were fastened to the sides and the floor by rods—one at eachthe bottom and hav<strong>in</strong>g threadedcorner of the wagon— pass<strong>in</strong>g from the top tothumb nuts. The end pieces swung open form<strong>in</strong>g convenient gates for load<strong>in</strong>gand unload<strong>in</strong>g. This rack was used upon the home and many neighbour<strong>in</strong>gfarms for haul<strong>in</strong>g sheep and hogs and occasionally young cattle.To load a sheep it is not necessary to lift it by the wool. Load<strong>in</strong>g should bedone by two persons, one on each side of the animal. The left hand of one isgrasped by the right of the other beneath the chest of the sheep, preferablybetween the forelegs. The other part of hands are similarly grasped beneath theflanks. In <strong>this</strong> position the sheep is easily raised and loaded without plung<strong>in</strong>gor<strong>in</strong>jury.Dipp<strong>in</strong>gA sheep-rais<strong>in</strong>g farm that has not a properly arranged dipp<strong>in</strong>g tank orother means of treat<strong>in</strong>g the flock to fight sk<strong>in</strong> parasites is not equipped as itshould be for gett<strong>in</strong>g the most out of the <strong>in</strong>dustry. All sheep are liable to haveticks and lice and t<strong>here</strong> is also the risk of gett<strong>in</strong>g scab with every railwayjourney taken by the sheep or the <strong>in</strong>troduction of fresh stock. One or twoscab <strong>in</strong>sects may easily spread the disease over a whole flock, caus<strong>in</strong>g no endof worry, trouble and f<strong>in</strong>ancial loss. For <strong>this</strong> reason the dipp<strong>in</strong>g vat should bebrought <strong>in</strong>to requisition with every new arrival <strong>in</strong> addition to a thoroughdipp<strong>in</strong>g of the whole flock, which should be done at least twice a year. Thisis a method of prevention that is worth much more than a remedy after thetrouble has been <strong>in</strong>troduced.
65While <strong>com</strong>paratively few Canadian sheep breeders are familiar with scabt<strong>here</strong> are practically none who could not identify the tick. The louse is aless well known <strong>in</strong>sect, and be<strong>in</strong>g very <strong>in</strong>conspicuous it may cause much worryand loss of weight <strong>in</strong> the flock without be<strong>in</strong>g detected. Thorough dipp<strong>in</strong>g witha recognized <strong>in</strong>secticidal preparation is an easy and <strong>in</strong>expensive method ofdestroy<strong>in</strong>g both of these pests and may also cure an <strong>in</strong>cipient attack of scab.Fig.48.—Cross section of Dipp<strong>in</strong>g Tank and Pens.The usual dipp<strong>in</strong>g vat is a simple form of trough of concrete, metal orwood, about 16 <strong>in</strong>ches wide and 4 feet deep (see Fig. 50). With a tank of <strong>this</strong>description the sheep <strong>can</strong> be plunged so that no part will escape a wett<strong>in</strong>g. Theymay be dropped or forced to leap <strong>in</strong>to the liquid at one end and allowed to walkout at the other. The entrance end should t<strong>here</strong>fore be perpendicular and theother slop<strong>in</strong>g with slatted floor. For a small flock the bottom level need not bemore than four feet long, with the slatted <strong>in</strong>cl<strong>in</strong>e beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g t<strong>here</strong> and runn<strong>in</strong>g'**.YARDFig. 49.—Plan of Dipp<strong>in</strong>g Plant.gradually out to a dra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g platform from which the drip should be collectedto be aga<strong>in</strong> used <strong>in</strong> the vat. To economize liquid the vat may narrow to eight<strong>in</strong>ches at the bottom. The fleece will hold enough of the liquid, if of properstrength, to kill the lice and ticks, but if scab is present or feared the sheepshould be immersed for fully two m<strong>in</strong>utes, and the head should be plunged twoor three times- If time is less valuable than dip, <strong>com</strong>paratively speak<strong>in</strong>g, itmay pay to squeeze the liquid out of the fleece by hand upon the dra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>gplatform. Another plan of sav<strong>in</strong>g time and dip is to divide the dra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g platform<strong>in</strong>to two pens, each to be alternately filled with the dipped animals. Thisarrangement allows the dripp<strong>in</strong>g sheep to rema<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> one pen while the otheris be<strong>in</strong>g filled from the dipp<strong>in</strong>g tank and vice versa. Fig. 49 illustrates thedivided dra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g pen.35001—5 r
66A warm dip penetrates better than a cold one and is t<strong>here</strong>fore to bepreferred. A temperature of from 100 to 105 degrees Fahr. is about right.When coal tar dips are used soft water should be employed, or otherwise a little'concentrated lye added to give the dip a soapy feel. The dip should be preparedto the full strength re<strong>com</strong>mended by the manufacturer. For heat<strong>in</strong>g waterfor dip an open kettle such as is usually found upon every farm is useful. Forreheat<strong>in</strong>g red-hot irons may be thrown <strong>in</strong>to the tank of dip. The plung<strong>in</strong>gof the sheep is facilitated by hav<strong>in</strong>g a slop<strong>in</strong>g board just at the entrance of thetank. This should be kept greased so that the sheep will slide <strong>in</strong> readily.While dipp<strong>in</strong>g may be done at any season it should, if possible, be avoided <strong>in</strong>very cold weather for obvious reasons. If it has to be done <strong>in</strong> w<strong>in</strong>ter the sheepshould be <strong>com</strong>fortably housed until quite dry. The most favourable time for thechief bath of the year is a week or so after shear<strong>in</strong>g time. The ticks will havelargely taken refuge <strong>in</strong> the lambs, and all should go through the tub. At <strong>this</strong>Fig. 50.—Outl<strong>in</strong>e of MJetal Dipp<strong>in</strong>g Tank.time <strong>com</strong>paratively little material is needed. It is well to reta<strong>in</strong> the clippedmembers <strong>in</strong> the liquid a m<strong>in</strong>ute or more, as the wool is too short to hold thedip long enough to make a sure job of all the <strong>in</strong>sects. It is important to repeatthe dipp<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> ten days <strong>in</strong> order to destroy the new arrivals that have hatcheddur<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>terval. The flock should aga<strong>in</strong> be treated <strong>in</strong> the fall so as to go<strong>in</strong>to the w<strong>in</strong>ter free and unmolested by parasites.For a small flock a simple trough may be made to answer. The writer hasdipped and treated hundreds of sheep, big and little, <strong>in</strong> an ord<strong>in</strong>ary woodentrough 5 feet 6 <strong>in</strong>ches long, about 20 <strong>in</strong>ches deep, 20 <strong>in</strong>ches wide at the bottomand 24 at the top. Lambs were held by the legs and head and plunged beneaththe liquid, back downwards lifted out and allowed to dra<strong>in</strong>. Larger sheepwere treated on a platform by part<strong>in</strong>g the fleece at <strong>in</strong>tervals of about two<strong>in</strong>ches and pour<strong>in</strong>g the dip from a spouted vessel. The lower parts, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>gthe breast, neck and belly should be treated first with the animal rest<strong>in</strong>g onits side or rump. The sides and back are then done with the sheep <strong>in</strong> a stand<strong>in</strong>gposition. This method of dipp<strong>in</strong>g is slow and laborious, but it may beemployed <strong>in</strong> the absence of a proper dipp<strong>in</strong>g tank. The dipp<strong>in</strong>g tank used atthe Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa, for dipp<strong>in</strong>g sheep and sw<strong>in</strong>e is 34<strong>in</strong>ches deep, 30 <strong>in</strong>ches wide, 10 feet 2 <strong>in</strong>ches long at the top and 6 feet 5 <strong>in</strong>chesat the bottom, plenty large enough for the largest hog or sheep or even calves.It is constructed of two-<strong>in</strong>ch plank, tongued and grooved, and held togetherby bolts runn<strong>in</strong>g through the centre of the plank up and down the sides and
67across the bottom. In build<strong>in</strong>g a plank tank the grooves or seams should bemoistened with hot tar or red lead, and special care should be taken to makethe construction tight.Figs. 46, 47 and 48 show cross-section and plan of a dipp<strong>in</strong>g tank withnecessary collect<strong>in</strong>g yard and dipp<strong>in</strong>g pens, as well as a view of a suitabletank or vat.THE GREAT NEGLECTWhen asked " What is the most prom<strong>in</strong>ent defect <strong>in</strong> the sheep-rais<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>dustry of Canada? " n<strong>in</strong>e out of ten of the most extensive buyers for thetrade will promptly answer, a the neglect of farmers to castrate the ram lambs."Apart from the lambs raised on the ranches, fully seventy-five per cent ofthe males have until the past few years been marketed as rams. Improvement<strong>in</strong> these figures is shown each year.It is difficult to understand that an operation so easily performed, andwhich means so much to the sheep trade, and t<strong>here</strong>fore to the sheep grower,should be so generally neglected. To neglect cattle and hogs is an oversightcondemned w<strong>here</strong>ver observed, but for some reason the emasculation of sheepis looked upon as a matter of no importance. And yet the dealers who meetthe raisers on the one hand, and the consum<strong>in</strong>g trade on the other, pronouncethe custom as the chief defect of the mutton-rais<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dustry.Is it because the entire crop of lambs <strong>com</strong>es about the same season, mak<strong>in</strong>gthe surgical task appear too ponderous to be undertaken, or is it because of thefear of fatality that the lambs are not treated as are the calves and pigs? Or hasthe habit of slight<strong>in</strong>g <strong>this</strong> important duty been so long responsible for its cont<strong>in</strong>uedneglect? Fortunately the more general market<strong>in</strong>g through the lamb fairwhich accepts no rams, and the price discrim<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>this</strong> class of offer<strong>in</strong>g has toface, are lead<strong>in</strong>g toward a more general use of the surgeon's <strong>in</strong>struments.In the autumn one has only to visit a flock of mixed sexes to see one of thechief evils. A general restlessness of the flock is observed, cont<strong>in</strong>uously dayafter day from morn<strong>in</strong>g till night. Not only do the males neglect proper feed<strong>in</strong>gbut the others are molested and bot<strong>here</strong>d, until the rapid ga<strong>in</strong> expected withgood fodder and cool weather is made impossible. The rams not only fail toga<strong>in</strong> but actually lose flesh put on at an earlier period. Even though the malesare kept separate from the others of the flock, the restlessness cont<strong>in</strong>ues moreor less with a correspond<strong>in</strong>g unprofitable result. The condition depicted isfamiliar to many a sheep raiser, who year by year has witnessed the samestate of affairs. He has be<strong>com</strong>e accustomed to the unrest that possesses theflock with<strong>in</strong> his fields each autumn, <strong>com</strong>menc<strong>in</strong>g with the advent of white frosts.Even <strong>in</strong> the summer he realizes what will happen later on, but he knows noth<strong>in</strong>gof the peace and prosperity of the wether flock of his neighbour a few farmsaway. As the date upon which the buyer usually appears <strong>com</strong>es around, hewatches eagerly for his visit, and as soon as the barga<strong>in</strong> is consummated heurges that his lambs be lifted with the first shipment. He knows that the ramswill run -down from that time on, and the sooner they are weighed out theearlier will peace reign <strong>in</strong> his flock. He has, however, opportunity of learn<strong>in</strong>geven more strik<strong>in</strong>gly his disadvantage when shipp<strong>in</strong>g day arrives. Hislambs go out on an average of perhaps 75 to 80 pounds, while his neighbours'wethers about the same age turn the scale at from 90 to 95 pounds each, forwhich he receives a better price per pound. To the evils attend<strong>in</strong>g the keep<strong>in</strong>gabout of a batch of fertile males already referred to, t<strong>here</strong> is also the seriousrisk of a number of the best ewes, as well as lambs that should not be bred untila year later, gett<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> lamb to perhaps the meanest scrub <strong>in</strong> the flock.Aga<strong>in</strong>, the keep<strong>in</strong>g entire of the males renders it practically impossible tohold them over until w<strong>in</strong>ter or spr<strong>in</strong>g, when the prices are always better. Theyare largely responsible for the glutted condition of the market <strong>in</strong> the autumn35001—51 R
68months, and they have to be disposed of <strong>in</strong> the midst of the over-supply. Tokeep them even to December is expensive, because of the unsatisfactory ga<strong>in</strong>sthey make, but apart from <strong>this</strong> by that date their flesh has be<strong>com</strong>e rankand t<strong>here</strong>fore of <strong>in</strong>ferior quality. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the evidence of extensivedealers, fully fifty per cent of ewe lambs of the previous year marketed <strong>in</strong>February and March are with lamb. These men go so far as to assume thatFig. 51.—Earn Lambs, marketed as culls.Fig.. 52.— Wether Lambs. "'Market Toppers."much of the mat<strong>in</strong>g is <strong>in</strong>tentional with a view to secur<strong>in</strong>g slightly <strong>in</strong>creasedweight. However the condition <strong>com</strong>es about, the trade suffers from suchbad management and the breeder is the loser. Buyers soon be<strong>com</strong>e familiarwith the condition of stock from various districts and bid accord<strong>in</strong>gly. Ramlambs no longer sell upon about equal terms with ewes and wethers <strong>in</strong> most ofthe prov<strong>in</strong>ces of Canada, and <strong>in</strong> some markets substantial price discrim<strong>in</strong>ationaga<strong>in</strong>st ram lambs is <strong>com</strong>menced <strong>in</strong> July and <strong>in</strong>creased <strong>in</strong> October.
69Comparison on theBlockIt ison the block that the true <strong>com</strong>parison between the ram and the wetheris made pla<strong>in</strong>. The former is liable to be lean, lank and emaciated, differ<strong>in</strong>gwidely from the plump, firm, meaty-backed wether that has devoted his energiesto bodybuild<strong>in</strong>g regardless of his ignoble dest<strong>in</strong>y, the shambles. (See Figs. 51and 52.)As the season proceeds the wether makes rapid growth, more particularly<strong>in</strong> the region of the lo<strong>in</strong> and back, while the ram puts on weight <strong>in</strong> the neckand shoulders, fall<strong>in</strong>g away at the lo<strong>in</strong> and h<strong>in</strong>d quarters render<strong>in</strong>g him fit onlyfor the poorest trade. To ascerta<strong>in</strong> the <strong>com</strong>parative weights of ram and wetherlambs of practically the same breed<strong>in</strong>g and age, one dozen of each were weighedon November 1. The wethers weighed 1,020 pounds and the rams 900 pounds,an average reduction of 10 pounds per head.to a pretty impressive penalty for the neglect of castration.This, with a price sacrifice amountsMethods of CastrationThe castration of a lamb is a simple operation, <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g little risk if performedwith ord<strong>in</strong>ary care and due regard to cleanl<strong>in</strong>ess. It is important thatit be performed when the lambs are quite young. About ten days old is a veryfavourable age, as then they are less likely to bleed, and the heal<strong>in</strong>g is rapidlyeffected. Perhaps the oldest, and by many considered a thoroughly satisfactorymethod, is to cut off the lower third of the scrotum with a sharp knife, severthe outer immediate cover<strong>in</strong>g of each testicle separately, and draw it out, cordand all, with the teeth. This method, however, is repulsive to many unaccustomedto it, and is not as <strong>com</strong>mendable as some of the other ways.The practice followed by the writer was to have the subject held by anattendant <strong>in</strong> a sitt<strong>in</strong>g position upon a bench with its feet outward. The operatorsat astride of the bench upon the h<strong>in</strong>d feet of the lamb. With a sharpknife, the bottom third of the scrotum was removed and each testicle sk<strong>in</strong>nedout and withdrawn one at a time by the f<strong>in</strong>gers. If the lamb has reached onemonth, it is better to tie the cord about one <strong>in</strong>ch above the testicle with a carbolizedligature, before sever<strong>in</strong>g the organ with a knife.The wound should be smeared with an antiseptic o<strong>in</strong>tment, than which t<strong>here</strong>is perhaps noth<strong>in</strong>g better than carbolized oil, <strong>com</strong>posed of one part carbolic acidto twenty parts sweet oil. The writer always used p<strong>in</strong>etar and lard <strong>in</strong> equalparts, and <strong>can</strong> confidently re<strong>com</strong>mend its employment. It is very important thatnewly castrated lambs be given clean quarters. If the weather is cold, the penshould be thoroughly cleaned and bedded daily with fresh litter, but if the groundis warm, t<strong>here</strong> is no safer place for the youngsters than a grass plot. It is clean andfavourable—to exercise—the latter an important consideration. In the course ofa few days the lambs should be caught and exam<strong>in</strong>ed, and any that show swell<strong>in</strong>gor undue soreness should be bathed <strong>in</strong> warm water <strong>in</strong>to which a few drops ofcarbolic acid or creol<strong>in</strong> have been added and the wound ano<strong>in</strong>ted with carbolizedoil or other antiseptic preparation.Castration with Burdizzo p<strong>in</strong>chers has <strong>com</strong>e to be one of the most popularmethods. It is bloodless and leaves no wound; when properly done it is equallyas effective as the knife- For lambs the small style Burdizzo p<strong>in</strong>chers are mostlyused. The lamb should be held <strong>in</strong> the usual way for castration by an attendant.The operator should make sure that the testicle is well down and that the cordis moved to the right side of the scrotum pouch if the right cord is be<strong>in</strong>g severedor to the left side if the left cord is be<strong>in</strong>g severed. Always place the p<strong>in</strong>cherswell over the cord and above the testicle and do one side at a time mov<strong>in</strong>g thep<strong>in</strong>chers from the right hand to the left. This method leaves a small space <strong>in</strong>the centre of the scrotum for the blood to circulate.
70The TailsIn his earlier years, when <strong>in</strong> charge of a flock of high-class pure-bred sheep,the writer regarded the leav<strong>in</strong>g of long tails as an evidence of poor shepherd<strong>in</strong>gand <strong>in</strong>ferior stock. Perhaps the view taken was extreme, but observation bearsout the truth that the best sheep men everyw<strong>here</strong> dock their lambs as surelyas they clip their ewes, while the poorest of them <strong>in</strong>variably neglect <strong>this</strong>operation. Perhaps a tail is no detriment, more particularly upon a male thatis to be wet<strong>here</strong>d, but it looks bad to the sheep man and surely detractsfrom the blocky appearance of a sheep or lamb. Man}^ who undertake to dockmake a very poor job of the operation. A five- or six-<strong>in</strong>ch tail looks about asbad as one not touched, but still one sees many half-tailed lambs. For besteffect, a male lamb should be docked with<strong>in</strong> one <strong>in</strong>ch of the buttock, while afemale should reta<strong>in</strong> one or two more jo<strong>in</strong>ts.An ord<strong>in</strong>ary sharp jack knife is a <strong>com</strong>mon dock<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>strument. Have thelamb held as for castration by an attendant. Locate the proper jo<strong>in</strong>t with thethumb of the left hand and place the knife on the proper spot just between thejo<strong>in</strong>ts. Hold the tail straight out with the left hand and draw the knife quicklydownward until the tail is severed. Lambs that are three weeks to a month oldwill sometimes bleed profusely. Bleed<strong>in</strong>g may be stopped by ty<strong>in</strong>g with a cordfor 15 to 20 m<strong>in</strong>utes till the blood clots when the str<strong>in</strong>g should be removed. Theknife should always be sterilized <strong>in</strong> an antiseptic solution before be<strong>in</strong>g used.From one week to two weeks is a good age to tail the lambs, and whileit seems like doubly severe treatment, the wether<strong>in</strong>g and tail<strong>in</strong>g are usuallyperformed at the same time.FEEDS AND FEEDINGThe standard foods for sheep are grass and clover pasture <strong>in</strong> summer and hay,preferably clover or alfalfa with roots, dur<strong>in</strong>g the w<strong>in</strong>ter. When pastures fail <strong>in</strong>summer or autumn such soil<strong>in</strong>g crops as green corn, vetches, rape or cabbagesmay be fed with advantage; or vetches or rape may be used as pasture. Dur<strong>in</strong>gthe w<strong>in</strong>ter season well saved pea straw or even oat straw may be used as apart of the dry fodder, but if no gra<strong>in</strong> is be<strong>in</strong>g fed the flock should have atleast one feed daily of well saved hay.Of the several classes of roots noth<strong>in</strong>g surpasses swede turnips, but greystones<strong>in</strong> the early part of the hous<strong>in</strong>g season and mangels at the end of thew<strong>in</strong>ter and spr<strong>in</strong>g constitute very satisfactory succulent rations. Corn ensilageof good quality may also be spar<strong>in</strong>gly used if roots are short or it may be fedalong with roots or alternately with that food throughout the w<strong>in</strong>ter.The grow<strong>in</strong>g of ord<strong>in</strong>ary hay, pasture and roots for sheep feed does notdiffer from the cultivation of these crops for other classes of stock. Such specialcrops as rape, vetches, cabbage, lucerne, etc., are easy of cultivation, and maybe successfully grown on almost any farm suited to sheep rais<strong>in</strong>g.CloverOf all the fodder crops grown on Canadian farms clover is of greatestimportance to the sheep grower. All the <strong>com</strong>monly grown varieties, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>galfalfa, (separately treated <strong>in</strong> these pages), alsike, white and <strong>com</strong>mon red, areuseful on the sheep farm. On account of their leafy character and sweetnessthey are greatly relished, and because of their high prote<strong>in</strong> content they arevery nourish<strong>in</strong>g.
71Practically all of the clovers are useful as pasture, although precautionsare necessary when feed<strong>in</strong>g the larger sorts while <strong>in</strong> very green or immaturecondition. Sheep graze closely, and do well upon small white clover <strong>com</strong>monlyfound <strong>in</strong> most Canadian pastures.Alsike is more useful as a hay than a pasture crop, although sheep willgraze it freely while young and tender. Common red clover is the chief foodcrop on the special sheep-man's farm. It affords excellent pasture, but whenvery rank or succulent, sheep must be grazed on it with caution, to avoid lossfrom bloat<strong>in</strong>g. Precautionary methods outl<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> discuss<strong>in</strong>g the feed<strong>in</strong>g of rapeapply with equal force to the pastur<strong>in</strong>g of clover.All of the strong grow<strong>in</strong>g clovers make excellent sheep hay. Its value islessened <strong>in</strong> proportion as it is coarse, over-ripe when cut or badly cured. Forbreed<strong>in</strong>g ewes good clover hay alone may furnish a full ration sufficiently richto keep up their condition. No other hay is so valuable for young lambs,grow<strong>in</strong>g or fatten<strong>in</strong>g stock or sheep be<strong>in</strong>g fitted for exhibition. It should be fed<strong>in</strong> small quantities rather than <strong>in</strong> greater bulk at less frequent <strong>in</strong>tervals.AlfalfaAlfalfa as it be<strong>com</strong>es known is grow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> favour among sheep raisers asa fodder crop. It is not only a heavy cropper but it is one of the most nutritiousfodders grown on Canadian farms, and practically all classes of farm animalsconsume it with great relish. On account of its deep and strong root<strong>in</strong>g habitit is peculiarly adapted to dry or gravelly bottom land, but it may be grownsuccessfully w<strong>here</strong>ver wheat grow<strong>in</strong>g is or may be carried on, except, perhaps,<strong>in</strong> very cold latitudes. It has a food value quite equal to red clover both ashay or pasture, and because of its strong growth, produc<strong>in</strong>g from three to fourcutt<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> a season, it is more valuable as a crop. Alfalfa has obta<strong>in</strong>ed a strongfoothold <strong>in</strong> Ontario and east, as well as <strong>in</strong> British Columbia, and is ga<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>gground rapidly <strong>in</strong> Alberta, w<strong>here</strong> it is expected to be<strong>com</strong>e perhaps the chieffodder crop more particularly <strong>in</strong> the dry and irrigated sections, In Saskatchewanand Manitoba it is grown to some extent, and strong hopes are enterta<strong>in</strong>ed that<strong>in</strong> these prov<strong>in</strong>ces it will yet be<strong>com</strong>e one of the staple forage crops.Alfalfa hay for sheep fodder should be harvested before it be<strong>com</strong>es tough,and should t<strong>here</strong>fore be cut as nearly as possible to the time at which it is<strong>com</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to bloom. If allowed to mature beyond that stage tough fibres develop,which are slow to digest and are liable to cause trouble <strong>in</strong> the digestive tractof the sheep. Sheep feed<strong>in</strong>g on over-mature alfalfa are occasionally lost byreason of balls of fibre form<strong>in</strong>g and clogg<strong>in</strong>g the outlet of the stomach. T<strong>here</strong> isno danger from <strong>this</strong> cause if the alfalfa has been cut on the green side. Alfalfafor sheep hay should t<strong>here</strong>fore be grown alone or with an early grass such asorchard grass. If grown with a later crop the latter has to be cut too green orthe alfalfa be<strong>com</strong>es too far advanced.Alfalfa is claimed by some, who have had little experience with it. to beunsafe for pastur<strong>in</strong>g sheep on account of its extreme succulence and liability tocause bloat and its attendant evils. An extensive sheep raiser, who has adoptedalfalfa as his chief pasture, has the follow<strong>in</strong>g to say <strong>in</strong> its favour:" Thirteen years' experience with alfalfa conv<strong>in</strong>ces me that it is beyonddoubt the best and most economical pasture for sheep. I consider it a verysafe pasture, as I never yet saw the first evil result to any class of animals, <strong>in</strong>fact I have never lost a s<strong>in</strong>gle animal pastur<strong>in</strong>g on <strong>this</strong> crop. No crop is morevaluable, especially as a pasture, and of course for hay as well. It makes betterhay than red clover, although by analysis it ranks about equal. It is cleanerthan clover and stock eat it more readily." For hay, alfalfa should be cut when about one-fourth <strong>in</strong> bloom, put <strong>in</strong> verysmall cocks very green, and allowed to cure that way. It is my most valued cropand is good for all stock, pasture and hay alike."
72VetchesVetches, or tares as they are also called, make excellent fodder for sheep,
73are two or three <strong>in</strong>ches high. It is well to learn from careful test upon a smallscale whether one's conditions are suited to methods of <strong>this</strong> k<strong>in</strong>d before undertak<strong>in</strong>gthem upon a large scale. A season of rank growth followed by a wetharvest may cause much trouble and annoyance if rape has been sown with oats.Undoubtedly the best crops are produced when rape is given the land to itself andproper cultivation is afforded.Under average conditions the rape plant requires about two months toreach the best conditions for feed<strong>in</strong>g. When fed too young serious digestivederangement may result <strong>in</strong> the form of scour<strong>in</strong>g or bloat<strong>in</strong>g. After reach<strong>in</strong>g itsgrowth it rema<strong>in</strong>s fresh and crisp for several weeks under normal weather conditions,but after a time it be<strong>com</strong>es more or less woody or str<strong>in</strong>gy, <strong>in</strong> which conditionstock do not relish it so much.Rape is usually pastured off, but it is exceed<strong>in</strong>gly valuable for soil<strong>in</strong>g. Afeed each day of rape hauled to a flock of ewes on a fail<strong>in</strong>g pasture proves anexcellent safeguard aga<strong>in</strong>st the animals runn<strong>in</strong>g down <strong>in</strong> condition.All classes of sheep may be pastured on rape. It is an excellent crop onwhich to turn lambs after wean<strong>in</strong>g. It is quite as suitable for ton<strong>in</strong>g up thebreed<strong>in</strong>g flock prior to the mat<strong>in</strong>g season.Precautions have to be observed <strong>in</strong> pastur<strong>in</strong>g rape.Until they have be<strong>com</strong>eaccustomed to it sheep should not be turned <strong>in</strong>to rape pasture while hungry.Neither should it be fed with ra<strong>in</strong> or dew or if at all frosty. If precautionsare neglected serious loss may be experienced from scour<strong>in</strong>g, bloat<strong>in</strong>g, and evendeath from <strong>in</strong>flammation of the bowels. It is well to allow sheep pastur<strong>in</strong>g onrape free access to a grass pasture. It was the practice of the writer after theseason of white frosts had arrived to fasten out the flock from the rape <strong>in</strong> theeven<strong>in</strong>g until the crop was almost or quite dry the follow<strong>in</strong>g morn<strong>in</strong>g. Manyrape feeders disregard <strong>this</strong> precaution, claim<strong>in</strong>g that after sheep be<strong>com</strong>e accustomedto it rape feed<strong>in</strong>g is not attended with danger. A feed each morn<strong>in</strong>gof oats and bran goes a long way toward prevent<strong>in</strong>g untoward results. Experiencedfeeders have found that irregular salt<strong>in</strong>g greatly <strong>in</strong>creases the danger fromillness when sheep are on rape. A feeder who lost sheep after each salt<strong>in</strong>g founda <strong>com</strong>plete remedy <strong>in</strong> withhold<strong>in</strong>g salt altogether while rape was be<strong>in</strong>g pastured.It is estimated that an acre of rape pastured by forty head of thrifty lambs,receiv<strong>in</strong>g a moderate gra<strong>in</strong> ration daily will yield 400 pounds of mutton.As a soil<strong>in</strong>g crop rape is an excellent mutton maker. As soon as the plantsbe hauled toare well grown they may be mown with a scythe or reap hook, tothe flock either <strong>in</strong> a shed or pasture. If sown <strong>in</strong> May it should be ready to cutand feed <strong>in</strong> July, and at the least one more cutt<strong>in</strong>g may be expected dur<strong>in</strong>g thefall. It should be cut not lower than four <strong>in</strong>ches from the ground, which willleave stumps that will produce a strong second growth. Provided over-feed<strong>in</strong>gis avoided, t<strong>here</strong> is <strong>com</strong>paratively little risk attend<strong>in</strong>g soil<strong>in</strong>g sheep on rape.Bloat is the most <strong>com</strong>mon trouble <strong>in</strong> rape feed<strong>in</strong>g. When noticed <strong>in</strong> thefirst stages the subject should at once be removed from the rape. Salt andwater given as a drench is a simple and much used treatment. A p<strong>in</strong>t of strongsolution <strong>in</strong> which all the salt is dissolved constitutes a dose for a full-grown sheep.Aromatic spirits of ammonia is also a good medic<strong>in</strong>e for <strong>this</strong> trouble. A tablespoonful<strong>in</strong> a p<strong>in</strong>t of warm water will usually afford relief. If the case is so faradvanced that the subject is down and the abdomen much distended, then thelatter should be punctured at the po<strong>in</strong>t of greatest swell<strong>in</strong>g with a trocar and<strong>can</strong>ula. If, however, one has <strong>in</strong>sufficient confidence <strong>in</strong> his surgical ability toperform <strong>this</strong> <strong>com</strong>paratively simple operation, it may be advisable, if recoveryotherwise appears improbable, to adopt the time-honoured policy of kill<strong>in</strong>g theanimal to save its life.
74CabbageCabbage has long been used as a food for sheep. This crop is easily grown,produces heavy yields and provides an excellent fodder from early fall untilwell on <strong>in</strong> December.Cabbages are grown by the same system as roots or rape. The groundshould be worked up and manured the previous autumn. The seed is sown asearly <strong>in</strong> spr<strong>in</strong>g as the ground is fit and the weather has be<strong>com</strong>e favourable forgrowth. The date of seed<strong>in</strong>g is about the same as for carrots or mangels. Theground should be f<strong>in</strong>ely prepared, and the seed sown <strong>in</strong> drills about thirty <strong>in</strong>chesapart. After the plants appear above ground cultivation should <strong>com</strong>mence, andwhen the second leaves have appeared, the plants should be th<strong>in</strong>ned out to abouteighteen <strong>in</strong>ches <strong>in</strong> the drill. Frequent cultivation dur<strong>in</strong>g the season will <strong>in</strong>surerapid growth and an abundant yield of excellent fodder. From 18 to 20 tonsper acre is not too much to expect on rich soil with a heavy yield<strong>in</strong>g variety.The crop is ready for feed<strong>in</strong>g when the heads are well formed and havebe<strong>com</strong>e firm. It may be fed from the field until the time turnips are harvested,when it should be stored <strong>in</strong> a pit or shed sufficiently protected to keep out hardfrost but well enough ventilated to guard aga<strong>in</strong>st heat<strong>in</strong>g.Cabbages may be fed on the pasture or <strong>in</strong> troughs <strong>in</strong> a shed. While thesheep will consume them from the whole head, it is preferable to divide them<strong>in</strong>to <strong>com</strong>paratively small pieces <strong>in</strong> order to be more easily eaten. For giv<strong>in</strong>gvariety to the ration or add<strong>in</strong>g a valuable succulent food, cabbage fills animportant place on the sheep farm.TurnipsIn many of the most successful sheep rais<strong>in</strong>g countries turnips are consideredalmost as <strong>in</strong>dispensable as grass. In Great Brita<strong>in</strong> turnips constitutean important part of the ration of the sheep flocks from the time the crop isready to use <strong>in</strong> the autumn until grass arrives <strong>in</strong> the follow<strong>in</strong>g spr<strong>in</strong>g. Tofatten<strong>in</strong>g sheep and grow<strong>in</strong>g stock they are fed <strong>in</strong> practically unlimited quantities,but for breed<strong>in</strong>g ewes turnips are considered a necessary part of the ration.In Canada many successful sheep raisers feed turnips. The excellence of manypure-bred flocks <strong>in</strong> which <strong>in</strong>ternational prize w<strong>in</strong>ners are reared is <strong>in</strong> greatmeasure due to the liberal use of succulent foods, and no other green crop is sogenerally used as turnips <strong>in</strong> the w<strong>in</strong>ter season. Apart from their food constituentsturnips have a wonderful effect <strong>in</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g a vigorous condition ofthe digestive organs and general system.<strong>You</strong>ng lambs born <strong>in</strong> the w<strong>in</strong>ter or early spr<strong>in</strong>g are greatly benefited byliberal feed<strong>in</strong>gs of f<strong>in</strong>ely sliced turnips until grass arrives. Not only are thelambs started <strong>in</strong>to vigorous growth, but their dams are relieved from muchworry and tugg<strong>in</strong>g.Previous to lamb<strong>in</strong>g, ewes should not be heavily fed upon turnips or otherroots; from 2 to 3 pounds per day are very beneficial, but much more than <strong>this</strong>quantity is liable to cause abnormally large, soft lambs, deficient <strong>in</strong> vitality.After lamb<strong>in</strong>g, the turnip ration may be gradually <strong>in</strong>creased even to as much aswill be eaten twice or three times a day, provided, of course, sufficient nourish<strong>in</strong>gdry food is given as well. The turnips keep the ewes <strong>in</strong> f<strong>in</strong>e vigour and greatlyhelp the milk flow.Grow<strong>in</strong>g and fatten<strong>in</strong>g sheep may be liberally fed on turnips, with a suitablegra<strong>in</strong> ration with such roughage as clover hay and pea straw. A ration of turnipsis of great assistance <strong>in</strong> build<strong>in</strong>g up young grow<strong>in</strong>g stock and fatten<strong>in</strong>g animals.A good method of prepar<strong>in</strong>g turnips for sheep is to cut them <strong>in</strong> strips with anord<strong>in</strong>ary mach<strong>in</strong>e cutter, or they may be pulped. In the latter condition theroots may be mixed with chaffed straw, render<strong>in</strong>g the latter more palatablethan when fed dry.
75MangelsIn localities better suited for the grow<strong>in</strong>g of mangels than turnips the formercrop may be to some extent utilized for sheep feed<strong>in</strong>g if certa<strong>in</strong> precautions areobserved.For some reason, probably the large quantity of sugar conta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> mangelsand beets, these roots when fed heavily to sheep br<strong>in</strong>g about an unhealthy conditionof the kidneys and other organs. Ths is particularly true <strong>in</strong> the earlypart of the w<strong>in</strong>ter, and even up to the spr<strong>in</strong>g months, breed<strong>in</strong>g sheep, particularlyrams, should not be heavily fed upon <strong>this</strong> food. In the absence of turnips a fewpounds per day of mangels may be given with advantage. As spr<strong>in</strong>g approachesthey be<strong>com</strong>e less dangerous, and by April they may be fed quite generouslyexcept to rams.For late spr<strong>in</strong>g feed<strong>in</strong>g, mangels are given preference over turnips by manyexpert sheepmen for the chief reason of their excellent keep<strong>in</strong>g quality Evenwell <strong>in</strong>to the warm weather they reta<strong>in</strong> their crispness and flavour when properlyhoused or pitted. Many turnip-grow<strong>in</strong>g sheep farmers <strong>in</strong> Great Brita<strong>in</strong> and <strong>in</strong>Canada reserve a pit or cellar of " Globe Mangels " for May feed<strong>in</strong>g, and it isnot un<strong>com</strong>mon to f<strong>in</strong>d <strong>this</strong> root <strong>com</strong>pos<strong>in</strong>g a part of the daily ration of showsheep even up to the middle of June. The preparation of mangels for feed<strong>in</strong>g isthe same as already described for turnips.CornCorn is very widely used for feed<strong>in</strong>g sheep. In corn-grow<strong>in</strong>g sections nogra<strong>in</strong> is more used than corn for fatten<strong>in</strong>g sheep and lambs. For soil<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> thefall green corn is an excellent fodder plant, and corn ensilage fills a place on thesheep farm.Corn is not a suitable gra<strong>in</strong> to feed alone unless <strong>in</strong> very small quantities toimprove a ration of hay and roots. Sheep fed on corn alone are liable to go offtheir appetities and be<strong>com</strong>e ill from digestive derangements.Corn should <strong>in</strong>variably be fed to sheep mixed with other gra<strong>in</strong>. In anexperiment <strong>in</strong> feed<strong>in</strong>g whole corn, corn and peas, corn and oats, and corn, peasand oats to lambs <strong>in</strong> addition to hay, the corn gave the poorest results of all <strong>in</strong>ga<strong>in</strong>s. The average weekly ga<strong>in</strong>s per lamb were as follows: Corn, 2-6 pounds;corn and oats, 2-7 pounds; corn and peas, 3-15 pounds. A mixture of peas,oats and corn <strong>in</strong> equal quantities fed with hay gave a weekly ga<strong>in</strong> of 3 poundsper head. Bran, oats and corn fed under similar circumstances gave a weeklyaverage ga<strong>in</strong> of 2-3 pounds. If to <strong>this</strong> ration some such succulent food as turnipsor mangels had been added, with a small proportion of oil cake, an ideal fatten<strong>in</strong>gration would have been <strong>com</strong>piled.Dur<strong>in</strong>g the season of fail<strong>in</strong>g pastures <strong>in</strong> the autumn a daily feed of greencorn is useful for keep<strong>in</strong>g up the flock. The corn should be put through a cutt<strong>in</strong>gbox and fed <strong>in</strong> troughs. A small quantity of bran mixed with the cut cornadds delicacy and feed<strong>in</strong>g value to the ration.Corn SilageSilage is fed to sheep on many farms. When well preserved it is -elishedby the animals, and affords a valuable succulent food. From 3 to 4 pounds perhead daily is about as much as experienced sheepmen care to feed. Fed <strong>in</strong>larger quantities, or if too acid, it is liable to cause serious <strong>in</strong>digestion. At <strong>this</strong>rate silage fed with clover hay <strong>com</strong>prises an excellent ration for w<strong>in</strong>ter<strong>in</strong>g ewes,and when to <strong>this</strong> a gra<strong>in</strong> ration is added a profitable fatten<strong>in</strong>g ration is secured.
76In experimental feed<strong>in</strong>g corn silage was found to be about equal to mangelsfor ewes rear<strong>in</strong>g lambs. The lambs made slightly better ga<strong>in</strong> when roots werefed to their dams, but the silage was produced at a slightly lower cost. Thefeed<strong>in</strong>g value of good silage and roots for sheep, accord<strong>in</strong>g to experiment stationtests, is about equal. When fed with caution they give similar results on theord<strong>in</strong>ary farm but for general practice on the Canadian farm no succulentfood <strong>can</strong> equal swede turnips, on account of their safety and beneficial <strong>in</strong>fluenceupon the stock.The variation experienced <strong>in</strong> the maturity and other qualitiesof corn silage renders it less uniform <strong>in</strong> its results for sheep feed<strong>in</strong>g. Whenrich <strong>in</strong> gra<strong>in</strong> it is too heat<strong>in</strong>g, and when immature it is too acid to be easilydigested or keenly relished. W<strong>here</strong> roots are not available silage fed spar<strong>in</strong>glyis a f<strong>in</strong>e substitute, or the two foods may be fed alternately dur<strong>in</strong>g the hous<strong>in</strong>gseason.PeasPeas constitute a very important crop on the sheep farm.They are usefulas a soil<strong>in</strong>g crop, they are fed unthreshed to fatten<strong>in</strong>g stock, as a gra<strong>in</strong> they arehighly valuable when mixed with oats, and as a cheap fodder no class of straw<strong>can</strong> surpass well saved pea straw for w<strong>in</strong>ter<strong>in</strong>g ewes.As a soil<strong>in</strong>g crop, peas are frequently sown with oats, or oats and tares.Sheep delight <strong>in</strong> a leafy food, and leave only the coarsest of the bare pea v<strong>in</strong>es<strong>in</strong> the rack. A bushel of oats, a bushel of peas and half a bushel of tares peracre constitute a seed<strong>in</strong>g for a f<strong>in</strong>e mixture to be fed as a soil<strong>in</strong>g crop.Good judgment and much caution are required <strong>in</strong> feed<strong>in</strong>g unthreshed,mature peas to sheep. If given too liberally t<strong>here</strong> is likely to be a loss ofanimals from over-feed<strong>in</strong>g. By <strong>com</strong>menc<strong>in</strong>g with a small quantity, well distributed,the sheep will gradually be<strong>com</strong>e accustomed to <strong>this</strong> food, when itmay be cautiously <strong>in</strong>creased. For fatten<strong>in</strong>g sheep or milk<strong>in</strong>g ewes peas fed<strong>in</strong> the straw give excellent results.T<strong>here</strong> is probably no gra<strong>in</strong> ration that <strong>can</strong> surpass a mixture of one partpeas (preferably cracked) , two parts oats and one part wheat bran. This mixtureis well balanced <strong>in</strong> essential food constituents, is sufficiently light to bereadily digested and it is much relished by the stock. From half a p<strong>in</strong>t to ap<strong>in</strong>t per day is a moderate ration accord<strong>in</strong>g to the size of the animals and theobject <strong>in</strong> view.Many of the best flocks of breed<strong>in</strong>g ewes are w<strong>in</strong>tered upon pea strawas the rough diet. If the peas have been harvested on the green side by aharvester that cuts the crop, and taken off without bad weather, the result<strong>in</strong>gpea straw is much liked and very nourish<strong>in</strong>g. If the ewes <strong>com</strong>e <strong>in</strong>to w<strong>in</strong>terquarters <strong>in</strong> good condition they will require little else than roots and goodpea straw until approach<strong>in</strong>g the lamb<strong>in</strong>g period when clover hay should begradually substituted for the straw. Ewes that are th<strong>in</strong> should have at leastone feed of clover hay each day or a small ration <strong>in</strong> addition to the pea straw.Pea straw is bulky stuff to feed <strong>in</strong> racks, and unless the racks are roomy,and the bars so far apart that the sheep <strong>can</strong> <strong>in</strong>sert their heads, it is preferableto feed the straw on the ground <strong>in</strong> the yards close up to the fences. If crowdedtight aga<strong>in</strong>st the fence the straw will be thoroughly picked over before be<strong>in</strong>gsoiled. When feed<strong>in</strong>g pea straw, or other chaffy fodder, great care should beexercised to keep the litter out of the fleeces of the sheep.
77OilcakeOilcake is a favourite on the majority of the lead<strong>in</strong>g sheep farms of GreatBrita<strong>in</strong> and many of those <strong>in</strong> Canada. This nutritious by-product of l<strong>in</strong>seed oilworks, known as " cake " by the British shepherd, is peculiarly adapted forsheep and lambs be<strong>in</strong>g hastened forward for the show r<strong>in</strong>g or for market. Itis not only highly palatable and rich <strong>in</strong> prote<strong>in</strong>—flesh-form<strong>in</strong>g material—butis pre-em<strong>in</strong>ently a safe food. It is mildly laxative and exercises a salutary<strong>in</strong>fluence upon the digestive organs. It may be mixed with any k<strong>in</strong>d or mixtureof gra<strong>in</strong> or chop, but on account of its highly nitrogenous nature it is peculiarlyadapted for feed<strong>in</strong>g with corn. The feed<strong>in</strong>g of. oilcake gives thrift to sheep,enabl<strong>in</strong>g them to make the maximum ga<strong>in</strong> from their ration of whatever sort.Oilcake <strong>in</strong> the f<strong>in</strong>ely nutted form is excellent food for lambs, particularlybefore grass arrives <strong>in</strong> the spr<strong>in</strong>g. A limited amount, from a quarter to halfa pound each, is excellent for breed<strong>in</strong>g ewes or other sheep be<strong>in</strong>g w<strong>in</strong>tered ondry feed. For fatten<strong>in</strong>g lambs or show sheep it may with advantage be used<strong>in</strong> generous quantities. As a rule it should be mixed with gra<strong>in</strong> and may formfrom one-tenth to one-quarter of the gra<strong>in</strong> ration, accord<strong>in</strong>g to the relativemarket values of various feeds.OatsOats should, and usually do, form the basis of gra<strong>in</strong> mixtures for sheepfeed<strong>in</strong>g. They are palatable, highly nourish<strong>in</strong>g and safe, and be<strong>in</strong>g easilygrown they are usually at hand on every arable sheep farm. As a s<strong>in</strong>gle gra<strong>in</strong>food oats answer practically every requirement. Whether for ton<strong>in</strong>g up breed<strong>in</strong>gstock, fitt<strong>in</strong>g show sheep or fatten<strong>in</strong>g for market, oats is the most <strong>com</strong>monlyfed gra<strong>in</strong> used for sheep.For young lambs just <strong>com</strong>menc<strong>in</strong>g to eat no better gra<strong>in</strong> <strong>can</strong> be found thanground oats, with the coarsest of the hulls sifted out. In a few weeks thelambs will take them, hulls and all, and as a rule thrive well. To hasten fatten<strong>in</strong>gfor market a mixture <strong>com</strong>posed of oats, cracked corn or peas and oilcake<strong>in</strong> the nut form, mixed <strong>in</strong> the proportion of 2, 2 and 1 parts by weight <strong>can</strong>hardly be surpassed. Lambs on their mothers may safely be given access toa mixture of <strong>this</strong> sort. Breed<strong>in</strong>g ewes may safely receive one pound of oatsdaily before lamb<strong>in</strong>g, and a larger amount of oats or the mixture re<strong>com</strong>mendedfor lambs afterwards until they go to pasture.For sheep that are be<strong>in</strong>g fattened oats may constitute the sole gra<strong>in</strong> ration,as after a short time they may be given about all they will clean up withoutrisk of sickness. More rapid ga<strong>in</strong>s may be secured from the addition of peas,corn or oilcake. If the oats predom<strong>in</strong>ate and the whole is well mixed heavyfeed<strong>in</strong>g may be carried on without much risk.As a soil<strong>in</strong>g crop a mixture of green oats, peas and tares is much relished andvery nourish<strong>in</strong>g. A seed<strong>in</strong>g mixture of two parts oats, two parts peas and onepart tares, bj r measure, sown at the rate of three bushels per acre, yields a heavyand valuable fodder crop. In order to secure several weeks' feed<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> goodcondition seed<strong>in</strong>g should be done at <strong>in</strong>tervals of one week from as early <strong>in</strong>spr<strong>in</strong>g as seed<strong>in</strong>g <strong>can</strong> be done for about six weeks. The crop may be fed <strong>in</strong>racks <strong>in</strong> sheds or pastures, or even distributed <strong>in</strong> rows on knolls or along fencesides. At a time of fail<strong>in</strong>g pasture a few weeks of soil<strong>in</strong>g is highly valuablefor keep<strong>in</strong>g up the condition of the flock. Oats for soil<strong>in</strong>g are at their best whenheaded out and have reached the milk stage.
78SHEEP BARNSSheep orig<strong>in</strong>ally belonged to the uplands, w<strong>here</strong> they were able to obta<strong>in</strong>pure air and the maximum of sunlight. Under domestication sheep prefer dryairy fields and quarters, and do badly if deprived of these conditions. In thepasture the sleep<strong>in</strong>g place of the flock is <strong>in</strong>variably the dryest knoll accessible,even when other classes of stock would seek more sheltered quarters. In theold world sheep are <strong>com</strong>paratively little housed, especially <strong>in</strong> Great Brita<strong>in</strong>. InCanada, what with cold w<strong>in</strong>ters, <strong>in</strong>clement autumns and spr<strong>in</strong>g, a certa<strong>in</strong> amountof hous<strong>in</strong>g is necessary <strong>in</strong> order to produce wool and mutton of the highestquality at the least cost.On the Canadian farm the sheep house is generally the cheapest and poorestof the stock build<strong>in</strong>gs. A house that keeps the sheep dry and out of the w<strong>in</strong>danswers the requirements. Over zealous sheep men of limited experience occasionallyprovide expensive barns badly suited for sheep hous<strong>in</strong>g because of alack of provision for proper ventilation. The ma<strong>in</strong> features of a sheep barnare the follow<strong>in</strong>g: good ventilation without draughts, sunlight, convenience forfeed<strong>in</strong>g, adjustable divisions, capacity for stor<strong>in</strong>g hay, gra<strong>in</strong> and roots, andabove all a tight roof and a well-dra<strong>in</strong>ed location.The dimensions of a barn will depend on the size of the flock. For breed<strong>in</strong>gstock a space per head of at least twelve square feet is required, and eighteenis not too much for large ewes. However, a barn 40 x 40 feet laid out as shown<strong>in</strong> Fig. 53 should ac<strong>com</strong>modate from sixty to seventy-five head.Plan DescribedMovable feed racks sixteen <strong>in</strong>ches wide are desirable. These may form thedivisions, leav<strong>in</strong>g an alley three feet wide on two sides of each pen. Theyshould have perpendicular sides with slats on the feed<strong>in</strong>g side far enough apartto allow the sheep to put their heads through. When arranged <strong>this</strong> way thesheep do not pick the food out to be<strong>com</strong>e trodden under foot and wasted. W<strong>here</strong>the attendant has to go <strong>in</strong> among the sheep to distribute the feed, t<strong>here</strong> is alwaysmore or less annoyance and loss from litter or chaff gett<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to the fleece. Thefeed room is so situated that the root-house door opens <strong>in</strong>to it and the feed fromabove <strong>com</strong>es down <strong>in</strong> chutes.The doors are large enough to permit of a wagon pass<strong>in</strong>g through to takeout the manure. In f<strong>in</strong>e weather the upper half of the doors may be kept open.The w<strong>in</strong>dows permit plenty of light. The lamb pens are simply hurdles 4 to 5feet long and 3 feet high, h<strong>in</strong>ged together. A pair of these placed <strong>in</strong> a cornerform a pen. In cold weather for protect<strong>in</strong>g young lambs a pen <strong>can</strong> be closed<strong>in</strong> by hang<strong>in</strong>g burlap or heavy cotton from the ceil<strong>in</strong>g to the racks or evento the floor.ConstructionAny style of construction suitable for other build<strong>in</strong>gs is satisfactory for asheep house. A somewhat new form of barn which is prov<strong>in</strong>g satisfactory w<strong>here</strong>used is represented <strong>in</strong> Figs. 55 and 56. It has a semi-circular or oval roof, soconstructed as to require no dimension timber, and at the same time is selfsupport<strong>in</strong>g,requir<strong>in</strong>g no posts on the barn floor. This form of constructionrequires a m<strong>in</strong>imum of lumber, thus sav<strong>in</strong>g much <strong>in</strong> cost of material. In additionno fram<strong>in</strong>g is necessary, so that any handy man cam put the build<strong>in</strong>g up ata much less cost than an ord<strong>in</strong>ary framed build<strong>in</strong>g of similar dimensions couldbe built for.For foundation walls, stone and cement concrete are the <strong>com</strong>mon materialsnow used. A stone wall is stronger if cement mortar is used. Cement concreteis the cheapest and most durable <strong>in</strong> the end if properly made. The foundation,
79whether pillars at <strong>in</strong>tervals or a cont<strong>in</strong>uous wall, should be put below the frostl<strong>in</strong>e on solid ground. The bottom of the wall should be widest, and the slopeupwards should be gradual. This will lessen the effect of frost on the wall, asthe ground will heave away from it. In build<strong>in</strong>g the wall make preparation forputt<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a modern system of ventilation.The ac<strong>com</strong>pany<strong>in</strong>g plan, Figs. 53 and 54, provides for a cement root cellar,12 feet square, 10 feet high at the barn, and 7 feet high at the opposite side.The walls are 1 foot thick. The roof of the root house is also of cement, andthe driveway <strong>in</strong>to the barn is over it. The chute for fill<strong>in</strong>g the roots <strong>in</strong>to thehouse is shown <strong>in</strong> the plan of the upper floor, Fig. 54. This may be placedw<strong>here</strong> desired, even <strong>in</strong> the barn floor. The studd<strong>in</strong>g of the walls for the ma<strong>in</strong>barns may be 9 x 2-<strong>in</strong>ch studs, which will leave a large, dead air space, but 6 xFig. 53.—-Sheep Barn, Ground Floor Plan.3-<strong>in</strong>ch studs leave more space <strong>in</strong>side. These are placed two feet apart. Thegirders are supported by posts or pillars (either of wood or cement) one footwide. These should be round or octagonal <strong>in</strong> form; square corners do muchdamage if animals crowd or rush aga<strong>in</strong>st them. Planks 12 x 3 <strong>in</strong>ches and longenough to allow good splic<strong>in</strong>g over the pillars will be strong enough. Two 9 x2-<strong>in</strong>ch pieces placed 2 <strong>in</strong>ches apart and strengthened by a J-<strong>in</strong>ch iron rod asshown <strong>in</strong> the dotted l<strong>in</strong>e cross<strong>in</strong>g the build<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Fig. 56 answer well. The joistsmay consist of 9 x 2-<strong>in</strong>ch plank about 14 feet long. The walls of the barn,which are 13 feet high, may have the same sort of studd<strong>in</strong>g as used below. Thestuds should be placed three feet apart and project one <strong>in</strong>ch beyond the outeredge of the lower studd<strong>in</strong>g.For the outside, rough board and tar paper should cover the first storyup to w<strong>here</strong> the studs of the second story project one <strong>in</strong>ch, then clapboardscover both stories. Inside, the wall should be sheathed and the ceil<strong>in</strong>g coveredwith two thicknesses of <strong>in</strong>ch tongued and grooved lumber with tar paper between.This cover<strong>in</strong>g will prevent the manure odours reach<strong>in</strong>g the food stored above.
80Doors and W<strong>in</strong>dowsThe doors are wide, the end ones be<strong>in</strong>g six feet and the side ones seven feet.These permit of driv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> to clean out the place, and give liberal room <strong>in</strong> casethe sheep stampede, as they often do if frightened. The top half of each dooris h<strong>in</strong>ged above, and opens <strong>in</strong>wards and upwards. In f<strong>in</strong>e weather these may beDi*iY£i#/t*oyeWffOOT MOUS£ TOrOS? ffOO TiT^,IS/^F'J***fLOOffBlrf/5//VGf?/>tAfA\G/V/9/*Q-'Fig. 54.—Plan of Upper Floor.kept fastened up. The w<strong>in</strong>dows are large, 5x4 feet, and placed high up toadmit the maximum amount of sunlight. These may be either m two sectionsand push back towards each other, or be h<strong>in</strong>ged at the top and sw<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>wardlike the top half of the doors.For the barn floor, a s<strong>in</strong>gle floor, except over the driveway, is strong enough.Dry tongued and grooved material \\ <strong>in</strong>ches thick and well nailed makes anexcellent floor. The driveway part should be covered with 2-<strong>in</strong>ch plank laidcrosswise of the driveway. As the barn <strong>can</strong> be filled from the ends it is notnecessary to build a driveway floor more than half way through. The feed chuteis 3 x 3 feet, and the gra<strong>in</strong> pipes from the hoppers, 12 x 6 <strong>in</strong>ches.
81Constructionof RoofThe roof is semi-circular (see Fig. 56). The planks or rafters for theframe are cut with a diameter two-thirds the width of the build<strong>in</strong>g. If ACbe two-thirds the width, then the arc ALH forms one-half the roof tak<strong>in</strong>g Cas a centre. The circle DGH forms the other half drawn with BD as diameterand B as the centre. As each half of each arch is framed exactly alike, it willbe necessary to expla<strong>in</strong> but one. Take the arc DGH. This is divided <strong>in</strong>to threeequal parts, HG, GM, and MD. By measur<strong>in</strong>g the length of one of these divisionsthe length of the plank necessary will be found. In <strong>this</strong> case the plankssrFig. 55.—Longitud<strong>in</strong>al Section.are 12 feet long. They should be 10 <strong>in</strong>ches wide and 2 <strong>in</strong>ches thick. Five plankswill make the arch or one rafter. In form<strong>in</strong>g the arch the plank should be wideenough to leave at least 2 <strong>in</strong>ches at each end after the side has been roundedoff. A straight l<strong>in</strong>e pass<strong>in</strong>g through the po<strong>in</strong>ts B and G or G and M will givethe cuts at the po<strong>in</strong>ts G and M. Three pieces form the side and two piecesrounded <strong>in</strong> the same way are required for doubl<strong>in</strong>g over the jo<strong>in</strong>ts at G and M,meet<strong>in</strong>g at N, the l<strong>in</strong>e BN giv<strong>in</strong>g the cut. These should be well nailed eachto the other. The cut at H is obta<strong>in</strong>able by a l<strong>in</strong>e drawn at right angles to thefloor and from the centre of it. The cross piece PR acts as a brace and alsocarries the horse fork. The eaves project 2 feet beyond each side by uprightplanks. These uprights are attached by braces to the ma<strong>in</strong> wall. The slope <strong>in</strong>the piece marked T is obta<strong>in</strong>ed by us<strong>in</strong>g a circle with the same two-thirdsdiameter but the cut is taken on the underside of the plank and then turned,concave side up. Each arch <strong>can</strong> be framed and put together (always well nailed Ion the floor, then raised <strong>in</strong>to place and spiked at the bottom. To support thearches for the door space, a plank is placed across under them and supported ateach side by upright planks.These uprights are attached by braces to the ma<strong>in</strong>wall. Some barn doors sw<strong>in</strong>g out, others sw<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>, but roll<strong>in</strong>g doors carefullyput up and on good rollers are most convenient and serviceable.35001—6
82For a flock of from twenty to thirty sheep a build<strong>in</strong>g 20 feet wide by 30feet long, with an addition of a suitable yard, will be large enough. The planof construction may be practically the same as <strong>in</strong> the larger build<strong>in</strong>g, but proportionatelylighter planks may be used <strong>in</strong> the roof construction.. ; .„ :vf y, :, >... * .. rs-« -,iV .- :S^wFig. 56.—CrossSection.VentilationMany sheep barns are ventilated simply by the doors and w<strong>in</strong>dows. If ontwo sides of the build<strong>in</strong>g w<strong>in</strong>dows are left partly open the air should be fairlypure at all times. Some prefer to keep the w<strong>in</strong>dows closed, depend<strong>in</strong>g on aseparate system of ventilation.To-day many systems of ventilation are <strong>in</strong> use. Some that work well <strong>in</strong> oneplace are said to fail <strong>in</strong> others. Much depends on a careful <strong>in</strong>stallation of thesystem, and afterwards careful handl<strong>in</strong>g. At the Experimental Farm at Ottawa,many of the best systems have been tried. The "Rutherford" system, illustrated<strong>in</strong> Fig. 57 and described below, has proved most satisfactory. In a slightlymodified form it has replaced all the others. In <strong>this</strong> system 6 "U" tubes, or boxes,18 by 9 <strong>in</strong>ches, take the air from the outside, and deliver it at the floor <strong>in</strong>side.These tiles or boxes are brought up the wall on the outside a couple of feet,and to keep the snow and ra<strong>in</strong> out a board is put on to form a roof, leav<strong>in</strong>g aportion of the sides open to an extent equal to the capacity of the pipe or box.The boxes should go down <strong>in</strong>to the earth at least three feet, so as to avoid anypossibility of draft. The open<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>side is at the floor level as shown <strong>in</strong> Fig. 57.This should be protected by an iron grat<strong>in</strong>g. Or the pipe may project a few<strong>in</strong>ches above the floor, the open<strong>in</strong>g at the sides be<strong>in</strong>g covered with wire screens,as shown <strong>in</strong> the longitud<strong>in</strong>al section, Fig. 55. This allows a free passage of theair and keeps straw and other material out of the tubes.
83The outlet is a double-walled tube hav<strong>in</strong>g a dead-air space between.It is 2\ feet square, and both the outer and <strong>in</strong>ner jackets are tongued andgrooved lumber. The double wall with the dead air space reduces condensationto a m<strong>in</strong>imum and promotes a better draught. The draught is regulated by adamper <strong>in</strong> the out-take chute to which control ropes are attached. By clos<strong>in</strong>g<strong>this</strong> damper the outward current is stopped and the <strong>in</strong>flow very materiallychecked. The closer the barn is built the better the system will work.The draw<strong>in</strong>g on the left hand represents the damper <strong>in</strong> the out-take pipeopen, and the system t<strong>here</strong>fore <strong>in</strong> full operation. The draw<strong>in</strong>g on the rightshows the damper closed, under which condition both the <strong>in</strong>take and the out-takeare <strong>in</strong>operative....^.»n » unlock Jgf??p;\ ft aTLOOR JOISTFlG. 57.—The Rutherford System of Ventilation.A.—Wall of stable.B.—Foundation of stable.C.—Floor level.D.—Intake box through which fresh air passes.E.—Open<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> side of <strong>in</strong>take pipe.An Inexpensive ShedThe barn described is fashioned after the ideas of extensive sheep ownershav<strong>in</strong>g pure-bred flocks. It is built rather more substantially than would benecessary for a <strong>com</strong>mercial flock from which early lambs are not yielded Manyexcellent flocks of sheep are w<strong>in</strong>tered <strong>in</strong> simple sheds, fac<strong>in</strong>g the south, open<strong>in</strong> front and closed tightly at the ends and back. It is well also to have thefront closed a short distance from either end. Such a shed should not beless than 20 feet wide. A build<strong>in</strong>g 50 feet long, if provided with a <strong>com</strong>fortablevard, would ac<strong>com</strong>modate 85 to 90 head of medium sized sheep. The feed racksmay be movable and stand across the build<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> pairs four feet or moreapart, form<strong>in</strong>g passages for feed<strong>in</strong>g, or they may be constructed aga<strong>in</strong>st theback wall. Unless the sheep <strong>can</strong> be penned out of the build<strong>in</strong>g when the feedis be<strong>in</strong>g distributed the cross racks are preferable, as then the feeder iscrowded off his legs by the hungry animals, nor are the sheep <strong>in</strong> danger of hav<strong>in</strong>gtheir fleeces littered with fodder. These racks may be used for hay, gramand chopped roots. They should, t<strong>here</strong>fore, be built with close bottoms and35001— Qi
84sides, the latter about 3 to 4 <strong>in</strong>ches high. The sides should be slatted about9 <strong>in</strong>ches apart, so that the sheep may poke their heads through while feed<strong>in</strong>g.Racks made <strong>in</strong> <strong>this</strong> way save feed from be<strong>in</strong>g trodden under foot and eachsheep is able to hold its position at meal time. Such coarse fodder as pea straw,or like material, may be fed on the ground <strong>in</strong> the outer yard. If placed alongthe fences, <strong>in</strong> not too large quantities at a time, it will be carefully picked overwithout waste. What is left may be gat<strong>here</strong>d up to be used for bedd<strong>in</strong>g.Fig.58.—An Inexpensive Sheep Shed.Even though the front of the shed is open a good sized w<strong>in</strong>dow at eachend and two or more at the back are desirable. A stock barn of any k<strong>in</strong>d <strong>can</strong>nothave too much light and t<strong>here</strong> are times when a cool breeze from the northaffords great <strong>com</strong>fort to the stock.Y> + '«* -\ t-4 0'-4 rH-fre'o'-£0'O*FiG. 59.—Floor Plan of Shed.Go'-Any sort of cheap construction that provides the qualifications of durabilityand freedom from draughts answers well. The walls may consist of a s<strong>in</strong>gleply of <strong>in</strong>ch lumber well nailed on to a s<strong>can</strong>tl<strong>in</strong>g frame, battened on the outsideand l<strong>in</strong>ed with tarred paper, which may be held on by cull lumber as high as thesheep <strong>can</strong> reach, and by strips above that l<strong>in</strong>e. The roof must be close andthe floor dry. With these qualifications the cheap house described and illustrated<strong>in</strong> Figs. 58 and 59 fulfils all the actual requirements of a sheep barn,unless one raises early lambs. In such a case warmer quarters provided withsmall divisions and conveniences are necessary.
85Sheep asWeed DestroyersThe variety-lov<strong>in</strong>g habits of sheep <strong>in</strong> the matter of diet render them veryuseful <strong>in</strong> destroy<strong>in</strong>g weeds that give trouble <strong>in</strong> crop grow<strong>in</strong>g. It is a well understoodfact that the sheep-rais<strong>in</strong>g farmers have the cleanest as well as the richestfarms. It is calculated that fully n<strong>in</strong>ety per cent of the troublesome weedsare readily eaten by sheep, and these <strong>in</strong>clude practically all of the k<strong>in</strong>ds thatdemand special methods of cultivation on many Canadian farms. With <strong>in</strong>telligentmanagement cropped land may be entirely cleaned of nearly all weeds,while the few that rema<strong>in</strong> will be so thoroughly kept <strong>in</strong> check as to give littletrouble. If allowed to act as scavengers, sheep will render excellent service <strong>in</strong>the w r ork of clean<strong>in</strong>g up permanent pastures, private roads, fence borders andother out of the way places, and if turned on stubble follow<strong>in</strong>g a gra<strong>in</strong> cropmany late seed<strong>in</strong>g weed plants will be nipped off and turned <strong>in</strong>to mutton.The broad statement, that sheep consume a large percentage of farm weeds,is too general to be very <strong>in</strong>structive. In the preparation of <strong>this</strong> bullet<strong>in</strong> anumber of successful sheep men were consulted with a view of secur<strong>in</strong>g specific<strong>in</strong><strong>format</strong>ion upon the weed question, based upon experience and observation. Inthe follow<strong>in</strong>g paragraphs these authorities tell their own stories.Sheep Improve the Grade of WheatA. D. Gamley, Man.— " I feel ashamed that after keep<strong>in</strong>g sheep so manyyears I am unable to give you the names of all the noxious weeds sheep willdestroy, but I have no doubt the reason is on account of the sheep. Theseweeds never bot<strong>here</strong>d me much, and <strong>in</strong> <strong>this</strong> respect I was not observant; however,it seems to me that they eat them all with the exception of the blue burrand <strong>this</strong>tles. Before <strong>com</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>here</strong> from Brandon I kept from 100 to 120 breed<strong>in</strong>gewes, and had unlimited pasture w<strong>here</strong> they were herded from seven <strong>in</strong> themorn<strong>in</strong>g until five or six <strong>in</strong> the even<strong>in</strong>g, when they were turned <strong>in</strong>to a seventyacrepasture field, and w<strong>here</strong> they also rema<strong>in</strong>ed on wet days. T<strong>here</strong> never wasa weed to be seen <strong>in</strong> <strong>this</strong> pasture. In the fall after the gra<strong>in</strong> was stacked theywere turned on to the summer fallow which had grown heavy with weeds.Because I had no fenc<strong>in</strong>g then I could not turn <strong>in</strong> the sheep until the gra<strong>in</strong> wasnearly allstacked; <strong>in</strong> a very short time the fields would be as bare as a billiardtable. I might say that <strong>in</strong> one or two years when wheat was be<strong>in</strong>g docked fromtwo bushels to five and seven bushels to the load, I was shipp<strong>in</strong>g my own wheatfrom Mart<strong>in</strong>ville and had the grade certificates <strong>com</strong>e back marked no dockage,and one per cent is all I was ever docked. My summer fallow would be from40 to 70 acres, and at times would have from 175 to 240 head, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g lambs,feed<strong>in</strong>g upon it." I might mention an <strong>in</strong>cident that occurred <strong>this</strong> summer, and which taughtme a lesson.I had two or three acres of rape sown with the ord<strong>in</strong>ary gra<strong>in</strong> drillbut with only a few holes left open. I mixed the rape with oats that got badlyheated <strong>in</strong> the granary, and which I thought would not grow, but they grew. Iran the cultivator through once but had no time to do it aga<strong>in</strong>. The sheep,happen<strong>in</strong>g to get on it one day, I noticed that they ate the oats and left therape, so I put them on an hour every day until the patch was rid of oats andother weeds and only the rape left. I did the same with the potato patch, andthey cleaned that up. They will not eat potato tops, at least not until late <strong>in</strong>the summer. T<strong>here</strong> is not the slighest doubt that if a farm is fenced so thatsheep <strong>can</strong> be put just w<strong>here</strong> wanted they <strong>can</strong>not be beaten for ridd<strong>in</strong>g a farmof weeds, and I th<strong>in</strong>k they and the grow<strong>in</strong>g of barley are the only solution tothe wild oat problem.
86" With regard to hay, sheep will eat most of the weeds <strong>in</strong> the hay, before thehay; they pick the weeds out first. They are not over-fond of st<strong>in</strong>k weed, avery troublesome plant <strong>in</strong> Manitoba, but will feed on it when young, and willeat off the seeds after the plant has matured."Blue Weed and Wild MustardRichard Gibson, Ont.— " My first experience with sheep as land cleaners wason an abandoned farm on Long Island, on which grew a quantity of secondgrowth scrub difficult to subdue. We cut down the scrub growth and put onsheep to keep down the follow<strong>in</strong>g year's sprouts. For the purpose we hadAtwood Mer<strong>in</strong>os and imported English sheep of the mutton persuasion. TheMer<strong>in</strong>os were <strong>in</strong>f<strong>in</strong>itely better for the purpose than my English favourites. Theycont<strong>in</strong>ued to work day after day, nibbl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>here</strong> and t<strong>here</strong> w<strong>here</strong>ver a sproutpresented itself. The English breeds on the other hand wanted their mealsserved up by English butlers; give them good grub and all the leisure betweenmeals and they are barons of their order, but work they will not." On my present farm, purchased a number of years ago, the pastures wereoverrun with the weed known as the blue weed, locally called 'blue devil.' Oneeighty acres was a <strong>com</strong>plete mass of blue flowers, admired by all artists or poetswho passed t<strong>here</strong>by. I doubt if to-day 100 plants are <strong>in</strong> flower on those eightyacres. Sheep alone did it, and registered Shropshires at that. The sheep disda<strong>in</strong>eat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>this</strong> plant until the flowers are <strong>in</strong> evidence, then they nibble the heart out,flowers and honey—not a bad <strong>com</strong>b<strong>in</strong>ation, especially for sheep." I believe sheep would eradicate wild mustard if used <strong>in</strong>telligently for thatpurpose. They are very fond of it <strong>in</strong> two stages of its growth I am conv<strong>in</strong>ced.They eat it readily when very young and aga<strong>in</strong> when <strong>in</strong> blossom. I <strong>can</strong>notbear <strong>this</strong> out from experience with wild mustard, but I do know that <strong>in</strong> my partof L<strong>in</strong>colnshire white mustard was extensively used as a forage plant, moreparticularly for breed<strong>in</strong>g ewes dur<strong>in</strong>g the autumn."Weeds Increase as Sheep DecreaseJohn Jackson, Ont.— "I might name a few ofthe noxious weeds that sheepwill readily eat as follows: annual sow <strong>this</strong>tle, oxeye daisy, rag weed, wildmustard, wild vetches, and, even Canada <strong>this</strong>tles when young and tender. Theywill also eat the buds and flowers of <strong>this</strong>tles when <strong>in</strong> the latter stage. I believesheep will eat about n<strong>in</strong>ety per cent of all the noxious weeds that grow on thefarm." The best way to handle sheep to give best results <strong>in</strong> destroy<strong>in</strong>g weeds isto put them on when the weeds are young and tender, allow<strong>in</strong>g them to pickeveryth<strong>in</strong>g close and bare; then change to other pasture, allow<strong>in</strong>g the weeds toget a fresh start. Keep up <strong>this</strong> alternate system so the sheep will get the weeds<strong>in</strong> their tender stage of growth."Telfer Bros., Ont.— "Too much <strong>can</strong>not be said <strong>in</strong> favour of the sheep as aweed exterm<strong>in</strong>ator. Rag weed is very <strong>com</strong>mon throughout the country, and Iam of the op<strong>in</strong>ion that were more sheep kept <strong>this</strong> weed could be practically putout of bus<strong>in</strong>ess, as they are fond of it <strong>in</strong> its earlier stages of growth." I have had good results <strong>in</strong> pastur<strong>in</strong>g a few lambs <strong>in</strong> the corn fields. Theyeat many of the weeds and do little or no damage to the corn. Our observationleads us to conclude that farmers who keep sheep have very much cleaner farmsthan those who do not, and <strong>this</strong> we attribute to the fact that scarcely any weedescapes them even if pasture is plentiful."J. W. Clark, Ont.— "As weed exterm<strong>in</strong>ators sheep have no equal, be<strong>in</strong>g veryfond of nearly all weeds. T<strong>here</strong> are only three or four weeds they will not eatreadily, namely: toad flax, orange hawk weed, and these they will eat if pasture
87is not very plentiful. They are very fond of the perennial sow <strong>this</strong>tle. WhileI have not had experience with <strong>this</strong> weed on my farm, while go<strong>in</strong>g through theprov<strong>in</strong>ce on <strong>in</strong>stitute work many farmers have claimed that the sheep would<strong>com</strong>pletely eradicate <strong>this</strong> most troublesome weed <strong>in</strong> pasture land, keep<strong>in</strong>g itnipped off so close to the surface that it could not exist for any great length oftime. The oxeye daisy is another weed that sheep will keep <strong>in</strong> control onpasture land. Rib grass, sheep are very fond of and will keep <strong>in</strong> check. Therag weed <strong>can</strong> be kept from seed<strong>in</strong>g after the crop is harvested by a good flock ofsheep; they will eat the tops if the pasture is not too plentiful. Too much <strong>can</strong>notbe said <strong>in</strong> their favour."A number of other correspondents substantiate <strong>in</strong> a general way the <strong>in</strong><strong>format</strong>ionconta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the above letters. Others state that their land is kept soclean of weeds by sheep as to render it impossible to make observation upon thek<strong>in</strong>ds of weeds eaten by <strong>this</strong> class of stock. The latter is probably the strongestevidence one could have of the value of sheep as an aid to clean farm<strong>in</strong>g.Ragwort—The Source of Pictou Cattle DiseaseCerta<strong>in</strong> plants that are prejudicial to the health of other classes of stock maybe eaten by sheep with no apparent risk or <strong>in</strong>convenience. The most conspicuousexample of <strong>this</strong> class of weed is ragwort {Senecio Jacoboea), a plant very prevalent<strong>in</strong> Pr<strong>in</strong>ce Edward Island and counties of Nova Scotia border<strong>in</strong>g on theNorthumberland Straits. Through experiments conducted on a large farm atAntigonish, Nova Scotia, by the Health of Animals' Branch of the Departmentof Agriculture, it was discovered a few years ago that the fatal Pictou cattledisease is a direct result of the cont<strong>in</strong>ued eat<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>this</strong> weed <strong>in</strong> its dried state.Further experiments have proved not only that sheep are not harmed by eat<strong>in</strong>gragwort, but they enjoy it as a diet to such an extent that the plant soon disappearsfrom an <strong>in</strong>fested field when pastured by a flock of sheep of sufficientnumbers to adequately cope with the vegetation. From <strong>in</strong><strong>format</strong>ion alreadysecured it is evident that while <strong>this</strong> weed exists as at present over the <strong>in</strong>festedareas, cattle rais<strong>in</strong>g <strong>can</strong>not be carried on without careful precaution and greatrisk. Be<strong>in</strong>g widespread over rugged hillsides, wood lots and other untillableareas, the only practicable method of eradication is through the agency of sheep.Fortunately the country <strong>in</strong>fested is well suited for sheep rais<strong>in</strong>g, be<strong>in</strong>g capableof produc<strong>in</strong>g an abundance of w<strong>in</strong>ter feed, while the hilly pastures and otherrough lands are admirably adapted to <strong>this</strong> class of stock. As weed eradicators,sheep <strong>can</strong> perform a service of great value to the ragwort-<strong>in</strong>fested areas of theMaritime Prov<strong>in</strong>ces.ANIMAL ENEMIES OF THE SHEEPThe DogFortunate is the sheep breeder who is not from his own experience <strong>com</strong>pelledto regard the rov<strong>in</strong>g dog as the natural enemy of the sheep. Many excellentflocks have been ravished and ru<strong>in</strong>ed by sheep-kill<strong>in</strong>g dogs, and their ownersdiscouraged <strong>in</strong> the keep<strong>in</strong>g of sheep. For the decrease of sheep <strong>in</strong> all parts ofCanada the annoyance and loss from dogs is given as the chief cause. T<strong>here</strong>is perhaps no experience on the farm so heart-break<strong>in</strong>g to the shepherdas to f<strong>in</strong>d <strong>in</strong> the morn<strong>in</strong>g that the dogs have been amongst his flock. Upongo<strong>in</strong>g to the field he f<strong>in</strong>ds a number of the choicest ewes torn and bleed<strong>in</strong>g orkilled outright; others with their forearms so chewed and thighs lacerated as torender them hopeless cripples. Those not bitten are so exhausted, frightened andupset as to be practically ru<strong>in</strong>ed for further usefulness. For weeks they willstart and rush about from the least unusual sound, until restful feed<strong>in</strong>g and
88thriv<strong>in</strong>g is out of the question. Nor does time correct the evil. Regular breed<strong>in</strong>gis <strong>in</strong>terfered with and losses at lamb<strong>in</strong>g time are greatly <strong>in</strong>creased. Even thougha hundred per cent of the actual damages is made good by municipal appropriationfor the killed and <strong>in</strong>jured animals, the loss is not nearly met. The writer<strong>can</strong> speak from experience on <strong>this</strong> po<strong>in</strong>t. On a s<strong>in</strong>gle night more than a scoreof breed<strong>in</strong>g ewes, nearly all imported from Brita<strong>in</strong>, were bitten or torn. Whilethe immediate fatalities did not exceed half a dozen head, the damage wasestimated to be sufficiently large to warrant the council <strong>in</strong> grant<strong>in</strong>g five hundredand twenty-five dollars—to the council a large appropriation, but to the flockowner a very <strong>in</strong>adequate <strong>com</strong>pensation, not greater <strong>in</strong> proportion than one thousanddollars' <strong>in</strong>surance on the loss of a five thousand dollar property. Thedestruction occurred early <strong>in</strong> the summer while the lambs were young. The eweswent off their milk, and be<strong>in</strong>g restless and timid failed sadly <strong>in</strong> condition. Manydid not get <strong>in</strong> lamb <strong>in</strong> the fall, and a number that did gave endless trouble witheach succeed<strong>in</strong>g lamb<strong>in</strong>g time from unnatural presentations and losses t<strong>here</strong>from.The once valuable flock selected <strong>in</strong> Brita<strong>in</strong> and at home at great expensewas practically ru<strong>in</strong>ed.The experience described is not overdrawn, as very many sheep owners <strong>can</strong>affirm. Unfortunately only sheep men <strong>can</strong> appreciate the extent of <strong>in</strong>jury to the<strong>in</strong>dustry effected by dogs, with the result that adequate protection by legislativebodies is practically impossible to secure. Even the small tax of one dollar fordogs and two for bitches is looked upon by many as an unjustified hardship onthe poor man who so frequently likes to harbour two or more useless <strong>can</strong><strong>in</strong>es.The people who keep the dogs have no <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> the sheep, and as they arevastly <strong>in</strong> the majority, measures calculated to restrict the freedom of the dog arealmost <strong>in</strong>variably shelved on first presentation, and afterwards killed or modifieduntil practically useless.Is it not time for sheep owners and others <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>dustry tounite upon <strong>this</strong> question, which is so closely allied to successful agriculture?The fluctuations <strong>in</strong> the number of sheep <strong>in</strong> Canada have for the most partbeen due to the worry<strong>in</strong>g dog. That such an <strong>in</strong>dustry should be handicappedand <strong>in</strong> many cases ru<strong>in</strong>ed by, not the valuable dog that his owner cares for,but the pestiferous cur that is not only useless but a detriment to a district, isa situation difficult to understand. And yet adequate legislative protectionis denied the sheep. Sheep are seldom or never killed dur<strong>in</strong>g the day time,which fact greatly simplifies the work<strong>in</strong>g out of a satisfactory measure. A dogaway from home and unattended dur<strong>in</strong>g the night hours is a dangerous animal,and for the purpose of sheep protection should be regarded as a wild beast andtreated accord<strong>in</strong>gly.It is true that most of the prov<strong>in</strong>ces have on their statute <strong>book</strong>s Acts forthe protection of sheep, but <strong>in</strong> no case does the sheep receive such considerationas the wild deer of the forest. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the game laws of certa<strong>in</strong> prov<strong>in</strong>ces:" No hounds or dogs accustomed to pursue deer are allowed at large w<strong>here</strong>deer are found, dur<strong>in</strong>g the close season for deer."The law <strong>in</strong>Ontario further provides that:" Hounds or dogs runn<strong>in</strong>g deer dur<strong>in</strong>g the close season may be killed onsight by any person, who shall not be liable to damage for so do<strong>in</strong>g."So far as the legislation for the protection of sheep is concerned we havemade little or no advance for several centuries. We f<strong>in</strong>d that <strong>in</strong> 1648 the generalcourt of Massachusetts made an order <strong>in</strong> which the follow<strong>in</strong>g appears:" If any dogge shall kill any sheepe the owner either hang his dogge forthwithor pay double damages for the sheepe, if ye dogge hath been seen to courseor bite any sheepe before, not be<strong>in</strong>g sett on, and his owner hath notice t<strong>here</strong>ofthen he shall both hange his dogge and pay for the sheepe."
89This old regulation was calculated to protect the sheep <strong>in</strong> the same waythat our present game laws protect the deer, while the sheep <strong>in</strong> many municipalitiesare receiv<strong>in</strong>g a much less serious consideration. In the twentieth centuryit would appear as though the dog <strong>in</strong>dustry receives greater consideration bylegislative bodies than that of the sheep.Methods ofProtectionWhile many sheep raisers have dispersed their flocks because of the dognuisance, and others for the same reason have hesitated tak<strong>in</strong>g up the <strong>in</strong>dustry,t<strong>here</strong> are many who have discovered successful methods of guard<strong>in</strong>g their flocksfrom attack.The employment of half a dozen sharp sound<strong>in</strong>g bellsattached to the necksof <strong>in</strong>dividuals is <strong>com</strong>mon practice. This, however, is not always successful.Flocks wear<strong>in</strong>g <strong>this</strong> supposed safeguard are occasionally attacked and itsmembers worried, but the sheep <strong>can</strong> approach with<strong>in</strong> earshot of the dwell<strong>in</strong>g,the shepherd is likely to be aroused as he is ever on the alert <strong>in</strong> regard to hissheepȦ troublesome custom, but considered the best safeguard by many, is toUnless provisionbr<strong>in</strong>g the flock at night to a field or plot adjacent to the barn.is made for feed<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> these quarters, the sheep <strong>can</strong>not thrive satisfactorily.They are early to rise, and should not have to wait long after daylight for themorn<strong>in</strong>g meal, especially if <strong>this</strong> has to be gat<strong>here</strong>d from a sparse pasture at somedistance from the sleep<strong>in</strong>g place. The plan has po<strong>in</strong>ts to <strong>com</strong>mend it if thefeed<strong>in</strong>g difficulty is over<strong>com</strong>e. All sheep should be seen once daily, and twice iseven better. To provide night pasture two plots should be sown with suitablefodder and the flock given access to these alternately, giv<strong>in</strong>g each a chance togrow up <strong>in</strong> its turn. If these are fenced with dog-proof fence the surer will bethe protection. A modern woven wire fence 5 feet 6 <strong>in</strong>ches high, with crosswires not more than 5 <strong>in</strong>ches apart, and hav<strong>in</strong>g a barbed wire at the top and atthe bottom close to the ground, will keep out dogs, provided no objects are leftthat would be of assistance <strong>in</strong> jump<strong>in</strong>g over. A further safeguard is to nail aslat 15 <strong>in</strong>ches long po<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g outwards and upwards to each post and attach twostrands of barbed wire to these.An extensive sheep raiser re<strong>com</strong>mends the use of a dog-proof woven wire<strong>in</strong>closure, locat<strong>in</strong>g it <strong>in</strong> the pasture and mov<strong>in</strong>g it from place to place on knollsneed<strong>in</strong>g fertiliz<strong>in</strong>g. It is suggested that five dollars worth of material wouldprovide a movable pen large enough for fifty sheep. The labour of <strong>in</strong>clos<strong>in</strong>gand liberat<strong>in</strong>g the sheep would be much less irksome than milk<strong>in</strong>g cows orfeed<strong>in</strong>g hogs.Still another plan is to give the flock access to the home build<strong>in</strong>g dur<strong>in</strong>g thenight, or at all times, if convenient, by leav<strong>in</strong>g open<strong>in</strong>gs from the field to a lanelead<strong>in</strong>g to the barnyard. If the salt box is kept at the build<strong>in</strong>g the sheep willregard the po<strong>in</strong>t as the one centre of meet<strong>in</strong>g, and to <strong>this</strong> they will run whenmolested <strong>in</strong> the field. It is very important to have the gap immediately at thecorner of the pasture nearest the barn. If at the side oi the field, the sheep,when be<strong>in</strong>g driven, are likely to miss the gap <strong>in</strong> their terrified flight from theirpursuers.Predatory AnimalsIn many sections of Canada, more particularly west of the Great Lakes, thesheep-rais<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dustry is seriously <strong>in</strong>jured by the depredations of predatoryanimals. The most <strong>com</strong>mon of these are the coyote, the timber wolf and thepanther. The coyote is troublesome <strong>in</strong> each of the western prov<strong>in</strong>ces, the timberwolf is the cause of loss <strong>in</strong> Alberta and British Columbia, while the ravages ofthe panther are conf<strong>in</strong>ed to the Pacific prov<strong>in</strong>ce. In addition to these the brown
90bear occasionally takes a lamb <strong>in</strong> back sections of Quebec, New Brunswick andNova Scotia. The coyote or prairie wolf is especially destructive to younglambs, but when once the habit of sheep kill<strong>in</strong>g has be<strong>com</strong>e fixed unprotectedflocks <strong>in</strong> coyote-<strong>in</strong>fested districts suffer from their depredations.A number of remedies for the coyote nuisance have been adopted, with moreor less success. Close, high wire fenc<strong>in</strong>g is effective, but quite expensive. Theord<strong>in</strong>ary bounty of $2 for mature coyotes and $1 for pups helps to reduce thenumber, but the systematic and careful use of poison at the proper seasons is themost effective remedy. The Board of Sheep Commissioners of Oregon, a bodyreport<strong>in</strong>g estimated annual losses of 150,000 sheep <strong>in</strong> the state by coyotes, hasworked out a number of practical methods for destroy<strong>in</strong>g these pests. Thefollow<strong>in</strong>g quotations are from Bullet<strong>in</strong> No. 2 issued by <strong>this</strong> board:" Grant<strong>in</strong>g that it will be possible for the one thousand sheep men to averagethe destruction of ten coyotes each for the w<strong>in</strong>ter months of the year, andapproximat<strong>in</strong>g that half of <strong>this</strong> number of destroyed coyotes will be pregnantfemales that would have given birth to an average of six pups each dur<strong>in</strong>g thefollow<strong>in</strong>g spr<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>this</strong> alone would account for forty thousand less coyotes <strong>in</strong> thefall of the same season." For coyotes, use No. 3 spr<strong>in</strong>g steel traps fitted with swivels and attachedto a log or stone weight<strong>in</strong>g thirty pounds upwards. It is well to see that the trapis placed on a level with the surface of the ground and the jaws of the trap arecovered with a piece of th<strong>in</strong> paper, and <strong>this</strong> <strong>can</strong> further be covered with particlesof f<strong>in</strong>e earth; <strong>this</strong> <strong>can</strong> be further masked by the spr<strong>in</strong>kl<strong>in</strong>g of water upon theearth-covered trap. The use of artificial scent will <strong>here</strong> be found useful." When hunt<strong>in</strong>g with hounds the dogs should be <strong>in</strong>closed <strong>in</strong> a wagon fittedwith spr<strong>in</strong>g doors that <strong>can</strong> be tripped by the driver,thus allow<strong>in</strong>g the dogs tomake their exit and quickly enter the chase." Dur<strong>in</strong>g the month of May the young coyote pups may be heard <strong>in</strong> theirdens and burrows, and <strong>can</strong> be easily destroyed by digg<strong>in</strong>g them out, or by thedestruction of their mother. This method is more generally used than all others." Of all available methods of coyote destruction, poison<strong>in</strong>g is admitted tobe the most practical and efficient measure, and no poison has been so successfullyused as two gra<strong>in</strong>s of dry sulphate of strychn<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong>closed <strong>in</strong> two gra<strong>in</strong>gelat<strong>in</strong>e capsules. The gelat<strong>in</strong>e capsules filled with strychn<strong>in</strong>e after be<strong>in</strong>g wipedfree from any external appearance of strychn<strong>in</strong>e should be further protectedfrom the dissolv<strong>in</strong>g effects of moisture, conta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the air and the juices andwater conta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the several materials used as a bait, by cover<strong>in</strong>g same withseveral coats of tallow. This may be best done by dipp<strong>in</strong>g the capsules <strong>in</strong>melted tallow." Several materials are highly re<strong>com</strong>mended as be<strong>in</strong>g useful for coyote bait,and are used and prepared as follows:" (a) Lard, beef suet and tallow. Cut these <strong>in</strong>to pieces the size of awalnut and <strong>in</strong>sert t<strong>here</strong><strong>in</strong> one of the capsules of poison and securely close thecavity." (b) Particles of liver. Cut <strong>in</strong>to pieces the size of an egg and <strong>in</strong>sert t<strong>here</strong><strong>in</strong>by means of a slit one of the capsules of poison <strong>in</strong> each piece." (c) Eggs, <strong>in</strong>to which one of the capsules of poison has been placed bymeans of a small open<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the end." (d) Prunes, <strong>in</strong>to which one of the capsules has been <strong>in</strong>serted." It is necessary that all materials used as bait to conta<strong>in</strong> poison should behandled at all times with either forceps or gloved hands, as coyotes <strong>can</strong> easilydetect human scent when a bait is touched by persons not wear<strong>in</strong>g gloves." Eggs and beef suet will be rendered more easily found, both by the coyoteand parties wish<strong>in</strong>g to remove the same from the range if the bait is covered withblood. This is especially re<strong>com</strong>mended when snow covers the ground.
91Precautionary Measures" Eggs and prunes are said not to be readily eaten by domestic dogs. Beefsuet, lard and tallow <strong>can</strong> be rendered less likely to be picked up by dogs if holesare bored <strong>in</strong> irregular pieces of wood and the suet, lard or tallow conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g thepoison placed t<strong>here</strong><strong>in</strong>. These offer the advantage that they may be distributedfrom horseback along the decoy trails and <strong>in</strong> the vic<strong>in</strong>ity of the decoy bait, and<strong>in</strong> the morn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>can</strong> be removed from dangerous exposure. Lard and tallowshould be easily used <strong>in</strong> <strong>this</strong> manner."All sheep men shall exercise great care <strong>in</strong> putt<strong>in</strong>g out poison, and takeevery reasonable precaution to prevent it from be<strong>in</strong>g taken by dogs or otherdomestic animals. All poisoned carcasses that have la<strong>in</strong> so long that they ceaseto be useful, or w<strong>here</strong> they are so situated as to be easily accessible to dogs,should be destroyed by burn<strong>in</strong>g. (Unless buried at a sufficient depth the bonesof such carcasses may be uncovered by badgers, and many months afterwardsbe the cause of poison<strong>in</strong>g of a valuable dog). Poison should never be placednearer than one-half mile of any highway or road or any residence or house. Ifplaced nearer than one mile from any house or dwell<strong>in</strong>g the occupants t<strong>here</strong>ofshould first be notified. Do not put out poison on lands or ranges other thanthose owned, leased or occupied by you to the exclusion of other persons, orunless you have the express consent of the lawful owner or possessor t<strong>here</strong>of.Do not place poison near enough to any road or highway to attract dogs pass<strong>in</strong>galong. Poison should rarely ever be <strong>in</strong>serted <strong>in</strong> meat conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g bone. If acarcass should be poisoned be sure to <strong>com</strong>pletely destroy all rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g bones byburn<strong>in</strong>g. Written notices should be placed <strong>in</strong> conspicuous places near carcassesand about one-fourth mile t<strong>here</strong>from when practicable. Dogs should be muzzledor tied up dur<strong>in</strong>g the poison<strong>in</strong>g season. All small poisoned baits should bepicked up, after us<strong>in</strong>g a reasonable length of time, and destroyed. After theseason is over all poisoned bait should be destroyed, whether old or not. Beextremely cautious and careful at all times <strong>in</strong> the putt<strong>in</strong>g out of poison, andsuccess will crown your efforts."It should be observed that the expos<strong>in</strong>g of poison for wild animals is prohibitedby law <strong>in</strong> some of the prov<strong>in</strong>ces, while <strong>in</strong> other prov<strong>in</strong>ces it <strong>can</strong> be doneonly accord<strong>in</strong>g to regulations. Before expos<strong>in</strong>g poison for wolves, coyotes, orother predatory animals one should learn and follow the regulations <strong>in</strong> force <strong>in</strong>the prov<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>in</strong> which it is proposed to expose the poison.Timber Wolves,Bears and PanthersTimber wolves and panthers are sly and difficult to trap. The most popularmethod of destroy<strong>in</strong>g these is to hunt them with dogs and guns. The substantialbounty offered for their heads by each of the prov<strong>in</strong>ces proves an <strong>in</strong>centive tohunters to seek <strong>this</strong> class of game.Loss from bears is likely to dim<strong>in</strong>ish with the removal of timber and theattendant extension of agriculture. An enthusiastic sheep raiser resid<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>northern Quebec f<strong>in</strong>ds it profitable to br<strong>in</strong>g up his flock to the barnyard dur<strong>in</strong>gthe summer and fall months. The residents of <strong>this</strong> vic<strong>in</strong>ity are ever on thealert for bears, with the result that the number is be<strong>in</strong>g reduced each year. Steelbear traps are used <strong>in</strong> isolated spots, but these are objected to because of thedanger to farm stock. The " dead fall", <strong>in</strong>telligently used, each year accountsfor a number of bru<strong>in</strong>s, but the dog and gun directed with the judgment ofan experienced hunter are probably the most effective weapons of exterm<strong>in</strong>ation.
DISEASES OF SHEEPBy the late J.G. RutherfordVeter<strong>in</strong>ary Director General and Live Stock CommissionerSheep <strong>in</strong> Canada are particularly free from disease. The climate of <strong>this</strong>northland has proven to be particularly healthful for sheep. Alike <strong>in</strong> the clear,cold climate of the west and the snowy w<strong>in</strong>ters of the east, sheep do well, theirwarm coats protect<strong>in</strong>g them sufficiently, while the pure air and sunsh<strong>in</strong>e keepthe lungs and consequently their whole system <strong>in</strong> good order, so that good heal<strong>this</strong> practically assured, if the management is even half what it ought to be. Thisbullet<strong>in</strong> would, however, hardly be <strong>com</strong>plete without a chapter on at leastmost <strong>com</strong>mon ailments which may be now and then met with.The diseases of sheep may be divided <strong>in</strong>to several classes. First thosecaused by external parasites such as scab and foot rot; along with these may bementioned ticks and lice, which when neglected frequently br<strong>in</strong>g about anunthrifty condition border<strong>in</strong>g closely on disease. Then t<strong>here</strong> are <strong>in</strong>ternalparasites such as worms of various forms, which may <strong>in</strong>fest the stomach, the<strong>in</strong>test<strong>in</strong>esand the respiratory organs or the head.Digestive derangements, too, manifest themselves at times. To these maybe added diseases and accidents peculiar to reproduction.ScabSheep scab, when once <strong>in</strong>troduced <strong>in</strong>to a flock, must be dealt with bythorough measures. It is a strictly contagious disease caused by a m<strong>in</strong>utespecific mite technically known as Psoroptes Communis Ovis. It is so small asto be difficult to discern with the naked eye. This disease generally affects theparts that are covered with wool. It usually beg<strong>in</strong>s at the upper part of thebody, thence spread<strong>in</strong>g over the neck, shoulders and hips, extends slowly butsurely <strong>in</strong> ever-<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g areas. In two or three months the entire body maybe affected. The disease spreads, as a rule, much more rapidly dur<strong>in</strong>g the w<strong>in</strong>terthan <strong>in</strong> the warm weather. In sheep on grass, after shear<strong>in</strong>g and wash<strong>in</strong>g it mayrema<strong>in</strong> for a long time <strong>in</strong> an almost latent condition. Sheep well fed and otherwisestrong and healthy resist its ravages <strong>in</strong> a remarkable way, while those whichare th<strong>in</strong> or badly nourished rapidly be<strong>com</strong>e debilitated, and if left untreated,live but a short time. Affected sheep experience great itch<strong>in</strong>ess with irritation,<strong>format</strong>ion of pimples, <strong>in</strong>flammation, and the development of crusts or scabsunder and near the edge of which the parasite lives. The sheep are restless, theyscratch and bite themselves, rub aga<strong>in</strong>st fences, posts, etc., as if <strong>in</strong> great torture.The fleece assumes a tufted, ragged and matted condition. Tufts of wool arepulled out by the sheep with the teeth, or are left on fences, posts, etc., w<strong>here</strong>they have rubbed; to each tuft scabs are attached, which are usually replacedat the seat of orig<strong>in</strong> by thicker or more ad<strong>here</strong>nt crusts. The sk<strong>in</strong> be<strong>com</strong>esmore or less bare and furrowed, and from the furrows blood oozes. Withouttreatment the disease goes from bad to worse, spread<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>fection, which isreadily taken up by other sheep which may <strong>com</strong>e <strong>in</strong>to contact with a diseasedone or with <strong>in</strong>fected objects.Under the provisions of the Animal Contagious Diseases Act it is the dutyof every owner, on perceiv<strong>in</strong>g the appearance of sheep scab <strong>in</strong> his flock, to giveimmediate notice to the M<strong>in</strong>ister of Agriculture at Ottawa, and to the nearestveter<strong>in</strong>ary <strong>in</strong>spector of the Department of Agriculture, of the suspicion orpresence of the disease. Instructions will then be issued and carried out accord<strong>in</strong>gto government regulations.92the
93Two pr<strong>in</strong>cipal preparations are re<strong>com</strong>mended for the treatment of scabbysheep, the lime-and-sulphur dip and the tobacco-and-sulphur dip. The formeris re<strong>com</strong>mended and used by the Department of Agriculture. Its preparation isas follows: Take 10 pounds fresh lime and add enough water to make a paste.Sift <strong>in</strong>to the lime paste 24 pounds of flowers of sulphur and stir thoroughly. Boil<strong>this</strong> mixture <strong>in</strong> 30 gallons of water for three hours, frequently stirr<strong>in</strong>g themixture. The solution should then be a brown or chocolate colour. Allow themixture to stand for a few hours, preferably overnight, and then draw off theliquid. Care should be taken not to disturb the sediment, which is slightly<strong>in</strong>jurious to the fleece of the sheep. To <strong>this</strong> liquid add sufficient water to make100 gallons. It should be used for dipp<strong>in</strong>g at a temperature not lower than 106degrees, and not higher than 112 degrees Fahrenheit. The hot dip softens thescabs and destroys the mites. The sheep should rema<strong>in</strong> a full two m<strong>in</strong>utes <strong>in</strong>the tank. The head should be plunged, and if their are thick crusts on the sk<strong>in</strong>the dip should be rubbed <strong>in</strong>to the wool with a stiff brush or otherwise. Twodipp<strong>in</strong>gs are necessary at <strong>in</strong>tervals of from 10 to 12 days. In very bad casesa third dipp<strong>in</strong>g may be necessary. The sheep should be clipped wheneverpossible before dipp<strong>in</strong>g. When the flock has been dipped once, their quartersshould be changed; the barns, fences, etc., w<strong>here</strong> they have been kept should bewell covered with a lime wash conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g at least 5 per cent of pure carbolicacid or creol<strong>in</strong>. Further <strong>in</strong>structions for dipp<strong>in</strong>g are given elsew<strong>here</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>this</strong>bullet<strong>in</strong>.Foot-RotFoot-rot is of two k<strong>in</strong>ds, viz., contagious and non-contagious. The latteris a simple disease usually due to excessive wear of the hoof and the irritationcaused by the <strong>in</strong>troduction of dirt to the sensitive tissues of the foot. It is,t<strong>here</strong>fore, most prevalent on low, wet land and <strong>in</strong> filthy yards and barns.Prevention is better than cure. Sheep should not be fed <strong>in</strong> wet, muddy orfilthy places. Their hoofs should be exam<strong>in</strong>ed and pared when necessary toremove superfluous horn. When the disease appears <strong>in</strong> a small flock the hoofsshould be trimmed down closely and the feet washed or soaked <strong>in</strong> a solutionof copper sulphate, 1 ounce to 2^ p<strong>in</strong>ts of water, then dressed with waterysolution of chloride of iron or with chloride of antimony, or preferably with amixture of equal parts of chloride of antimony and t<strong>in</strong>cture of myrrh. Aftersuch dress<strong>in</strong>g the raw surfaces should be protected by a coat<strong>in</strong>g of p<strong>in</strong>e tar orgutta-percha varnish. Then remove the animals to a dry, clean pasture. If thedisease is not of long stand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>this</strong> treatment will generally effect a cure, although<strong>in</strong> confirmed cases w<strong>here</strong> much destruction of tissue has taken place it may benecessary to repeat the dress<strong>in</strong>g several times.For large flocks on the range or elsew<strong>here</strong> a more general treatment isnecessary. A suitable solution is made <strong>in</strong> the proportion of ten pounds of coppersulphate, dissolved <strong>in</strong> five gallons of water. The solution is put <strong>in</strong> troughs twoor three <strong>in</strong>ches deep. The sheep after be<strong>in</strong>g driven through the water, preferablyrunn<strong>in</strong>g water, to cleanse their feet, are by us<strong>in</strong>g a small chute, made to pass oneby one through the preparation. As an alternative to the above, affected sheepmay be held for a short time on a floor spr<strong>in</strong>kled to a depth of three <strong>in</strong>ches withfreshly slaked lime.Canadian sheep men may be thankful that the contagious form of foot-rotis almost unknown <strong>in</strong> <strong>this</strong> country. The few cases seen are as a rule <strong>in</strong> recentimportations. For <strong>this</strong> reason imported sheep and others that have travelled<strong>in</strong> dirty cars should be carefully exam<strong>in</strong>ed on arrival and treated at the sametime as they are dipped. Prevention of the trouble is much cheaper than effect<strong>in</strong>ga cure. Treatment is similar to that described above, although ow<strong>in</strong>g to the
94persistent nature of the disease recovery is generally much more protracted. As<strong>in</strong> <strong>this</strong> form the trouble beg<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> the sk<strong>in</strong> of the <strong>in</strong>terdigital space and worksdownwards through the sensitive lam<strong>in</strong>ae, it is advisable to dress the sk<strong>in</strong> betweenthe dew-claws with a mixture of one part carbolic acid to ten parts of glycer<strong>in</strong>e,or with vasel<strong>in</strong>e twenty parts to one part of iod<strong>in</strong>e.Ticksand LiceIn exam<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g sheep for sk<strong>in</strong> disease it is well to remember that they aresubject to <strong>in</strong>festation with lice and ticks. Of these the louse is most to bedreaded, both on account of the rapidity with which it multiplies and the seriouseffects which it is liable to produce on the health, as well as the wool, of itsunwill<strong>in</strong>g host. The tick, which by the way is not a true tick but really belongsto the louse family, while much less prolific, develops rapidly and is mostfrequently troublesome <strong>in</strong> lambs, although like the white louse it is found onsheep of all ages. As <strong>in</strong> other species of domestic animals, these parasites aremost frequently found and appear to flourish on th<strong>in</strong> and badly nourishedsheep rather than on those <strong>in</strong> good condition. When present <strong>in</strong> any numberboth ticks and lice <strong>in</strong>duce great irritation, caus<strong>in</strong>g the sheep to scratch with theh<strong>in</strong>d feet, gnaw the sides and rump and rub on any convenient object <strong>in</strong> amanner similar to those affected with scab. In <strong>this</strong> way the fleece is oftenseriously depreciated, while from its mode of feed<strong>in</strong>g, the louse also cuts thefibre near the root, thus greatly lessen<strong>in</strong>g the growth and value of the wool. Theeffects on + he sk<strong>in</strong> of the attacks of these animals, and especially that of thewhite louse, may very easily be mistaken for scab unless a careful exam<strong>in</strong>ationis made. It <strong>can</strong>not, however, be too often repeated that t<strong>here</strong> is no excuse forerror <strong>in</strong> a diagnosis of <strong>this</strong> k<strong>in</strong>d, for although scab, lice and ticks may undoubtedlyexist on the same animal, a sufficiently close and pa<strong>in</strong>stak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>vestigation,with the aid of a moderately powerful pocket magnify<strong>in</strong>g glass, will enable any<strong>in</strong>telligent observer to reach a def<strong>in</strong>ite conclusion as to the nature of the trouble,whether it be simple or <strong>com</strong>pound. It must be borne <strong>in</strong> m<strong>in</strong>d that the presenceof lice is no proof that a sheep is free from scab. While the converse is alsotrue, it is not so important, as while lice and ticks are disagreeable and unwel<strong>com</strong>eguests, their presence is a matter of slight consequence, especially to thesheep-own<strong>in</strong>g public, as <strong>com</strong>pared with that of the smaller but more deadly andpersistent scab mite.Stomach WormsThe stomach worms, of which t<strong>here</strong> are several varieties, are generallysomewhat under an <strong>in</strong>ch long and live <strong>in</strong> the fourth stomach. Lambs sufferparticularly from their attacks, which beg<strong>in</strong> any time after the little fellowsstart to eat grass, and may cont<strong>in</strong>ue even till cold weather <strong>com</strong>es. Some ofthe symptoms <strong>in</strong> lambs and sheep are loss of flesh, dullness, langour, fail<strong>in</strong>gappetite, thirst, occasional colics, black diarrhoea, dry wool, chalky sk<strong>in</strong>, and ageneral anaemic condition. Lambs and weak sheep are specially affected bythese pests, which frequently cause death, while strong healthy sheep, though<strong>in</strong>fected, may show but little evidence of the fact.The worms <strong>in</strong> the stomach produce eggs, too small to be seen by the nakedeye. These pass out of the animal <strong>in</strong> the dropp<strong>in</strong>gs and hatch <strong>in</strong> a temperatureof 40 degrees Fahrenheit or over. Their most favourite hatch<strong>in</strong>g place is <strong>in</strong>muddy, stagnant water. They will not develop <strong>in</strong> pure water, and whendeposited t<strong>here</strong>, generally die <strong>in</strong> the course of a few weeks. These little wormsgrow until they are about one-thirtieth of an <strong>in</strong>ch <strong>in</strong> length. After be<strong>in</strong>g swallowedby a sheep or lamb they arrive at maturity <strong>in</strong> three weeks or a month.Good management seems to be the best remedy for these pests. Keep<strong>in</strong>gthe digestive organs <strong>in</strong> a healthy condition by the use of roots <strong>in</strong> w<strong>in</strong>ter andvetches, rape or other succulent plants <strong>in</strong> summer, along with other foods, seems
95 .to be a preventive. A liberal allowance of salt should be furnished regularly.In <strong>in</strong>fested districts the pasture should be hurdled off and the sheep kept on oneplot for about ten days and then moved to the next. This should be done fromJune to October This method keeps the sheep from feed<strong>in</strong>g over <strong>in</strong>festedpastures, prevent<strong>in</strong>g re<strong>in</strong>fection, as at least two weeks are required for the eggsto hatch. Pastures known to be <strong>in</strong>fected should either be ploughed up orthoroughly dressed with lime and salt.Many remedies have been tried with more or less success. Gasol<strong>in</strong>e, coaltar,lysol, creosote, kamala and bluestone (copper sulphate) are used. Possiblythe last named is surest to reach the fourth stomach of the animal, which theparasites most <strong>in</strong>habit. This treatment has been used successfully <strong>in</strong> CapeColony and is re<strong>com</strong>mended by the authorities t<strong>here</strong>. The bluestone should bepure and clear blue <strong>in</strong> colour. Dissolve 2 ounces of f<strong>in</strong>ely powdered bluestone<strong>in</strong> one gallon of warm water, or better, dissolve it <strong>in</strong> a quart of boil<strong>in</strong>g water,then add the rema<strong>in</strong>der and mix. The doses are as follows:Lambs three months old, 1Lambs six months old, 1Jounce of the solution.ounces of the solution.Sheep twelve months old, 2J- ounces of the solution.Sheep eighteen months old, 3 ounces of the solution.Sheep twenty-four months old, 3^ ounces of the solution.Care should be taken to give the right amount accord<strong>in</strong>g to the age of thesheep. When kamala is used it should be given once a day <strong>in</strong> doses from half adrachm to a drachm <strong>in</strong> thick gruel, treacle or raw l<strong>in</strong>seed oil. Picrate of potash,which is highly re<strong>com</strong>mended by cont<strong>in</strong>ental authorities, is adm<strong>in</strong>istered daily<strong>in</strong> doses of from 5 to 20 gra<strong>in</strong>s, accord<strong>in</strong>g to the age or weight. It is said to beless irritat<strong>in</strong>g than any of the other remedies mentioned.Except <strong>in</strong> one or two localities, Canadian sheep men have not suffered toany extent from the ravages of <strong>this</strong> pest.The Grub WormThe grub worm is found <strong>in</strong> the s<strong>in</strong>uses of the sheep's head. It is the offspr<strong>in</strong>gof the sheep gadfly (Oestrus ovis). The eggs are deposited <strong>in</strong> the sheep'snostrils and when hatched the worms crawl up <strong>in</strong>to the s<strong>in</strong>uses and be<strong>com</strong>e fullgrowngrubs.Prevention is undoubtedly better than treatment, although skilful shepherdsare often able to relieve the sheep of their unwel<strong>com</strong>e guests by treph<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g thes<strong>in</strong>uses. Feed well and keep the sheep strong and healthy. Tar or fish oilsmeared on the noses of the sheep or placed on the edge of narrow salt troughs oraround 2-<strong>in</strong>ch auger hole <strong>in</strong> a log <strong>in</strong> which salt is fed, will help to keep the fliesaway. A dark place dur<strong>in</strong>g the midday heat lessens the attacks of these <strong>in</strong>sects.Access to a piece of summer fallow w<strong>here</strong> the sheep <strong>can</strong> stamp and raise a dustalso helps to discourage the tormentors. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the months of July, August,and September sheep should, if at all possible, be kept on pastures free fromtrees or shrubbery of any k<strong>in</strong>d.TapewormThe sheep is known to harbour more varieties of the tapeworm than anyother of our domestic animals save the dog. Eight species are found, of whichhowever, by far the most <strong>com</strong>mon <strong>in</strong> America is that known as the Taenia expansa.This tapeworm varies <strong>in</strong> length from three to six yards, and from one-twentyfifthof an <strong>in</strong>ch <strong>in</strong> width at the head to one-half an <strong>in</strong>ch at the tail. It is <strong>com</strong>posedof segments, dull yellowish white <strong>in</strong> colour, and about one-fourth of an<strong>in</strong>ch <strong>in</strong> length and a little more <strong>in</strong> breadth, any of which if picked up by another
%animal may grow <strong>in</strong>to a mature tapeworm. Sheep suffer<strong>in</strong>g from tapeworm firstshow paleness of the sk<strong>in</strong> and mucous membranes, ac<strong>com</strong>panied by brittleness ofthe wool and rapid loss of condition, although the appetite may cont<strong>in</strong>ue goodand even excessive. This is followed by digestive disturbances, irregular cudand offensive breath, bloat<strong>in</strong>g, constipation or diarrhoea, the faeces be<strong>in</strong>g yellowish<strong>in</strong> colour and often conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g segments of the worm. The sufferer be<strong>com</strong>esmore and more feeble, and unless prompt relief is afforded death soon follows,usually preceded by convulsions and violent diarrhoea. Fortunately tapewormis not very difficult to eradicate. The sheep should be fasted for from twelveto twenty-four hours. An <strong>in</strong>jection of warm water given a few m<strong>in</strong>utes beforewill help to promote the rapid action of the medic<strong>in</strong>e. The dose, 1 drachm ofthe oil of male shield fern <strong>in</strong> from 2 to 3 ounces of castor oil for a maturesheep, is best given when the sheep is stand<strong>in</strong>g and after a fast of twenty-fourhours, and then most of the dose passes to the fourth stomach. Kamala <strong>in</strong>doses of from 1 to \\ drachms <strong>in</strong> thick gruel or treacle, followed after three hoursby from 3 to 4 ounces of castor oil, is also often effective. For small lambsone-fourth of these doses is sufficient, and as the size and age <strong>in</strong>creases the dosemay be given to suit. In drench<strong>in</strong>g sheep the mouth should not be raised abovethe level of the eyes, lest part of the dose pass <strong>in</strong>to the lungs. After be<strong>in</strong>g treatedsheep should be shut up for at least thirty hours to prevent the segments of theworm expelled be<strong>in</strong>g scattered about and much ground be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>fected. Subsequentlythey should be put on fresh ground <strong>in</strong> order to avoid the risk of re<strong>in</strong>fection.Tapeworm is most <strong>com</strong>mon <strong>in</strong> wet years and <strong>in</strong> wet, muddy districts, andalthough the life history of the parasite is not fully known, it is probable that itf<strong>in</strong>ds its direct access to the sheep <strong>in</strong> its larval or cystic form by be<strong>in</strong>g takenup with the grass. Infected pastures should, t<strong>here</strong>fore, be burned over, ploughedup if possible or top dressed with salt, nitrate of soda or gas lime. Dropp<strong>in</strong>gsshould, when practicable, be collected and carefully burned.Gid, Sturdy, or "Turnsick" isGidcaused by an encysted parasite, censurus cerebralis,<strong>in</strong> the bra<strong>in</strong>. This is the ovum of a species of tapeworm which <strong>in</strong>festsdogs, foxes and wolves. The eggs pass out of these animals and <strong>in</strong>fest the grassor water, <strong>in</strong> either case under favourable conditions, reta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g their vitality forseveral weeks. The sheep swallow<strong>in</strong>g these be<strong>com</strong>e <strong>in</strong>fected. The young wormsManyare hatched <strong>in</strong> the stomach and penetrate its walls, gett<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to the blood.of them be<strong>com</strong><strong>in</strong>g scattered through the muscular and other tissues suffer degenerationand perish. Those which reach the bra<strong>in</strong> or sp<strong>in</strong>al cord, which they do<strong>in</strong> about a week from the time they are swallowed, burrow <strong>in</strong> through the tissuesuntil a suitable place for development is reached. In <strong>this</strong> stage many die, butsuch as survive form a small transparent bladder, gradually <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> sizefrom that of a p<strong>in</strong>head to that of a hazel nut. On reach<strong>in</strong>g the dimensions ofthe latter, which is generally about two months after <strong>in</strong>fection, numerous newtapeworm heads, often many hundreds, are formed <strong>in</strong> each cyst, the lattercont<strong>in</strong>u<strong>in</strong>g to grow until the death of the patient, frequently atta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the sizeof a walnut. This, which is known as the cystic form, is seen only <strong>in</strong> sheepwhose bra<strong>in</strong>s conta<strong>in</strong> but a few cysts, and is that which produces the symptomsof genu<strong>in</strong>e gid or sturdy. W<strong>here</strong> the embryos <strong>in</strong> the bra<strong>in</strong> are numerous, acute<strong>in</strong>flammation of that organ generally destroys the animal before the close ofthe first month after <strong>in</strong>fection. The mortality is sometimes very large. Thedisease is most <strong>in</strong> evidence <strong>in</strong> wet seasons, moisture be<strong>in</strong>g necessary to preservethe fertility of the eggs after leav<strong>in</strong>g the orig<strong>in</strong>al <strong>can</strong><strong>in</strong>e host. For the samereason <strong>in</strong>fection is more <strong>com</strong>mon <strong>in</strong> the spr<strong>in</strong>g and fall than <strong>in</strong> the summer orw<strong>in</strong>ter.
97It is not until after the embryo has reached the bra<strong>in</strong> that the symptomsof gid make their appearance. The first of these generally noticed is dullness,followed by wast<strong>in</strong>g and dis<strong>in</strong>cl<strong>in</strong>ation to move. The head is carried low ordrawn to one side, while impaired vision is a <strong>com</strong>mon feature; the animalssometimes be<strong>com</strong>e totally bl<strong>in</strong>d, while <strong>in</strong> other cases one eye only is affected.Squ<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g is frequently noticeable, or the eyes may be drawn backward andpresent a sunken appearance. The lo<strong>com</strong>otive powers soon be<strong>com</strong>e affected, theanimal los<strong>in</strong>g control of one or more limbs and exhibit<strong>in</strong>g, as the disease progresses,marked peculiarities of gait and action, these of course vary<strong>in</strong>g widely<strong>in</strong> different cases. As already stated, death is not un<strong>com</strong>mon at <strong>this</strong> stage be<strong>in</strong>gdue to general bra<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>flammation and consequent functional derangements.When, however, the patient survives <strong>this</strong> stage, which is only the case whenthe encysted parasites are few <strong>in</strong> number, the symptoms of turnsick usuallybeg<strong>in</strong> to show themselves. The affected animal may travel for hours <strong>in</strong> a circle,sometimes follow<strong>in</strong>g a regular track, while <strong>in</strong> other cases the circle be<strong>com</strong>eslarger or smaller with each <strong>com</strong>pleted round. In the latter case the animalfrequently concludes the performance for the time by turn<strong>in</strong>g as if on a pivot,until los<strong>in</strong>g its balance it falls exhausted, only to re<strong>com</strong>mence its eccentricmovements when sufficient strength returns. It is sometimes possible to locatethe exact seat of the cyst <strong>in</strong> the bra<strong>in</strong> by a careful observation of the vagaries ofthe patient. When only one cyst exists the animal will, as a rule, turn towardsthe side on which it is situated, but <strong>this</strong> is not an <strong>in</strong>fallible guide, as it is notun<strong>com</strong>mon to have two or more cysts located <strong>in</strong> different parts of the bra<strong>in</strong>.When, however, one cyst only exists, the rule above mentioned generally holdsgood, <strong>in</strong> which case the eye on the opposite side is usually bl<strong>in</strong>d from amaurosis(glass eye). If the cyst is situated near the front of the bra<strong>in</strong> the patient stepshigh and keeps the head drawn backward. If the cyst is <strong>in</strong> the posterior partof the bra<strong>in</strong> the animal will either lose all power of movement or will turntowards the w<strong>in</strong>d, hold<strong>in</strong>g the head high and well forward.Skilled shepherds with long experience of the disease be<strong>com</strong>e very expert <strong>in</strong>locat<strong>in</strong>g the exact seat of the cysts, and some claim that when superficiallysituated the bone immediately over them be<strong>com</strong>es th<strong>in</strong> and softened. When theaffected animal is valuable and the cyst <strong>can</strong> be located, the skull may be carefullytreph<strong>in</strong>ed and the bladder and its contents removed. In ord<strong>in</strong>ary casesthe best plan is undoubtedly to slaughter the affected sheep and burn the head.If the latter is eaten by a dog, wolf or fox, the worm grows <strong>in</strong> <strong>this</strong> new host tomaturity and produces eggs. This round is kept up. It is well also to rid thefarm of dogs, or if <strong>this</strong> is impossible, to rid the dogs of tapeworms by giv<strong>in</strong>g themat least twice a year, after starv<strong>in</strong>g them for twenty-four hours, a full dose ofsome reliable vermifuge, such as kamala, areca nut or male fern, followed by apurgative. The dogs undergo<strong>in</strong>g <strong>this</strong> treatment should be kept shut up and allmaterial passed by them carefully burned or treated with quicklime. Inquiryrecently made <strong>in</strong>dicates that gid is almost unknown among Canadian sheep, butimported sheep, and especially imported dogs, should be closely watched forsome time after arrival.Acute IndigestionAcute <strong>in</strong>digestion <strong>in</strong> sheep frequently takes the form known as hoven orbloat, which consists of the fermentation of food and the consequent <strong>format</strong>ionof gas <strong>in</strong> the first stomach or rumen. It is generally duo to sudden change offood, and is most often seen when hungry sheep are turned <strong>in</strong>to clover, rape oralfalfa, or allowed to have access to frozen turnip tops, ruder such circumstancesit not <strong>in</strong>frequently affects a considerable number of animals at once, <strong>in</strong>which event it is necessary to take prompt measures to avert heavy loss. Ifobserved <strong>in</strong> the early stages a good remedy is half an ounee of hypo-sulphite of35001—7
98soda mixed with a drachm of g<strong>in</strong>ger <strong>in</strong> J a p<strong>in</strong>t of water, to be followed later,unless permanent and effective relief is obta<strong>in</strong>ed, by from 4 to 6 ounces of rawl<strong>in</strong>seed oil, to which may be added ^ an ounce of turpent<strong>in</strong>e.If the distension is extreme the paunch may be tapped with a trocar and<strong>can</strong>ula. This is done on the left side at a po<strong>in</strong>t midway between the po<strong>in</strong>t ofthe hip and the last rib, and a similar distance from the transverse process ofthe backbone, which may be felt towards the upper part of the paunch. It isnecessary, especially <strong>in</strong> fat animals, to be careful <strong>in</strong> locat<strong>in</strong>g the seat of operation,as otherwise serious <strong>in</strong>jury may result to one or other of the <strong>in</strong>ternalorgans. The wool should be carefully parted so as to avoid the carry<strong>in</strong>g ofstrands <strong>in</strong>to the wound to cause subsequent irritation and suppuration. Everysheep owner should keep a trocar and <strong>can</strong>ula w<strong>here</strong> it <strong>can</strong> be found at amoment's notice. W<strong>here</strong> the proper <strong>in</strong>strument is not available it may, <strong>in</strong> anemergency, be better to risk punctur<strong>in</strong>g the paunch with a pocket kniferather than let the animal die unrelieved, but the practice <strong>can</strong>not be re<strong>com</strong>mended,<strong>in</strong>asmuch as when the paunch beg<strong>in</strong>s to collapse, some of its contentsare almost certa<strong>in</strong> to escape <strong>in</strong>to the abdom<strong>in</strong>al cavity unless the open<strong>in</strong>g isprotected by the <strong>can</strong>ula.Spasmodic colic isSpasmodic Coli<strong>can</strong> affection of a different nature, and although sometimesdue to the causes mentioned as produc<strong>in</strong>g acute <strong>in</strong>digestion, is more apt to beproduced by other dietetic errors such as the feed<strong>in</strong>g of the lambs with cow'smilk or chang<strong>in</strong>g them too suddenly and <strong>com</strong>pletely from a milk diet to solidfood. It may also be <strong>in</strong>duced both <strong>in</strong> lambs and <strong>in</strong> adult sheep, by acrid herbsor by an unusual diet. The pa<strong>in</strong> should be relieved by the adm<strong>in</strong>istration ofan anodyne mixture such as a teaspoonful each of laudanum and sweet spiritsof nitre, dissolved with a teaspoonful of g<strong>in</strong>ger and two teaspoonfuls of bak<strong>in</strong>gIt may be necessary to follow up with a dosesoda <strong>in</strong> one-half a p<strong>in</strong>t of water.of raw l<strong>in</strong>seed oil <strong>in</strong> order to relieve the bowels and remove the irritant, forwhich purpose also <strong>in</strong>jections of warm water will be found useful.Constipation or StretchesConstipation is not un<strong>com</strong>mon <strong>in</strong> sheep that are kept on coarse, dry feed.The name <strong>in</strong>dicates the nature of the symptoms shown, and <strong>this</strong> condition <strong>can</strong>best be relieved by the adm<strong>in</strong>istration of a cathartic. For <strong>this</strong> purpose 6 to 8ounces of raw l<strong>in</strong>seed oil, with from 2 to 4 drachms of turpent<strong>in</strong>e, may be given.Injections are also re<strong>com</strong>mended. The tendency to constipation is best <strong>com</strong>batedby the judicious feed<strong>in</strong>g of roots and other succulent feed through thew<strong>in</strong>ter, when it is most frequently seen.Inflammation of the BowelsInflammation of the bowels, properly so-called, is almost unknown <strong>in</strong> sheep,although as <strong>in</strong> horses t<strong>here</strong> are many conditions which produce acute <strong>in</strong>flammatoryaction <strong>in</strong> some one or more of the <strong>in</strong>ternal organs, giv<strong>in</strong>g rise to thesymptoms generally associated with the name given above. The symptomspresented are similar to those of colic, but much aggravated, violent and almostconstant abdom<strong>in</strong>al pa<strong>in</strong> be<strong>in</strong>g present. The medic<strong>in</strong>al treatment is similar tothat for colic, but larger doses of the anodyne mixture may be given andrepeated at <strong>in</strong>tervals of several hours should the pa<strong>in</strong> cont<strong>in</strong>ue. Relief maysometimes be afforded by the application of mustard to the abdomen. Treatmentis frequently unsuccessful, but should be persisted <strong>in</strong>, as such attacksoccasionally term<strong>in</strong>ate <strong>in</strong> diarrhoea, which, after be<strong>in</strong>g allowed to cont<strong>in</strong>ue fora reasonable length of time may be controlled by the adm<strong>in</strong>istration of starchor flour gruel, to which may be added the whites of eggs and a little whisky orbrandy.
99DiarrhoeaDiarrhoea is as a rule the result of bad management, overfeed<strong>in</strong>g withsucculent food, or an <strong>in</strong>digestible diet, such as unripe food or frozen grass—thatcaused by the latter be<strong>in</strong>g a very serious form. It may also be caused by asudden change to a diet of roots, especially mangels, and is also observed amongsheep turned for the first time on alkali lands, and <strong>in</strong> those hav<strong>in</strong>g access towater strongly impregnated with alkali. Treatment consists <strong>in</strong> remov<strong>in</strong>g, ifpossible, all the <strong>in</strong>cit<strong>in</strong>g causes and by chang<strong>in</strong>g the diet to dry feed of a simplecharacter. It is sometimes best w<strong>here</strong> the trouble is evidently due to an effortof nature to get rid of irritation, to assist the process by the adm<strong>in</strong>istration ofa mild laxative, and for <strong>this</strong> purpose a few ounces of castor oil may be given,<strong>com</strong>b<strong>in</strong>ed with a drachm each of laudanum and ground g<strong>in</strong>ger. Should thediarrhoea persist after <strong>this</strong> treatment, it may be <strong>com</strong>bated by the adm<strong>in</strong>istrationof starch or flour gruel, <strong>com</strong>b<strong>in</strong>ed with whites of eggs and a little stimulant,should the need of the latter be <strong>in</strong>dicated.Wool BallsWool balls <strong>in</strong> lambs' stomachs may cause considerable loss, particularlyamong long-wool breeds, if the habit of wool eat<strong>in</strong>g is persisted <strong>in</strong> for a sufficientlength of time to allow of the <strong>format</strong>ion of many of these peculiar concretions.Digestive troubles, a crav<strong>in</strong>g for salt or some constituent lack<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the foodmay cause the lambs to chew wool; bit<strong>in</strong>g the sides to get rid of ticks is a<strong>com</strong>mon cause, and for <strong>this</strong> reason lambs should be dipped together with theewes after the latter are clipped.The loose wool should be cut from the ewe'sudder to prevent it gett<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to the lambs' mouths when suck<strong>in</strong>g. Conf<strong>in</strong>ementshould be avoided. The flock should be turned out on a wide range if possibleas soon as the habit is noticed, and the separation of the first offenders shouldbe effected at once, as imitation is a frequent cause of spread<strong>in</strong>g the trouble.Free access should be given to salt, phosphate of lime or bone meal. L<strong>in</strong>seedoil <strong>in</strong> appropriate doses may afford relief, but if much wool is swallowed theballs may block the small <strong>in</strong>test<strong>in</strong>e and cause serious derangement of thedigestive functions, followed by emaciation and even death.Derangement of the Ur<strong>in</strong>ary OrgansMany of the diseases affect<strong>in</strong>g the kidneys and bladder of other species ofanimals are almost unknown to sheep, and when they do occur, be<strong>in</strong>g difficultof diagnosis, are seldom recognized and still less frequently successfully treated.Trouble is occasionally caused, especially <strong>in</strong> male animals, by the <strong>format</strong>ion ofcalculi, which, however, seldom give rise to def<strong>in</strong>ite symptoms except whenlodged <strong>in</strong> the urethra. In <strong>this</strong> situation they give rise to serious difficulty <strong>in</strong>pass<strong>in</strong>g ur<strong>in</strong>e, and are, <strong>in</strong> fact, the most frequent cause of what is known as"stoppage of the water." The <strong>format</strong>ion of calculi is <strong>in</strong>duced by the too freeuse of highly nitrogenous foods and those rich <strong>in</strong> sugar and phosphates. Amongthe articles of diet held by different authorities to be responsible are peas, beans,corn, mangels, and new-mown clover. The condition is also more frequent <strong>in</strong>limestone districts, especially w<strong>here</strong> the water supply is strongly impregnatedwith lime salts. The affected sheep generally lies down, and on be<strong>in</strong>g made torise gives a peculiar sp<strong>in</strong>al jerk, followed <strong>in</strong> some cases by the passage of a fewdrops of water. He is very uneasy and restless, chang<strong>in</strong>g his position frequently,respiration is hurried, and often each breath is ac<strong>com</strong>panied by a pa<strong>in</strong>ful grunt.The ur<strong>in</strong>e passed is thick and cloudy ; the appetite fails ; fits of shiver<strong>in</strong>g follow,and unless relief is afforded the bladder ruptures or acute ur<strong>in</strong>e poison<strong>in</strong>g sets35001— 7i
100<strong>in</strong>, either of these conditions be<strong>in</strong>g rapidly fatal. When, as is not <strong>in</strong>frequentlythe case, the obstruction is at or near the external open<strong>in</strong>g of the urethra, relief<strong>can</strong> often be given by clipp<strong>in</strong>g away the wool, and remov<strong>in</strong>g the accumulation,which is often more of a sabulous mass than an actual stone. Often the urethrais simply blocked by a mass of sediment beh<strong>in</strong>d the worm-like appendage at theend of the tube, and <strong>in</strong> such cases when manipulation fails, the worm itselfmay be removed, thus afford<strong>in</strong>g relief. In all cases <strong>in</strong> which the obstruction issituated <strong>in</strong> front of the peculiar flexure of the urethra which characterizes thatpassage <strong>in</strong> sheep as well as <strong>in</strong> cattle, an effort should be made to secure itsdislodgement by gentle massage, fomentations and the <strong>in</strong>jection of olive oil <strong>in</strong>tothe urethra. Actual <strong>in</strong>cision <strong>in</strong>to the urethra is difficult and dangerous, andshould not be attempted by any one except a skilled operator, and even thenonly as a last resort. Medic<strong>in</strong>al treatment is of little value, although theadm<strong>in</strong>istration of belladonna <strong>in</strong> doses of from ten to fifteen gra<strong>in</strong>s may occasionallyassist <strong>in</strong> reliev<strong>in</strong>g the tension of the parts. Benefit sometimes followsthe adm<strong>in</strong>istration of a dose of physic, and <strong>in</strong> these cases Epsom salt is, forobvious reasons, the most suitable agent. The dose is, for a full-grown sheep,about six ounces dissolved with a tablespoonful of salt and two drachms ofg<strong>in</strong>ger <strong>in</strong> at least a quart of warm water.AbortionAbortion may be caused <strong>in</strong> different ways. Injuries susta<strong>in</strong>ed by crowd<strong>in</strong>gthrough doors, hooks from cattle, or chas<strong>in</strong>g by dogs have caused many a ewe togive birth to an immature lamb, usually dead. Ergotized gra<strong>in</strong> or hay, smuttygra<strong>in</strong> or its straw, frozen turnips or beet tops and impure water are other sourcesof <strong>this</strong> trouble. Careful management, clean, sound food and pure water are thebest preventives of sporadic abortion. Some of the symptoms are loss of appetite,dullness and desire on the part of the ewe to isolate herself from the flock.Generally abortion takes place before any symptoms are noticed, but it isoccasionally necessary to remove the foetus and placenta lest blood poison<strong>in</strong>gsets <strong>in</strong>. Both foetus and afterbirth should <strong>in</strong> all cases be burned, and the uterusflushed out twice a day for several days with a three per cent solution of creol<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> warm water.Epizootic abortion is caused by a germ allied to the <strong>com</strong>mon moulds. It iscontagious and spreads rapidly through a flock unless proper precautions aretaken. An animal which has aborted should be at once removed from the flock,and the uterus <strong>in</strong>jected with the creol<strong>in</strong> solution mentioned above.Foetus, afterbirth,etc., should be burned, and the place w<strong>here</strong> the ma<strong>in</strong> flock are kept shouldbe thoroughly cleaned. All bedd<strong>in</strong>g should be burned and the floors covered withsawdust conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g ten per cent by weight of crude carbolic acid.The walls andceil<strong>in</strong>gs should be whitewashed with lime and carbolic acid <strong>in</strong> the proportionof one pound of <strong>com</strong>mercial carbolic acid to each five gallons of lime wash.Rams that have served affected ewes should be dis<strong>in</strong>fected by syr<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to thesheath a five per cent solution of creol<strong>in</strong>, or a 1 to 1,000 solution of bi-chlorideof mercury. For <strong>this</strong> purpose a founta<strong>in</strong> syr<strong>in</strong>ge is the most convenient <strong>in</strong>strument.Such rams should not be used aga<strong>in</strong> for breed<strong>in</strong>g until a considerabletime lias elapsed.Eversion of the WombSome time after the birth of a lamb (usually a case of difficult parturition),a red bladder-like body may be seen protrud<strong>in</strong>g from the vulva. This is duegenerally to a weakened condition of the ewe, and consequently of the ligamentsby which the womb is attached, and also the failure, ow<strong>in</strong>g to exhaustion of theos uteri to close normally. It frequently follows the retention of the afterbirth,
101when the whole organ is ejected, together with the membranes. In such cases theplacenta should be separated at each cotyledon to prevent bleed<strong>in</strong>g. Afterremov<strong>in</strong>g the placenta or afterbirth, the organ itself and the surround<strong>in</strong>g partsshould be washed clean with a two per cent solution of creol<strong>in</strong> or carbolic acid.Next have an assistant place the ewe on her back and grasp<strong>in</strong>g her h<strong>in</strong>d legsraise her h<strong>in</strong>dquarters nearly a foot above the floor or ground. In <strong>this</strong> positionthe womb may be most easily returned. The operator should next flush out thewomb with a p<strong>in</strong>t of lukewarm water <strong>in</strong> which a little powdered alum has beendissolved. The ewe should be tied up for a few days <strong>in</strong> a narrow stall by herself,with the bedd<strong>in</strong>g built up <strong>in</strong> such a way that her h<strong>in</strong>d parts are about six <strong>in</strong>cheshigher than her front parts. If stra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g cont<strong>in</strong>ues and does not yield tomedic<strong>in</strong>al treatment, a simple truss may be applied <strong>in</strong> the manner familiar tomost shepherds. Stitch<strong>in</strong>g the vulva is not re<strong>com</strong>mended, although it may benecessary when the attendant does not know how to make and apply the truss.In no case should more than two or three stitches be <strong>in</strong>serted.Sore TeatsWet, cold weather and damp or wet quarters cause sore teats <strong>in</strong> ewes. Sometimesthe lambs bite the teats because of a lack of milk to satisfy their appetites.Any good heal<strong>in</strong>g salve will prove beneficial. Equal parts of sweet oil andglycer<strong>in</strong>e applied two or three times a day has given good results.Caked UdderSwollen udder is a <strong>com</strong>mon ailment at lamb<strong>in</strong>g time and aga<strong>in</strong> when thelambs are weaned. The heaviest milkers are most subject to it. The majorityof cases are traceable to neglect on the part of the shepherd. Heavy feed<strong>in</strong>gbefore lamb<strong>in</strong>g time is a frequent cause; exposure to draughts or a wet bed areresponsible for many bad cases. These are easily avoided. At wean<strong>in</strong>g time,to prevent swell<strong>in</strong>g, the ewes should be milked out for two or three successivemorn<strong>in</strong>gs, and <strong>this</strong> should be cont<strong>in</strong>ued <strong>in</strong> such as show any tendency to cake.Inflammation of the Udder or GargetInflammation of the udder or garget is a very serious condition, and not atall un<strong>com</strong>mon. It may follow caked udder or may be <strong>in</strong>duced by exposure tocold and wet, particularly the latter, to bruises from the head of the lamb orfrom ly<strong>in</strong>g on stones or dry lumpy soil. It occurs most frequently <strong>in</strong> wet seasonsand occasionally causes the death of the ewe from mortification. Intances areon record w<strong>here</strong> the specific contagious <strong>in</strong>flammation of the udder which affectscows has been transmitted to ewes occupy<strong>in</strong>g the same quarters. In the treatmentof severe cases of caked udder or of <strong>in</strong>flammation of that organ, it isadvisable to adm<strong>in</strong>ister about 4 ounces of Epsom salt dissolved <strong>in</strong> \ a p<strong>in</strong>t ofwarm water. Bathe the udder with water as warm as <strong>can</strong> be borne for at leasthalf an hour, then dry thoroughly and rub well with an o<strong>in</strong>tment <strong>com</strong>posed oflard 8 parts, belladonna 1 part. Keep the ewe <strong>in</strong> <strong>com</strong>fortable quarters and repeatthe local treatment as required. If any tendency to suppuration is observed, itis advisable to apply heat and moisture, and for <strong>this</strong> purpose a poultice of spenthops is very suitable, or the udder may be packed with clean woollen wastesaturated with hot water and kept <strong>in</strong> position with a cloth, preferably waterproof.Feed lightly on clover hay and warm bran mash and give chilled water to dr<strong>in</strong>k.As abscesses show signs of po<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g they should be opened with sharp knife andtreated as <strong>in</strong>dicated <strong>in</strong> next paragraph.
102AbscessesAbscesses <strong>in</strong> sheep are not un<strong>com</strong>mon, be<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>in</strong> these animals, easily <strong>in</strong>ducedby bruises and other <strong>com</strong>paratively slight causes. As soon as the presence of pusis def<strong>in</strong>itely ascerta<strong>in</strong>ed the abscesses should be opened and the cavity <strong>in</strong>jectedwith a 2 per cent solution of carbolic <strong>in</strong> warm water. This should be repeatedfrom time to time until the wound heals.GoitreGoitre shows itself as an enlargement of the thyroid gland which is situatedbeneath the throat close to the head. Sheep of all ages are subject to it, but it ismost frequently seen <strong>in</strong> lambs, caus<strong>in</strong>g heavy loss. Authorities do not all agreeas to the cause. It is considered <strong>here</strong>ditary, while it is also undoubtedly, <strong>in</strong> somecases, due to malnutrition, apparently aris<strong>in</strong>g from certa<strong>in</strong> condition of soil andwater as yet imperfectly understood. Insufficient exercise, the mat<strong>in</strong>g of overfatrams and ewes, <strong>in</strong>breed<strong>in</strong>g and weakly constitutions are other causes given, butit is improbable that any of these produce it unless the local conditions arefavourable to its development. Lambs afflicted with goitre are frequently borndead or die shortly afterwards.Curative treatment for goitre is but little resorted to for the reason thatyoung animals seldom respond satisfactorily. Mature goitred sheep (which <strong>in</strong>no case should be bred from) are only slightly <strong>in</strong>convenienced by the disease andmay be readily fitted for the block. The most experienced sheep breeders avoidthe use of a goitred ram, know<strong>in</strong>g well that he is likely to leave a stunted progeny.The safest plan is to breed from only sound stock, the ewes of which,dur<strong>in</strong>g the season of pregnancy, should be given ample opportunity for exercise,with a plentiful supply of pla<strong>in</strong> and suitable food.Preventative treatment consists <strong>in</strong> the adm<strong>in</strong>istration of small quantitiesof iodide of potassium to pregnant ewes. Dissolve one ounce of iodide ofpotassium <strong>in</strong> two quarts of water. Give one tablespoonful of solution daily <strong>in</strong>water or gra<strong>in</strong> feed for each six ewes. Treatment may beg<strong>in</strong> soon after ewes,are bred and cont<strong>in</strong>ue until lamb<strong>in</strong>g time.CatarrhCatarrh beg<strong>in</strong>s with frequent sneez<strong>in</strong>g, a discharge of mucus from thenostrils, <strong>in</strong>flammed eyes and loss of appetite. If allowed to go on it may be<strong>com</strong>emalignant, <strong>in</strong> which case the l<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g membranes of the nasal passage, throat, andeven the stomach and <strong>in</strong>test<strong>in</strong>es may be<strong>com</strong>e affected. Death frequently results,while such animals as recover from attacks of <strong>this</strong>extreme nature are generallyalmost worthless. Simple catarrh may be due to <strong>in</strong>fection, and its developmentis favoured by changes of temperature, exposure to cold ra<strong>in</strong>s or chill<strong>in</strong>g w<strong>in</strong>dsor by conf<strong>in</strong>ement <strong>in</strong> a draughty or poorly ventilated build<strong>in</strong>g. Malignantcatarrh is seldom seen except when the conditions are unsatisfactory. Strong,vigorous sheep <strong>in</strong> good condition are less liable to seizure, and if attacked, areeasier to treat and make a better recovery.The first treatment (which it is advisable to try before the symptomsappear) is to place the animals <strong>in</strong> a clean, airy place, dry underfoot and withgood shelter easily accessible. When a nasal discharge is observed, flax-seed teamay be given three times a day, with plenty of good food. Warm mashes arebeneficial, while <strong>in</strong> bad cases marked relief is afforded by steam<strong>in</strong>g the head withhot water <strong>in</strong> which a little carbolic acid has been dissolved. Some rather ancientauthorities re<strong>com</strong>mend blow<strong>in</strong>g different mixtures <strong>in</strong>to the sheep's nostrils, butlittle benefit is likely to result from treatment of <strong>this</strong> k<strong>in</strong>d.
103Soreness of the EyesSore eyes may be due to enzootic ophthalmia or to constitutional causes.Serious irritation is often <strong>in</strong>duced by the entry of dust or chaff <strong>in</strong>to the eye.Exposure to severe weather or draughts, or' a cont<strong>in</strong>ued heat<strong>in</strong>g diet occasionallycauses more or less severe <strong>in</strong>flammation of the eyes. Lambs are not <strong>in</strong>frequentlyaffected, and <strong>in</strong> them, as <strong>in</strong> fact <strong>in</strong> all severe cases, the tendency is to loseflesh rapidly. Treatment consists <strong>in</strong> exam<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the eye for foreign bodies, which,if present, should be removed if possible. A little coca<strong>in</strong>e solution, which <strong>can</strong>be procured from any druggist, is especially convenient <strong>in</strong> deal<strong>in</strong>g with <strong>this</strong>sensitive organ. In <strong>this</strong>, as <strong>in</strong> all other cases, the eyes should be well bathed<strong>in</strong> warm water, after which a solution of 2 gra<strong>in</strong>s of sulphate of z<strong>in</strong>c to 1 ounceof water should be <strong>in</strong>troduced with an ord<strong>in</strong>ary dropper or a small glass syr<strong>in</strong>ge.A mild laxative or at least a laxative diet is to be re<strong>com</strong>mended and it is well toprotect the eyes from exposure to strong light.Enzootic ophthalmia is, of course, contagious, and for <strong>this</strong> reason it isadvisable to isolate at once any sheep hav<strong>in</strong>g sore eyes, except of course those<strong>in</strong> which, on exam<strong>in</strong>ation, the trouble is found to be due to the entrance of someforeign body or other well def<strong>in</strong>ed local cause.THE CANADIAN WOOL INDUSTRYSimple wool grow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>can</strong>not be ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> any country w<strong>here</strong> land hasany considerable value. As civilization has advanced and the processes ofagriculture have improved, one country after another has ceased to grow woolfor itselfalone; mutton has be<strong>com</strong>e the pr<strong>in</strong>cipal and wool the secondary objectof the bus<strong>in</strong>ess. This change was effected <strong>in</strong> England first by improvement ofthe Leicester, the Southdown and the Hampshire. France by slow degrees transformedthe Rambouillet Mer<strong>in</strong>o <strong>in</strong>to a mutton breed of no mean quality.Australia and also New Zealand are mutton shipp<strong>in</strong>g countries, and the UnitedStates is rapidly gett<strong>in</strong>g away from the f<strong>in</strong>e-woolled breeds to crosses of Britishvarieties for the purpose of <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g the production of mutton. It is toward<strong>this</strong> end that Argent<strong>in</strong>e breeders f<strong>in</strong>d it profitable to pay English breeders longprices for L<strong>in</strong>coln rams, while the same motive prompts the demand from theranges of the Western States for Canadian-bred long-woolled males.In Canada the sheep is a dual purpose animal for the production of muttonand wool. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the past ten years a great deal of attention has been givenby the sheep men to the production and care of their wool, with the result that avery much better and superior product is be<strong>in</strong>g raised to-day than ever before.Further, while returns from lambs are greater than those from wool, yet itis recognized that the revenue received from the wool clip pretty muchsw<strong>in</strong>gs the sheep <strong>in</strong>dustry because the average farmer considers that withoutrevenue from his wool the sheep bus<strong>in</strong>ess is unprofitable and acts accord<strong>in</strong>gly.In periods of good wool prices an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the sheep population may beexpected and the reverse when low wool prices are prevalent.Canada, of late years, has been giv<strong>in</strong>g more attention to wool productionand wool market<strong>in</strong>g. True, the foundation stocks of the western prov<strong>in</strong>cesshow an improvement <strong>in</strong> the direction of the mutton side, with a correspond<strong>in</strong>gtendency towards coarser wool. Practically all Canadian wool is of excellentquality, as <strong>com</strong>pared with its own class from other countries and the grad<strong>in</strong>gof Canadian wools, which was started <strong>in</strong> 1913 and has s<strong>in</strong>ce developed <strong>in</strong>to anational policy, has given Canadian wools an excellent stand<strong>in</strong>g, not only withour own mills, but also <strong>in</strong> the wool markets of the world.
104The Annual CropThe estimated sheep population and wool production for Canada s<strong>in</strong>ce 1920is as follows:Sheep ProductionYear and Lambs Wool (lb.)1920 3,720,783 24,000,0001921 3,675,860 21,251,0001922 3,262,626 18,523,3921923 2,755,273 15,539,4161924 2,686,367 15,111,7191925.. 2,757,199 15,553,0451926 3,144,343 17,959,8961927 3,265,727 18,672.7661928 3,418,992 19.611,4301929 3,731,358 21,234,0001930 3,696,000 21,016,0001931 3,608,000 20,365.0001932 3,644,500 20,518,0001933 3,385,800 19,206,0001934 3,421,100 19,544,0001935 3,401,695 19,371,000The wools produced <strong>in</strong> Canada range from coarse, to f<strong>in</strong>e, or <strong>in</strong> Englishterms, from 40's to 70's. The greater part of the wools produced <strong>in</strong> Ontario,Quebeo and the Maritime Prov<strong>in</strong>ces are <strong>com</strong>b<strong>in</strong>g wools, approximately 10 percent medium <strong>com</strong>b<strong>in</strong>g, 40 per cent low medium <strong>com</strong>b<strong>in</strong>g, 30 per cent low <strong>com</strong>b<strong>in</strong>g10 per cent coarse, and 10 per cent rejects or off wool. In these prov<strong>in</strong>cesthe highest grade <strong>in</strong> f<strong>in</strong>eness of wool fibre <strong>com</strong>es from the Southdown, then theShropshire, the Hampshire, and the Suffolk. Typical fleeces of these breedswill generally grade medium and low medium.From the Oxford, low mediumand low <strong>com</strong>b<strong>in</strong>g, from the Leicester low <strong>com</strong>b<strong>in</strong>g and coarse, and from theCotswold and L<strong>in</strong>coln coarse wools are produced. The expression " low " doesnot mean low <strong>in</strong> quality and has reference only to the diameter of the fibre.Low medium <strong>in</strong> the English term is expressed as 48's to 50's and low <strong>com</strong>b<strong>in</strong>gas 44's to 46's. The wools produced east of the Great Lakes may t<strong>here</strong>fore beexpressed <strong>in</strong> the terms of medium, low medium, and coarse.The wools of Western Canada are of two ma<strong>in</strong> classes, range and domestic.The range wools <strong>com</strong>e pr<strong>in</strong>cipally from Southern Alberta and Southern Saskatchewan.They have Mer<strong>in</strong>o foundation and are <strong>in</strong> grade the f<strong>in</strong>est woolsgrown <strong>in</strong> Canada. The pr<strong>in</strong>cipal grades are f<strong>in</strong>e, f<strong>in</strong>e medium, medium andlow medium, expressed <strong>in</strong> English terms as 70's, 64's, 60's, 56's, 50's, 46's, 44's,and 40's. The domestic wools of the West are generally similar to easternwools w<strong>here</strong> the Down breeds predom<strong>in</strong>ate.The Export TradeApproximately half of the Canadian fleece wool clip is exported annually,chiefly to Great Brita<strong>in</strong> and to the United States.In 1885, 3,550,000 pounds crossed the United States boundary, while dur<strong>in</strong>gthe three years <strong>com</strong>menc<strong>in</strong>g 1895 the export ran up to 5,449,955, 3,851,442 and7,499,949 pounds respectively. The great <strong>in</strong>crease dur<strong>in</strong>g these years was due tothe withdrawal of the customs duty on wool enter<strong>in</strong>g the United States as acondition of the Wilson-Gorman tariff. A year later, 1898, when the tariff hadbeen restored, the amount fell to about one million pounds and <strong>in</strong> 1899 to some22,000 pounds. The present United States tariff is 34 cents per pound of cleancontent; except on wool not f<strong>in</strong>er than 44's quality <strong>in</strong> the grease or washed therate of duty is 29 cents per pound of clean content; while on wool not f<strong>in</strong>er
105than 40's quality <strong>in</strong> the grease or washed the rate of duty is 24 cents per poundof clean content. Grease wool duties are arrived at by us<strong>in</strong>g the percentageshr<strong>in</strong>kage. For example, under the 34 cent rate on a wool shr<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g 45 per cent,the duty is 18-70 cents a pound. Under <strong>this</strong> duty the export of Canadian woolto the United States varies from year to year. In those seasons when prices <strong>in</strong>the United States are the equivalent of world prices plus duty, fairly largeweights of Canadian wool are sold <strong>in</strong> that market, otherwise sales <strong>in</strong> theUnited States markets are naturally <strong>in</strong> relatively smaller proportion.In the period of the last fifteen years, export markets for Canadian woolhave been developed <strong>in</strong> England and the Cont<strong>in</strong>ent. In more recent years,exports to the United K<strong>in</strong>gdom and to the Cont<strong>in</strong>ent have been <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>volume as Canadian graded wool has be<strong>com</strong>e better known, and these exportmarkets are at present the chief outlet for Canadian fleece wools. Success <strong>in</strong>export to these markets depends upon a quality product, accurately graded asto type, and well presented to the trade.Domestic ConsumptionAbout n<strong>in</strong>e million pounds of Canada's annual shorn crop isworked up <strong>in</strong><strong>this</strong> country chiefly <strong>in</strong> the woollen and knitt<strong>in</strong>g factories. Besides <strong>this</strong> considerableis still manufactured at the homes of farmers. In New Brunswick,Quebec, and to some slight extent <strong>in</strong> the other prov<strong>in</strong>ces, home card<strong>in</strong>g andsp<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g are still <strong>in</strong> vogue and considerable quantities of wool are still used<strong>in</strong> the homes for mak<strong>in</strong>g mattresses, quilts, etc. The quantities used <strong>in</strong> theseways are year by year decreas<strong>in</strong>g thus augment<strong>in</strong>g the supply to be taken careof <strong>in</strong> the mills and for export. In addition to the quantities of home-grownwool consumed <strong>in</strong> the Canadian mills, large supplies of imported wools arebrought <strong>in</strong> each year. For the years end<strong>in</strong>g March 31, 1927, 1928, and 1929the quantities imported were respectively as follows: 16,423,162, 13,895,679,and 14,021,917 pounds. These wools, with slight exception, consisted of f<strong>in</strong>eMer<strong>in</strong>o qualities that are not to any extent grown <strong>in</strong> Canada and are required<strong>in</strong> the manufacture of f<strong>in</strong>e goods such as flannels, f<strong>in</strong>e tweeds, meltons, beavers,whipcords, covert cloth, and f<strong>in</strong>e rugs. These wools also enter very largely <strong>in</strong>tothe manufacture of underwear and other f<strong>in</strong>e knitted goods.The mills us<strong>in</strong>g Canadian wools manufacture such staple l<strong>in</strong>es as blankets,mack<strong>in</strong>aws, friezes, etoffes, tweeds, homespuns, sweaters, yarns, etc., each ofwhich fills a large place <strong>in</strong> the requirements of the population. Many of thesmaller mills depend<strong>in</strong>g upon the local wool supply use Canadian wools almostexclusively. These manufacture several l<strong>in</strong>es of goods, and <strong>in</strong> <strong>this</strong> way consumethe different grades of wool produced. With few exceptions, what may be termedthe large mills import most of their wool and mix with it a little Canadian anda certa<strong>in</strong> proportion of shoddy and of cotton.Wool Grad<strong>in</strong>g and Market<strong>in</strong>gThe grad<strong>in</strong>g of Canadian wools was started by the Dom<strong>in</strong>ion Live StockBranch <strong>in</strong> 1913. At <strong>this</strong> time the care taken <strong>in</strong> the grow<strong>in</strong>g, shear<strong>in</strong>g, preparationfor market and market<strong>in</strong>g was such that Canadian wools were discreditednot only <strong>in</strong> the home market but <strong>in</strong> foreign markets as well. Graded wooleasily sold at higher values than ungraded wool and on <strong>this</strong> account grad<strong>in</strong>gbecame very popular <strong>in</strong> a short time. At first, wool grad<strong>in</strong>g was performedlocally, often at a number of po<strong>in</strong>ts with<strong>in</strong> a prov<strong>in</strong>ce. These grad<strong>in</strong>g centresnot only acted as market<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>ts for graded wools, but also served as anexcellent medium for farmers <strong>in</strong> ascerta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the relative market value of thevarious wool grades and the necessity of putt<strong>in</strong>g the wool up <strong>in</strong> proper shapefor market.When once the local organization work had been <strong>com</strong>pleted, and a knowledgeof the wool grad<strong>in</strong>g pr<strong>in</strong>ciple became general among sheep raisers, it was
106thought best to establish the co-operative market<strong>in</strong>g and sale of wool on apurely <strong>com</strong>mercial basis, and <strong>in</strong> 1918 representatives of the various associationsmet <strong>in</strong> conference and organized the Canadian Co-operative Wool Growers,Limited, an organization with which are now affiliated some thirty local woolgrowers' associations. The Canadian Co-operative Wool Growers, Limited,217 Bay street, Toronto, now acts <strong>in</strong> co-operation with the various associations<strong>in</strong> arrang<strong>in</strong>g for the collect<strong>in</strong>g and forward<strong>in</strong>g of wools consigned for grad<strong>in</strong>gand co-operative sale. They also act as sell<strong>in</strong>g agents for such wools for allthe associations affiliated with them. The Dom<strong>in</strong>ion Live Stock Branch stillassumes responsibility for the wool grade standards and provides official woolgraders for the grad<strong>in</strong>g of co-operative shipments.Characteristics of Canadian WoolOw<strong>in</strong>g to the numerous breeds and grades of sheep raised on Canadianfarms, the Canadian wool clip is somewhat variable <strong>in</strong> quality. Until woolgrad<strong>in</strong>g and co-operative market<strong>in</strong>g was established as a fairly general practice<strong>this</strong> wide range of varieties presented difficulties <strong>in</strong> the market<strong>in</strong>g problem whichare now be<strong>in</strong>g largely over<strong>com</strong>e. The wool is now largely offered graded for thetrade and <strong>in</strong> <strong>this</strong> way more nearly represents the conditions <strong>in</strong> Great Brita<strong>in</strong>,w<strong>here</strong> the wool <strong>in</strong>dustry is one of great importance.The outdoor feed<strong>in</strong>g of the flocks dur<strong>in</strong>g the w<strong>in</strong>ter months and the toogeneral lack of appreciation of the wool side of the sheep breed<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dustry areresponsible for some defects that are found <strong>in</strong> Canadian wool. These defects<strong>in</strong>clude the presence of foreign matter as well as cotted fleeces and secondgrowth wool.CHAFF, BURRS, ETC.The presence of foreign matter such as chaff, hay seeds, burrs, etc., <strong>in</strong> muchCanadian wool detracts very largely from its value. Unfortunately our longw<strong>in</strong>ters, necessitat<strong>in</strong>g hous<strong>in</strong>g and the feed<strong>in</strong>g of dry fodder, are responsible formuch of the vegetable matter found <strong>in</strong> our wool. In addition, too many sheepraisers are not careful to clean their farms of burrs, with the result that thefleeces be<strong>com</strong>e badly <strong>in</strong>fested with each recurr<strong>in</strong>g autumn.The losses from the presence of vegetable matter are very large and assuredly<strong>com</strong>e out of the wool grower. Such matter is removable only by expensivemach<strong>in</strong>ery, or a process known as carboniz<strong>in</strong>g. In the process of <strong>com</strong>b<strong>in</strong>g mostof the chaff, etc., is removed, but for card<strong>in</strong>g carboniz<strong>in</strong>g is frequently necessary.This process consists of treat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> an acid bath and rais<strong>in</strong>g the temperatureto about 220 degrees, hold<strong>in</strong>g it t<strong>here</strong> for sufficient time to reduce all vegetablematter to dust, which is shaken out by a special process. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to someauthorities carboniz<strong>in</strong>g greatly weakens the wool and renders it harsh, whileothers claim that the fibre is only slightly damaged. At any rate the process isexpensive and the wool grower pays the bill. The use of properly constructedracks, careful feed<strong>in</strong>g, shear<strong>in</strong>g on a clean surface and the protection of the sheepfrom burrs would go a long way towards <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g the value of Canadian wool.COTTED WOOLWool buyers and mill owners that purchase direct from growers andcountry storekeepers <strong>com</strong>pla<strong>in</strong> of the presence of much cotted wool <strong>in</strong> eachyear's crop. One dealer estimates the amount at 4 per cent of the clip, whileothers place the proportion lower. This defect is most general <strong>in</strong> back countrywool and is seldom found <strong>in</strong> lots from districts w<strong>here</strong> the system of agricultureis well advanced. It is conf<strong>in</strong>ed chiefly to the long-woolled breeds and gradesof these, and is seldom seen <strong>in</strong> Down wool.
107Cott<strong>in</strong>g is believed to be due to several causes. Some sheep have a tendencyto produce cotted wool; aga<strong>in</strong>, neglect of proper shelter <strong>in</strong> bad weather,improper or <strong>in</strong>sufficient feed<strong>in</strong>g, extreme change of temperature, ill health,second growth, etc., are all blamed for the cott<strong>in</strong>g of wool. These conditions<strong>can</strong> practically all be guarded aga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>in</strong> the breed<strong>in</strong>g and care of the flock.Cotted wool is of very little value as it <strong>can</strong> be used <strong>in</strong> only the cheapest ofgoods.SECOND GROWTHA second growth of wool lessens the value of the fleece. It is due to lateshear<strong>in</strong>g. It is natural for the sheep to lose its wool each spr<strong>in</strong>g, and naturemakes an effort <strong>in</strong> that direction. If shear<strong>in</strong>g is delayed after the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g ofwarm weather the fibres tend to separate at the body and a new growth <strong>com</strong>menceswhich pushes its way <strong>in</strong>to the fleece. The presence of any shortwool <strong>in</strong> a mature fleece is troublesome to the manufacturer, and, t<strong>here</strong>fore,reduces its value. Shear<strong>in</strong>g should t<strong>here</strong>fore not be delayed after warm weathersets<strong>in</strong>.TYING THE FLEECEMuch annoyance and loss has been caused by the ty<strong>in</strong>g up of fleeces withb<strong>in</strong>der tw<strong>in</strong>e. In the manufacture of cloth from wool that has been tied with<strong>this</strong> type of cord, it is found that some of the fibres ad<strong>here</strong> to the wool and asthese do not take dye, they leave white or yellow streaks <strong>in</strong> the goods, mak<strong>in</strong>git unfit for first grade. Fortunately sheep raisers are learn<strong>in</strong>g to appreciatethe damage done by us<strong>in</strong>g <strong>this</strong> tw<strong>in</strong>e and are discard<strong>in</strong>g it for paper fleece tw<strong>in</strong>ewhich is cut <strong>in</strong> lengths of eight and a half feet, which is the proper length forty<strong>in</strong>g one fleece. This is a hard smooth tw<strong>in</strong>e that does not ravel or rub off.Range WoolsA wide difference of op<strong>in</strong>ion prevails among manufacturers and dealers <strong>in</strong>regard to Canadian range wools. As a rule they are quite satisfactory for themanufacture of the medium f<strong>in</strong>e tweeds, flannels, f<strong>in</strong>e blankets and underwear.After summ<strong>in</strong>g up the various op<strong>in</strong>ions the writer concludes that thesewools differ widely accord<strong>in</strong>g to the character of the sheep from which they areshorn and the care given to them, especially dur<strong>in</strong>g the w<strong>in</strong>ter and spr<strong>in</strong>g, aswell as the grad<strong>in</strong>g and general care given the wool after it has been shorn.Much of our range wool lacks uniformity <strong>in</strong> quality accord<strong>in</strong>g to the breed<strong>in</strong>gof the bands. The orig<strong>in</strong>al stocks were very largely Mer<strong>in</strong>o, but most of thegrad<strong>in</strong>g has been <strong>in</strong> the direction of mutton. The character of the wool, t<strong>here</strong>fore,differs accord<strong>in</strong>g to the number and breed of mutton crosses <strong>in</strong> the shornsheep. A long wool cross produces a coarser wool than a Down cross, and soon from year to year and from cross to cross.Some <strong>com</strong>pla<strong>in</strong>t is expressed with regard to the strength of fleece as wellas the presence of coarse fibres known as " kemp " throughout the fleece.An <strong>in</strong>vestigation of <strong>this</strong> charge brought out the fact that the conditions <strong>com</strong>pla<strong>in</strong>edof exist <strong>in</strong> the product of careless ranchers, while the wool raised <strong>in</strong>well-managed range flocks is not only uniform and strong <strong>in</strong> fibre, but almostor quite free from kemp. It is a well understood fact that if a sheepsuffers from illness, shortage of food, or hardship of any k<strong>in</strong>d produc<strong>in</strong>g anunthrifty condition, the wool ceases to grow dur<strong>in</strong>g that period. It not onlyceases to grow, but a weak place known as " break " is produced at that po<strong>in</strong>t.The " break " <strong>in</strong> range wool is believed to be caused by the periods of severeweather and shortage of feed experienced to a greater or less degree each w<strong>in</strong>teror spr<strong>in</strong>g. The wool produced on ranges that supply food and shelter fromstorms and severe cold does not show that weakness <strong>com</strong>pla<strong>in</strong>ed of by certa<strong>in</strong>manufacturers.
108That other defect " kemp " is by many considered evidence of a more orless remote cross of a breed naturally prone to produce these stout hairs <strong>in</strong> theirfleece. The old Mexi<strong>can</strong> sheep had <strong>this</strong> tendency. Aga<strong>in</strong>, exposure tosevere weather causes an extra growth of stout hair, and <strong>in</strong> the case ofsheep, tends to kill the fibre. While true kemp and dead hairs may not bestrictly identical they are about equally objectionable and are present <strong>in</strong> a proportionof our range wool. The extra growth is a provision of nature to fortifyan animal aga<strong>in</strong>st cold. This is strik<strong>in</strong>gly exemplified <strong>in</strong> the cases of horsesand cattle, which when allowed to run out all w<strong>in</strong>ter produce long, coarsecoats, w<strong>here</strong>as the same animals warmly housed rema<strong>in</strong> sleek and smooth. .The presence of kemp greatly reduces the value of a fleece. The long stouthairs break readily and have another serious defect <strong>in</strong> not tak<strong>in</strong>g the dye welland, t<strong>here</strong>fore, show up strongly <strong>in</strong> the manufactured fabrics. The precautionsaga<strong>in</strong>st kemp are practically the same as aga<strong>in</strong>st " break," although it is advisablealso to cull out such ewes as are noticed to produce kemp <strong>in</strong> their fleeces.Certa<strong>in</strong> ranches have established reputations for good wool, well put up, andthe secret lies <strong>in</strong> the practices followed <strong>in</strong> their management. Sheds are providedto protect the sheep dur<strong>in</strong>g storms and a good supply of fodder is put upfor w<strong>in</strong>ter feed<strong>in</strong>g. These precautions <strong>in</strong>sure cont<strong>in</strong>uous thrift of the bands andconsequently healthy wool. Their methods of grad<strong>in</strong>g the wool are good. Eachfleece is rolled up separately and each class kept by itself. These are: 1st,shearl<strong>in</strong>g; 2nd, ewes and wethers over one year old; and 3rd, rams. A fourthgrade consists of tag locks, pick<strong>in</strong>gs and dead wool. Each grade is properlylabelled and baled or put up <strong>in</strong> sacks. Firms which are known to producegood wool and handle it as described receive a higher price than the haphazardwool grower.On account of the long haul it is important that the wool be put up <strong>in</strong> balesor <strong>in</strong> very substantial sacks. Either process is satisfactory, provided it is verycarefully done. The bal<strong>in</strong>g is usually done by a hay press or similar mach<strong>in</strong>e.The bales rang<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> weight from 250 to 300 pounds, are bound with wire, andthen covered with cheap sack<strong>in</strong>g. Even though the sacks are torn dur<strong>in</strong>g transportationthe wool suffers no <strong>in</strong>jury. Sack<strong>in</strong>g is as satisfactory provided sufficientlystrong material is used; a sack not less than 3^ pounds will usuallydeliver the wool <strong>in</strong> good condition.PulledWoolIn addition to the shorn wool, amount<strong>in</strong>g to upwards of 15,000,000 poundsannually, t<strong>here</strong> is also produced <strong>in</strong> Canada a large quantity of wool taken frompelts of slaughtered sheep and known as " pulled " wool. The quantity fromyear to year usually exceeds 1,000,000 pounds washed, reach<strong>in</strong>g 1,500,000 pounds<strong>in</strong> some years, the variation depend<strong>in</strong>g upon the export of pelts, which someseasons reaches 250,000. These are pulled <strong>in</strong> the United States and thus swellour exports of wool to that country.Throughout the Dom<strong>in</strong>ion t<strong>here</strong> are about a dozen wool-pull<strong>in</strong>g firms.These people buy the sk<strong>in</strong>s, wash or brush them, strip off the wool, which issorted <strong>in</strong> the pull<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to several classes called for by the trade. The averageweight of wool per hide is about three pounds washed, the quantity vary<strong>in</strong>gaccord<strong>in</strong>g to the breed of the sheep and the season at which it is slaughtered.Pulled wool is the most easily sorted, as the pullers quickly detect thedifferent qualities which are thrown each by itself as follows: Lamb's extra,super <strong>com</strong>b<strong>in</strong>g, low grade, called No. 1; and burr clipped. Each class is adaptableto a certa<strong>in</strong> purpose, and varies <strong>in</strong> value accord<strong>in</strong>gly. Most of the shortwool, 1 and \\ to 3 <strong>in</strong>ches, taken from sheep and lambs slaughtered from June
109to October, goes <strong>in</strong>to the knitt<strong>in</strong>g trade for underwear and similar l<strong>in</strong>es. Thelonger grades go <strong>in</strong>to the cloth<strong>in</strong>g and <strong>com</strong>b<strong>in</strong>g classes, respectively, similarto shorn wool.A very <strong>com</strong>mon defect <strong>com</strong>pla<strong>in</strong>ed of by wool pullers is the presence ofburrs. These have to be clipped out by hand at a cost of from 1 cent to 5 centsper hide before the pull<strong>in</strong>g is <strong>com</strong>menced. Apart from the expense of the labourthe wool is much <strong>in</strong>jured, especially if it be lamb's wool, which is of the greatestvalue. In the op<strong>in</strong>ion of the pullers the sheep raisers are not altogether to blamefor <strong>this</strong> defect. It frequently happens that the damage is done after the sheepleave the farm. It is not un<strong>com</strong>mon for dealers and butchers to collect andhold sheep for days or weeks <strong>in</strong> pastures, not <strong>in</strong>frequently va<strong>can</strong>t lots, that aremore than likely to be <strong>in</strong>fested with burrs. It is <strong>here</strong> that many of the burrsare gat<strong>here</strong>d <strong>in</strong> the fleeces.Shear<strong>in</strong>gThe date of shear<strong>in</strong>g has much to do with the quality and condition of thefleece. Sheep not clipped until the weather is warm will rub off considerablewool, because they are too warm. They also collect much dirt of one sort orother. Sheep should be shorn while the weather is quite cool, cold some wouldcall it. A better fleece is secured, the sheep do better afterwards as they do notsuffer from the heat and ticks, and t<strong>here</strong> is no wool to bother the lambs whilesuck<strong>in</strong>g or to form deadly balls <strong>in</strong> their stomachs.Sheep should be shorn on a clean, dry floor. The fleece should be carefullytrimmed either before or after shear<strong>in</strong>g. Sta<strong>in</strong>ed locks or tags should be put<strong>in</strong> a separate pile to be properly cleaned before offer<strong>in</strong>g for sale. The fleeceshould be folded neatly, sk<strong>in</strong> side out, and tied with sufficient " wool tw<strong>in</strong>e " tohold it together. Afterwards it <strong>can</strong> be put <strong>in</strong>to sacks or bales.In shear<strong>in</strong>g, the shears or clippers should be held close to the body and notallowed to run off at a tangent, cutt<strong>in</strong>g the staple <strong>in</strong>to two or more pieces, thusseriously <strong>in</strong>jur<strong>in</strong>g much good wool.The OutlookIn the future, as <strong>in</strong> the past, wool will have its ups and downs, and like allother necessities, it will rise and fall <strong>in</strong> value accord<strong>in</strong>g to the purchas<strong>in</strong>g powerof the people and the caprice of fashion.The Canadian sheep man need have no fears for the future of the wool sideof the bus<strong>in</strong>ess, provided he takes precautions to produce healthy, clean wool andgives attention to the cull<strong>in</strong>g out of the bad-fleeced breed<strong>in</strong>g stock. The conditionsnecessary to produce high-class mutton are favourable to the growth ofsound fleeces. Canadian mills favour the Down wools, while the United Statesmarket takes care of the long wools, but each requires a sound staple as clean aspossible from burrs, chaff, and other vegetable matter. Mutton will cont<strong>in</strong>ueto be the chief aim of the Canadian sheep raiser, but the wool side is not to bedespised and will <strong>in</strong>crease the revenue from his flocks accord<strong>in</strong>g to the conditionof each season's clip.
INDEXPageSheep Husbandry <strong>in</strong> Canada 5Historical Review 5Government Assistance to the Industry 8The Mutton Sheep 9Viewed from Market Standpo<strong>in</strong>t.. .. 10The Feeder's Side 11Scale of Po<strong>in</strong>ts for Mutton Sheep. ... 11Po<strong>in</strong>ts of the Sheep 12Lead<strong>in</strong>g Breeds of Sheep 13The Leicester 14The Cotswold 17The L<strong>in</strong>coln 19The Oxford Down 21The Hampshire Down 23The Shropshire 26The Southdown 29The Suffolk 31The Dorset 33The Cheviot 34The Mer<strong>in</strong>o 36Favoured Pure Breeds 39Establish<strong>in</strong>g a Flock of CommercialSheep 39Select<strong>in</strong>g a Ram 41The Size of the Flock 41Time to Purchase Ewes 42Mat<strong>in</strong>g 42W<strong>in</strong>ter<strong>in</strong>g 42Lamb<strong>in</strong>g Time 43Shear<strong>in</strong>g and Dipp<strong>in</strong>g 43The Flock at Pasture 43Wean<strong>in</strong>g 44Precautions <strong>in</strong> Rape Feed<strong>in</strong>g 44Cull<strong>in</strong>g Out 44Types of Mutton Sheep 45Mutton Production <strong>in</strong> Great Brita<strong>in</strong>. 49In the South of England 51Mutton Mak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Scotland 52Flocks Renewed Each Season 52Fatten<strong>in</strong>g Sheep <strong>in</strong> Canada 54W<strong>in</strong>ter Fatten<strong>in</strong>g 54Feed to a F<strong>in</strong>ish 55Fatten<strong>in</strong>g Ewes 55Early Lamb Production 56Fatten<strong>in</strong>g Range Lambs 58From the Block to the Table 58The Butcher's Animal 59Preparation for Kill<strong>in</strong>g 59Avoid<strong>in</strong>g the Woolly Flavour 60Sk<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g and Dress<strong>in</strong>g 60Cool<strong>in</strong>g and Cutt<strong>in</strong>g 61Keep<strong>in</strong>g the Meat 61Corn<strong>in</strong>g Mutton 61Spiced Mutton Hams 621 11PageHandl<strong>in</strong>g Sheep 62Dipp<strong>in</strong>g 64The Great Neglect 67Comparison on the Block 69Methods of Castration 69The Tails 70Feeds and Feed<strong>in</strong>g 70Clover 70.77Alfalfa 71Vetches 72Rape 72Cabbage 74Turnips 74Mangels 75Corn 75Corn Silage 75Peas 76Oilcake.Oats 77Sheep Barns 78Plan Described 78Construction 78Doors and W<strong>in</strong>dows 80Construction of Roof 81Ventilation 82An Inexpensive Shed 83Sheep as Weed Destroyers 85Sheep Improve the grade of Wheat.. 85Blue Weed and Wild Mustard 86Weeds <strong>in</strong>crease as sheep decrease.. ..Ragwort—The Source of Pictou Cattle86Disease 87Animal Enemies of the Sheep 87The Dog 87Methods of Protection 89Predatory Animals 89Poison<strong>in</strong>g 90Precautionary Measures 91Timber Wolves, Bears and Panthers. 91Diseases of Sheep 92Scab 92Foot-Rot 93Ticks and Lice 94Stomach Worms 94The Grub Worm 95Tapeworm 95Gid 96Acute Indigestion 97Spasmodic Colic 98Constipation or Stretches 98Inflammation of the Bowels 98Diarrhoea 99Wool Balls 99Derangement of the Ur<strong>in</strong>ary Organs.. 99
112PageAbortion 100Eversion of the Womb 100Sore Teats 101Caked Udder 101Inflammation of the Udder or Garget. 101Abscesses 102Goitre 102Catarrh 102Soreness of the Eyes 102The Canadian Wool Industry 103The Annual Crop . .104The Export Trade 104PageDomestic Consumption 105Wool Grad<strong>in</strong>g and Market<strong>in</strong>g 105Characteristics of Canadian Wool . . . . 106Chaff, Burrs, etc 106Cotted Wool..- 106Second Growth 107Ty<strong>in</strong>g the Fleece 107Range Wools 107Pulled Wool 108Shear<strong>in</strong>g 109The Outlook 109
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