Untitled

COVER PHOTO:VIEW OF TROUT MOUNTAIN OVERLOOKING TROUT LAKE.

Province of British ColumbiaMinistry of EnvironmentRESOURCE ANALYSIS BRANCHRAB Bulletin 15Soi1 Resources of theLARDEAU MAP AREA(82K)Report No. 27British Columbia Soi1 SurveyU. WittnebenKELOWNA1980

Canadian Cataloguing in Publication DataWittneben, U., 1939- .Soi1 resources of the Lardeau map area (82K)(British Columbia soi1 survey ; report no. 27)(RAB bulletin ; 15)Bibliography: p.ISBN o-7719-8260-71. Soils - British Columbia - West Kootenayregion. 1. Title. II. Series. III. Series:British Columbia. Ministry of Environment.Resource Analysis Branch. RAB bulletin ; 15.S599.1.B7W58 631.4'7'71145 c79-092218-5

CHAPTER ONE1.11.21.31.41.51.61.71.8TABLE OF CONTENTSA GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE LARDEAU MAP AREALocation and Population .......................................................... 5History .......................................................................... 5Physiography and Drainage ........................................................ 6Bedrock Geology .................................................................. 8Surficial Geologic Deposits (Soi1 Parent Materials) .............................. 10Modifying Processes Acting on Soi1 Parent Materials .............................. 17Climate .......................................................................... 18Vegetation (Forest Zonation) ..................................................... 18mCHAPTER TWOSOIL SURVEY AND MAPPING METHODS2.1 Mapping Methodology .............................................................. 272.2 Field Procedures and Access ...................................................... 302.3 The Soi1 Map ..................................................................... 30CHAPTER THREESOILS OF THE LARDEAU MAP AREA3.1 Dominant Features Related to Soi1 Formation ...................................... 353.2 Chemical Properties of the Lardeau Map Area Soils ................................ 393.3 Description of Soi1 Associations ................................................. 40CHAPTER FOUR SOIL INTERPRETATIONS4.1 Soi1 Interpretations for Engineering ............................................. 1634.2 Soi1 Interpretations Pertaining to Hydrology, Mass Movement, and Erodibilityof Materials ..................................................................... 1764.3 Soi1 Interpretations for Forestry ................................................ 1844.4 Soi1 Interpretations for Agriculture ............................................. 1914.5 Extensive and Intensive Recreation of the Lardeau Map Area ....................... 1954.6 Wildlife Distribution and Habitat of the Lardeau Map Area ........................ 204REFERENCES ............................................................................................. 211.GLOSSARY OF TERMS IN SOIL SCIENCE ..................................................................... 215APPENOIX A CLIMATE INFORMATION .............................................................. AlAPPENDIX B THE CANADIAN SYSTEM OF SOIL CLASSIFICATION ....................................... BlAPPENDIX C SOIL HORIZON NOMENCLATURE ........................................................ ClAPPENDIX D ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF ROCKS .................................................. DlAPPENDIX E GUIDELINES FOR SOIL ENGINEERING AND RECREATION INTERPRETATIONS AND A CLASS- ElIFICATION OF SOIL AND SOIL-AGGREGATE MIXTURES IN THE AASHO CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM .APPENDIX F ACREAGE TABLES ................................................................... FlAPPENDIX G CHEMICAL ANALYSES AND DETAILED SOIL PROFILE DESCRIPTIONS OF LARDEAU MAP AREA SOILS GlLIST OF PREVIOUS RAB BULLETINS ........................................................... Inside Back Coveriii

MST OF FIGURESFigures101112131415161718192021222324252627QJgLocation of Lardeau map area in relation to rest of British Columbia ......................... 3Physiographic subdivisions of the Lardeau map area ........................................... 7Generalized bedrock geology of the Lardeau map area .......................................... 9Surficial deposits of the Lardeau map area ................................................... 11Location of volcanic ash samples within the Selkirk Mountains ................................ 16Sequence of forest zones and subzones in the East and West Kootenay region ................... 19Forest zones of the Lardeau map area ......................................................... 21Soi1 association synthesis .................................................................... 27Key to the soils of the Lardeau map area and their relation to physiography, forest zone,parent material and soi1 classification ...................................................... 29Access of the Lardeau map area ............................................................... 31Example of soi1 map symbol ................................................................... 32Landform symbolling system and the terrain system equipment .................................. 32Effect of elevation and environment on the development of Bm, Bf and Bhf horizons ............ 36Major soi1 development of the Lardeau map area ............................................... 37Abbreviations used in the soi1 association descriptions ...................................... 42Soi1 textural classes ........................................................................ 166Comparison of soi1 particle sizes for the U.S.D.A., Unified and A.A.S.H.O. systems ofclassification ............................................................................... 166Grain size distribution of some parent materials in the Lardeau map area ..................... 167Frost heave is caused by ice lenses forming beneath the pavement or road surface ............. 168Generalized land capability for forestry of the Lardeau map area ............................. 187Generalized climate capability classes for agriculture of the Lardeau map area ............... 193Generalized soi1 capability classes for agriculture of the Lardeau map area .................. 197Generalized recreation capability classes and features of the Lardeau map area ............... 203Generalized wildlife ungulate distribution in the Lardeau map area ........................... 207Generalized wildlife ungulate winter ranges in the Lardeau map area .......................... 209Climate stations mentioned in report ......................................................... A2Usual Sequence of soi1 horizons and symbol nomenclature for soi1 profiles .................... c3

LIST OF PLATESPlates123456789101112131415 fi 161718 & 1920212223 & 242526 & 2728293031Satellite photo showing the Lardeau map areab.................................................... x111Abandoned mine in the "Silvery Slocan", near Zincton ......................................... 5Ghost town near Sandon ....................................................................... 6The Rocky Mountain Trench .................................................................... 6Upper Arraw Lake ............................................................................. 8The Arrow Lakes .............................................................................. 8Folded, fine-grained slate near Retallack .................................................... 10A typical basa1 till ......................................................................... 10Colluvial veneer soi1 overlying bedrock ...................................................... 12Shallow colluvial veneer soi1 overlying granitic bedrock ..................................... 12Volcanic ash in a thin band .................................................................. 14Volcanic ash within the Ae horizon ........................................................... 17"Pista1 butt" trees caused by soi1 creep ..................................................... 17A Dystric Brunisol soi1 ...................................................................... 35Humo-Ferric Podzol soils ..................................................................... 35,38Durit horizons in coarse-textured glacial till ............................................... 38Seepage site characteristics ................................................................. 39Fluvial soils with high water tables ......................................................... 181Severe slumping near escarpments ............................................................. 181Slumping and mass movement in glacial till ................................................... 182Windthrow damage on shallow soils ............................................................ 190Land topographically suited for agriculture .................................................. 191Agricultural land near Nakusp ................................................................ 195Bugaboo Glacier ............................................................................... 198Coarse textured gravelly soils used for campground ........................................... 200View south along Kootenay Lake ................................................................ 205The Lardeau River ............................................................................. 206vii

LIST OF TABLESTables12345678910111213141516171819&Analysis of volcanic ash horizons for bulk density ......................................... 15Engineering test data for some soils of the Lardeau map area ............................... 164Generalized relationship between soi1 association, unified group and their estimatedengineering properties ..................................................................... 170Limitations of soi1 associations for selected engineering uses ............................. 173Soi1 associations grouped according to mass movement hazard ................................ 182Soi1 associations grouped according to soi1 erosion hazard ................................. 184Soi1 interpretations for forestry .......................................................... 189Crop suitability for soils of the Lardeau map area ......................................... 194Soi1 limitations for selected intensive recreational uses .................................. 201Climatic information for some stations in and near the Lardeau map area .................... A3Frost-free period and frost data ........................................................... A5Probable last spring and first fa11 dates of occurrence of minimum temperatures ............ A6Engineering properties of rocks ............................................................ DZGuidelines for soi1 engineering interpretations ............................................ E2Classification of soils and soi1 aggregate mixtures in the AASHO system .................... E4Guidelines for soi1 . recreation interpretations ........................................... E5Acreage of agriculture capability classes .................................................. F2Acreage of forestry capability classes ..................................................... F2Acreage of soi1 associations of the Lardeau map area ....................................... F3ix

PREFACEThis report, Soi 1 Resources of the Lardeau Map Area (82K), and the accompanying soi1 maps are theproduct of the soi1 survey of the Lardeau map area. Together they provide basic information about theclassification, distribution and properties of the soils and their suitability and/or limitations forspecified uses.Fieldwork for this survey was carried out during 1971-1974.The main body of the report consists of four chapters. Chapter One deals with the overall environmentof the Lardeau area. Chapter Two describes the methodology used during mapping. Chapter Three consists ofdescriptions of soi1 associations of the area. Chapter Four contains a variety of soi1 interpretations foragriculture, forestry, engineering, hydrology, recreation and wildlife. A glossary, list of references anda number of appendices follow Chapter Four.The information contained in this report is useful to resource managers primarily at generalized planninglevels although some site specific detail may also be extracted. It also contains a climaticoverview useful in determining the general suitability (or limitations) of tracts of land for a variety ofuses.The areal distribution of soi1 associations, landforms and slope classes of the Study Area are shown onthe accompanying reconnaissance soi1 maps (scale 1:lOO 000). Delineated soi1 areas are identified by eitherone or a number of symbols; areas with the same symbol(s) contain the same kinds of soil.The caver photograph was provided by D.R. Benn and the satellite photo (Plate 1) was supplied byNational Air Photo Library, Ottawa, Ontario. Grateful acknowledgement is made to the Land ResourcesResearch Institute, Agriculture Canada, Ottawa, Ontario for producing and publishing the soi1 maps.Special recognition goes to the Editorial Committee, chaired by W.C. Yeomans and composed of thefollowing members: Dr. T.E. Baker, L.J. Houston, H.A. Luttmerding, Dr. J.A. Shields, P.N. Sprout, and T.Vold who contributed their time for providing advice, guidance and critical comments concerning thetechnical editing for this report.Drafting and graphies provided by the Cartography Section,Victoria and the Drafting Section,,Kelowna,Resource Analysis Branch.xi

chapter oneA GENERAL DESCRIPTIONOF THE LARDEAU MAP AREA

A GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE LARDEAU MAP AREA1.11.21.31.41.51.61.71.8pageLOCATION AND POPULATION .......................................................................... 5HISTORY .......................................................................................... 5PHYSIOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGE ........................................................................ 6BEDROCK GEOLOGY .................................................................................. 8SURFICIAL GEOLOGIC DEPOSITS (SOIL PARENT MATERIALS) .............................................. 101.51 Ice Transported (Morainal) Deposits ........................................................ 101.52 Gravity Transported (Colluvial) Deposits ................................................... 121.53 Water Transported (Fluvial and Glaciofluvial) Deposits ..................................... 131.54 Fresh Water Deposited (Lacustrine and Glaciolacustrine) Sediments .......................... 131.55 Wind Transported (Eolian) Deposits ......................................................... 14MODIFYING PROCESSES ACTING ON SOIL PARENT MATERIALS .............................................. 171.61 "Soi1 Stability" in Steep Mountainous Topography ........................................... 171.62 Solifluction and Periglacial Mass Movement in an Alpine Environment ........................ 17CLIMATE .......................................................................................... 18VEGETATION (FOREST ZONATION) ..................................................................... 181.81 Interior Western Hemlock-Western Red Cedar Forest Zone ..................................... 201.82 Interior Douglas-fir Forest Zone ........................................................... 221.83 Subalpine Engelmann Spruce-Alpine Fir Forest Zone .......................................... 231.84 Alpine Tundra Zone ......................................................................... 24

MWSON CREEK 0REVELSTOKEVANCOUVERFigure 1: Location of Lardeau map area in relation to rest of British Columbia3

1 A GENERAL DESCRIPTION OFTHE LARDEAU MAP AREA1.1 LOCATION AN0 POPULATIONThe Lardeau map area (National TopographieSeries map sheet 82K) is located in southeasternBritish Columbia between 50" and 51" north latitudeand 116" and 118' west longitude. The map areaextends about 70 miles from north to south and 85miles from east to west, covering a total area ofabout 6100 square miles or 3.9 million acres.Except for Sandon and Camborne, where miningoperations continued through the 195O's, mostmining booms lasted for only a few years. Theeconomy of the area gradually changed frommineral-based to one based on forestry andagriculture.Numerous mines, such as the one near Zinctonshown below, and ghost towns, such as the one atSandon, (Plate 3), lie forgotten. They reflect anera when "Silver was King".The western boundary is in the vicinity of theUpper Arrow Lake basin and the eastern boundary isnear the Rocky Mountain Trench. The villages ofNakusp and Invermere are the largest communities.Smaller centres of population are at Hills,Lardeau, Trout Lake, Meadow Creek, Edgewater,Radium, Spillimacheen' and Brisco.The total population of the map area is about3500 (Department of Municipal Affairs, Province ofBritish Columbia, 1972). Except for the area nearNakusp and Invermere, the map area is largelyuninhabited.1.2 HISTORYAfter completion of the main line of theCanadian Pacifie Railway as well as other modes oftransportation, which created access to placer andhardrock mining sites, railway men and othersturned towards prospecting and logging. During thetwo decades following 1885, various mining activitiesbegan in the Beaton and Camborne, Ferguson,New Denver, Sandon, Zincton and Retallack areas.The mining industry played a very important role.inthe initial development of the area and inducedmany people to settle there. Places of historicalinterest are located at Comaplix, Lardeau City,Circle City, Po~lar Creek, Three Forks andWhitewater. Most of these settlements weresituated near Trout Lake and between Kootenay Lakeand Upper Arrow Lake, but little evidence ofcivilization remains there now.The trails and roads which formerly connectedthese places are now either gravelled or pavedhighways. Grades of the former Arrowhead andKootenay railway, as well as parts of the Kaslo-Sandon and New Denver railways now serve asexcellent secondary roads into the heart of theLardeau map area. The C.P.R. paddle-wheel steamerson Arrow, Kootenay and Trout lakes have a11disappeared; all-weather highways No.'s 6, 23 and31 now connect Revelstoke and Nelson.Radium Hot Springs is a major recreationalfeature of Kootenay National Park. These Springswere used by the Indians for many years, but afterthe Canadian Pacifie Railway was built from Golden

to Cranbrook and facilities were expanded in theearly fifties, the tlot Springs gained nationalrenown.northward flowing Columbia River. Another notablephysiographic feature is the Purcell Trench whichseparates the Selkirk and Purcell Mountains. Itparallels the Rocky Mountain Trench and is occupiedby the Duncan River, Duncan Lake and Kootenay Lake.The area to the east of the Purcell Mountainsis commonly referred to as the "East Kootenay"while that on the west, and including the SelkirkMountains, is known as the "West Kootenay".Extreme relief characterizes the Columbia andRocky Mountains. Mountain peaks in the Purcell andHighway 95 connects Golden with Cranbrook byway of the Rocky Mountain Trench. Numerous accessroads penetrate the Purcell Mountains, but nonecross the divide to the Duncan River drainage.Selkirk Mountains rise to about 10,500 feet abovesea level. The elevations of the main valleysrange between 1460 feet at Upper Arrow Lake and2630 feet at Windermere Lake. The main drainage,as illustrated in Figure 2, flows south through theArrow Lakes and by the Kootenay,Columbia, Lardeauand Duncan rivers. In the Rocky Mountain Trenchthe Columbia River flows northward.There are airfields suitable for small planesat Nakusp and Invenere. These two centres havethe only medical and secondary educationalfacilities in the area. A hydro storage dam nearCastlegar impounds the Arrow Lake - Columbia Riversystem, and a second one at Duncan Lake impoundsthe Duncan River.1.3 PHYSIOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGEMost of the map area is occupied by theColumbia Mountain system - the Purcell and SelkirkMountains - of the Interior system (Holland, 1964).A small portion in the northeast is occupied by theRocky Mountain system. The mountain systems areseparated by the Rocky Mountain Trench, atopographie depression extending northwestwardalmost throughout the length of British Columbia.In the map area this valley is occupied by thePlate 4: The Rocky Mountain Trench, astructurally controlled erosional feature, occupiedby the Columbia and Kootenay Rivers. View lookingsoutheast from Jubilee Mountain.

of Cretaceous and Tertiary ages. The Kuskanaxbatholith occupies most of the area between Nakusp,Galena Bay and southwest of Trout Lake to Nakusp.Triassic sedimentary rocks (Slocan group) occupymost of the southern area of the map sheet betweenNakusp and Kootenay Lake (Holland, 1964; Reesor,1973).Plate 5: The serenity of the Upper Arrow Lakereflects in its' waters the densely forested slopesof the Selkirk Mountains. Plate 6: The ArrowLakes serve as a great settling basin for theswiftly flowing Columbia River.The Purcell Mountains consist primarily ofsedimentary and metamorphic rocks of Proterozoicand Lower Paleozoic ages. Most of these rocks arequartzite, argillaceous quartzite, argillite andsome limestone. Several Cretaceous intrusionscomposed mainly of quartz monzonite and granodioriteare commonly known as the Fry Creek,Bugaboo, Horsethief and White Creek batholiths(Reesor, 1973). The northwest-southeast trend ofindividual ranges within the Purcell Mountains iscontrolled by numerous faults.The Brisco and Vermilion Ranges of the RockyMountains are located northeast of the RockyMountain Trench and are characterized by complexgeoiogic structures. They consist primarily ofCambrian and Ordovician blue-grey limestone andargillaceous limestone, light-grey dolomite anddolomitic limestone (Holland, 1964).Quartzite and limestone are strongly resistantto erosion and fon most of the higher peaks of theLardeau map area. Notable are Mts. Hamill,Kindersley and Findlay. Peaks composed of graniteor granitic rock are massive, rounded and subdued.Sharp and pinnacled peaks, such as Mt. Brennan andMt. Whitewater are composed of slates and shists.1.4 BEDROCK GEOLOGYThe Selkirk Mountains are composed of avariety of bedrock types (see Figure 3). Pre-dominant are Proterozoic and Paleozoic sedimentaryand metamorphic rocks, gneiss of igneous origin,late Palaezoic and Mesozoic sedimentary andvolcanic rocks, and granitic stocks and batholithsThe headwaters of Bremner, Kuskanax, Poplar,and St. Leon creeks and Halfway River show therectangular drainage pattern typical of graniteand related intrusive rocks.Most of the mountain ranges have long,uniformly steep and heavily timbered slopes. Al1valleys are deeply entrenched and many of theircreeks are still fed by glacial meltwater.

Most glacial till deposits, at the lower ele- A colluvial veneer overlying highly fractured,vations, are present as blankets, usually thicker easily weathered bedrock is shown in Plate 9. .than five feet, over the subdued and hummocky Plate 10 depicts an example of a shallow colluvialbedrock. Glacial till within the Rocky Mountain veneer overlying granitic bedrock.Trench, north from Invermere, is typicallydrumlinized. The following soi1 associations* havedeveloped from glacial till deposits: Slocan,Stobart, Sentinel, Stubbs, Steenhoff, Sandner, St.Leon, Swehaw, Sandon, Spillimacheen, Wycliffe andKinbasket.1.52 GRAVITY-TRANSPORTED (COLLUVIAL) DEPOSITSThe colluvial deposits are the dominant soi1parent materials in the Lardeau map area. Theyare a product of mass wasting and have reachedtheir present position by direct gravity-inducedmovement. Cenerally they are found at higher elevationson steep and very steep topography.In the Lardeau map area, the colluvialdeposits were divided into those which were deeper(blankets) or shallower (veneer) than five feetoverlying bedrock. Colluvial blankets modify theirregularities in the .underlying surfaces, butreflect their dominant topography. The texturedepends on the nature of the material frcm which itis derived. If bedrock is the source, thecolluviufn Will probably be stony and coarsetextured, although the degree and rapidity ofweathering of the minera1 constituènts sometimesproduces colluvium of finer texture. Where thecolluvium is derived fran other surficial deposits,its texture is similar to the original deposits.The following soi1 associations have developed oncolluvial blankets: Cooper, Comaplix, Curtis,Mount Cond, Calamity, Cataract, Coppercrown,Carney, Clifty, Champion, Cervil, Coubrey, Conradand Couldron.Colluvial veneers are less than five feetthick over bedrock. They generally are too thin tomask minor topographie irregularities in the underlyingbedrock surface but otherwise are similar incharacteristics to colluvial blankets. * For discussion of soi1 associations, see chapterthree.12

The following soi1 associations have developedprimarily fran colluvial veneers, although minorinclusions of deeper colluvial deposits may also bepresent: Buhl Creek, Bergman, Bohan Creek,Blaylock, Blizzard, Burkitt, Bluejoint, BeatonCreek, Brouse, Beatrice, Bonner, Burn Creek, BigFish, Brennan, Bunyon, Badshot, Rossland andRadium.Talus, also a type of colluvium, is defined asangular rock fragments produced by frost actionfrom exposed bedrock slopes and scarps. It isrubbly and bouldery in nature and separate soi1associations, Yahk Creek and Ymir, have been mappedon these deposits.1.53 WATER-TRANSPORTE0 (FLUVIAL AN0 GLACIO-FLUVIAL) DEPOSITSRecent fluvial (alluvial) materials, depositedby present day rivers and streams, have fine sandyand silty textures in their surfaces and aregenerally underlain by gravelly sand or gravellyloamy Sand. Large areas of these dominantly mediumto coarse textured deposits are found in theIncomappleux River valley, near the north end ofKootenay Lake, in the lower Duncan River valley andon the floodplain of the Columbia River betweenInvetmere and Harrogate. Some smaller areas occurin the Lardeau River valley. Avis and Nowitka soi1associations have developed fran these deposits.Fluvial fans are located along the margins ofvalley floors where gradients of steep side streamschange. On entering, the gradients are reducedabruptly and much of the load is deposited.Texturally, fans consist of variable mixtures ofgravel, sand and finer particles containing variouscontents of stones and cobbles. Usually thetextures are coarsest at the apex of the fans andbecome finer toward the apron. The surfaces aremarked by abandoned and active stream channels.Many fluvial fans occur in the Rocky MountainTrench north of Invermere as almost a11 creeks thatdrain into the Columbia River have developed fans.Fry, Davis and Schroeder creeks form fans at thepoint of entering Kootenay Lake. Others are atWilson Creek, where it flows into Slocan Lake, andon a number of small creeks along the perimeter ofTrout Lake. Fairmont and Fruitvale soi1 assoiationshave developed frc.m fluvial fan soi1 parentmaterials.Glaciofluvial deposits were laid down duringor irmnediately subsequent to glaciation. Theyoccur as a variety of ice contact deposits, kamesand terraces generally ccmposed of grave1 and/orSand. Their textures range from gravelly loamysand to sand throughout the soi1 profile. Kamedeposits often occur in conjunction with colluviumand glacial till.Glaciofluvial deposits are widespread over themap area. The majority, however, occur as wall topoorly sorted deposits along the major valleys,such as those along Upper Arrow Lake, Kootenay Lakeand the Upper Columbia River. In many smaller sidevalleys these deposits occur sporadically on thesteep slopes high above present creeks (i.e.Kuskanax Creek and Halfway River). Level andhunocky fluvial terraces are present throughoutthe map area at valley bottom elevations.Calcareous gravelly and sandy terraces areassociated with the drumlinized morainal depositsin the Rocky Mountain Trench and occupy formermeltwater channels. Soi1 associations that havefonned frcm glaciofluvial deposits are Kaslo,Kuskanax, Kingcome, Keeney and Gillis.1.54 FRESH-WATER OEP~SITEO (LACUSTRINE MDGLACIOLACUSTRINE) SEDIMNTSLacustrine (and glaciolacustrine) depositsconsist of sediments which have settled inlakes. These sediments have particles ranging insize fran silt and very fine sand to clay andtypical soi1 textures range from silt loam to clayloam.The largest lacustrine deposits occur in thenortheast of the map area where they flank the13

Columbia River. They are typically 100 feet ormore deep and are calcareous throughout. A smallarea of lacustrine sediments also occurs in theVowell Creek valley. The sediments here arecomparatively shallow, moderately coarse texturedgenerally do not exceed 10 feet in thickness, andmay have been deposited in a temporary ice-dammedlake. Other lacustrine deposits occur near thesouthern end of Upper Arrow Lake and in the ArrowPark Creek area. Post-glacial erosion and pipinghas formed gullies which have receded aboutone-half mile frcm the escarpment edge in a11lacustrine sediments and are well expressed in thedeposits north of Invetmere. Soi1 associationswhich have developed from lacustrine sediments, areMayook, Linten and Lawley.Volcanic ashes are composed of non-crystallineglass shards, weatherable feldspars ami ferromagnesiumminerals. Small amounts of quartz mayalso be present. Volcanic ash frcm several sourceshave been identified in British Columbia, includingthose known as: Mazama, Glacier Peak, BridgeRiver, St. Helens Y and W. No attempt has beenmade to identify or separate the various ashesfound in the map area, but Mazama and St. Helensare the most likely sources.Plate 11 indicates a thin band of volcanic ashburied in colluvium while Plate 12 shows a soi1surface consisting of an Ae horizon mixed withvolcanic ash.1.55 WIND-TRANSPORTED (EOLIAN) DEPOSITSSince the general retreat,of the glaciers andthe drying of the landscape about 10 to 20 thousandyears ago, and before vegetation became generallyestablished, a large area of the Rocky MountainTrench was exposed to severe wind erosion. Thesepro-glacial winds deposited silt and very fine sandover a large portion of the landscape. The thicknessof these eolian deposits ranges from a thin,scarcely observable layer to a mantle of a foot ormore (Kelly, 1961). Soi1 associations mapped inthe Rocky Mountain Trench have variable depths offine sandy or silty eolian cappings over theunderlying morainal, glaciofluvial or lacustrinedeposits.Another type of wind-transported deposit inthe map area is volcanic ash. These deposits arepresent over most of southern British Columbia andoccur in various amounts in the uppermost horizonsof many soils of the Lardeau map area. Thevolcanic ash occurs as a thin white layer(s) or hasbeen incorporated with the other materials.Volcanic ash layers are best expressed in wet,depressional, organic areas. Here the ash occursas layers generally ranging from 1/4 inch to abouttwo inches in thickness.Table 1 contains several analyses of a varietyof "ashy" horizons found in the Lardeau map area.The accompanying map, Figure 5 shows the samplinglocations. Bulk density determinations were doneby the Volumeasure method (Soi1 Test, ASTM) andSoi1 Clod method (Brasher, et al., 1966).14

Table 1: Analysis of volcanic ash horizons for bulk densityOXALATE PYRO PHOSPH. BULK DENSITYMAP Clod SaranPARENT MATERIAL DEPTH LOCATION HORIZON Fe Al Fe Al Volume MethodAlmost pure volcanic 24” : ash 1.59 2.90 0.35 1.33 0.890.87ash layer (Shannon0.53Creek) 1 0.661 0.661 0.75Outwash (gr.), kame O-4” 2 Bml 0.93 1.22 0.15 0.33 0.87(obvious volcanic 4-8”Bm2 1.03 1.50 0.13 0.42 0.81ash) 4-8” ;Bm2 0.79 1.00 0.10 0.28 0.68Outwash (gr.), kame 1-4" 3” Bm 0.38 0.76 0.03 0.19 1.14(no obvious ash) 1-4” Bm 0.37 0.73 0.04 0.15 1.29Outwash (sands) at O-5” iBm 0.48 1.46 0.02 0.16 0.83(Kuskanax Ferry) O-5”Bm 0.78Outwash (gr.), kame O-3” 55 Ae or ash 0.10 0.13 0.01 0.08 1.26(Shelter Bay)3-6” Bm 0.97 2.65 0.15 0.77 0.95Outwash (MacDonald O-4”Ae and ash 0.66 0.60Creek) o-4 ‘I 5Ae and ash 0.60D-4" 6 Ae and ash 0.414-8” Bf 0.734-8” 5 Bf 0.54Outwash sand (Nakusp 7 0.17 0.17 Trace 0.08 1.23Hot Springs)Coarse till (Blue- o-5 ” 8 Bf 1.16 2.38 0.02 0.33 0.75 0.90berry-Paulson) O-5” Bf 0.72 0.87o-5 ” 8 Bf 1.18, 2.28 0.05 0.42 0.73 0.91Colluviun over Rock(Salmo-Creston Sumnit:9" Bf 1.20 1.03 0.74 0.75 0.55 0.72Bf 1.26 1.17 0.62 0.75 0.72 0.879 Bf 1.34 0.95 0.71 0.65 0.73Colluvium over till 10 Bm 1.11 1.31 0.18 0.45 0.5210 Bm 1.35 1.34 0.19 0.57 0.68Outwash sands (no O-4” :: Bm 0.32 0.79 0.04 0.26 1.28obvious ash) Castle- O-4” Bm 0.49 0.97 0.03 0.19 1.27gar AirportOutwash sand (no O-5” Ah 0.36 0.78 0.04 0.24 1.11obvious ash) Castle- O-5” E Ah 0.32 0.81 0.23 0.23 1.14gar AirportOutwash and kames (W o-4 II 13 Bf 0.36 0.63 0.08 0.23 1.33of Passmore at Little O-4" 13 Bf 0.40 0.68 0.08 0.21 1.35Slocan Lake) O-4” 13 Bf 0.37 0.61 0.10 0.25 1.58Basa1 till (obvious O-4”ash 0.48 1.05 0.17 0.60 0.82ash layer above B o-4 I’ :4ash 0.48 1.05 0.13 0.52 0.84horizon) (LittleSlocan Lake)Basa1 till (obvious O-4” 15 ash 1.58 1.69 0.63 0.80 0.66ash layer above 6 1.51 1.55 0.51 0.72 0.67horizon) (LittleSlocan Lake)Ash layer in Organic 16-18" 16 ash 0.71Bw1.4915

1.6 MODIFYING PROCESSES ACTING ONSOIL PARENT MATERIALS1.61 "SOIL STABILITY" IN STEEP MOUNTAINOUSTOPOGRAPHYWhenever a mass of soi1 exists on a surfacethat is not horizontal, interna1 shear stressesdevelop which tend to move the Upper portionsdownslope. When the interna1 shear stresses exceedthe shearing resistance of the material, downslopemoveinent Will occur. If the area of movement islarge, massive slope failures result. Suchfailures are usually deep-seated rather thansurface phenomena. They generally occur quitesuddenly and are connnonly known as landslides. Inaddition to landslides, surface phenomena such aserosion, scour, mud flows, arxi creep are includedin the consideration of the stability of slopes.Soi1 creep is slow downslope movement of soi1and rock under the influence of gravity and isoften facilitated by saturation with water. Creepalso includes a gradually increasing deformation ofsoi1 materials. Soi1 creep of low magnitude hasbeen observed in almost a11 steeply sloping soilsin the map area. Its presence is often indicatedby slight curvatures of tree trunks ("pistolbutt"), (Plate 13) and cari also be seen in thethickness of the soi1 overhang on the Upper side ofold excavations. Soi1 creep is most evident onmedium or finer textured colluvial or morainaldeposits on steep slopes. The soi1 horizons areoften mixed or displaced.1.62 SOLIFLUCTION AND OTHER PERIGLACIAL MASS-MOVEMENT IN AN ALPINE ENVIRONMENTSolifluction is termed as "surface modificationby the process of slow gravitationaldownslope movement of saturated non-frozen earthmaterial..." (E.L.U.C. Secretariat. 1976). Solifluctionis thus a downslope flow of watersaturatedmaterial with gravity as the motiveforce. The cool, moist alpine climate creates thesaturated soi1 conditions required for instability.A few areas of alpine soils in the study area,such as Rossland and Radium associations, exhibitthis phenomenon. These areas are generally onlysparsely vegetated and the small amount of turf andmoss may, under certain conditions, retard thesemi-fluid layer. Slower and more imperceptibleflow movements form lobes in less hilly topowaphy.These soils generally show a churning ormixing of soi1 horizons.17

1.7 CLIMATE 1.8 VEGETATION*( FOREST ZONATION )The Selkirk and Purcell Mountains have apronounced influence on the climate in the Lardeaumap area. The rugged topography ranges inelevation from 1400 feet in the southwest near thethe Columbia River to peaks over 10,500 feet in thePurcell Mountains. The moist, eastward movingmaritime air fran the Pacifie Ocean rises againstthe western slopes of these ranges, releasing mostof its precipitation. In general, the precipitationincreases northward and also increasesrapidly with elevation. In the Arrow Lakes valley,the annual precipitation varies from 22.6 in/yrnear Fauquier to 43.2 in/yr near Revelstoke.The East Kootenay region is situated in thelee of the Purcell Mountains and has lower annualprecipitation. The trend, however, towardincreasingly moister conditions northward is alsoapparent here (Brisco 16.54 in./yr., Golden 18.60in./yr.).Throughout most of the lower elevations, 30 to40% of the annual precipitation falls as snow.This percentage increases with elevation. Forexample, 65% of the 59 in. annual precipitation atGlacier (4094 feet elevation) falls as snow.Mountain ranges and large lakes influencetemperatures within the map area. Thoughtemperatures usually decrease with increasingelevation, cold upslope air may be funnelled downnarrow valleys (cold air chutes) to the main valleyfloor effectively reducing the frost-free period.Data on frost-free periods for some selectedstations are shown in the Appendix Table 11. Incontrast to the extremes created by cold airchutes, large lakes such as the Upper Arrow andKootenay exert a moderating influence on the localclimate. Detailed precipitation and temperaturedata for selected stations is presented in AppendixTable 10.The interaction of climate, topography, soi1and time creates the environment in which plantscanpete for space, nutrients, moisture, ard light.When given sufficient time without disturbance, thetotal vegetation Will develop into stablecombinations of plants which reflect the biologicalpotential of the environment. These are called"climax" communities.Disturbances such as fire, insect and diseasedamage, grazing, browsing, logging and landclearing temporarily eliminate the competitionbetween plant species. "Seral" species, whichtolerate the above conditions, become established.Subsequently, canpetition Will result in theprogressive replacement of species until a climaxcomnunity, again in balance with its environment,is re-established. The process of progressivereplacement of species is referred to as"succession". Typical examples of succession are:Fireweed-lodgepole pine to Engelmann spruce-alpinefir** or, in the interior, to western hemlock. Aknowledge of the climax and the successionsequences and their relationship to the climate,soi1 and the landscape are required to understandthe optimum resource-use options offered by thenatural systems.In British Columbia, the interaction of thewesterly air flow and the mountainous topographyresult in vertical sequences of more or lesshorizontal belts of forests composed of the samepotential climatic climax species ami associatedsuccessional sequences. These forested belts* Vegetation classification statements areadapted frcnn Biophysical Seminar, 1975.Throughout this report, zone is used to meanForest Zone (van Barneveld, 1976) and Douglasfiris used to mean Rocky Mountain Douglasfir(Taylor, 1977).** Tree species in this report named after Taylor,1977.18

WEST KOOTENAYS EAST KOOTENAYSELEVATION(FT.)ZONE SUBZONE ZONE SUSZONE9000;A;;netundra/Alpine(At)tundra8000(SA eS -alF:fK)Subalpine EngelmannSpruce - alpine fir(SA eS - alF)(SA eS - alF:fk)--(SA eS - alF) forest70006000Subalpine Engelmannspruce - alpine fir(SA es-alF)Forested(SA eS - alF) forestInteriorhemlockredcedarwestern- western---m---vwith succession ofalFInterioreShemlock(IwH)western--w--B---Interior western hemlock - westernred cedar without ponderosa pine(Iwh - WC, no pP)---------__=Ooo /4000 Interior Douglasfir(ID)//Interior Douglas fir/ without ponderosa pine(ID no pP)/--------mm-Interior Douglas fir3000 with ponderosa pine(ID,PP)Interior western hemlock -western red cedar withponderosa pine(IwH - WC, pP)20001000/0Figure 6: Sequence of forest zones and subzones in the East and West Kootenay region19

provide the framework for the classification offorest zones and are defined on the basis of thepotential distribution of climax tree speciesoccurring on well-drained, deep, medium-texturedsoils on non-exposed sites (van Barneveld, 1976).A forest zone may be subdivided into subzonesaccording to differences in possible successionalsequences. For example, the Interior Douglas-firzone is subdivided into a lower Douglas-fir subzonewith potential occurrences of sera1 ponderosa pine,and an Upper Douglas-fir subzone in which bydefinition, ponderosa pine does not occur.Similarly, subzones are established on the basis ofgross differences in growth form and type offorests. For example, the Subalpine Engelmannspruce-alpine fir zone is subdivided into a"forested subzone" and a "krunholz subzone".Within each zone, the climatic climax is formed byparticular tree species or ccnnbination of species.In each geographic area, the vertical sequenceof zones and their altitudinal position is areflection of the macroclimate. For example, thesequence of zones in the West Kootenays differsfrcm that in the East Kootenays (see Figure 7).The climate between these areas differs considerablyas well. Therefore, areas that have the samesequence of forest zones occurring between certainaltitudinal limits, represent importantdelineations of natural (biophysical) systems.Within each forest zone and subzone a varietyof environmental conditions (biophysical sites) mayoccur due to localized variations in climate, soi1or landscape position. A site is defined as anarea with homogenous soil, atmospheric conditionand vegetation characteristics. Disturbancehistory is responsible for a variety of vegetationtypes on sites which otherwise would be similar.Therefore, when such sites have a similar climaxvegetation, they may be considered to reflectgenerally similar climatic conditions.characteristics is "built into" the soi1 maps. Inthis way, the soi1 maps apply to a wider range ofland resource users and managers. They permit abetter understanding of the natural biophysicalsystems. They also increase the predictability ofthe vegetative ccmponent of the systen because ofmuch improved correlation between soi1 andvegetation classifications. (See Figure 9).The vegetation in the Lardeau map area cari bedifferentiated vertically into three main forestzones* in both the East and West Kootenay macro-climatic areas. Together they result in thefollowing four distinct forest zones in the wholestudyarea:a) Interior western hemlock-western red cedarforest zone in the West Kootenay region.b) Subalpine Engelmann spruce-alpine firforest zone connnon to both the East andWestKootenays.c) Alpine tundra zone common to both the Eastand West Kootenays.d) Interior Douglas-fir forest zone in. theEastKootenays.1.81 INTERIOR KSTERN HEM_OCK-KSTERN REDCEDAR FOREST ZONEThis zone is the most extensive in the westerntwo-thirds of the Lardeau map area. It extendsfrom the valley floors to an Upper limit of 4500 to5600 feet, depending on precipitation, latitude,air drainage, aspect and other environmentalfactors. Vegetation varies fran almost pure standsof western hemlock on acid soils in rrell-drained,cool sites to a variable mixture of westernhemlock and western red cedar on warmer sites thathave medium textured or weakly acidic soils, orboth. Within this zone, considerable areas areedaphically modified to render stands of different* These are comparable to the Biogeoclimatic zonesdescribed by Krajina, 1965.The framework of forest zone systems, forestzones and subzones and their implied climate

they occur in areas of soils derived fromnon-acid, medium textured deposits often result insuccessional stands dominated by trembling aspen.On the dry benches of the main trench, the ccmbinedeffect of repeated fires, grazing, and high limecontent of the soi1 has resulted in a grasslandtype of vegetation.In the absence of fire, and following loggingor clearing, trembling aspen and Douglas-fir maybecome re-established. The re-establishment ofDouglas-fir is slow ard may be further delayed bythe relatively rapid establishment of tremblingaspen. The latter species was observed on somemoister Luvisolic soils*. In the lower part of theDouglas-fir zone, the establishment of grasses suchas blue bunch wheat grass, Idaho fescue and pinegrass is favoured both by droughty conditions andhigh lime content in soils. Such conditionsfurther retard re-establishment of Douglas-fir.especially just below tree-line. Wherever thehardier alpine fir provides shelter, Engelmannspruce successfully regenerates in availableopenings but due to severity of climate at uppermostelevations, never attains well grown status.The Subalpine Engelmann spruce-alpine firforested subzone extends fran the Upper limit ofthe western hemlock-western red cedar zone(4500-5600 feet) or Interior Douglas-fir zone(about 4000 feet) in the West and East Kootenaysrespectively to about 7500-7900 feet. The Upperlimit in the West Kootenay and Arrow Lakes area isslightly higher on southwest-facing slopes than onthose slopes facing northeast. In the EastKootenays, the lower elevation limit of this subzoneis sometimes about 3500 feet in cool tributaryvalleys influenced by the cold air draining frocglaciers, but more often the lower boundary is 4000feet.In addition to Douglas-fir and tremblingaspen, ponderosa pine and western larch occur assera1 species following fire in parts of the lowerFindlay Creek valley. In this area mixed stands ofa11 the above mentioned tree species occur.1.83 SUBALPINE ENGELMANN SPRUCE:ALPINE FIRFOREST ZONEIn this zone variable proportion of Engelmannspruce and alpine fir fonn the climatic climaxforest. Nearly pure stands of Engelmann spruce arerestricted to the edaphically wetter locations,while alpine fir often dominates the drier sites.Although Engelmann spruce has a somewhat lowershade tolerance than alpine fir, the latter tendsto pioneer after fires due, perhaps, to the greaterresistance of alpine fir to wind and other adverseexposures. A combination of relatively welldrained soils and adverse exposures often resultsin a predominance of alpine fir at the Upper partsof the Subalpine Engelmann spruce-alpine fir zone,* For description of these soils, see ChapterThree.Lodgepole pine is the main fire-successionspecies in the subzone, especially in the EastKootenays. Usually willows, Engelmann spruce andalpine fir Will re-occupy sites following otherforms of site disturbance. On wetter soi1 areas,dense growths of alder or herbaceous plants (orboth) inhibit the éstablishment of coniferous tree .species.The narrow krumnholz (crooked wood) subzone,an area in which tree growth is stunted and alpineplant comnunities are interspersed between islandsof trees, occurs at about 6300 feet near glaciersand between 7900 to 8300 feet elsewhere. However,the width and elevation of this subzone variesconsiderably. This variation may be due to thedepth of soil, degree of exposure to wind, sun andfrost, ard the depth and duration of the snowcaver. Other species of trees associated with thissub-zone are alpine larch and whitebark pine. They,however, have limited occurrence within the Lardeaumap area.23

1.84 ALPINE TUNDRA ZONEThe alpine tundra zone is found on exposedmountain slopes generally above 8300 feet elevation.The zone may extend downwards below 6500feet in snow chutes and on sites affected by coldair draining from glaciers.The alpine tundra zone is characterized by theabsence of alpine fir, Engelmann spruce, westernhemlock or other trees. Only some hardy shrubs,mainly low-growing willows and alpine plant speciesthat cari mature and set seed rapidly, are adaptedto-the extremely short growing season, and carisurvive long cold Winters. In many locations,exposed rock with glaciers and talus predominate.24

SOIL SURVEY AN0 MAPPING METHOOSPage2.1 MAPPING METHODOLOGY .............................................................................. 272.2 FIELD PROCEDURES AND ACCESS ...................................................................... 302.3 THE SOIL MAP ..................................................................................... 3025

2 SOIL SURVEY AN0 MAPPING METHOOS2.1 MAPPING METHOOOLOGYThe physiographic region (Holland, 1964)provides the initial physical stratification on aregional level. Within these natural regions,erosional and depositional processes, bedrock,erosion and mountain history are similar. Theregions are subdivided into forest zones (climaticclimax tree species) which reflect macroclimate.of a soi1 association is depicted in the diagrambelow.vegetationZOWLandformand(Clinate) Soi1 Parent Materi.\ /1 SOIL ASSOCIATION 1The forest zones (and sometimes subzones) arethen subdivided at the local level on the basis ofsurficial geologic deposits, landforms and bedrock.This local stratification forms the framework ofthe soi1 association, the basis on which the soilswere mapped (see Figure 9). By definition, a soi1association is composed of related soi1 subgroupsthat have developed on similar soi1 parentmaterials and under similar climatic conditions (inthis case, as express4 by vegetation). Wheninterpreted as an expression of climate, theforest zone becomes a useful mapping tool whichprovides additional boundary limits for each soi1association. In areas of limited access with fewclimatic stations, the extent of an association isoften detenined by air photo interpretation ofvegetation and landform patterns extrapolated fromrelatively few point data sources. This linkagebetween forest zone, inferred climate and soi1association provides a sourd ecological basis forland use planning.A further stratification used in this surveyarea was subdivision of the soi1 association intosoi1 association components based on observed(or inferred) distribution of various soi1 subgroupprofiles over the landscape. Map units weredifferentiated according to the occurrence ofdifferent proportions of soi1 subgroup profiles.For each map unit, the identified profiles usuallyoccur in a predictable geographic patternreflecting topographie position and related drainageconditions on a given landscape. The synthesisEngineeringFigure 8: Soi1 association synthesisThe dominant soi1 of a soi1 association canponentgenerally consists of one (or sometimes two)soi1 subgroup of a soi1 great group and usuallyoccupies the major part of the soi1 associationcanponent. In some exceptions, as in the case ofthe Avis Association, soi1 subgroups of more thanone great soi1 group occur together.Significant soils of a soi1 association ccmponentinclude soi1 subgroups of other soi1 greatgroups and/or seepage phases. They represent animportant part of the soi1 association ccmponentbut do not singly or combined, occupy themajority. The seepage phases represent seepagesites and include gl eyd variations of theappropriate dominant and significant soils within asoi1 association.On uniform soi1 parent material, the basicmapping unit (soi1 association component) is sometimesequivalent to a soi1 series, but generallythe mapping unit consists of two or more soi1subgroups.27

chapter’twoSOI1 SURVEY~ ANDMAPPING METHODS

chapter t hreeSQILS OF THE LARDEAU MAP AREA

SOILS OF THE LARDEAU MAP AREA3.1 DOMINANT FEATURES RELATED TO SOIL FORMATION ...................................................... 353.11 Development of Dystric Brunisol and Podzolic B Horizons ..................................... 353.12 Development of Bt Horizons .................................................................. 383.13 Durit Horizons in Some Soils of the Lardeau Map Area ........................................ 383.14 The Role of Ground and Seepage Water ........................................................ 393.2 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF THE LARDEAU MAP AREA SOILS ................................................. 393.21 General pH (Reaction) Characteristics ....................................................... 393.22 Exchangeable Cations, Exchange Capacity and Base Saturation ................................. 403.3 DESCRIPTION OF SOIL ASSOCIATIONS .................................................................. 40PagePageAvis Association (AS) .............. 43 Comaplix Association (CX) ............ 101Beaton Creek Assocation (BA) ....... 45 Carney Association (CV) .............. 103Brennan Association (BB) ........... 47 Fairmont Association (FA) ............ 105Beatrice Association (BC) .......... 49 Fruitvale Association (FT) ........... 107Brouse Association (BE) ............ 51 Gillis Association (GS) .............. 109Big Fish Association (BF) .......... 53 Kinbasket Association (KB) ........... 111Buhl Creek Association (BH) ........ 55 Keeney Association (KE) .............. 113Bohan Creek Association (BK) ....... 57 Kingcome Association (KG) ............ 115Burkitt Association (BM) ........... 59 Kaslo Association (KO) ............... 117Bonner Association (BO) ............ 61 Kuskanax Association (KX) ............ 119Bunyon Association (BP) ............ 63 Linten Association (LI). ............. 121Bergman Association (BR) ........... 65 Lawley Association (LY) .............. 123Badshot Association (BS) ........... 67 Mayook Association (MY) .............. 125Bluejoint Association (BT) ......... 69 Nowitka Association (NW)........; .... 127Burn Creek Association (BU) ........ 71 Radium Association (RA) .............. 129Blaylock Association (BY) .......... 73 Rossland Association (RL) ............ 131Blizzard Association (BZ) .......... 75 Sandon Association (SA) .............. 133Coubrey Association (CB) ........... 77 Stubbs Association (SB) .............. 135Coppercrown Association (CC) ....... 79 Sandner Association (SD) ............. 137Cataract Association (CE) .......... 81 Steenhoff Association (SF) ........... 139Clifty Association (CF) ............ 83 Swehaw Association (SH) .............. 141Champion Association (CH) .......... 85 Sentine1 Association (SL) ............ 143Calamity Association (CL) .......... 87 Slocan Association (SN) .............. 145Conrad Association (CN) ............ 89 Spillimacheen Association (SP) ....... 147Cooper Association (CP) ............ 91 Stobart Association (SR) ............. 149Cervil Association (CR) ............ 93 St. Leon Association (ST) ............ 151Mount Cond Association (CS) ........ 95 Wycliffe Association (WY) ............ 153Curtis Association (CT) ............ 97 Yahk Creek Association (YK) .......... 155Couldron Association (CW) .......... 99 Ymir Association (YR) ................ 157Miscellaneous Land Types ............. 15933

3 SOILS OF THE LARDEAU MAP AREA3.1 DOMINANT FEATURES RELATED TO SOILFORMATIONThe main soi1 foning processes believedactive in the map area are the following:3.11 DEVELOPKNT OF DYSTRIC BRUNISOL AN0PODZOLICB HORIZONSThe five soils shown in Figure 13 have a11developed fron a thin mantle of colluvium over-lying medium-grained bedrock and a11 are at variousdegrees of podzolic development. Iron ard aluminumoxidation and translocation is least in the BohanCreek soi1 which has relatively low rates ofweathering, low amounts of precipitation andgenerally higher soi1 temperatures throughout theyear. Increased podzolization increases the rateof iron and aluminum oxidation and producesreddish-brown colours in Bf horizons. InHumo-Ferric Podzol soils (shown in Plates 15 and16) the B horizon is more strongly oxidized,-weathered, and reddish-brown in colour.Formation of brunisolic and podzol ic Bhorizons is a dominant feature of the soi1 fonningprocesses active throughout most of the Lardeau maparea. Podzolization is a weathering and leachingprocess which depletes soils of cations producing amore acidic soi1 with light coloured surface layersabove iron, altnninm and organic matter enrichedreddish-brown subsoil layers. The intensity ofthis weathering process is primarily a function ofclimate (effective precipitation and temperature).Dystric Brunisol (Plate 14) and Podzol soils havesimilar weathering processes, however, weatheringhas been less intense in Dystric Brunisols and theydo not meet the chemical and morphological criteriaof Podzols.In addition to the above mentioned processes,organic matter in various humus fons is transferreddownward from the A to the B horizons ofPodzol soils (ami to a lesser extent in DystricBrunisols). When organic matter accumulation inthe Bf horizons exceed a total carbon content of5%, the horizons are termed Bhf (see Rosslandsoils).35

FORESTZONESOIL TYPE OF B HORIZON PYROPHOSPHATEASSOCIATION AND BASE SATURATION EXTRACTIONAlpine tundra zoneBhfSoils6600' -~~-g-/Podzolic----BaseBaseSaturation ------.--m--.-m1.35% 1.06-.--m--.-m1.48 2.54BfSaturation 6.22% 0.37 0.52 0.89----A ------m--w--.---m--w--.--SubalpineEngelmann spruce -alpine fir zoneISoilslBeatonCr.PodzolicIBaseBfSaturation 7.2% 0.35 0.38 0.72------.B-e--mv- n-.--e--m--BlaylockInteriorwestern hemlock -westernredcedar zone'3000'mm----PodzolicSoils--BaseBfSaturation 7.7% 0.30 0.48 0.78mm--- ------m--m--m-- ,-m--m--m--Bohan Cr.Arrow Lake /ApproximateElevationBrunisolic/ Soils t--BaseBmSaturation ,-----44.3% 0.06 0.24 0.30% Fe % Al TotalFigure 13: Effect of elevation and environment on the development of Bm, Bf and Bhf horizons36

associations.A practical significance of well-developed Bthorizons is that they tend to restrict downwardwater movement and small root penetration. Thegeneral lack of well defined Bt horizons in themountainous soils of this mw area may beattributed to a combination of relatively coarsesoi1 textures and very slow and continuousdownslope mass movement which tends to disrupt Bthorizon formation.3.12 DEVELOPFIENT OF Bt HORIZONSThe occurrence of well-developed clayaccumulation (Bt) horizons is limited to some soilswhich have developed fran medium or fine-texturedparent materials. The .formation of Bt horizonsinvolves mainly a physical movement of clay. Overlong periods of time and after leaching of excesslime, water percolating through the soi1 removesclay particles from the Upper horizons (eluviation)and re-deposits thsm in the horizons below(illuviation). This process is well represented insoils of the Steenhoff, Lawley and Kinbasketassociations.3.13 DURIC HORIZONS IN SOM SOILS OF THELARDEAU MAP AREADurit horizons were recognized in this maparea. These moderately to strongly-cementedhorizons occur in the moderately coarse-texturedSlocan, St. Leon and Stobart soi1 associations.Excellent examples of durit horizons cari be foundin the general area north of Nakusp within theHalfway River drainage, at elevations near 5500feet. Plate 17 shows a typical example of durithorizons.Most soils, however, in the Lardeau map areaare fairly coarse textured, and range fran gravellysandy loam to gravelly silt loam. Generally, thereis not enough clay in these soils to fon welldevelopedclay accumulation horizons. Limited clayaccumulation is indicated by the presence of discontinuouscoatings of clay (clay skins) in thepores and cleavages through which water moves. Thepresence of weakly developed Bt horizons isacknowledged by the inclusion of Gray Luvisol soilsas significant components of the appropriate soi1Very extensive and thick durit horizons areprobably disadvantageous for excavation,but since38

they generally occur below the rooting zone, nosignificant forest growth restrictions wereobserved. In fact, forest growth probably benefitsin that water percolation is impeded and romains inthe root zone for longer periods.3.14 THE ROLE OF GROUND AND SEEPAGE WATERGleysolic soils are poorly drained and occurmostly in depressional areas. For varying periodsthroughout the year the excess soi1 water causesmottling and reducing conditions with limited soi1aeration. These conditions are prevalent in somecomponents of the Avis and Nowitka Soi1Associations.Periodic water-logged soi1 conditions alsooccur on sloping mountainous terrain in seepageareas. Since the regular classification criteriafor Gleysolic or gleyed soils are not wellexpressed in these site specific wet areas, theywere termed "seepage phases" of the appropriatedominant soi1 association. The seepage sites arecharacterized by lush deciduous vegetation and haveresulted in a high buildup of organic matter in thesoil. The seepage waters contain high amounts ofdissolved oxygen and nutrients; they usually occurat specific sites where melt and runoff waters fromhigher elevations accumulate. Typical seepagesites are shown in Plates 18 and 19.3.2 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF THE LAROEAUMAP AREA SOILSVarious chgnical analyses were made on samplesof some of the soi1 associations as indicated inAppendix.G. As sampling intensity was limited, theanalyses serve only as a guide for broad soi1characterization. More sampling is needed toproperly assess fertility status and to makerecomendations. The following general statementsare based on the limited soi1 chemical data thatare available.3.21 GENERAL pH (REACTION) ~HARACTERISTICSSoi1 parent materials east of the PurcellDivide generally have neutral to alkaline pH valuesbecause of their high contents of lime. These pH'sgenerally range from 7.5 to 8.0 (O.lM CaC12).Solum pH's are somewhat lower, usually ranging fromweakly acid to neutral depending on the degree ofleaching and original lime content.39

West of the Purcell divide, lime in the soils isnot as prevalent and sol~rm pH's of most DystricBrunisol soils range from about 4.9 to 5.7 (O.lMCaC12). Higher amounts of precipitation at theUpper elevations in the same general area hasincreased the leaching and acidity. The resultantpH's of the Humo-Ferric Podzol soils range fromabout 4.2 to 5.1 (0.1M CaC12).Soils in seepage areas east of the PurcellDivide generally have higher pH's than those inadjacent well drained sites. Lime is continuallyintroduced by incoming water, and the soi1reactions are usually mildly alkaline.3.22 EXCHANGEABLE CATIONS, EXCHANGE CAPACITYAND BASE SATURATIONExchangeable cations (or bases) refer to thedominant cations (calcium, magnesium potassium andsodium) which are attracted to and held by thenegative charges on soi1 minera1 and organicparticles.The Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) is ameasure of the total exchangeable bases the soi1 iscapable of attracting and holding. Most of thebonding sites are associated with clay and organicmaterial. If the capacity of the soi1 to holdbases is measured, and the actual amount of basespresent in the soil, is determined, the tm togethergive a measure of the base saturation of that soil.The cation exchange capacities are highlyvariable in the Lardeau map area soils. Thehighest CEC'sin minera1 soils occur in the A and Bhorizons and range fran about 10 to 30 meq/lOO gsoil. Most lower elevation forested soils have lowto medium values in the C and B horizons respect-ively. Higher CEC (ranging fran about 40-55meq/lOO g sail), due to higher amounts of organicmatter, are found in the sola of the Rosslarri andRadiumsoils.Coarse-textured soils such as Gillis, Kasloand Nowitka soi1 associations have very low CEC'sthat range from about 1 to 9 meq/lOO g soil. Thisis due to the daninance of sand and grave1particles in these soils.3.3 DESCRIPTION OF SOI1 ASSOCIATIONSThe individual soi1 associations of theLardeau map area are described in the followingpages. Also included are schematic cross-sectionaldiagrams and tables identifying the soi1association components. The diagrams depict thephysiographic setting atxi show the relationshipbetween soi1 profile development, vegetation,landform, type of soi1 parent material andelevation.The soi1 developments are indicated instandard abbreviated fon. Daninant soi1 subgroupsare shown without parentheses tiile the significantsoi1 subgroups and phases are shown withparentheses.The vegetation symbols do not necessarilyinclude the full range of tree species which mayoccur, but rather, indicate the tree speciescomnonly found during the survey. The reader isreferred to fold out Figure 15 that defines theabbreviations and the pictoral symbols on thecross-sectional soi1 association diagrams and inthetables.40

AVIS ASSOCIATION ( )Avis soils are usually found on recent flood-plain deposits in the Inccmappleux, Duncan andLardeau River valleys. The topography is usuallyundulating but may vary to rolling, near backchannels and old meanders.Avis soils are usually medium textured, butw include alternating layers of gravel,fine-textured sediments and organic material. Thedominant textures, however, are sandy loam or siltloam. Soi1 development is generally Regosolicalthough other typas of profiles are also present.Where these soils lie above and away from thestream's edge ard are least influenced by groundwater or flooding, they have either Orthic DystricBrunis01 or Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol soi1development. Conversely, in low-lying areasinfluenced by ground water and frequentflooding,Gleyed Regosols or Gleysols, oftencalcareous, have developed.A variety of plant species occur on theseSoi1 soi1Association Assn. Significant Soi1 Soi1 Elevation ForestName Ccmponent Ocminant Soi1 Subgroups Orainage Subgroup(s) or Phase(s) Drainage Parent Material Ranqecfeet) ZoneAvis AS1 Orthic RegosolAS2 Orthic Regosolr,w . . . . . . . . mediun to moder- 1400-4500 Interior westernately coarse hemlock -r,w Gleyed Orthic Reg&ol1 textured alluvium western redOrthic Gleysol P,V cedarAS4 Orthic Regosol p,w, Orthic Homo-Ferric Podzol wseepage phases 1AS5 Gleyed Orthic Regosol i Orthic Regosol r,wAS6 Orthic Humic Gleysol P>V Gleyed Orthic Regosol iOrthic Yeysol P,V43

Avis Association (Cont'd)soils and reflect the variation in soi1 moisture.The main trees are usually western red cedar,western hemlock, black cottonwood, birch andalder. The annual precipitation varies from about25 to 45 in./annum an3 the frost-free pericxl rangesup to 150 days.Most of the Avis soils are presently beingused for agriculture. They are well suited for hayproduction and a wide range of climatically suitedcrops is possible on the well and imperfectlydrained parts of this soi1 association. Irrigationduring the sumner is often required for aboveaverage trop yields.These soils are highly productive forforestry. The proximity of the water table and thegenerally favourable climate make these soils wellsuited for the tree species indicative of thewestern hemlock-western red cedar forest zone. Itis possible to attain mean annual increments inexcess of' 250 cubic feet per acre per year forblack cottonwood.Avis soils have moderately high values asungulate winter range in areas where snow depth isnot excessive.44

BEATON CREEK ASSOCIATION ( BA )Beaton Creek soils are located mainly in theWest Kootenay part of the Lardeau map area ard arecommon in the Lardeau, Duncan and Incomappleuxdrainage basins. They have primarily developedin colluvium which is less 5 ft. thick and isderived frcm medium-grained bedrock (argillite andargillaceous quartzite). They occupy the Upperforested mountain slopes and some ridge crests.The landform surface reflects the slope of theunderlying bedrock which is generally greater than30%.Beaton Creek soils are dominantly Humo-FerricPodzols. Typically, the solum is about 20 inchesthick, sandy loam in texture and contains amoderate amount of stones. Lithic subgroups (lessthan 20 in. to bedrock)are prevalent. Map units inthe lower parts of the elevational range, as wellas those that occur on southwesterly aspects,contain a significant proportion of DystricBrunisols. Generally, seepage phases occur atthe higher elevations and are more evident onnortheast facing slopes. The soils are strongly tovery strongly acid and base saturation is low.Elevations range from 4000 to 5800 feet. BeatonCreek soils are well drained except for seepage andlithic phases which are imperfectly and rapidlydrained respectively.Soi1 Soi1Association Assn. Significant Soi1 Soi1 Elevation ForestName Ccmponent Daninant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) OP Phase(s) Drainage Parent Material Range(feet) ZoneBeaton Creek BAI Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w . . . . . . . . shallow, medium to 4000-5800 Subalpine Engelmoderatelycoarse marin spruce -BA2 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w Lithic Homo-Ferric Podzol r,w texturedoverlyingcolluviumwdiumalpinefirBA3 Orthic Homo-Ferric Pcdzol w Lithic Humo-Ferric Podzol P,W grained bedrockBA4BA5Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w Orthic Dystric Brunisol rrwLithic Humo-Ferric Podzol r,wLithic Humo-Ferric Podzol r,w Orthic Homo-Ferric Podzol r,w45

Beaton Creek Association (Cont'd)Engelmann spruce and alpine fir are thedominant tree caver and minor amounts of mountainhemlock, lodgepole pine and alpine larch arepresent at the Upper elevations. Ground caverincludes mountain huckleberry, bunchberry, falsebox and one-sided wintergreen. Substantial summerprecipitation ani heavy snowfall in the winter,together with generally cool temperatures, provideadequate soi1 moisture throughout the growingseason.Present land use is mainly forestry. Sanelogging is underway on more level terrain and onthe deeper Beaton Creek soi1 areas.46

BRENNAN ASSOCIATION ( BB )Brennan soils are mapped in the southeasternpart of the map area within the Doctor, Findlay,Dutch and Toby Creek drainages. They occur onforested ridges and at middle elevations of long,forested, steep slopes, as well as in somedepressional cirque basins. They have developedfrom a thin mantle (less than 5 ft. thick) ofcolluvium derived fran coarse and medium-grainedbedrock (granodiorite, granite, argillite andargillaceous quartzite). Elevations are generallybetween 4300 and 5500 feet on south aspects andbetween 4300 and 5200 feet on north aspects.The main SO 1 development is Orthic DystricBrunisol.Small nclusions of colluvium associatedwith calcareousbedrock support Orthic EutricBrunisol soils.4t the higher elevations, OrthicHumo-Ferric Podzols generally occupy minor areasmixed with the modal Orthic Dystric Brunisols.Lithic Dystric Brunisols are prevalent in someareas and consist of less than 20 in. of soi1 overbedrock.The soi1 textures are typically gravelly sandyloam in the solum and gravelly loamy sand in theparent material below. The soils are usually wellto rapidly drained owing to the coarseness of theirtexture. Seepage phases, which are infrequent, areSoi1 Soi1Association ASS". Significant Soi1 Soi1 Elevation ForestNme Component Dominant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) or Phase(s) Drainage Parent Material Range(feet) ZoneBrennan BBl Orthic Dystric Brunisol P,W . . . . . . . . shallow, moderately 4300-5500 Subalpine Engelcoarsetexturedma"" spruce -BB2 Orthic Dystric Brunisol r,w seepage phase i colluvium overlying alpine fircoàrse to medium-883 Orthic Dystric Brunisol p,w Orthic Eutric Brunisol p,w grain4 bedrock884 Orthic Dystric Brunisol p,w Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol P,WBB5 Lithic Dystric Bru"is01 r Orthic Dystric Brunis01 p,w47

Brennan Association (Cont'd)imperfectly drained.Vegetation is typical of the SubalpineEngelmann spruce-alpine fir forest zone. The maintrees are Engelmann spruce, alpine fir, lodgepolepine, and some western larch and Douglas-fir at thelower elevations. In many cases tree caver issparse because of the predominance of lithic soilsand associated bedrock outcrops. The soils aregenerally characterized by cold Winters andmoderately warm sunnners. The annual precipitationranges between 15 and 25 inches.Because of soi1 moisture deficiency during thegrowing season and relatively shallow soils, theBrennan Association is generally poor for forestproduction. Sheltered areas are used by somewildlife species in sumner.48

BEATRICE ASSOCIATION ( BC )The Beatrice soils occur in the Kuskanax andFry Creek and Halfway River areas and are confinedto mountain ridges, upper elevations of longmountainous slopes and depressional cirque basins.Elevations vary from about 5800 to 6500 feet. Theyhave developed fran a thin mantle (less than 5 ft.thick) of colluvium overlying coarse-grained, oftenstrongly fractured acidic bedrock (granite, quartz,granodiorite). Typical soi1 textures are gravellysandy loam or gravelly loamy Sand.Typical soi1 development is Orthic or LithicHumo-Ferric Podzol and these are well drained.Significant inclusions of seepage phases, as wellas Sombric Humo-Ferric Podzol soi1 development, aretypical near timberline. These latter soils occurin sparsely treed or untreed openings in the forestand support alpine plant communities of grasses andforbs.The soils are acid and have low basesaturations. The vegetation is typical of theUpper Subalpine Engelmann spruce-alpine fir forestzone. Species include well formed and stuntedSoi1 Soi1Association Assn. Significant Soi1 Soi1 Elevation ForestNWE Component Dominant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) or Phase(s) Drainage Parent Material Range(feet) ZoneBeatrice BCI Orthic Humc-Ferric Podzol w Lithic Hume-Ferric Podzol w shallow, moderately 5800-6500Scmbric Huma-Ferric Podzol mw cm-se to coarseseepage phases i textured colluviumaverlying coarse-BC3 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w Lithic Hume-Ferric Podzol w grained acidicScmbric Humo-Ferric Podzol mw bedrockseepage phases iSubalpine Engel-"an" spruce -alpine fir(krumnholz)BC4 Lithic Humo-Ferric Podzol w Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol wSombric Humo-Ferric Podzol mwseepage phases i49

Beatrice Association (Cont'd)(krumnholz) alpine fir and Engelmann spruce. Some The soils have low capability for forestry,stunted Mtebark pine, lodgepole pine and mountain but have wildlife grazing potential near the treehemlockis found in sheltered locales. Very short line and considerable potential for hiking,frost-free periods and high winter snowfalls are horseback riding and other extensive forms oftypical.recreation.50

BROUSE ASSOCIATION ( BE )Brouse soils are found mainly in the NewDenver, Galena Bay and Summit Lake areas. Theyalso occur as a narrow band in the Duncan Riverdrainage basin. The parent material consists of ashallow mantle (generally less than 5 ft. thick) ofmixed colluvium and glacial till overlying fine-grained bedrock (slate, shale and some andesiticvolcanic rocks). The underlying bedrock is softand in places partially weathered.The soils occupy the steep, forested, Uppermountain slopes at elevations between 4500 and 5800feet. Textures are typically gravelly sandy loamor gravelly loam.Soi1 development is well-drained Orthic orLithic Humo-Ferric Podzols with significantinclusions of Orthic Ferro-Humic Podzol at Upperelevations, and Orthic Dystric Brunisols at lowerelevations. Imperfectly drained seepage phases areassociated with a11 soi1 developments. Soi1horizons are often poorly defined, owing to themasking of horizons by the inherent dark colour ofthe soi1 parent material.Soi1 Soi1Association Assn. Significant Soi1 Soi1 Elevation ForestName Component Dominant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) or Phase(s) Drainage Parent Material Range(feet) Zone8rouse BE1 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol wBE2 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol wLithic Humo-Ferric Podzol r,w shallow, medium 4500-5800 Subalpine Engeltexturadcolluviummann spruce -Lithic Humo-Ferric Podzol r,w overlying fine- alpine firOrthic Ferre-Humic Podzol i grained bedrockseepage phasesBE4 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol r,w Sombric Homo-Ferric Podzol BWLithic Humo-Ferric Podzol P,Wseepage phases 1BE5 Lithic Humo-Ferric Podzol r,w Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w51

Brouse Association (Cont'd)The main trees are Engelmann spruce an3 alpine result in low evaporation rates and low soilfir,with minor amounts of lodgepole pine, alpine moisture deficiency.larch and mountain hemlock. Signif icant areas, atlower elevations, support sera1 trembling aspen and Brouse soils are presently forested andlodgepole pine due to fire history. Short frost- capability Classes for forestry are either 4 or 5.free periods and moderate to high precipitation (McCormack, 1968).52

MG FISH ASSOCIATION ( BF )Big Fish soils occur in the eastern part ofthe map area on rocky ridges in the Rocky MountainTrench, specifically on the slopes of Steamboat andJubilee Mountains, and on lower slopes of theBrisco and Vermillion ranges. The elevations rangefrom 3500 to 5000 feet. The soils have developedin a thin mantle of calcareous colluvium overlyingthe calcareous bedrock, which usually occurs withinthree to five feet of the surface.The solum is generally neutral to mildlyalkaline, while the C horizon is stronglyalkaline. Soi1 textures throughout the profile aregenerally loam or sandy loam and contain numerouslimestone fragments. Big Fish soils are welldrained. Due to the generally dry environment,seepage phases are usually absent. Significantinclusions of Degraded Eutric Brunisols are presentthroughout the soi1 landscape and are mapped inconjunction with the dominant Orthic EutricBrunisols. Inclusions of lithic soils are alsopresent where the depth of soi1 over bedrock isless than 20 inches.Soi1 Soi1Association Assn. Significant Soi1 Soi1 Elevation ForestName Component Dominant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) OP Phase(s) Drainage Parent Material Range(feet) ZoneBig Fish BF1 Orthic Eutric Brunis01 r,w Degraded Eutric Brunisol w shallow, medium 3500-5000 Interiortextured colluvium Douglas-firBF2 Orthic Eutric Brunisol ï,w Lithic Eutric Brunisol r overlying calcarcousbedrock53

Big Fish Association (Cont'd)The vegetation is typical of the InteriorDouglas-fir forest zone. Douglas-fir is thedominant tree species although lodgepole pine,trembling aspen and, at higher elevations, someEngelmann spruce also are present. Groundvegetation is composed of blue-bunch wheat grass,Idaho fescue and pine grass. The Winters are coldwith moderate snowfall and polar cold air massesoften dominate the winter climate. Typically, theclimate of the Big Fish soils is colder in thewinter and drier in the surmner than soils in thewestern part of the map area.Big Fish soi1 areas are ideally suitable forungulate (Rountain sheep) winter ranges. Forestsand agriculture values are of little importance.Extensive recreational uses such as hiking andtrail riding are also possible.54

BUHL CREEK ASSOCIATION ( BH )The Buhl Creek soils occur on steep terrain int 12 Fry Creek watershed, and in areas east ofKootenay Lake, north of Nakusp to Galena Bay andsoutheast of Revelstoke. They occupy middle andlower slopes at elevations from approximately 1500to 3500 or 4000 feet on northeast and southwestfacing slopes respectively. The parent materialconsists of a shallow mantle of colluvium, usually,Tess than five feet thick, overlying acidic (mainlygranitic) bedrock. Soi1 textures are sandy loam orloamy sand containing abundant angular rocks,stones and gravel.Typical soi1 developments are Orthic orLithic Dystric Brunisols, with sola that aremoderately acid. Cation exchange capacity and basesaturation percentage are moderate. Buhl Creeksoils are well to rapidly drained and seepagephases are not common. Significant inclusions ofOrthic Humo-Ferric Podzols occur in the map unitsat the Upper elevational limits of the association.Tree species include western hemlock, westernred cedar, some birch and lodgepine pine. Douglasfir,however, is dominant and usually occupiesedaphic sites, especially those tiich have a warm,southwest exposure. Grourd caver often includespinegrass. Buhl Creek soils generally have longsoi1 Soi1Association Assn. Significant Soi1 Soi1 Elevation ForestName Component Dominant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) or Phase(s) Drainage Parent Material Range(feet) zoneBuhl Creek EH1 Orthic Dystric Brunisol r,w Lithic Dystric Brunisol P,W shallow, moderately 1500-4000 Interior wsterncoarse to coarse hemlock -BHZ Orthic Dystric Brunisol p,w> Lithic Dystric Brunisol r,w textured western redseepage phases i colluvium over cedarcoarse-grainedBH3 Orthic Dystric Brunisol r>w Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w,r acidic bedrockLithic Dystric Brunisol P,WBH6 Lithic Dystric Brunisol p,w Orthic Dystric Brunisol r,w55

Buhl Creek Association (Cont'd)frost-free periods and high growing-degree days,but are droughty throughout most of the growingseason.Buhl Creek soils are generally unsuitable foragricultural use, except for some limited domesticgrazing. Mean annual increment of wood productioncomnonly varies from 51 to 90 cubic feet per acreper year for Douglas-fir and lodgepole pine. Ondryer, exposed slopes with shallow soils thisincrement is substantially diminished. The mainlimitations to forest growth are shallowness torock and soi1 moisture deficiency. These soils aresuitable for ungulate (deer) winter ranges wheresnowfall is not too deep. Recreational viewingsites are good, and extensive uses such as hikingand trail riding are possible.56

BOHAN CREEK ASSOCIATION ( BK )Bohan Creek soils dominate in map unitsbetween elevations from 1500 to about 3500 feetnortheast and west of Kootenay Lake, and in thevicinity of Ouncan Lake, Slocan Lake and UpperArrow Lake. They occur on the lower, forested,steep slopes of main and side valleys. The parentmaterial consists of a thin mantle (less than 5 ft.thick) of colluvium mixed with some glcial tilloverlying medium-grained bedrock (argillite, slate,quartzite and schists). Textures generally varyfrom gravelly sandy loam to gravelly loam.Bohan Creek Association soi1 development istypically Orthic or Lithic Dystric Brunisol withinclusions of Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol at higherelevation. The solum is usually less than 20inches thick and has a moderate cation exchangecapacity due,.in part, to a relatively high organicmatter content. In some areas where the organicmatter accumulation in the surface horizon issubstantial, Orthic Sombric Brunisols formsignificant soi1 inclusions. Bohan Creek soils aregenerally well drained, except for a few seepagephases which are imperfectly drained.These soils are located in the Interiorwestern hemlock-western red cedar forest zone.Western red cedar, western hemlock and lodgepoleSoi1 Soi1Association Assn. Significant Soi1 Soi1 Elevation ForestName Component Dominant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) or Phase(s) Drainage Parent Material Rarlge(feet) ZoneBohan Creek BKl Orthic Oystric Brunisol r,w Lithic Dystric Brunisol p,w shallow, medium to 1500-3500 Interior westernmoderately coarse hemlock -BK2 Orthic Dystric Brunisol p,w Lithic Dystric Brunis01 P,W textured colluvium western redseepage phases 1 over medium-grained cedarbedrockBK3 Orthic Dystric Brunisol P,W Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w,rLithic Humo-Ferric Podzol p,wBK6 Orthic Dystric Brunisol p,w Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w,rLithic subgroups r,mwseepage phases i57

Bohan Creek Association (Cont'd)pine are usually present and Douglas-fir isdominant on exposed ridges and in other edaphicsites. Ground caver is sparse with only a fewnative grazing species.The soils are presently forested. Forestgrowth is moderate to low because of low soi1moisture-holding capacity, and shallowness tobedrock. Limited areas are used as winter rangesby deer on the lower slopes near Upper Arrow Lake.58

BURKITT ASSOCIATION ( BM )Burkitt soils are mapped in the GalenaBay-Beaton area, Retallack-Sandon-New Denver-Hillsarea, and in a narrow band near the Duncan River.They have developed from colluvium mixed with someglacial till overlying fine-grained bedrock (slate,shale and phyllite). They occur between elevationsof 3500 to about 4800 feet and occupy themid-positions of steep mountain slopes. Theunderlying bedrock is often soft and weathered forabout five feet. The depth of the gravelly sandyloam to gravelly silt loam textured colluvialmaterial is generally less than five feet.with Sombric Humo-Ferric soi1 development occurnear Retallack in a burned area where grasses andtrembling aspen establishment has led to theformation of an organic matter rich Ah horizon.Most Burkitt soils are ~11 drained.Burkitt soils occur in the Interior westernhemlock-western red cedar forest zone. The maintrees consist of western hemlock, western redcedar, Douglas-fir, lodgepole pine and westernlarch. Soi1 moisture during the growing season isusually not limiting. The climate is characterizedby a mean annual precipitation of about 25 to 45inches and mean annual temperature of about 41°F.Typical soi1 development is Orthic or LithicHumo-Ferric Podzol. Due to the dark colouredparent material, horizon differentiation in someareas is not evident and here Orthic Regosols for-msignificant soi1 inclusions. A few small areasBurkitt soils are presently forested. Use bywildlife (deer) is limited to burned areas due tolack of suitable browse and grass species inforested areas.Soi1 Soi1Association AsVl.Name Component Dominant Soi1 SubgroupsSignificant Soi1 Soi1 ElevationForestDrainage Subgroup(s) or Phase(s) Drainage Parent Material Range(feet) ZoneBurkitt BM1 Orthic Homo-Ferric Podzol w Lithic Homo-Ferric Podzol w shallow, medium 3500-4800 Interior westernOrthic Regosol " textured colluvium hemlock -overlyirg fine-western redBM2 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w Lithic HumeFerric Podzol w grained bedrockDrthic RegosolwcedarSombric Humo-Ferric Podzol mwseepage phases i59

silt loam to gravelly sandy loam.BONNER ASSOCIATION ( BO )The Bonner soi1 association occurs throughoutthe western part of the map area at elevationsvarying from 5600 to 6700 feet. The main areas arein the vicinities of Trout Lake, Beaton, andWestfall River. The soi1 parent material consistsof a thin mantle (less than five feet thick) ofsteeply-sloping colluvium overlying medium-grained(argillic) bedrock. The association occurs onmountain ridges, Upper slopes and in cirquedepressions. Soi1 textures generally range fromMost Bonner soils are well drained and haveOrthic or Lithic Humo-Ferric Podzol development.The soils are very strongly to strongly acid withcorresponding low base saturation. The cationexchange capacity is moderately high because ofrelatively high organic matter accumulation in thesolum. At the Upper elevational limits, organicmatter accumulation is sufficient for SombricHumo-Ferric Podzol soils to be developed. Seepagephases are relatively common.Soi1 Soi1Association AssII. Significant Soi1 Soi1 Elevation ForestNaIlE Component Dominant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) or Phase(s) Drainage Parent Material Range(feet) ZoneBonner BO1 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w Lithic Humo-Ferric Podzol W,P shallow, medium to 5600-6700 Subalpine Engelseepagephases i moderately coarse mann spruce -textured colluviumalpine firBO2 Gleyed Humo-Ferric Podzol i Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w over mediumgrained (krumnholz)Lithic Humo-Ferric Podzol W,P bedrockBO3 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w Lithic Humo-Ferric Podzol w>rSombric Humo-Ferric Podzol mwalpine phaseseepage phases iBO4 Lithic Humo-Ferric Podzol w,r Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol wSombric Humo-Ferric Podzol mw61

BUNYON ASSOCIATION ( BP )Bunyon soils are mapped in the northeasternpart of the map area at elevations ranging fromabout 4800 to 6700 feet. They occur in the Upperreaches of Toby , Jumbo, Horsethief, Forster,Bugaboo and Vowell creeks on shallow mixed depositsof colluvium and glacial till overlying coarse andmedium-grained bedrock. Typically they occupy thegenerally steep, wwr mountain slopes,depressions, ridge tops and cirque basins. Thecolluvium, mostly less than five feet thick, ismoderately permeable, stony and bouldery. Soi1textures vary from gravelly and cobbly sandy loamto silt loam. Bunyon soils are rapidly to welldrained. Seepage sites are infrequent.Soi1 development is dominantly Orthic orLithic Humo-Ferric Podzol, the solum depths arerelatively shallow, sometimes as thin as 12inches. The soils are strongly acid and basesaturation is low.The Bunyon soils occur in the SubalpineEngelmann spruce-alpine fir forest zone. Thedominant tree species are Engelmann spruce andSoi1 soi1Association Assn. Significant Soi1 Soi1 ElevationForestName Ccxnponent Daninant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) or Phase(s) Drainage Parent Material Range(feetjZoneBunyon BP1 Orthic Homo-Ferric Podzol r,w . . . . . . . . shallow, moderately 4800-6700 Subalpine Engelcoarseto coârsemarin spruce -BP2 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol r,w seepage phasep,w textured colluvium alpine firoverlying coarse toBP3 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol P,W Lithic Humo-Ferric Podzol r,w mediuwqrainedbedrock‘BP4 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol P,W Lithic Huma-Ferric Podzol r,wOrthic Regosol wBP5 Lithic Humo-Ferric Podzol r,w Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol wBP6 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol r,w Sombric Humo-Ferric Podzol mw63

Bunyon Association (Cont'd)alpine fir, with minor amounts of Douglas-fir andlodgepole pine at the lowest elevations. Theclimate is relatively cool and dry (less than 60frost-free days and about 15 inches precipitationfrom May to September).The soils are presently forested. Landcapability classes for forestry range from Class 5to 6 depending upon aspect, soi1 depth and presenceof seepage.64

BERGMAN ASSOCIATION ( BR )Bergman soils occur on forested Upper mountainslopes east of Kootenay Lake, from Roseberry andSummit Lake to near Trout Lake and east of UpperArrow Lake at elevations betwen 3500 and 4800feet. The soi1 parent material consists ofshallow, moderately coarse textured mixed colluviumand glacial till (less than five feet thick)derived from underlying acidic, coarse-grainedbedrock (granite, quartzite, granodiorite). Thelandforms are characterized by moderately slopingmiddle elevation mountain sides.the modal soi1 together with Lithic Humo-FerricPodzols fon significant inclusions.The soils are permeable, stony, and well torapidly drained. The typical texture is gravellysandy loam. Long frost-free periods are usual forthese soils and, due to the high snowfall duringthe winter, they generally do not freeze. Moist,cool conditions are common in the summer. Thevegetation is typical of the Interior westernhemlock-western red cedar forest zone with westernhemlock, western red cedar, occasional Douglas-firand wstern larch as the usual tree species.Dominant soi1 development is OrthicHumo-Ferric Podzol. The thickness of the Bhorizon, often composed of both podzolic Bf andbrunisolic Bm horizons, is about 20 inches and iswell developed. Near the Upper elevations, OrthicFerro-Humic Podzols as well as seepage phases ofThe soils are presently forested. Forestcapability is classes 3 and 4. Rooting depthlimited by bedrock, and low water holding capacityare the main soi1 limitations.Soi1 Soi1Association AS%. Significant Soi1Soi1 Elevation ForestName Component Dominant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) OP Phase(s) Drainage Parent Material Range(feet) ZoneBergman DR1 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w Lithic Humo-Ferric Podzol r,w shallow, moderately 3500-4800 Interior *SternOrthic Ferra-Uumic Podzol w coarse textured hemlock -colluvium overlying western redBR2 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w Orthic Ferra-Humic Podzol w coarse-grained cedarseepage phases 1 acidic bedrock65

BADSHOT ASSOCIATION ( BS )Badshot soils are widespread throughout theeastern part of the map area at elevations from4200 to 6700 feet. They occur on forested ridges,on the Upper parts of long forested slopes, and indepressional cirque basins. The landforms areusually strongly and steeply sloping. The parentmaterial is strongly calcareous colluvium (lessthan five feet thick) overlying limestone, dolmiteand other calcareous bedrock. The colluvium ismoderately permeable, stony, bouldery and looselycompacted. Soi1 textures usually range fromgravelly loam to gravelly silt loam.Typical soi1 development is Orthic or LithicEutric Brunisol. Soi1 reaction is slightly acid inthe B horizon and moderately alkaline in the Chorizon. The base saturation of the B horizon ismoderately high. The surface organic litter layeris partially mixed with minera1 soi1 producingthin Ah horizons in some areas. Significant OrthicDystric Brunisols also occur in higher elevationsegments of the landscape.These well-drained soils are located in theSubalpine Engelmann spruce-alpine fir forest zone.The climate is cool and dry (less than 60 frostfreedays and about 15 inches seasonal May-September precipitation). The dominant tree caverSoi1 Soi1Association Assn. Significant Soi1 Soi1 Elevation ForestN%W Component Dominant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Suhgroup(s) OP Phase(s) Drainage Parent Material Range(feet) zoneBadshot BS1 Orthic Eutric Brunisol. . . . . . . .shallow, medium 4200-6700 Subalpine Engeltexturedcolluvium Bd"" spruce -BS2 Orthic Eutric BrunisolOrthic Dystric Brunisolw overlying calcar- alpine fircous bedrockBS3 Lithic Eutric BrunisolOrthic Dystric Brunisolw67

Badshot Association (Cont'd)is Engelmann spruce although Douglas-fir also growth producing mean annual increments of about 10occurs at lower elevations and alpine fir at higher to 50 cubic feet par acre per year. The mainelevations. limitations for tree growth are cold temperaturesand limited rooting depth due to bedrock.Badshot soils have relatively poor forest68

BLUEJOINT ASSOCIATION ( BT )Bluejoint soils are confined to an areanortheast of Nakusp, near Roseberry and Johnson'sLanding, at elevations between 4500 and 6200 feet.Soi1 parent material consists of shallow (less than5 ft. thick) colluvium mixed with glacial tilland overlies coarse-grained bedrock such asgranite, granodiorite and quartz syenite.Landforms include steep, Upper mountain slopes,ridgecrests and depressional cirque basins.Gravelly sandy loam is the usual soi1 texture.Typically, Orthic or Lithic Humo-FerricPodzols are the main soi1 developments. The soilsare very strongly acid and have very low basesaturation although cation exchange capacities aremoderate. Significant soi1 inclusions of Orthicand Lithic Ferro-Humic Podzols occur at higherelevations, while at the lower elevations signifitant-inclusions are Orthic or Lithic DystricBrunisols. The Bluejoint soils are mainly ~11drained. Most lithic areas are rapidly to welldrained due to the porous nature and coarse textureof the soils ard their topographically "shedding"positions. Seepage phases are imperfectly drained.The main vegetation is Engelmann spruce andalpine fir, but some lodgepole pine, alpine larchand mountain hemlock may also be present. TheSoi1 Soi1Association Assn. Significant Soi1 Soi1 Elevation ForestName Component Dominant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) OP Phase(s) Orainage Parent Material Range(feet) ZoneBluejoint BT1 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w Lithic Humo-Ferric PodzolBT2 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w Lithic Hume-Ferric Podzolseepage phasesBT3 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w Orthic Oystric BrunisolLithic Oystric BrunisolBT4 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w Orthic Ferra-Humic PodzolLithic Humo-Ferric PodzolBT5 Lithic Humo-Ferric Podzol r,w Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzolr,w shallow, moderately 4500-6200 Subalpine Engelcoarsetextured marin spruce -r,w colluvium overlying alpine fir1 coarse-grainedï ,wr ,wr,wwacidicbedrock69

Bluejoint Association (Cont'd)frost-free period is short and mean annualtemperatures are low resulting in relatively lowevapotranspiration rates. Soi1 moisture deficiencyis low except for soils on southwest aspects. Deepsnowfall occurs in winter.The soils are presently covered by densestands of Engelmann spruce and alpine fir whichprovide only limited browsing for wildlife.70

BURN CREEK ASSOCIATION ( BU )Burn Creek soils are limited to small areasnear New Denver, Retallack, Healy Landing, andnorth of Duncan Lake. They occur on the Upperslopes and tops of ridges and in cirque basinsbetween elevations of 5600 and 6700 feet. Theparent material is shallow colluvium or sometimesglacial till (less than five feet thick) overlyingfine-grained bedrock (slate, shale, phyllite andmicaceous schists) that is often strongly fracturedand partially weathered.The soi1 textures are generally sandy loam orloam depending on the degree of weathering and theminera1 composition of the bedrock. The soils havegenerally Orthic or Lithic Humo-Ferric Podzoldevelopments. The solum has a moderate exchangecapacity but low base saturation. Very stronglyacid sola are usual. At the Upper limits of thesoi1 association, Sombric Humo-Ferric Podzol andOrthic or Lithic Ferro-Humic Podzols, are the usualsoi1 developments. The increased alpine grass andforb caver in these areas supplies high amounts oforganic matter which produces the characteristic Ahand Bhf horizons of these soils. Burn Creek soilsSoi1 Soi1Association ASSll. Signifiant Soi1 Soi1 Elevation For-estNanIe Component Dominant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) of Phase(s) Drainage Parent Material Range(feet) ZOWBut-n Creek eu1 Orthic Homo-Ferric Podzol n Lithic Huma-Ferric ?odzol w,r shallow, medium 5600-6700 Subalpine Engel-Sombric Homo-Ferric Podzol mw textured colluvium marin spruce -seeoaoe - ohases i over fine-orained aloine firbedrock _ (k&imholz)BU2 Gleved Humo-Ferric Podzol i Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol wLithic Humo-Ferric Podzol w,rBU3 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w Lithic Humo-Ferric Podzol w,rSombric Humo-Ferric Podzol BWalpine phaseseepage phases i71

Burn Creek Association (Cont'd)are generally well drained although seepage areasand depressional positions are imperfectlydrained. Lithic areas are usually well to rapidlydrained.Alpine fir, with minor amounts of Engelmannspruce, some mountain hemlock, lodgepole pine,alpine larch and rhitebark pine, form the main treecaver. Stunted fons of these trees (kruaunholz)are prevalent at the higher elevations, especiallyin exposed locations. The frost-free period isgenerally less than 30 days.Burn Creek soils are poor for forestry andgenerally average capability Class 6; cold airtemperature and shallowness to bedrock are the mainlimiting factors. There is considerable recreationpotential for hiking, viewing and horseback riding.72

BLAYLOCK ASSOCIATION ( BY )Blaylock soils occur throughout the centraland western parts of the map area at elevationsfrom approximately 2000 to 4500 feet. The parentmaterial is a shallow mantle (less than 5 ft.thick) of colluvium mixed with glacial tilloverlying medium-grained, argillaceous andschistose bedrock. Typical landforms are steeplysloping and occur in mid-slope positions in themountainous landscape. The soi1 textures aregenerally gravelly sandy loam and stone contentvaries from moderate to excessive.Typical soi1 development is Orthic or Lithictiumo-Ferric Podzol. Higher elevation areas havesignificant inclusions of Sombric Humo-FerricPodzols, while those at lower elevations containOrthic Dystric Brunisols. The cation exchangecapacities are moderately high and base saturationis fairly low. The solum is strongly aci'dthroughout. Blaylock soils are generally welldrained, except where local conditions favourimpeded drainage or seepage; these are moderatelywell to imperfectly drained.The major tree species consist of westernSoi1 Soi1Association Assn. Significant Soi1 Soi1 Elevation ForestName Component Dominant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) or Phase(s) Drainage Parent Material Range(feet) ZOlWBlaylock BYI Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w Lithic Humo-Ferric Podzol r,w shallow, medium to 2000-4500 Interior westernmoderately coarse- hemlock -BY2 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w Lithic Humo-Ferric Podzol r,w textured colluvium western redseepage phases 1 overlying medium Cedargrained bedrockBY3 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w Orthic Dystric Brunis01wLithic Oystric Brunisolr,wBY4 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w Sombric Humo-Ferric Podzol mwLithic Homo-Ferric Podzol r,wseepage phases iBY6 Lithic Humo-Ferric Podzol r,w Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w73

Blaylock Association (Cont'd)hemlock, western larch artd western red cedar, withsome lodgepole pine and Douglas-fir. Ground caveris generally sparse and only limited amounts aresuitable for grazing.Due to the steep terrain, these soils have noagricultural potential. They are presentlyforested with stands of mostly old growth westernhemlock. Mean annual increments of 51 to 90 cubicfeet per/acre per year for Douglas-fir is thetypical forest capability. The main soi1 limitationis shallowness to bedrock. Due to the denseforest and paucity of browse plants wildlife use islow.74

edrock is often soft and weathered.BLIZZARD ASSOCIATION ( BZ )The Blizzard soi1 association occurs in theGalena Bay-Beaton area, Retallack-Sandon-NewDenver-Hills area and in a narrow band trendingnorthwest near the Duncan River. Blizzard soilshave developed fran a thin (usually less than 5 ft.thick) mantle of colluvium sometimes mixed withglacial till which overlies fine-grain& bedrock,such as slate, shale, phyllite, and some andesiticvolcanics. Small inclusions of limestone alsooccur. The soils are present on the lower parts oflong mountainous slopes at elevations ranging frcmabout 1500 to 3500 and 4000 feet on northeast andsouthwest aspects respectively. The underlyingSoi1 development is quite variable and dependsto some degree on the type of bedrock present.However, most soils have Orthic or Lithic DystricBrunisol development. Significant included soi1developments are Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzols at theupper elevations, and Orthic or Lithic SombricBrunisols in areas where sufficient grass hasestablished after wild fires to form Ah horizons.Orthic Regosols sometimes occur in areas underlainby dark coloured, weathered, shaly bedrock and arethe result of either unstable soi1 conditions orpoor diagnostic soi1 horizon development. The basesaturation and cation exchange capacities areSoi1 Soi1Association Assn.Yame Component Dominant Soi1 SubgroupsSignificant Soi1 Soi1 Elevation ForestDrainage Subgroup(s) or Phase(s) Drainage Parent Material Ranoé(feet) Zone_.Blizzard BZl Orthic Dystric Brunisol w Lithic Dystric Brunisol r,w shallow, medium 1500-4000 Interior westernOrthic Regosolw textured colluvium hemlock -overlying fine-western red822 Orthic Dystric Brunisol w Lithic Dystric Brunisolr,w grain& bedrock cedarOrthic Regosol "seepage phases i023 Orthic Dystric Brunisol w Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol wLithic Humo-Ferric Podzol r>wOrthic Regosol wB26 Lithic Dystric Brunisol r,w Orthic Dystric Brunis01 wOrthic Regosol w75

Blizzard Association (Cont'd)generally moderate but vary sanewhat with the typeof underlying bedrock. Soi1 profile reactions aregenerally medium acid. Most Blizzard soils havegravelly sandy loam or gravelly loam textures andare well drained except for a few seepage phaseswhich are imperfectly drained.The main tree species is Douglas-fir togetherwith some western hemlock, western red cedar,lodgepole pine, and western larch. Blizzard soilshave fairly long frost-free periods and a highnumber of growing degree days, but tend to dryrapidly due to their rather low water holdingcapacities and high evapotranspiration rates. Soi1moisture deficiencies occur throughout most of thesunnner, especially on steep southwesternexposures. Some native grasses occur on the forestfloor.The Blizzard soils are presently covered withmoderately dense forest. Land capability forforestry is Class 4; soi1 moisture deficiency andshallowness of soi1 are the main limitations.Ungulates make limited use of these soils forwinter range in areas hhere snowfall is not toodeep.76

COUBREY ASSOCIATION ( CB )Coubrey soils are dominant in the mountainousarea southwest of Invennere. Specifically, theyoccur mainly in the Findlay, Doctor, and DutchCreek drainages at elevations ranging fran about4500 to 6500 feet. The soi1 parent materialconsists of deep, moderately coarse-textured, looseand permeable colluvial deposits found on the steepvalley walls and lower slopes of the hilly andmountainous terrain. At depths greater than fivefeet, the colluvium may be underlain by glacialti11. The colluvium is mainly derived from coarseand medium-grained bedrock, including argillite,conglomerate, and quartzite.Typical soi1 development is Orthic DystricBrunisol. Areas at higher elevations often haveOrthic Humo-Ferric Podzol inclusions, due to thegenerally moister conditions which occur there.Soils associated w-ith small limestone areas as wellas some other locations at lower elevations haveOrthic Eutric Brunisol soi1 profiles. The modalCoubrey soils are well drained; but soi1 inclusionsSoi1 soi1Association Assn. Significant Soi1 Soi1 Elevation ForestName Component Dominant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) OP Phase(s) Drainage Parent ikterial Range(feet) ZoneCoubreyCBlCB2Orthic Dystric BrunisolOrthic Oystric Brunisolww. . . . . . . .seepagephasedeep, moderately 4500-6500 Subalpine Engelcousetextured mann spruce -i colluvium alpine firCB3 Orthic Oystric Brunisol w Orthic Eutric Brunisol wCB4 Orthic Dystric Brunisol w Orthic Hume-Ferric Podzol wseepage phases i77

Coubrey Association (Cont'd)present in depressional and seepage areas areimperfectly drained. The usual soi1 textures aregravelly sandy loam or gravelly loam.Coubrey soils have developed under cool andmoderately dry climatic conditions (less than 60frost-free days and less than 25 inches annualprecipitation of which 40 to 50% falls as snow).The main trees are Engelmann spruce and alpine fir,with minor amounts of lodgepole pine and Douglasfiralso present at lower elevations. Variableamounts of pinegrass form part of the ground caverin some areas.Land capabilities for forestry range fromClass 3 to 5. Cold temperatures and some soi1moisture deficiencies during the growing season arethe main limitations. Coubrey soils are unsuitablefor cultivated agriculture, but some naturalgrazing‘ is possible on the more open, exposedslopes which support pinegrass.78

COPPERCROWN ASSOCIATION ( CC )The Coppercrown association occurs in thesouthwestern part of the map area, mainly north ofNakusp and east of Kootenay Lake. Coppercrownsoils have developed on very steeply slopingmantles of deep colluvium derived fromcoarse-grained bedrock. The colluvium ismoderately coarse-textured, perrneable, loose andstony. In some areas it may be underlain byglaical till at depths. The usual landforms aresteep valley walls and lower slopes in the hillyand mountainous topography. Elevations range fromabout 4500 to 5800 feet.The modal soi1 development is Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol. The solum is moderately deep, isvery strongly acid and has a low cation exchangecapacity. Significant Sombric Humo-Ferric Podzolinclusions are found at higher elevations duemainly to the increase in organic matter accumulationin or near seepage areas. Coppercrown soilsare well drained except for seepage sites, whichhave imperfect drainage. The usual soi1 texture isgravelly sandy loam although gravelly loamy sandalso occurs.Typical trees present are Engelmann spruce andalpine fir with minor amounts of mountain hemlock.Seasonal (May to September) precipitation is about18 inches and the frost-free period is less than 90days.These soils are unsuitable for agriculture dueto adverse climate and topography. Moderatecapabilities for forestry exist, ranging from Class3 to Class 4 for alpine fir and Engelmann spruce.Soi1 Soi1Association Assn. Significant Soi1 Soi1 Elevation ForestName Component Daninant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup[s) oi- Phase(s) Drainage Parent Material Range(feet) zoneCoppercrohm cc1 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w . . . . . . . . deep, moderately 4500-5800 Subalpine Engelcoarseto coarse marin spruce -cc2 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w seepage phase i textured colluvium alpine fircc4 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w Sombric Humo-Ferric Podzol mwseepage phases i79

CATARACT ASSOCIATION ( CE )The Cataract soi1 association occurs through-out the western half of the map area at elevationsranging from about 3000 to 4500 feet. The parentmaterial is medium to moderately coarse textured,loose, permeable colluvium. The deposits aregenerally deeper than five feet and occur on themiddle and lower slopes of the hilly and mountain-ous terrain. Textures of the solum are generallygravelly loam or gravelly silt loam while theunderlying parent material ranges from gravellysandy loam to gravelly loam. Cataract soils areusually well drained; a few coarser textured areasare well ta rapidly drained.Typical modal soi1 development is Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol. The B horizons are deep and ~11developed and are medium to slightly acid. Seepagephases are numerous in most mapping units and oftensupport a lush ground vegetation that imparts highamounts of organic matter to the soil. In theseareas, Sombric Humo-Ferric Podzols are prevalent.At lower elevations, the Cataract soi1 associationincludes significant Orthic Dystric Brunis01 soilssimilar to those of the Calamity association.Soi1 Soi1Association Assn. Significant Soi1 soi1 Elevation ForestWame Component Dominant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) or Phase(s) Drainage Parent Material Range(feet) ZoneCataract CE1 Orthic Humo-Ferric ?odzol w,r . . . . . . . . deep, medium to 3000-4500 Interior westernmoderately coarse hemlock -CE2 Orthic Humc-Ferric Podzol w,r seepage phase i textured colluvium western redcedarCE3 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol W,P Sombric Humo-F@ric Podzol mwseepage phases 1CE4 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol W,P Orthic Oystric Brunisol W,P81

Cataract Association (Cont'd)The main tree species present on the Cataract 55 inches.soi1 association are mature and overmature westernhemlock and western red cedar. Douglas-fir also Cataract soils are presently forested and landoccurs in edaphic locations at lower elevations as capability for forestry ranges from Class 1 tadoes Engelmann spruce at higher elevations. Annual Class 3 for Douglas-fir. Due to the steep topoprecipitationranges approximately between 45 and graphy, generally in excess of 30%, only limitedlogging has taken place.82

CLIFTY ASSOCIATION ( CF )Small acreages of Clifty soils occur in theUpper Fry Creek valley and near Nakusp. The soilshave developed from a very steeply sloping mantleof deep colluvial deposits located on valley wallsin the hilly and mountainous terrain betweenelevations of 5500 and 6500 feet. The soi1 parentmaterial is moderately coarse to coarse textured,stony, loose and permeable. The underlying bedrockis mainly coarse-grained igneous rock such asgranite and quartz diorite.Modal soi1 development is Orthic Humo-FerricPodzol. Generally the solum is very strongly acidand has a low base saturation and moderately lowexchange capacity. Seepage phases and Sombrictlumo-Ferric Podzols are present also, especiallynear treeline. The usual soi1 textures aregravelly sandy loam or gravelly loamy Sand.These high elevation, coarse-textured soilsare found in a cool and moist climate (precipitationfrcm May to September is less than 20inches and frost-free period up to 30 days).Typical trees consist mainly of regular andstunted (krummholz) alpine fir and Engelmannspruce. Land capability for forestry ranges fromClass 5 to Class 7; the main limitations are ashort growing season and cold temperatures.Soi1 Soi1Association ASStl. Significant Soi1 Soi1 Elevation ForestName Component Dominan? Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) OP Phase(s) Orainage Parent titerial Range(feet) ZoneClifty CF2 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w Sonbric Humo-Ferric Podzol mw deep, moderately 5500-6500 Subalpine Engelseepagephases 1 coarse to coarse marin spruce -textured colluvium alpine fir(krunmholz)83

CHAMPION ASSOCIATION ( CH )Minor areas of Champion soils are mapped eastof Meadow Creek and south of Nakusp at elevationsbetween 5500 and 6500 feet. The soils havedeveloped frcm very steeply sloping mantles of deepcolluvial deposits on the valley walls of the hillyand mountainous terrain. The soi1 parent materialis medium textured, stony and permeable. Theassociated bedrock is mainly medium and fine-grained rock such as argillite, andesite, shale andshist. Usual soi1 textures are gravelly loam orgravelly silt loam.Soi1 development is mostly well drained OrthicHumo-Ferric Podzol although significant inclusionsof seepage phases also occur.These podzol soils have developed in a cooland moist environment. The dominant trees arealpine fir and Engelmann spruce in both regular andstunted (krummholz) forms.The soils are non-arable and the landcapability for forestry ranges from Class 3 toClass 5 depending upon aspect, elevation, moisturestatus and seepage. The main limitation is coldtemperature.Soi1 Soi1Association .ASSlI. Significant Soi1 Soi1 Ele'vation ForestName Component Dominant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) or Phase(s) Drainage Parent Material Range(feet) ZoneChampion CHI Orthic Ilumo-Ferric Podzol w seepage phase 1 deep, medium 5500-6500 Subalpine Engeltexturedcolluvium ma"" spruce -CH2 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w seepage phase 1 alpine firalpine phase (krumnholz)85

CALAMITY ASSOCIATION ( CL )ranging from gravelly loam to gravely sandy loam.Calamity soils are found in the south-centralpart of the map area at elevations between 1500 and4000 feet. Specifically they occur near Lardeau,Meadow Creek and on the valley slopes borderingKootenay Lake and the Lardeau River. Calamitysoils have developed from deep, medium textured,colluvial deposits on and at the base of steepslopes. The associated bedrock is medium grained.Typical soi1 development is Orthic DystricBrunisol. The soils have moderate to high basesaturation, moderate cation exchange capacity andare strongly to moderately acid in reaction. Atthe Upper elevations significant inclusions ofOrthic Humo-Ferric Podzol soils similar to theCataract association occur. Calamity soils arewell to rapidly drained and have textures usuallyThe vegetation is typical of the lower elevationsof the Interior western ht 11ock - westernred cedar forest zone. It consists mostly ofwestern red cedar, western hemlock, Douglas-fir andlodgepole pine. Western white pine and westernlarch are also present. Climatic summer-moisturedeficiencies exist which are accentuated by therelatively low moisture-holding capacity of thesesoils.Calamity soils have medium to high capabilityfor forest production with capabilities rangingfrom 70 to 100 cubic feet per acre per year. Thesoils have limited browse and grazing potential forwildlife. Steep topography accounts for theirunsuitability for agriculture.Soi1 Soi1Association Assn.N%W Component Dominant Soi1 SubgroupsSignificant Soi1 Soi1ElevationForestDrainage Subgroup(s) OP Phase(s) Drainage Parent Material Range(feet) ZoneCalamity CL1 Orthic Dystric Brunisol w,r . . . . . . . . deep, medium 1500-4000 Interior westerntextured colluvium hemlock -CL2 Orthic Oystric Brunisol W,T seepage phase 1 western redcedarCL3 Orthic Dystric Brunisol W,P Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w,rseepage phases i87

CONRAD ASSOCIATION ( CN )Conrad soils occur only in a few areas in theeastern part of the map area, mainly in the Uppervalleys of Horsethief, Jumbo, Toby, Bugaboo andVowell creeks. They have developed on very steeplysloping mantles of deep, medium to coarse texturedcolluviurn derived from a variety of non-calcareousbedrock, which include green slate, argillite, andquartzite. The colluvium occurs on middle andUpper valley walls in hilly and mountainous terrainat elevations ranging from 4500 to 6800 feet. Atdepths greater than five feet, the colluvium issometimes underlain by pockets of glacial till.Typical soi1 textures are gravelly sandy loamalthough variations to gravelly loamy sand orgravelly loam also occur.Modal soi1 development is well drained OrthicHumo-Ferric Podzol but at lower elevations,significant inclusions of Orthic Dystric Brunisolsare also present. Seepage phases of Conrad soilsare relatively limited. The solum is moderately tosTightly acid, base saturation is moderate andcation exchange capacity is low.These soils occur in the Subalpine Engelmannspruce-alpine fit- forest zone. The dominant treespecies are Engelrnann spruce, alpine fir, andlodgepole pine. The climate is cool and relativelydry (less than 60 frost-free days and about 20inches May to September precipitation).Al1 of the Conrad soils are presentlyforested, with forest capabilities ranging fromClass 4 to Class 6. Cold temperature is the maingrowth limitation.Soi1 Soi1Association ASSll. Signifiant Soi1 Soi1 Elevation ForestName Component Dominant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) or Phase(s) Drainage Parent Materi. Range(feet) ZoneConrad CKl Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w . . . . . . . . deep, medium to 4500-6800 Subalpine Engelco.wsetexturedmarin spruce -CN2 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol n seepage phase i colluvium alpine firCN3 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w Orthic Dystric Brunisol w89

COOPER ASSOCIATION ( CP )Cooper soils occur mainly in the Fry Creekdrainage and between Nakusp and Trout Lake. Thesesoils have developed from deep, very steeplysloping mantles of colluvium in hilly and mountain-ous terrain, at elevations ranging from 1500 to4000 feet.The colluvial material is moderately coarse tocoarse-textured, loose and permeable. It occurs atthe base and on the lower parts of steep slopes.The materials are of variable depth, but generallyare more than five feet deep and overlie glacialtill or bedrock. The associated bedrock is mainlycoarse grained and includes granite, granodiorite,and minor quartzite and quartz syenite. The usualsoi1 textures are stony gravelly sandy loam orstony gravelly loamy Sand, and the soils aregenerally well drained.The modal soi1 development is Orthic DystricBrunisol. The base saturations and cation exchangecapacities are moderately low in the strong tomedium acid sola. At the higher elevations, whereslightly more precipitation and cooler temperaturesprevail, Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol soilsfor-m significant inclusions.The tree species consist of either pureSoi1 Soi1Association Assn. Significant Soi1 Soi1 Elevation ForestName Component Dominant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) or Phase(s) Drainage Parent Material Range(feet) ZoneCooper CPl Orthic Dystric Brunis01 w . . . . . . . . deep, moderately 1500-4000 Interior westerncoarse to coarse hemlack -CP2 Orthic Dystric Brunisol w seepage phase i textured colluvium wastern redcedarCP3 Orthic Dystric Brunisol w Orthic Huma-Ferric Podzol wseepage phases 191

Cooper Association (Cont'd)or mixed stands of western hemlock, western redcedar, and western larch. Other tree species sometimespresent are Douglas-fir, lodgepole pine andwestern white pine. The precipitation rangesbetween 25 and 45 inches per annum. Soi1 moisturedeficits in sumner are the result of low soi1moisture holding capacities and low amounts ofprecipitation between June and September. -Medium to high capability for forestry(Classes 3 and 2) is typical of Cooper soils.92

CERVIL ASSOCIATION ( CR )Cervil soils occur in fairly limited areaseast of the Purcell Divide between elevationsranging from about 3000 to 5000 feet. They havedeveloped on deep, moderately steeply slopingmantles of colluvium in the hilly and mountainousterrain. The soi1 parent materials are a mixtureof deep, medium textured, calcareous colluvium andglacial till, derived fran limestone, dolomite andcalcareous slate and shale.Modal soi1 development is Orthic EutricBrunisol. Typical soi1 reactions are mildly tomoderately alkaline. The base saturation is high,satisfied mainly by calcium and magnesium ions.Significant soi1 inclusions are Orthic DystricBrunisols which are found either at higher elevationswhere more intensive leaching has takenplace, or in areas where the soi1 parent materialsare less calcareous. Soi1 textures are generallygravelly loam or gravelly silt loam, but range togravelly sandy loam. Most Cervil soils are welldrained, but in places where the parent material issomewhat coarser textured than usual, the soils arerapidly drained. Seepage phases with imperfectdrainage do occur but are generally insignificant.Well defined layers of lime accumulation in theUpper parent material are often evident.Soi1 Soi1Association ASSll. Significant Soi1 Soi1 Elevation ForestName Component Dominant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) or Phase(s) Drainage Parent Material Range(feet) Zonecervi1 CRl Orthic Eutric Brunis01 w,r . . . . . . . . deep, calcareous 3000-5000 Interiormedimn texturedOouglas-firCR2 Orthic Eutric Brunis01 w,p seepage phase i colluviumCR3 Orthic Eutric Brunisol w,ï Orthic Dystric Brunis01 W,‘T93

Cervil Association (Cont'd)-Cervil soils are characterized by generallydry, cool climates (less than 120 frost-free daysand 10 to 15 inches average annual precipitation).Douglas-fir is the most common tree, althoughlodgepole pine and trembling aspen establish assera1 species in many areas after wild fires.Ground caver is composed of bluebunch wheat grass,Idaho fescue and pine grass.Cervil soils are moderately forested atpresent and have Glass 5 to Class 7 capability forforestry; climatic aridity and soi1 moisturedeficiency are the main limitations to growth. Thesteep topography severely limits their use foragriculture. Many Cervil soi1 areas, especiallythose at the lower elevations, provide excellentungulate winter ranges for deer, elk and bighornsheep.94

MOUNT CON0 ASSOCIATION ( CS )Mount Cond soils occur throughout the map areawest of the Purcell Divide. The major acreageshowever, are north and northwest of Trout Lake andin the Duncan, Westfall, Incomappleux and AkolkolexRiver drainages. Elevations range from about 3500to 7000 feet. Mount Cond soils occur in steeplysloping snowchutes and avalanche tracks wheregravity and avalanche activity have depositedcolluvium derived mainly from shale, argillite,slate ami other medium and fine grained rock. Thecolluvium is generally medium to moderately coarsetextured and although variable, is mostly deeperthan 5 feet. Soi1 texture is predominantlygravelly loam with variable contents of stones andboulders.Modal soi1 development is Sombric Huma-FerricPodzol which is characterized by a deep Ah horizonSoi1SOT1Association ASW. Significant Soi1 Soi1 Elevation ForestName Cmponent DoBinant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) or Phase(s) Drainage Parent Material Range(feet) ZoneMount Cond CSl Sombric Humo-Ferric Podzol mw Cumulic Regosol W medium to moder- 3500-7000 Interior westernseeoase .-, phases 1 atelv coarse tex- hemlock andtured colluviumsubalpine EngelcszSombric Humo-Ferric Podzol mw Orthic HumeFerric Podzol w ma"" soruce -Cumulic Regosolwalpine' firseepage phases195

Mount Cond Association (Cont'd)over podzolic Bf horizons. The deciduous shrub,forb and grass vegetation is responsible forproviding the organic matter required for theformation of the Ah horizon. Significant soi1inclusions are Cumulic Regosols and OrthicHumo-Ferric Podzols. The former occur in areaswhere the colluvium is unstable and is activelymoving downslope, while the latter are prevalent instabilized areas no longer actively affected byrepeated avalanches. Mount Cond soils generallyare moderately well drained, but significant areasare subject to substantial seepage and these haveimperfect drainage.Snowchutes and avalanche tracks cari passthrough several forest zones. Their size andactivity depends on the relief of the terrain, theslope length, steepness and the amount of snowaccumulation. Trees do not usually establish inthe most unstable and hazardous areas because offrequent snow slides. Generally shrubs and forbsboth coniferous and deciduous with minor amounts ofgrasses fon the ground caver.Mount Gond soils occur in unstable and hazardousareas and are unsuited for most uses. They dohowever, provide a variety of habitats forwildlife.96

CURTIS ASSOCIATION ( CT )Curtis soils occur mainly in the western partof the map area in small pockets at Inoderately highelevations northeast of Kootenay Lake and betweenNakusp and Trout Lake. The soils have developed onvery steeply sloping colluvium deposited alongsnowchutes and avalanche tracks. The material isgenerally coarse textured, bouldery, loose andpermeable. Associated bedrock is usually quartz,granite, or granodiorite. The distribution ofmaterials on the slopes is variable but is usuallydeeper than 5 feet. Often larger rocks andboulders are located on the lower slope while finermaterials are present nearer the apex. Soi1textures are usually gravelly sandy loam orgravelly loamy Sand.Soi1 development is dominantly SombricHumo-Ferric Podzol. Moderately thick Ah horizonsare present in most areas as a result of the dominantlydeciduous vegetation. Significant soi1inclusions are Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol, CumulicRegosol and associated seepage phases. Where someconiferous vegetation has established, the Ahhorizons are weak or lacking, and Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzols occur. In areas of active depositionCumulic Regosols are found. Al1 soils are wellto moderately well drained, except for seepagephases which are imperfectly drained.Soi1 Soi1Association ASSIl. Significant Soi1 Soi1 Elevation ForestName Component Dominant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) or Phase(s) Drainage Parent Material Ranqe(feet1 zoneCurtis CT2 Sombric Humo-Ferric Podzol mw Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w deep, moderately 3500-7000 Interior wsternCumulic Regosol" coarse textured hemlock andseepage phases i colluvium subalpine Engelmannspruce -alpine fir97

Curtis Association (Cont'd)Snowchutes and avalanche tracks range fran thesnow accumulation area at about 7000 feet dovm toabout 3500 feet at the valley bottoms, or to wherea major slope change occurs. They may travelthrough several forest zones. Active avalancheareas have no well established vegetation, butolder, stabilized tracks may support young standsof Engelmann spruce, alpine fir, western hemlockand western red cedar. Alder, grasses, ferns andother shrubs make up the ground vegetation. TheUpper elevations are characterized by a short, coolgrowing season and deep winter snowfalls, withaccompanying strong winds and cold soi1 temperatures.Due to the instability of the materials anddanger of avalanches, the Curtis soils areunsuitable for most uses. They do however, providea variety of habitats for wildlife.98

COULORON ASSOCIATION ( CW )Couldron soils are most common in the easternpart of the map area, mostly east of the PurcellDivide. The soi1 parent material consists of verysteeply sloping, deep, strongly calcareouscolluvium derived from limestone, dolomite andother calcareous bedrock. It occurs on the valleywalls in hilly and mountainous terrain. Elevationsrange from 4500 to 6500 feet.leaching and weathering rates. Imperfectly drainedseepage phases exist throughout the range of theCouldron association but are most prevalent at thehigher elevations.Tree caver generally consists of tngelmannspruce and alpine fir. Douglas-fir may also befound at lower elevations while lodgepole pineoccurs throughout as a sera1 species after wildfire.The soi1 textures mostly range from gravellyloam to silt loam although gravelly sandy loam alsooccurs. Well-drained Orthic Eutric Brunisolsprevail and soi1 reaction varies from neutral tomildly alkaline. Lime accumulation layers oftenoccur about 18 inches below the soi1 surface.Significant inclusions of Orthic Dystric Brunisolsoccur at the higher elevations because of hiaherCouldron soils are presently forested and haveClass 3 or Class 4 forestry capability. The mainlimitations for tree growth are cold temperatures,exposure and soi1 moisture deficiency. Couldronsoils are unsuitable for agriculture.Soi1 Soi1Association Assn. Significant Soi1 soi1 Elevation ForestName Component Dominant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) or Phase(s) Drainage Parent Materia1 Range(feet) ZoneCouldron CWl Orthic Eutric Brunis01 w , . . . . . . . deep, calcareous. 4500-6500 Subalpine Engelmediu)ntextured marin spçuce -cw2 Orthic Eutric Brunisol w seepage phase i colluvium alpine fircw3 Orthic Eutric Brunisol w Orthic Dystric Brunisol wseepage phases i99

COMAPLIX ASSOCIATION ( CX )Comaplix soils are mapped in the Fry Creek,Kuskanax Creek, St. Leon Creek, and Halfway Riverwatersheds. They ha-ve developed from very steeplysloping deposits of deep colluvium on the valleywalls in the hilly and mountainous terrain atelevations from 3000 to 5800 feet. The colluviumis moderately coarse to coarse textured, welldrained, slightly compacted and peneable.Although the depth of the material varies, itgenerally is deeper than five feet, and overlieseither glaical till or bedrock. The colluviumreflects the composition of the associated bedrockwhich is generally granite, granodiorite, quartz,and other granitoid rocks.The modal soi1 development is OrthicHumo-Ferric Podzol. The soils have strong tomedium acid reactions, generally low cationexchange capacities, and moderate base saturation.At the higher elevations, significant inclusions ofSombric Humo-Ferric Podzols occur where dense shruband forb vegetation exists. Seepage phases arepresent throughout.Overmature stands of western hemlock andwestern red cedar are dominant on Comaplix soils,with the latter being more prevalent in seepageareas. Other tree species are Douglas-fir, westernlarch and lodgepole pine. A generally cool, moistenvironnent with precipitation between 25 and 45inches per annum is typical.Comaplix soils have moderately high capabilitiesfor forest growth and produce from 50 to90 cubic feet per acre per year of western hemlock.Soi1 Soi 1Association ASSL Significant Soi1 Soi1 Elevation ForestName Component Oominant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) or Phase(s) Drainage Parent Materi. Range(feet) ZoneComaplix CXl Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w . . . . . . . . deep, moderately 3000-5800 Interior westerncoarse to COàPSf! hemlock -LX2 Ortijic Humo-Ferric Podzol w Sombric Humo-Ferric Podzol mw textured colluvium western redseepage phases 1 cedar101

CARNEY ASSOCIATION i CY )Carney soils are common throughout the westernhalf of the map area at elevations ranging from4500 to 5800 feet. They have developed from deep,steeply sloping colluvium derived from medium-grained bedrock on the valley walls of the hillyand mountainous topography. The bedrock consistsof argillite, argillaceous quartzite, and minorphyllite and slate. The colluvium is loose,permeable, and medium textured. It is generallygreater than five feet deep and overlies eitherglacial till or bedrock.Typical soi1 development is Orthic Humo-FerricPodzol. Significant inclusions are DegradedDystric Brunisol, Orthic Ferro-Hunic Podzol andSombric Humo-Ferric Podzol. The latter tbx, soilsoccur in conjunction with either climaticallymoister areas or seepage sites at the higherelevations.Soi1 reaction is very strongly to strongly acid,cation exchange capacites are moderately high andbase saturation is medium to low. Carney soilsgenerally are well drained. The usual soi1 textureis gravelly loam with variations to gravelly sandySoi1 soi1Association AS%. Significant Soi1 Soi1 Elevation ForestName Component Dominant Soi1 Subgrwps Drainage Subgroup(s) or Phase(s) Drainage Parent Material Range(feet) ZOIEcarney CYI Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w . . . . . . . . deep, medium 4500-5800 Subalpine Engeltexturedcolluviummany spruce -CY2 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w Drthic Ferra-Humic Podzol w alpine firseepage phases iCY3 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w Degraded Dystric .Brunisol wCY4 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w Sombric Humo-Ferric Podzol mwseepage phases i103

Carney Association (Cont'd)loam and gravelly silt loam.Carney soils occur in a cool and moistenvironment. Seasonal precipitation (May toSeptember) is about 18 inches ard totalprecipitation approaches about 50 inches. Thefrost-free period is generally less than 90 days.The main trees consist of mature stands ofEngelmann spruce and alpine fir. The latterspecies is more comnonly fout-d in pure stands athigher elevations.Carney soils are not suitable foragriculture. Mean annual increments of woodproduction are 50 to 110 cubic feet per acre peryear for Engelmann spruce depending upon aspect,elevation and moisture status. In some more easilyaccessible areas, logging has occured.104

FAIRMONT ASSOCIATION ( FA )Fairmont soils occur north of Invermere in theRocky Mountain Trench. They have developed frommoderately sloping fluvial fan deposits of streamswhich drain the Brisco Range and the PurcellMountains into the Columbia River. Elevationsrange from 2700 to 4500 feet. The deposits arewater sorted, partially stratified, and highlycalcareous throughout. The gravelly sandy loamtextures are generally coarse and stony but varyacross the fan area. Coarser textures such asgravelly loamy Sand are prevalent at the fan apex,while finer-textured deposits as sandy loam andloam are present on the fan aprons. Infiltrationand permeability is rapid and the Fairmont soilsare generally well to rapidly drained.Soi1 development is variable. The modal soilsare Orthic Eutric Brunisol. Orthic and CalcareousOark Gray soils are present as significantinclusions. A few Orthic Regosols also occur. Thevariation in soi1 development largely depends onthe susceptibility to, and intensity of freshetflooding and the amount of lime present.The natural forest vegetation is Douglas-fir,with minor amounts of lodgepole pine and westernlarch. In the few seepage sites, willows, blackcottonwood and birch are present. The groundSoi1 Soi1Association Assn.Name Component Dominant Soi1 SubgroupsSignifiant Soi1 Soi1ElevationForestDrainage Subgroup(s) oi- Phase(s) Drainaqe Parent Material Range(feet) ZO!EFairmont FA1 Orthic Eutric BrunisolFA2 Orthic Eutric Brunisol. . . . . . . .Orthic Dark Grayr,wvariable textured 2700-4500 Interioralluvial fan Douglas-firdeposits105

Fairmont Association (Cont'd)vegetation is pinegrass. The climate ischaracterized by dry and warm summers and coldWinters and precipitation ranges up to 15 inchesper year.The capability of the soils for forestryranges from 50 to 90 cubic feet per acre per year.Soi1 moisture deficiency and exposure are the mainlimitations. Agricultural capability is Class 4.The soils have some natural grazing potential.Stoniness and low water holding capacity are thedominant limitations. Fairmont soils are importantwintering areas for deer anI elk.106

FRUITVALE ASSOCIATION ( FT 1The Fruitvale soi1 association occurs inscattered locations throughout the western part ofthe map area, mainly along the Kootenay, Slocan andDuncan lakes and the Incomappleux River. Fruitvalesoils have developed from fluvial fan depositsradiating outwards fron points where streams leavethe mountainous areas. The topography ismoderately to steeply sloping. The fans usuallycontain many short, abandoned stream channels and afew occupied ones. Elevations range frcm about1500 to 3000 feet. The soi1 parent material ispoorly sorted, partially stratified, looselycompacted and permeable. Textures are generallycoarse and stony near the fan apexes, while finertextures, usually gravelly loam or sandy loam, somesilt loam and occasional clay loam occur on the fanapron. Drainage is variable and depends upon thesoi1 texture, but generally the soils are ~11 torapidly drained. The soi1 parent materials arelargely non-calcareous.The main soi1 development of Fruitvale soilsis Orthic Dystric Brunisol. They have moderatelylow base saturations, 1 ow cation exchangecapacities and are strongly acid in reaction.Significant soi1 inclusions are Orthic Regosolswhich occur where freshet flooding is frequent.Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol soi1 inclusions usuallySOil Soi1Association Assn. Significant Soi1 Soi1 Elevation ForestName Component Dominant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) or Phase(s) Drainage Parent Material Range(feet) zoneFruitvale FTl Orthic Dystric Brunisol w,ï seepage phases i variable textured 1500-3000 Interior westernalluvial fan hemlockFT2 Orthic Oystric Brunisol w,r Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w,r depositsFT3 Orthic Oystric Brunisol w,r Orthic Regosol rseepage phases i107

Fruitvale Association (Cont'd)occur at the higher elevations, or in those areaswith higher than usual precipitation.The natural forest consists of westernhemlock, western white pine, western red cedar andDouglas-fir.Although these soils are often situated nearlarge lakes which tend to moderate the climate,cold air drainage from higher elevations oftencauses a relatively short (less than 150 days)frost-free periods. The duration of the frost-freeperiod depends on the fan size, slope and source ofcold air. Precipitation ranges between 25 and 45inches annually.On the finer textured parts of the Fruitvaleassociation and where the topography is moderate,the soils are capable of producing a wide range ofcrops including forages, coarse grains, vegetablesand small fruits. Variable soi1 moisture holdingcapacities, usually low, cari be overcome by irrigation.The mean arma1 increment for forest growthranges. from 70 to 130 cubic feet par acre peryear. The variability is due to variation in soi1moisture deficiency and drainage, topography andpresence of seepage.108

GILLIS ASSOCIATION ( GS )Gillis soils are confined mainly to thesouthwest portion of the map area, mostly alongArrow Park Creek, at elevations from about1400 to 3500 feet. The parent material consists ofglacial outwash terraces and deltas made up ofsometimes stratified, highly permeable, looseSand. Surface drainage patterns are generallyabsent and the topography is gently sloping. Thedeposits are usually more than five feet deep andone or more layers of grave1 is often present inthesubsoil.Gillis soils are rapidly drained. Seepage,however, above restricting layers at depth mayoccur where these are exposed, as in roadcuts andonescarpments.Orthic Oystric Brunisol soi1 development ismodal. Significant Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol soi1inclusions are also present at higher elevations.Cation exchange capacities and base saturations arevery low due to the sandy textures.The climate is generally warm and dry with asummer moisture deficit. Winters are alsorelatively mild because of the moderating effectof the Arrow Lakes. The vegetation is composed ofwestern hemlock, lodgepole and white pine andDouglas-fir with white birch and western red cedaron seepage sites. Ground caver is composed oflichens and mosses.Most of the Gillis soils are forested. Theland capability for forestry is Class 3 or Class 4,moisture deficiency being the main limitation toforest growth. With irrigation and largeapplications of fertilizers these coarse texturedsoils are moderately capable of commercialproduction of most climatically adopted crops.Soi1 Soi1Association F,SSll. Significant Soi1 Soi1 Elevation ForestName Component Dominant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) or Phase(s) Drainage Parent Material Range(feet) ZOlWGillis GSl Orthic Cystric Brunisol t- . . . . . . . . moderately coarse 1400-3500 Interior westerntextured, well hemlock -GS2 Orthic Oystric Brunisol r seepage phase i sorted sandy western redGS4 Orthic i2ystric Brunisol rglaciofluvialOrthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w depositscedar109

KINBASKET ASSOCIATION ( KB )Kinbasket soils occur primarily north ofHorsethief Creek in the Rocky Mountain Trench onrolling and hummocky, drumlinized glacial tillat elevations between 3500 and 5000 feet. Theparent material is compact, moderately calcareous,medium textured and moderately stony. A very finesandy or silty windblown deposit up to 10 inchesthick usually covers the surface.The modal soi1 development is Orthic GrayLuvisol. Surface textures are usually fine sandyloam or loam underlain by gravelly sandy loam orgravelly loam; the Bt horizon is often clay loam.Most Kinbasket soils are well drained, havemoderate cation exchange capacities, high basesaturations and neutral to mildly alkalinereactions. Free lime usually occurs at about 15inches below the soi1 surface. Significant soi1inclusions are Orthic Eutric Bruni sols, BrunisolicGray Luvisols and Gleyed Gray Luvisols. The OrthicEutric Brunisols occur primarily south of Radiumwhere the climate is somewhat dryer. BrunisolicGray Luvisol soils become more dominant at higherelevations where slightly higher amounts ofprecipitation and cooler temperatures prevail. TheGleyed Gray Luvisols tend to occur in depressionsand other moisture receiving areas*The climate is moderately warm and dry (about10 to 15 inches annual precipitation and fewer than120 frost-free days) and is similar to that of theclosely associated bcliffe soi1 association. TheSoi1 Soi1Association Assn. Significant Soi1 Soi1 Elevation ForestName Component Dominant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) OP Phase(s) Drainage Parent ilaterial Ranqe(feet) ZoneKinbasket KBl Orthic Gray Luvisol w . . . . . . . . medium to rrwder- 3500-5000 lnteriorately fine tex-Douglas-firKBZ Orthic Gray Luvisolw Orthic Eutric Brunisol w tured calcareousbasa1 tillKB3 Orthic Gray Luvisol w Brunisolic Gray Luvisol wKB4 Orthic Gray Luvisol w Gleyed Gray Luvisol i111

Kinbasket Association (Cent')forest consists of medium to dense stands ofDouglas-fir interspersed with lodgepole pine,willows, white birch, trembling aspen and minoramounts of western larch.The land capability for forestry ranges fromClass 3 to Class 5, with soi1 moisture deficiencybeing the main limitation. A few areas have beencleared for agricultural use. Irrigation and stoneclearing are necessary for good agriculturalproduction. The soils are moderately suitable aswildlife (deer and elk) winter ranges.112

KEENEY ASSOCIATION ( KE )Keeney scils occur in association withKinbasket and Wycliffe soils in the Rocky MountainTrench northwest of Invermere. The soils havedeveloped on flat to gently sloping glacial outwashterraces, deltas, plains and valley trains, and ongrave1 filled channels among the drumlinizedglacial till. The parent material consists mainlyof grave1 interstratified with some Sand, ami isstony, highly permeable and loose. Calcareous rockfragments are present and lime accumulation isvisible in the subsoil. The deposits are ofvariable depth, but generally exceed five feet.Elevations range from about 3000 to 5000 feet.The modal soi1 development is Orthic EutricBrunisol. The Upper solum is slightly acid inreaction and is usually sandy 1oa.m or loamy sandin texture and contains variable amounts of gravel.The gravelly loamy sancl or gravelly sand parentmaterial is moderately alkaline. Significantinclusions of Orthic Dystric Brunisols occur athigher elevations, while Orthic Gray Luvisolssometimes occur where textures are scmewhat finerthan usual.Keeney soils occur in the Interior Douglas-firzone where the climate is dry (less than 15 inchestotal annual precipitation) and moderately warm (upto 120 frost-free days per year). The treesdominantly consist of Douglas-fir, lodgepole pineartd trembling aspen. Some birch and Ponderosa pinegrow in the extreme southeastern part of the mapSoi1 Soi1Association ASStl. Significant Soi1 Soi1 Elevation ForestRame Component Dominant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) or Phase(s) Drainage Parent Material Range(feet) ZoneKEl Orthic Eutric Brunisol r . . . . . . . . loose, well ta 3000-5000 1nteriorpoorly sorted (often Douglas-firKE2 Orthic Eutric Brunisol r Orthic Dystric Brunisol r calcareous) moderatelycoarse tex-KE3 Orthic Eutric Brunisol r Orthic Regosol r tured glacioseepagephases i fluvial depositsKE4 Orthic Eutric Brunisol r Orthic Gray Luvisol wOrthic Dystric Brunisol w,r113

Keeney Association (Cont'd)area.The soils are presently forested and landcapability for forestry ranges frcm Class 5 toClass 7. The main limitations are soi1 moisturedeficiency and aridity. Limited agriculture withclimatically adapted crops is possible on the lessstony soils, if they are adequately irrigated.114

KINGCOME ASSOCIATION ( KG )Kingcome soils are mapped in the Vowell,Jumbo, Horsethief and Toby creek drainage basins inthe northeastern part of the map area, betweenelevations of 4500 and 5500 feet. The soi1 parentmaterial consists of level to rolling glaciofluvialterrace remnants, and other glaciofluvial depositslocated along the lower valley sides. It isgravelly, stratified, moderately coarse textured,and loose. Depth of the deposits is variable butusually exceeds five feet. Typical soi1 texturesare gravelly loamy sand or sandy loam. Drainage israpid, except in seepage areas where it isimperfect.Modal soi1 development is Orthic Humo-FerricPodzol. The soi1 is characterized by low cationexchange capacities and moderately low basesaturation. Soi1 reaction ranges from verystrongly acid in the solum to strongly acid in theparent rnaterial.The climate is characterized by a cool andrelatively dry growing season (less than 60frost-free days and about 15 inches seasonalprecipitation). The main tree species areEngelmann spruce, alpine fir, and lodgepole pine.Kingcome soils are rated Class 4 for forestrycapability. Cold temperatures and soi1 moisturedeficiency are their main limitations.Soi1 Soi1Association ASSI. Significant Soi1 Soi1 Elevation ForestName Component Dominant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) or Phase(s) Drainage Parent Material Range(feet) ZoneKingcome KG1 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol r ..,..... coawe textured, 4500-5500 Subalpine Engelwellsorted gwel- mi"" spruce -KG2 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol r seepage phase i ly glaciofluvial alpine firdeoosits115

KASLO ASSOCIATION i KO )The Kaslo soils are found in most river andcreek valleys in the western part of the map areaat elevations ranging from 1400 to 4000 feet. Theparent materials are level to rolling glaciofluvialdeposits which occur as hummocks, mounds andterraces along the valley sides. They are poorlysorted, moderately coarse textured, often verystony, usually slightly compacted and of variablepermeability and depth. Most of the Kaslo soilsare rapidly drained. Seepage, however, occursabove restricting layers which are finer texturedand more compact.The typical soi1 development is Orthic Dystr icBrunisol and is characterized by moderately hi ghbase saturation, very low exchange capacity andmedium acid reaction. Significant Degraded DystricBrunisol soi1 inclusions, as well as seepagephases, are mapped in conjunction with the modalsoil. Kaslo soils have a deep solum, often inexcess of five feet.The associated climate is moderately dry andwarm. The vegetation is dominantly westernhemlock, with western white pine, lodgepole pine,western red cedar, white birch and some blackcottonwood.The land capability for forestry is highlyvariable and rages from Glass la to 5. The bestcapability classes occur where the textures arefiner than usual and where seepage exists. MostKaslo soils are non-arable owing to the combinationof coarse soi1 textures, stoniness, and, in manyareas, relatively steep topography.soi1 Soi1Association Assn.'laIIll? Component Do:ninant Soi1 SubgroupsSignificant Soi1 Soi1 Elevation ForestDrainage Subgroup(s) OP Phase(s) Drainage Parent Material Range(feet) ZoneKdSlO KO1 Orthic Dystric Brunisol r Degraded Dystric Brunisol P loose, well to 1400-4000 Interior westernKO2 Orthic Oystric Brunisol r seepage phasepoorlj sorted heinlock -1 moderately coarse western redtextured gldcio- cedarfluvial ice contactdeposits117

KUSKANAX ASSOCIATION ( KX )Kuskanax soils occur in the western half ofthe map area in the Upper parts of the drainages ofInost valleys, at elevations from 3500 to 5500 feet.The topography is level to rolling. The landfonnsconsist of terrace remnants, ice contact depositsand other glaciofluvial deposits occurring on thevalley floors and lower valley slopes. They aresimilar to those of the Kaslo soi1 association.The deposits consist primarily of partially sortedsand and gravel. They are stony, loose, and ofvariable permeability and depth. Kuskanax soilsare usually rapidly drained except for seepagephases, which are imperfectly drained.Typical soi1 development is Orthic Humo-FerricPodzol and is characterized by a deep solum havingwell developed Ae and Bf horizons. Soi1 reactionis strongly acid and cation exchange capacities aremoderately low.The climate is cool and moist. The forestsare dominantly overmature western hemlock withwestern red cedar in moister arxl seepage sites.Engelmann spruce is often present at higherelevations.Capabilities for forestry range fran Classla to Class 5 depending upon soi1 moistureconditions, temperature, and soi1 texture.Kuskanax soils are mostly non-arable due tostoniness, low noisture holding capacity, shortfrost-free periods and in some locations, adversetopography.Soi 1 Soi1Association Assn. Significant Soi1 Soi1 Elevation ForestNallW Component Dominant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) or Phase(s) Drainage Parent l4aterial Range(feet) ZOlWKuskanax KXl Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol r . . . . . . . . loose. well to 3500-5500 Interior westernpoorly sorted hemlock -KX2 Orthic IHumo-Ferric Podzol r seepage phase 1 rnoderately coarse western redtextured glacio- cedarfluvial ice contactdeposits119

LINTEN ASSOCIATION ( LI )The Linten soils are mapped only in the Upperparts of Vowell and Malloy creek valleys and in thetributaries of Bobbie Burns Creek in the northeastpart of the map area. Elevations range frcm about4500 to 5300 feet. The topography is flat togently sloping and sometirnes strongly rolling. Thesoi1 parent material consists of localized glacio-lacustrine sediments, usually one to five feetthick, which overlie glaciofluvial or glacial tilldeposits. The Imajority of the soils are welldrained, however, in seepage areas imperfectdrainage is indicated by mottling in the solum andparentmaterial.Typical soi1 development is Orthic tiumo-FerricPodzol. The soils are very strongly acid and havemoderate cation exchange capacities. Texturesgenerally range fran sandy loam to clay loam in thesolum with loam and silt loam being most common.Linten soils have developed in a relativelycool and Imoist clirnate. The associated forestsconsist of Engelmann spruce, alpine fir andlodgepole pine.The soils have very lim ited agriculturalpotential mainly because of a short frost-freeperiod. Land capability for fat -estry ranges frornClass 3 to Class 4 for lodgepole pine. Coldtemperatures and soi1 moisture deficiency are thelimiting factors.Soi1 Soi1Association Assn.Name Conponent Dominant Soi1 SubgroupsSignificant Soi1 Soi1ElevationForestDrainage Subgroup(s) or Phase(s) Drainage Parent Material Range(feet) ZoneLinten LIl Orthic tlumo-Ferric Podzol w . . . . . . . . rnoderately fine 4500-5500 Subalpine Engeltexturedlacustrinemarin spruce -L12 Orthic Huma-Ferric Podzol VI seepage phase1 deposits alpine fir121

LAWLEY ASSOCIATION ( LY )Lawley soils occur between Nakusp and Burtonalong the Arrow Lakes at elevations between 1400and about 3000 feet. The topography is undulatingto moderately rolling. The soi1 parent material iscomposed of medium and moderately fine texturedglaciolacustrine sediments which are generallystone-free, layered, compact, and slowlypermeable. Textures sometimes become slightlycoarser at depth. Soi1 textures in the solumusually range frcm loam to silt loam. The soilsare moderately well to ~11 drained.Modal soi1 development is Brunisolic GrayLuvisol. The characteristic Bm, Ae and Bt horizonsare well developed. The soils have moderately highcation exchange capacities and high basesaturation. Soi1 reaction is medium acid.Significant soi1 inclusions are Orthic GrayLuvisols and these tend to be dominant in areaswhere textures are finer than usual.The climate, typical of the interior valleysis relatively dry and warm. The ColumbiaRiver-Arrow Lake valley has a growing seasonprecipitation of up to 10 inches and a frost-freeSoi1 Soi1Association Rssn. Significant Soi1 Soi1 Elevation ForestiLame Component Dominant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) or Phase(s) Drainage Parent linterial Range(feet) ZoneLawley LY3 Brunisolic Gray Luvisol w Orthic Gray Luvisol w Inoderately fine 14co-3000 Interior besternseepage phases 1 textured lacustrioe hemlock -deposits western redcedar123

Lawley Association (Cont'd)period of about 150 days. The native treesinclude western hemlock, Douglas-fir, western tiitepine and lodgepole pine with western red cedar inseepage locations. A variety of fairly dense shruband understory caver is also present.to Class 4. Almost a11 of these soils were usedfor agriculture at one time before the area wasutilized for water storage. Abandoned orchardsstill dot the landscape among excellent westernwhite pine regeneration.The combination of suitable climaticconditions and topography with adequate soi1texture make these soils attractive foragricultural use. Capability ranges from Class 1Lawley soils are also well suited for forestproduction mainy due to their adequate waterholding capacity and the long growing season.124

MAYOOK ASSOCIATION ( MY )Mayook soils occur in the Rocky MountainTrench at elevations between 2600 and 3500 feet,and in small isolated pockets in the lower FindlayCreek drainage. The landforms are generally flatto rolling and are incised by many small, steepgullies and ravines. These gullies are up to ahalf mile long. Some have merged, leaving leveltopped areas (islands) surrounded by channels.The parent material consists of deep, wellstratified, calcareous predominantly silt loamtextured glaciolacustrine sediments. Inclusions ofloam and very fine sandy loam sometimes occur, duein part to an intermittent surface capping ofaeolian material up to 18 inches thick.The sola are thin and modal soi1 developmentis Orthic Eutric Brunisol. Free lime may sometirnesbe found at the surface but it generally occurs atabout five inches depth. A significant soi1inclusion is Orthic Gray Luvisol which is foundgenerally north of Brisco, under slightly moisterconditions. Some Orthic Eutric Brunisols haveweakly developed Ah horizons. These are typicallyfound under pinegrass and scattered tree caver andare trending toward Dark Gray soils.The climate is dry and moderately warm(growing season precipitation is less than 8Soi1 Soi1Association ASW. Significant Soi1 Soi1 Elevation Forest:!ame Component Dominant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) or Phase(s) Drainage Parent ititerial Range(feet) ZoneKayook WI Orthic Eutric Brunisol w . . . . , . . . moderately fine 2600-3500 Interiortexture4 lacustrine Douglas-fir14Y2 Orthic Eutric Brunisol w Orthic Gray Luvisol w deposits125

Mayook Association (Cont'd)inches and the frost-free pericd is less than 120days). The open tree caver consists mainly ofDouglas-fir, with minor amounts of trembling aspen,lodgepole pine and ponderosa pine. Juniper shrubsare dominant in the understory.Land capabilities for forestry are low,ranging fran mean annual increments of 10 to 50cubic feet per acre pet- year. The main limitationsto tree growth are climatic aridity, high limecontent in the soi1 and high incidence of soi1erosion. The soils, when irrigated, have the bestagricultural capability within the Rocky MountainTrench section of the map area.126

NOWITKASSOCIATION (NW)Nowitka soils occur in the valley bottoms ofthe East Kootenays. Specifically, they exist onthe floodplains of the Columbia and Kootenay rivet-sand in small pockets along 6obbie Burns, Francis,Forster, Horsethief, Dutch, Toby and Findlaycreeks. The Nowitka soils have developed onrolling and undulating recent fluvial (alluvial)deposits. These stratified sediments are generallymoderately coarse to medium textured, calcareous,and range from fine sand to silt loam withoccasional lenses of grave1 and clay. They arecommonly flooded during spring and sumner by annualfreshets which add new sediments to the surface andretard soi1 horizon development. The fluctuatingwater table causes alternate oxidizing and reducingconditions that stain the deposits with mottles.Soi1 development is variable, ranging fromOrthic Regosol to Orthic Gleysol, ard is dependentupon the texture of the parent material, variationin soi1 drainage, frequency of flooding andproximity of stream, river and groundwater. Thedcminant soil, however, is Orthic Regosol which ischaracterized by calcareous, variable-textured,Soi1 Soi1Association ASSfl. Significant Soi1 Soi1 Elevation ForestName Component Dominant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) or Phase(s) Drainage Parent Material Range(feet) ZOENowitka Nwl Orthic Regosol r,w . . . . . . . . medium textured 2600-4500 InterioralluviumDouglas-firNW2 Orthic Regosol r,w Gleyed Orthic Regosol 1Drthic Gleysol P.VNH3 Orthic Regosol r,w Orthic Eutric Brunisol wseepage phases 1NU4 Gleyed Orthic Regosol i Drthic Gleysol P.V127

Nowitka Association (Cont'd)well drained strata. Significant soi1 inclusionsare Gleyed Orthic Regosols, Orthic Eutric Brunisolsand Cumulic Regosols. The latter soils resultwhere intermittent flooding has buried weaklydeveloped Ah horizons. The Orthic Eutric Brunisolsare found on the highest areas which have beenrelatively unaffected by flooding for a number ofyears. Orthic Gleysols are usually found indepressional areas permanently affected by groundwater.Most Nowitka soils are calcareousthroughout the profile. Low cation exchangecapacities and moderately alkaline conditionsprevail.Vegetation includes a variety of watertolerant species, salt and lime tolerant grassesand reeds, and occasional willow and birch. Sedgesdcnninate in poorly drained areas, while shrubs andblack cottonwood occupy the higher, better drainedpositions. Nowitka soils tend to occur in areas offrost pooling and have frost-free periodsgenerally not exceeding 90 days.Most Nowitka soils that are flooded in thespring and summer are not utilized for cultivatedagriculture at the present time. Limited acreagesin higher positions have better soi1 drainage andcari be used for hay, oats,clover, barley and coolseason vegetables. Nowitka soils are usedintensively by waterfowl and this may be the bestuse until agricultural pressure beccmes greatenough to require reclamation.128

RADIUM ASSOCIATION ( RA )Radium soils are mapped in the alpine areas ofthe eastern third of the map area, at elevations inexcess of 6500 feet. The soils occur on moderatelyand steeply sloping Upper slopes, ridge-crests,cirque basins and saddles. The parent material iscolluvium generally less than three feet in depthwhich overlies a variety of bedrock. The colluviumis moderately coarse textured, petmeable, loose,stony and bouldery and is strongly affected byphysical weathering and frost action. Periglacialprocesses, such as nivation and solifluction areactive. Most Radium soils are well drained; thosein hollows and in seepage areas are imperfectlydrained.The modal soi1 development appears to beDegraded Melanic Brunisol. The sampled soi1profile has a high cation exchange capacity in theAh horizons which decreases with depth and soi1reaction is neutral throughout the profile. Inother areas, Radium soils have higher chromas inthe B horizon and less organic matter accummulationin the A horizon more typical of OrthicDystric Brun i sols. Significant soi1 inclusions areseepage and lithic phases of Orthic Dystric andOrthic Melan il c Brunisols. Orthic Sombric Brunisolsand Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzols also occur inapparently insignificant quantities. The variationsin profile development at these highelevations largely depend on aspect, soi1 drainage,type of bedrock and possibly, type of vegetation.Soi1 Soi1Association Assn. Significant Soi1 Soi1 Elevation ForestName Component Dominant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) or Phase(s) Drainage Parent Material Range(feet) zoneRadium RAl Oegraded Melanic Brunisol w Lithic Degraded Melanic w shallow, moder- fi500+ Alpine TundraBrunisol ately coarsetextured colluviumRAZ Degraded Melanic Brunisol w Orthic Dystric Brunisol w overlying badrockRA3 Oegraded Melanic Brunisol w Orthic Dystric Brunisol wseepage phases i129

Radium Association (Cont'd)The Radium soils occur in a harsh environment fragile Iandscape.characterized by cold temperatures, moderately deepsnowfall and strong winds. Most soils are shallow The Radium soils are non-arable and notwith turfy surfaces because of the dominante of forested. They form a suitable habitat for sumneralpine forb and grass vegetation. Trees are absent grazing by both domestic ard wild ungulates. Theor occur only as small groves of dwarfed and extensive recreational potential is unexcelled fordefoned (krumnholz) fons. The severity of hiking, riding, and viewing.climate is the dominant feature of this very130

ROSSLANO ASSOCIATION ( RL )Rossland soils are found above timberline atelevations in excess of about 6500 feet in thewestern half of the map area. The soils occur onthe Upper slopes, ridges, depressions and cirquebasins in mountainous topography. The parentmaterial is colluvium, the surface pattern of whichshows a high degree of frost action, includingnivation hollows and related frost upheaving anddownslope movement. The material is shallow,moderately coarse to medium textured, permeable,loose, stony and bouldery. Hard or partiallyweathered bedrock is often encountered within threeto five feet from the surface. The bedrockcomposition is variable but is usually mediumgrained and non-calcareous.Typical soi1 development is Sombric Humo-Ferric Podzol for the well and moderately welldrained Rossland soils. They are characterized byextremely acid reactions an.4 low base saturations.Cation exchange capacities in surface horizons arehigh largely because of the high amount of organicmatter present. Significant soi1 inclusions areOrthic and Lithic Humo-Ferric and Ferro-HumicPodzols.T he environment is characterized by veryshort cool growing seasons, cold temperatures,deep snowfall and strong winds. Under thesecandi ions the shallow turfy soils support avariety of shrubs, forbs, sedges and grasses &ichrarely grow over a foot tall.Soi1 Soi1Association Assn. Significant Soi1 Soi1Elevation ForestNa!lle Component Dominant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) or Phase(s) Drainage Parent Material Range(feet) ZoneRossland RLl Sombric Hurno-Ferric Podzol w,mw Lithic Ferra-Humic Podzol w.r shallow. medium to 65OOt Alpine Tondramoderatély coarseRL2 Sombric Humo-Ferric Podzol w,mw Orthic Ferra-Humic Podzol w textured colluviumLithic Ferra-Humic Podzol W,P overlying bedrockseepage phases1RL3 Lithic Humo-Ferric Podzol W,P SoBbric Humo-Ferric Podzol mw131

Rossland Association (Cont'd)Rosslard soils are unsuitable for agriculturalor forestry uses, but provide domestic and wildungulate suinner ranges. They are excellent forextensive recreational uses, such as hiking, ridingand viewing. Intensive use is likely to damage thefragile alpine environment.132

SANDON ASSOCIATION ( SA )A small acreage of Sandon soils are mappednear Beaton and east of New Denver. They occur onmoderately steep to steep Upper slopes, in cirquebasins ard depressions at elevations ranging frocabout 5500 to 7200 feet. The parent material is amedium-textured mixture of glacial till andcolluvium usually deeper than 5 feet. Shale,slate, phyllite amf schist are the dominant rockfragments in the till-colluvium mixture.The modal soi1 development is OrthicHumo-Ferric Podzol. Significant soi1 inclusionsare Orthic Ferro-Humic and Sombric Humo-FerricPodzols, as well as the associated seepage phasesof these soils. The soils are generally welldrained, but seepage phases found in depressionalareas are imperfectly drained.The Sandon soils have developed under moistand cool (less than 20 inches May to Septemberprecipitation and fewer than 30 frost free days)climatic conditions typical of the SubalpineEngelmann spruce-alpine fir forest zone. Thedominant trees are alpine fir and Engelmannspruce. Whitebark pine, lodgepole pine, and a fewmountain hemlock are also present, often in stuntedforms and in sheltered locations.Sandon soils have low capability for forestryand very limited grazing potential for wildlife.Soi1 Soi1Association Assn. Significant Soi1 Soi1 El evat ion ForestElame Component Dominant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) or Phase(s) Drainage Parent Material Range(feet) ZOlXSSandon SA1 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w seepage phase i medium textured 5500-7200 Subalpine Engelbasa1tillmann spruce -SA2 Orthic Humo-Ferric Todzol w Orthic Ferra-Humic Podzolalpine firSombric Humo-Ferric Podzol 1"(krumnholz)seepage phases 1133

STUBBS ASSOCIATION ( SB )Stubbs soils are found south and east ofTrout Lake in the Lardeau River valley; they rangein elevation from about 3500 to 4800 feet. Stubbssoils occur on middle to Upper mountain slopes thatare covered by morainal (glacial till) deposits.Generally, the topography is moderately to steeplysloping and somewhat more severe than that of therelated Sentine1 soils found at lower elevations.The soi1 parent material is generally medium tomoderately fine textured, stony glacial tillalthough somewhat coarser-textured areas are alsopresent.These well-drained soils are mainly OrthicHumo-Ferric Podzols characterized by medium tostrongly acid reactions and medium base satur-ations. Significant soi1 inclusions are SombricHumo-Ferric Podzol and Luvisolic Humo-FerricPodzol. The former are associated with seepagesites while the latter occur in areas of somewhatfiner-textures where clay has accumulated in thesolum.The climate is moist arrrl cool. The vegetationis mostly mature and over-mature western hemlock.Minor amounts of Douglas-fir, Engelmann sprucetogether with western red cedar, lodgepole pine andwestern larch are found throughout.Excellent capabilities for forest growth makethese soils attractive for tree production.However, cool temperatures and soi1 moisturedeficiency together with adverse topograpily mayimpose some limitations.Soi1 Soi1Association AS%. Significant Soi1 Soi1 Elevation ForestName Conpanent Dominant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) or Phase(s) Orainage Parent Haterial Range(feet) ZoneStubbs SE2 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w seepage phase i shallow, medium to 3500.QC0 interior westernfine textured hemlock -SB3 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w Sombric Humo-Ferric Podzol mw colluvium over- western redseepage phases i lying basa1 till cedar586 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w Luvisolic Humo-Ferric Podzol wseepage phases i135

SANDNER ASSOCIATION ( SD )Sandner soils occur in only a few areas andare mapped in conjunction with other soils near NewDenver, at elevations from about 4500 to 5800 feet.They are mapped on the Upper, moderately steepmountainous slopes which are covered with deepglacial till generally containing fine-grained rockfragments.Typical soi1 development is Orthic Humo-FerricPodzol with Degraded Dystric Brunisol and OrthicFerro-Humic Podzol as significant soi1 inclusions.The Degraded Dystric Brunisols occur mostly atthe lower elevations while the Orthic Ferro-HumicPodzols occur in depressional areas and seepagesites which are moister than usual. Most soils arewe.ll drained except for seepage areas, which areusually imperfectly drained. Soi1 texturesgenerally range from gravelly loam to gravelly siltloam and, occasionally to gravelly clay loam.The environment is characterized by a cool andmoist climate, having less than 18 inches of May toSeptember precipitation and less than approximately90 frost-free days. The main trees are Engelmannspruce and alpine fir.The soils are presently under forest and themean annual increments for forest growth range from90 to 110 cubic feet per acre per year.Soi1 Soi1Association Assn.Name Component Dominant Soi1 SubgroupsSandner SD1 Orthic Humo-Ferric PodzolSD2 Orthic Humo-Ferric PodzolSD3 Orthic Huno-Ferric PodzolSD4 Orthic Humo-Ferric PodzolSD5 Orthic Ilumo-Ferric PodzolSignificant Soi1 Soi1 Elevation ForestDrainage Subgroup(s) OP Phase(s) Drainage Parent Material Range(feet) ZOWw . . . . . . . . mediw to moder- 4500-5800 Subalpine Engelatelyfine tex- ma"" spruce -w seepage phase 1 tu& glacial till alpine firw Degraded Dystric Brunisol IVw Oegraded Dystric Brunis01 vseepage phases 1w Orthic Ferre-Humic Podzol wseepage phases 1137

-STEENHOFF ASSOCIATION ( SF )The soils of the Steenhoff association arefound in the vicinity of Meadow Creek, Lardeau andon mid-slope positions along either side of theLardeau River valley at elevations between 3000 andabout 4800 feet. The soi1 parent material ismoderately to strongly sloping, medium tomoderately fine-textured basa1 till. Soi1 texturesrange frcm lomn to clay loam. The moderately stonytill is similar to that of the Stubbs soils andoverlies bedrock-controlled ridges with humps anddepressions of various sizes. Steenhoff soils arewell drained except in depressions and on scmeseepage sites where the drainage is imperfect.The modal soi1 development is LuvisolicHumo-Ferric Podzol, characterized by moderatelywell developed clay-accumulation horizons in thelower sol um. The solum is medium acid in reaction,ard has a moderately high exchange capacity. Smallamounts of volcanic ash are sometimes incorporatedin the Upper horizons. Significant soi1 inclusionsare Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzols and Brunisolic GrayLuvisols, as well as seepage phases. OrthicHumo-Ferric Podzols lacking clay accummulationhorizons occur where the parent material is coarsertextured than usual. The Brunisolic Gray Luvisolsare present at lower elevations where, because oflower rates of precipitation and slightly warmerteinperatures, the podzolization process has notadvanced sufficiently to produce podzolic Bfsurface horizons.Soi1 Soi1Association Assn. Significant Soi1 Soi1 Clevation ForestNSSlE Component Dolninant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) or Phase(s) Drainage Parent Ilaterial Range(feet) ZOlV2Steenhoff SF1 Luvisolic llumo-Ferric Podzol w seepage phase i medium to moder- 3000-4800 Interior wsternately fine tex- hemlock.-SF2 Luvisolic Humo-Ferric Podzol w Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol. w tured basa1 till western redcedarSF3 Luvisolic tlumo-Ferric Podzol w Sombric Humo-Ferric Podzol mwseepage phases i139

Steenhoff Association (Cont'd)The climate is sanewhat influenced by the the tree canopy.moderating effect of Kootenay Lake. Annualprecipitation is about 25 to 45 inches and the The land capability for forestry ranges fromfrost-free period ranges between 120 and 150 days. Class 2 to Class la. Large acreages with moreWestern hemlock, western red cedar, Douglas-fir level topography have been logged anl some havewith minor western larch and lodgepole pine fotm limited agricultural potential.140

SWEHAW ASSOCIATION ( SH )A small acreage of Swehaw soils are mappedbetween Nakusp and Meadow Creek at elevationsbetween 5500 and 0500 feet. The soils are found onupwr mountain slopes, and in depressions andcirque basins that are covered by morainaldeposits. The parent material consists of morethan five feet of moderately coarse texturedglacial till and some colluvium and contains manygranitic and quartzitic stones and boulders.Typical soi1 textures are gravelly sandy loam orloam. Most Swehaw soils are well drained. Thosepresent in swales and seepage channels areimperfectlydrained.The modal soi1 developnent is Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol with significant inclusions ofSombric Humo-Ferric Podzols and associated seepagephases. Thesc soils have very strong acidicreactions, and Imoderately low cation exchangecapacities and base saturation.The Swehaw association is characterized byshort frost-free periods and moderately highprecipitation with high snowfall in winter. Thevegetation is typical of the Upper SubalpineEngelmann spruce alpine fir forest zone. Alpinefir and Engelmann spruce are the dominant trees.Whitebark pine, lodgepole pine and mountain hemlockalso occur in sheltered locations and are generallystunted and deformed.Swehaw soils have very low capability forforest production and provide only limited naturalgrazing.Soi1 kilAssociation Rssn. Significant Soi1 Soi1 Elevition ForesCRame Component Ylolninant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) or Phase(s) Drainage Parent ilaterial Range(feet) zoneSwehaw S!I3 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w Sombric itumc-F~ric ?odzol I"W moderately coarse 5500-6500 Subalpine Engelseepagephases 1 textured basa1 till ma"" sprucc -alpine fir141

SENTINE1 ASSOCIATION ( SL )Most Sentine1 soils are found on the lowermountain slopes in the Arrow Lakes area. The soilshave developed from medium-textured glacial tillthat is compact, hard and quite stony. This parentmaterial occupies moderately to steeply slopingtopography at elevations from 1500 to 4000 feet.The more steeply sloping topography generallyoccurs in the side valleys east of Arrow Lake.The typical soils are well drained OrthicDystric Brunisols. The soi1 reaction is stronglyacid, the cation exchange capacities are moderatelylow and base saturation is medium to high. Avariety of soi1 inclusions occur. Orthic EutricBrunisols generally occur where the parent materialis weakly to moderately calcareous. OrthicHumo-Ferric Podzols are present at higherelevations where podzolization is sufficientlyadvanced and Brunisolic Gray Luvisols havedeveloped in areas of sometiat finer texturessufficient for Bt horizon formation. Associatedimperfectly drained seepage phases occur with a11soils and are specifically found as sideslopeseepage above impervious basa1 till layers orSoi1 Soi1Association ASW. Significant Soi1 Soi1Elevation ForestName Component Dolninant Soi1 Qbgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) or Phase(s) Drainage Parent ilaterial Range(feet) Zonesentine1 SLl Orthic Dystric Brunisol w Orthic Eutric Brunisol " medium textured 1500-4000 Interior w~twnbasa1 till hanlock -SLZ Orthic Dystric Brunisol w seepage phasewestern redcedarSL3 Orthic Dystric Brunisol w Orthic Hurno-Ferric Podzol wBrunisolic Gray LuYisol wseepage phasesSL4 Orthic Dystric Brunis01 w Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol 1seepage phases 1143

Sentine1 Association (Cont'd)bedrock.The climate assaciated with these soils isrelatively warm and dry. The vegetation isprimarily western hemlock, Douglas-fir, westernlarch and lodgepole pine, but western red cedaroccurs in depressions and in seepage areas.90 to 150 cubic feet per acre per year. Durirg thesummer, soi1 moisture deficiency is the mainlimitation to forest growth. Some minor areas ofSentine1 soils on more level topography havelimited agricultural capability but soi1 moisturedeficiency and stoniness generally limits their useto forage production.The land capability for forestry ranges from144

SLOCAN ASSOCIATION ( SM )The soils of the Slocan Association are foundnear Lardeau and south of Nakusp. They occur onmoderately steep mountain slopes covered by deepdeposits of glacial till, at elevations rangingfrom 1500 to 4000 feet. The parent material iscompact and moderately coarse textured. The uppersolum had often been modified by colluvial actionand is loose and permeable. Usual soi1 texturesare gravelly sandy loam, sandy loam or gravellyloamy sand with variable contents of graniticstones.Orthic Dystric Brunisol is the modal soi1development. Soi1 reaction is strongly acid, thebase saturation is moderately low and the cationexchange capacity is very low, partly as a resultof the coarse textures within the profile.Significant soi1 inclusions are Durit DystricBrunisols, Orthic and Durit Humo-Ferric Podzols,and Brunisolic Gray Luvisols. The Durit DystricBrunisols and Durit Humo- Ferric Podzols havemoderately cemented subsoil horizons. The OrthicHumo-Ferric Podzols occur at the higher elevationswhere Slocan soils grade into those of the StobartAssociation. The Brunisolic Gray Luvisols havesignificant clay accumulation in the subsoil andoccur in areas where the parent material issomewhat finer textured than usual.Soi1 soi1Association Assn. Significant Soi1 Soi1 Elevation rot-estN&lW Component Dominant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) OP Phase(s) Drainage Parent Material Range(feet) ZOIESlocan SNl Orthic Oystric Brunisol w Durit 'Jystric Brunisol w moderately codrse 1500-4000 Interior wz.ternOegraded Dystric Brunisol w texturd basa1 till hemlock -western redSN2 Orthic Dystric Brunisol w Durit Dystric Brunisol w cedarseepage phases iSN4 Orthic Dystric Brunisol w Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol wDurit Homo-Ferric Podzol wseepage phases i145

Slocan Association (Cont'd)The environment is relatively wann and dry. Association.The vegetative caver is composed of westernhemlock and Douglas-fir, some western larch and The land capability for forestry ranges fransome western red cedar in seepage and moisture 90 to 130 cubic feet per acre per year with sumneraccumulation areas. Buhl Creek and Cooper soils soi1 moisture deficiency as the main limitation.are often mapped in conjunction with the Slocan Adverse topography precludes agricultural use.146

SPILLIMACHEEN ASSOCIATION ( SP 1The Spillimacheen association is mapped in theeastern part of the map area adjacent to the RockyMounta-in Trench and in the Brisco Range atelevations of about 4500 to 5500 feet. The soilsoccur on moderately steep lower and niddle mountainslopes covered by deep, calcareous, medium texturedglacial till overlying calcareous bedrock. TheUpper 12 inches have often been influenced bycolluvial processes. Generally, a11 stones and rockfragments are limestone or dolomite.The modal soi1 development is Orthic EutricBrunisol owing to the high lime content in thesolum and parent material. Typical soi1 texturesare gravelly silt loam or loam. Significant soi1inclusions are Orthic Dystric Brunisols andBrunisolic Gray Luvisols. The former generallyoccur at the higher elevations and are due tohigher rates of leaching, while the latter occurson somewhat finer-than-usual-textured depositswhere perceptible clay accumulation is present inthe solum. Although Spillimacheen soils aregenerally well drained, some seepage phases dooccur, and these are imperfectly drained.Spillimacheen soils have developed in a cooland generally dry environment (May to Septemberprecipitation is less than 10 inches and frost-freesoi1 Soi1Association Assn. Significant Soi1 Soi1 Elevation ForestNallle Component Dominant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) or Phase(s) Drainage Parent Naterial Range(feet) ZoneSpillimacheen SP1 Orthic Eutric Brunisol w Degraded Eutric Brunis01 w medium textured, 4500-5500 Subalpine Engelcalcareousbasa1marin spruce -SP2 Orthic Eutric Brunis01w seepage phase i till alpine firSP3 Orthic Eutric Brunisol w Orthic Dystric Brunis01 wSP4 Orthic Eutric Brunisol " Orthic Dystric Brunisol wseepage phases iSP5 Orthic Eutric Brunisol w Brunisolic Gray Luvisol wOrthic Dystric Brunisol w147

Spillimacheen Association (Cont'd)period is less than 60 days). The climaticconditions are typical of the Subalpine Engelmannspruce-alpine fir zone. Lodgepole pine and minoramounts of Douglas-fir are also present.The mean annual increments for wood growthrange from 50 to 90 cubic feet per acre pet- yearfor Engelmann spruce and limited logging hasoccurred. The soils are unsuitable for agriculturebecause of cool temperatures, short frost-freeperiods, stoniness and steep topography.148

STOBART ASSOCIATION ( SR )Stobart soils occur on the east side of UpperArrow Lake between elevations of 3000 and 4800 feeton steeply sloping middle mountain slopes coveredby deep glacial till. The parent material iscoarse to moderately coarse textured and contains ahigh proportion of coarse-grained rock fragmentssuch as quartz, granodiorite and granite. Soi1textures are primarily gravelly loamy sand orgravelly sandy loam. The subsoil is usually quitecompact. The uppenost foot is loose and permeableand is often slightly coarser textured and maycontain more stones than the underlying subsoil.The modal soils are well-drained OrthicHumo-Ferric Podzols. They have very strongly acidsola and meciium acid parent materials. The basesaturation is low in the solum but increases withdepth because of a general increase in pH. Thecation exchange capacity is low. A few areas havedeeper Bhf horizon and are classified OrthicFerro-Humic Podzols. Significant soi1 inclusionsare Sombric Humo-Ferric Podzols and DuritHumo-Ferric Podzols. The former occurs in seepageand depressional areas which are moister than theusual, and the latter are prevalent on more leveltopography tiere moderately cemented horizons occurin the subsoil.The environment is moist and cool. The forestcaver consists primarily of mature and overmaturewestern hemlock. Western red cedar often occurs onseepage sites. Above about 4500 feet elevation,Soi1 soi1Association AS.%. Signifiant Soi1 soi1 Elevation ForestName Component Dominant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) or Phase(s) Dr-ai nage Parent Material Range(feet.1 ZOlNZStobart SRI Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w Dwic Humo-Ferric Podzol w cmrse to llwder- 3000-4800 Interior westernately coarse tex- hemlock -SR2 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w seepage phase 1 tured basa1 till western redcedarSR3 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w Sombric Humo-Ferric Podzol mwDurit Htiino-Ferric Podzol Hseepage phases 1149

Stobart Association (Cont'd)mixed stands of western hemlock and Engelmannspruce are found and above 5000 feet Engelmannspruce becames dominant. Associated soils areComaplix and Bergman associations.Stobart soils are generally densely treecovered and have excellent forest capabilitieswhich range from Class 2 to Class la for westernhemlock and Douglas-fir. Because of adversetopography and climate, Stobart soils are unsuitablefor agricultural production.150

ST. LEON ASSOCIATION ( ST )The St. Leon soi1 association occursthroughout the Slocan Mountains in the western halfof the map area at elevations between 4500 to 5800feet. The soils occur on steep Upper mountainslopes and rolling upland plateaus. The parentmaterial is medium textured (gravelly loam,gravelly silt loam or gravelly clay loam), stony,compact glacial till. The surface has often beenmodified by colluvial action.saturations and have moderately low cation exchangecapacities. Sombric Humo-Ferric Podzols occur inand near seepage sites. Durit Huma-Ferric Podzolscommonly occur on the more level topographie areasand have moderately cemented subsoil layers.The St. Leon soi1 association has developed ina moist and cool climate (less than 15 inches Mayto September precipitation and fewer than 90frost-free days). The tree caver is Engelmannspruce and alpine fir.Typical well drained soi1 development isOrthic Humo-Ferric Podzol with significantinclusions of Durit and Sombric Humo-FerricPodzols. The soils are strongly acid with low baseLand capability for forestry ranges from Class1 to Glass 2; cold temperature is the main limitingfactor. St. Leon soils are unsuitable foragriculture primarily because of the short frostfreeperiod and adverse topography.Soi1 Soi1Association Assn. Significant Soi1 Soi1 Eleuation ForestName Component Dominant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) or Phase(s) Orainage Parent iiaterial Range(feet) ZoneSt. Leon ST1 Orthic liumo-Ferric Podzol w Durit Humo-Ferric Podzol w medium to Inoder- 4500-5800 Subalpine Engellately fine texturedmarin spruce -ST2 Orthic ilumo-Ferric Podzol w Duric Hume-Ferric Podzol w basa1 till alpine Firseepage phases iST3 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol w Sombric Humo-Ferric Podzol IWDurit Humo-Ferric Podzol w rseepage phases i 's151

WYCLIFFE ASSOCIATION (WY)Wycliffe soils occur in the southeasternportion of the map area, mainly in the RockyMountain Trench and in the valleys of Findlay,Doctor, Dutch and Toby creeks. Elevations rangefrom 2600 to about 3500 feet. These soils havedeveloped on rolling, humnocky and drumlinizedglacial till in the Rocky Yountain Trench and onstrongly sloping, glacial till covered, lowermountain slopes in adjacent valleys. The glacialtill is usually moderately to strongly calcareous.In the Rocky Mountain Trench the till is usuallycovered with a thin veneer of wind-blown material.Silt loam or sandy loam, with occasional loam andclay loam, are the comnon textures in the lowersolum and parent material, whereas very fine sandyloam is usual at or near the surface. Wycliffesoils are usually well drained.Typical soi1 development is Orthic EutricBrunisol. Strong to very strong alkaline reactionsusually prevail throughout the profile. Limeaccumulation layers are often found at depths ofonly three to six inches fran the soi1 surface.Cation exchange capacities are moderate ta verylow. Significant soi1 inclusions are Orthic GrayLuvisols and Orthic Dark Browns. The former occurin areas where the parent material is relativelyless alkaline, with slightly higher rates ofprecipitation and clay contents and grade to theKinbasket association. The Orthic Dark Brown soilsoccur in the grassland areas and are associatedwith Wycliffe soils.Soi1 Soi1Association Assn. Significant Soi1 Soi1 Elevation ForestiL3me Component Dominant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) or Phase(s) Drainage Parent Mterial Range(feet) zoneMycliffe LUI Orthic Eutric Brunisol. . . . . . . .moderately coarse 2600-3500 Interiorto medium tex-Douglas-firWY2 Orthic Eutric BrunisolOrthic Gray Luvisolw tured calcareousbasa1 tillWY3 Orthic Eutric BrunisolOrthic Dark Brown1153

Wycliffe Association (Cont'd)The climate is moderately cool and dry.Douglas-fir is the dominant tree species, but thereare lesser amounts of lodgepole pine, tremblingaspen, and ponderosa pine. Numerous open parklikeareas have a ground caver of junipers andgrasses composed of bluebunch wheat grass, Idahofescue atid pinegrass.Most of these soils are still uncleared andsupport second-growth Douglas-fir stands. Landcapabilities for forestry range from Glass 4 toClass 6, with droughtiness and exposure being themain limitations. The soils are moderatelysuitable for low carrying capacity naturalgrazing. The agricultural capability is low,ranging frcm Class 4 to Class 6, if irrigated.Stoniness and adverse topography are the mainlimitations.154

YAHK CREEK ASSOCIATION ( YK )Yahk Creek soils occur in the eastern half ofthe map area on steep, non-vegetated slopes atUpper elevations in the Subalpine Engelmannspruce-alpine fir forest zone. Elevations rangefrom 4500 to 8500 feet.The landform is typically talus and verysteep. The soi1 parent material is very coarsetextured, usually calcareous, with many angularboulders. Limestone or dolomite are often thedominant components of the talus. Boulders andother large fragments are usually found on theaprons at the base of the steep slopes or bluffs,whereas the smaller sized and finer texturedmaterial is present at slightly higher elevationsnear the apex.The typical soi1 development is OrthicRegosol. The instability of slopes together withtheir potentially dangerous state and periodicadditions by mass wasting from higher elevations,usually provide little opportunity for vegetationor soi1 horizons to develop. In a few areas whichhave stabilized, weakly developed Orthic Eutric orOrthic Dystric Brunisols are present.Yahk Creek soils are unsuitable for eitheragriculture or forestry. Wildlife browsing is notcommon due to the absence of deciduous browsespecies.Soi1 Soi1Association A%IL Significant Soi1 Soi1ElevationForestName Component Dominant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) or Phase(s) Orainoge Parent Xdterial Range(feet) ZOWYahk Creek YKI Orthic Regosol w,r Cumulic Regosol H loose, stony and 4500-8500 Subalpine Engelboulderytalusnann spruce -YK2 Orthic Regosolw,r Orthic Oystric WunisolI alpine firYK3 Orthic Regosol w,r Orthic Eutric Brunis01155

are generally absent.YMIR ASSOCIATION ( YR )Ymir soils occur throughout the western halfof the map area at elevations ranging from 1500 to6800 feet.These soils are found on non-vegetated, verysteeply sloping colluvial deposits (talus) whichhave accumulated at the base of steep slopes andcliffs. The soils are typically permeable andcoarse textured with large proportions of angularstones and boulders. Generally, the larger-sizecomponents are found near the toe of the slopes andthe finer materials closer to the apex. The rockfragments are generally medium and coarse grainedand are composed of granites, granodiorites,argillites and schists. Calcareous rock fragmentsMost soi1 profiles, especially those inactively accumulating areas, are Orthic Regosols.Inclusions of Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzols occurwhere relative stability has taken place.Most Ymir soils are non-vegetated and usuallyoccur at the Upper elevations near timberline.They are unsuitable for both agriculture andforestry mostly due to the instability of thelandscape and steep terrain. The soils do notsupport plant species suitable for wildlifebrowsing.Soi1 Soi1Association Assn. Significant Soi1 Soi1 Elevation ForestName Component Dominant Soi1 Subgroups Drainage Subgroup(s) OP Phase(s) Orainage Parent Material Range(feet) ZoneYmir YRI Otihic Regosol w,r Cumulic Regosol w loose, stony and 1500-6800 Interior wsternbouldery talus hemlock, wsternYR2 Orthic Regosol w,r Orthic Homo-Ferric Podzol w red cedar, SubalpineEngelmannspruce - alpinefir157

MISCELLANEOUS LAND TYPESRock (RO) The Rock landtype consists of areas which have less that-i four inches of soi1 overbedrock or the bedrock is exposed. It occupies scattered areas at the lower elevationsbut becmes dominant above the alpine tundra zone.Moraine (M) The Moraine landtype consists of recent, glacier deposited materials. It is boulderyand cobbly and usually gravelly sandy loam textured and occurs in immediate associationwith the present glaciers in the map area. It has Orthic Regosol soi1 development andvegetation is generally absent.Glacier Ice (1) The Glacier Ice landtype consists of present glaciers and permanent snowfields.Water (WW) The Water landtype consists of areas of intermittent water bodies.Organic Deposits(0) The Organic Deposits landtype consists of minor areas of poorly drained accumulationsof organic material. Decanposition is variable and depths are usually greater than 20inches.159

chapter fourSOI1 INTERP.RETATI0N

SOIL INTERPRETATIONS4.1 SOIL INTERPRETATIONS FOR ENGINEERING ............................................................. 1634.11 Soi1 Properties Significant in Engineering ................................................. 1634.111 The sieve analyses .................................................................. 1634.112 Soi1 moisture retention ............................................................. 1634.113 Atterberg limits .................................................................... 1634.114 Textural classification systems ..................................................... 1654.12 General Engineering Interpretations Pertinent to Road Construction ......................... 1674.121 Value of material as subgrade when not subject to frost action ...................... 1674.122 Value of material as subbase when not subject to frost action ....................... 1674.123 Potential frost action .............................................................. 1674.124 Compressibility and expansion ....................................................... 1684.125 Free drainage characteristics ....................................................... 1684.126 Compacting equipment ................................................................ 1684.127 Shear strength when saturated ....................................................... 1684.128 Permeability characteristics ........................................................ 1694.129 Workability as a construction material .............................................. 1694.13 Engineering Interpretations for Various Soils of the Lardeau Map Area ...................... 1694.131 Soi1 interpretations for septic tank absorption fields .............................. 1714.132 Soi1 interpretations for shallow excavations ........................................ 1744.133 Soi1 interpretations for low dwellings .............................................. 1744.134 Soi1 interpretations for trench-type, sanitary landfill ............................. 1744.135 Soi1 interpretations for area-type landfill ......................................... 1754.136 Soi1 interpretations for roads and streets .......................................... 1754.137 Soi1 interpretations for water reservoir areas or sewage lagoons .................... 1754.138 Soi1 suitability as a source of coarse aggregates ................................... 1754.139 Soi1 suitability as a source of topsoil ............................................. 1754.2 SOIL INTERPRETATIONS PERTAINING TO HYDROLOGY, MASS MOVEMENT AND ERODIBILITY OF MATERIALS .......... 1764.21 Available Water (Moisture) Storage Capacity ................................................ 1764.22 Infiltration Ability ....................................................................... 1764.23 Subsoil Erosion Potential .................................................................. 1774.24 Sedimentation Yield Potential .............................................................. 1774.25 Interpretations for Mass Movement Potential ................................................ 1784.26 Interpretations for Soi1 Erosion Hazard Rating ............................................. 1824.3 SOIL INTERPRETATIONS FOR FORESTRY ................................................................ 1844.31 Potential Capability (Capability Classes) .................................................. 1844.32 Tree Species Associated With Potential Capability Class .................................... 1854.33 Natural Regeneration Potential ............................................................. 1854.34 Limits TO Natural Regeneration Potential ................................................... 1854.35 Natural Regeneration Tree Species .......................................................... 188&161

SOIL INTERPRETATIONSCONT'D4.36 Brush Competition .......................................................................... 1884.37 Windthrow Hazard ........................................................................... 1884.38 Relative Susceptibility of Soils to Damage by Disturbance .................................. 1904.39 Type of Damage Expected from Soi1 Disturbance .............................................. 1914.4 SOIL INTERPRETATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE ............................................................. 1914.41 Climate Capability for Agriculture ......................................................... 1914.42 Soi1 Capability for Agriculture Classification ............................................. 1924.5 EXTENSIVE AND INTENSIVE RECREATION OF THE LARDEAU MAP AREA ....................................... 1954.51 Extensive Recreation Capability of the Lardeau Map Area ..................................... 1954.52 Soi1 Interpretations for Intensive Recreation ............................................... 1994.521 Intensive use camp and picnic areas ................................................. 2004.522 Intensive use play areas (playgrounds) .............................................. 2044.523 Soi1 limitations for building sites and cottaging in recreational areas ............. 2044.524 Soi1 limitations for paths and trails ............................................... 2044.525 Ecological damage hazard ............................................................ 2044.6 WILDLIFE DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT OF THE LARDEAU MAP AREA ......................................... 204162

4 SOI1 INTERPRETATIONSSoi1 interpretations relate soil, landscapeand/or climate characteristics to a specified useon the basis of their suitabilities (or limit-ations) for that use. The main purpose incompiling interpretive material is to presentinformation in a form that is more easilyunderstood than the basic soi1 or landscape data.Soi1 interpretations are predictions about thebehaviour of soils under specific uses. Theyusually pertain to the soi1 and landscape as awhole and not to the individual properties andqualities such as texture and permeability. Theinteraction and sum of a11 the soil's propertiesand qualities determines its behaviour and itslimitations for use. The predictive ratings areintended to inform the planning process as generalland use recomnendations; they are not intended assite specific recommendations for land use.4.1 SOI1 INTERPRETATIONS FOR ENGINEERINGAmong soi1 properties highly pertinent toengineering are soi1 strength, compactioncharacteristics, permeability, soi1 drainage,grain size distribution, shrink-swell potential,plasticity and soi1 reaction. Also important aredepth to bedrock, depth to water table and slope.These properties, in varying degrees andcombinations, affect construction and maintenanceof roads, pipelines, foundations for smallbuildings, irrigation systems, small dams andsystems for disposa1 of refuse and sewage.Interpretations for some of these uses arepresented in this report.Such information, however, does not eliminatethe need for further site-specific investigationsand is not intended to take its place. For theengineer, knowledge of the general setting of anarea is of primary importance before beginningdetailed site investigations. This generalapproach is also important for a pedologicalsurvey, SO that one may better understand the soi1and the landscape and make better predictions abouttheir response to various uses.Some of the tetms used in this soi1 surveyhave special meaning in soi1 science that may notbe familiar to engineers. Most of the termscommonly used in soi1 science are defined in theglossary.4.11 SO11 PROPERTIES SIGNIFICANT INENGINEERINGEngineering test data is provided for some ofthe major surficial deposits of the Lardeau maparea. These are given in Table '2. The sampleswere taken at depths varying from three to 18 feetand are representative of some of the dcminant soi1parent materials. The following sections explainsome of the columns in Table 2.4.111 The sieve analysesThese values were determined on the tiole soi1sample by passing it through the U.S. Bureau ofStandard Sieves: 3 inches, 2 inches, 1 1/2 inches,1 inch, 3/4 inch, 3/8 inch, .187 inch, ami numbers10, 20, 40, 60, 140 and 200 sieves. An accumu-lation curve was canpiled and the percent ofmaterial passing the #4, 10, 40 and 200 sieve wasnoted. These figures were used to classify thesoi1 sample into the various textural class-ifications according to their particle size andother characteristics. For some classificationsystelns, the Atterberg Limits were also noted.(Field Manual of Soi1 Engineering, 1970).4.112 Soi1 moisture retentionThe water (in percent) that is retained whenthe soi1 is subjected to 0.1, 0.33, 1.0 and 15.0bars presssure (soi1 moisture tension) are amongthe most important physical characteristicsaffecting the use of soils.4.113 Atterberg LimitsThe engineering properties of soi1 vary with163

Table 2: Engineering test data for some soils of the Lardeau map area

the amount of water present. Atterberg Limitsmeasure the effect of moisture on the consistenceof the soi1 material and arbitrarily differentiatebetween its various states.a) The liquid limit is the minimum moisturecontent at which the soil-water mixturechanges froc a liquid to a plastic state,and represents the moisture content atwhich the soi1 Will barely flow under anapplied force.b) The plastic limit is the minimum moisturecontent at which the soil-water mixturechanges frcm a plastic to a semi-solidstate. It represents the minimum moistureat which puddling is possible and themaximum moisture content at which the soi1is friable. It also generally indicatesthe point of maximum cohesion in the soil.c) The plastic index is the arithmeticdifference between the liquid and plasticlimits and indicates the range of moisturecontent within which a soi1 material is ina plastic condition. Generally thegreater the plasticity index, the greaterare the plasticity, compressibility andvolumetric change characteristics of thesoil.d) The shrinkage limit is the moisturecontent at which soi1 changes from asemi-solid to a solid state. Beyond thispoint, further reduction in the moisturecontent is flot accompanied by a change involume.Atterberg limits are most cotnnonly applied inthe planning of road construction. Generally,soils with high liquid limits, such as clays, havepoor engineering properties. A low plasticityindex, on the other hand, indicates a granular soi1with little or no cohesion or plasticity. Somesilts and sandy soils are non-plastic (NP).4.114 Textural Classification Systemsa) American Association of State HighwayOfficiais (AASHO) SystemThe AASHO system is based on the observedfield performance of soils under highway pavement:it is widely known and used by highway engineers.In this system a soi1 is placed in one of sevenbasic group ratings (A-l to A-7) on the basis ofgrain size distribution, liquid limit andplasticity index as shown in Table 15 (Appendix).Group A-l are gravelly soils of high bearingstrength and are the best soils for subgrade. Incontrast, clay soils having low bearing strengthwhen wet, are the poorest soils for subgrade.(Asphalt Institute, 1969).b) The Unified SystemThis system is based on the plasticitycompressibilitycharacteristics of soils andillustrates how fines affect liquid and plasticlimits. In coarse-grained soils, the percentagesof gravel, sand and fines as well as the shape ofthe grain-size distribution curve forms the basisof soi1 properties identification. A soi1 is givena descriptive name and letter symbol to indicateits principal characteristics. The characteristicsof the 15 classes are found in Table 3. Eight ofthese classes are coarse-grained and identified asGW, GP, GM, GC, SW, SP, SM and SC. Fine-grainedclasses are identified as ML, CL, DL, MH, CH andOH. One class of organic soi1 is identified as P-l(Asphalt Institute, 1969).c) The U.S. Department of Agriculture SystemThis system is used for pedological soi1classification and for agricultural soi1 textureinterpretations. In this system, soi1 texturerefers to the amounts of Sand, silt and clay makingup the soi1 mass. The following soi1 texturediagram (Figure 16) shows the various texturalclass abbreviations and limits for each class. Thepresence. of grave1 is indicated by adding theprefix "gravelly" or "very gravelly" to the soi1texture class. "Gravelly" is used tien ZO-50% ofthe soi1 volume consists of particles between 2 and165

75 mm in size and "very gravelly" is used when thevolume is between 50 and 90% (Canada Department ofAgriculture, 1972).the uniformity coefficient which is the ratio ofD60 to D~O where D60 is the soi1 particle diameterof which 60% of the soi1 particles are finer andFigure 17 shows particle size limits for eaohsystem and also indicates how they relate ta eachother (Smith, R.E. et al, 1975).-rH %?a32 1pg3J Coarse GroupSANDUSDA GRAVEL SILT CLAYqy ‘rl Med Fine :;g80UNIFIE0GRAVELSANDmrre Fine coarrc Med r,neSILT or CLAYAASHOGRAVEL or SAND SAND SILT - CLAYcoarse Med Fine barre rine si,t my20020 40 60 80 100Percent SandFigure 16: Soi1 textural classesThe results of grain-size analyses are usuallypresented in the form of a distribution curve(Casagrande curve). This curve is 'obtained byplotting particle diameter against percent ofmaterial finer by weight (Lambe, 1960). Thesteeper the curve. the more uniform are the grainsizes; a vertical line represents a perfectlyuniform sample, one in which there is only onegrain size.Figure 17: Comparison of soi1 particle sizes forthe U.S.D.A., Unified and A.A.S.H.O.systems of classificationDl0 is the corresponding value at 10% finer. Asoi1 having a unifonity coefficient smaller thantwo would be considered uniform. Casagrande curvesfor four selected soi1 associations representingthree different parent materials are given inFigure 18. None of them are considered to beuniform.In Figure 18 fairly good gradation isrepresented by curve #4. Such material is morestable, cari be more readily compacted, and has ahigher shearing resistance acd bearing capacitythan material represented by curve #2.The uniformity of the material is expressed by166

GRAIN SIZEGRAVEL SAND SILTO-1 I 1100mm 10.0mm l.Omm O.lmm O.olmm11, r 1 r I I I 1 I 12” 11,2.. 1.’ 3/4.. 1/2.. 3/3- 4 10 20 40 60 140 200 SIEVE SIZE,111, I I I 111111 I I I ,,1111I I I ,111, I I I 1l.511155 4 3 * 19514 5 4 3 a ,957 5 5 ‘ 3 2 1D57554 3 2 1Figure 18: Grain size distribution of some parent materials in the Lardeau map area4.12 GENERAL ENGINEERING INTERPRETATIONSPERTINENT TO ROAD CONSTRUCTIONThe characteristics of the various coarse andfine-grained soi1 classes in the Unified System isgiven in Table 3 (Asphalt Institute, 1969). Thesoi1 associations accurring in the Lardeau map areaare placed in one or more of the appropriateUnified groups according to their estimatedproperties.A brief outline of the soi1 propertiesconsidered in the various columns of Table 3follows.4.121 Value of material as subgrade whcn notsubject to frost actionThe structural strength of a soi1 isdetermined by the combination of its cohesion,interna1 friction, compressibility, andelasticity properties. This column gives thesuitability of each soi1 group for subgrade useprovided it is not subject to frost action.4.122 Value of material as a subbase when notsubject to frost actionThe limitations are fairly similar to thosefor subgrade. The penetration of frost below thenon-heaving subbase material under the bestdrainage conditions produces on thawing, asoftening of the subgrade soi.1 beneath thesubbase. Additional subbase material Will overcomestability losses.4.123 Potential frost actionThis column indicates the relative susceptibilityof the Unified soi1 group to frost heave.When water is present in the subgrade duringperiods of frost penetration, ice lenses for-m. Theconsequent ice expansion lifts the surface materialwhich, in turn, is broken up by moving tieel loads(Figure 19).167

and is highest in fine-grained soils containingorganic matter.FROST HEAVE4.125 Free drainage characteristicsENSES FED BYDrainage characteristics are determined byCAFILLA~Y WATERWATEA TABLEproperties of permeability, capillarity, and byFROST TABLEt LrrrIlnJJILwATER TABLEgrain size and porosity. An excellent ratingimplies free draining characteristics. These soilsmay also have rapid infiltration of water into thebase or subgrade unless the water is diverted.Figure 19: Frost heave is caused by ice lensesfotming beneath the pavement or roadsurfaceFor ice layers or lenses to form in a soil,three basic conditions must be present: (1)freezing temperatures in the soil; (2) a watertable close enough to the frost line ta feed thegrowing ice lenses; and (3) soi1 characteristicsfavourable ta the rapid movement of capillary waterupward from the water table. Where freezingtemperatures are prolonged and the frost linepenetrates deep into the soil, the ice layers thatform cause the soi1 to heave at the surface, in anamount equivalent to the thickness of a11 the icelayers. The three most common methods for reducingthe probability of detrimental frost heave in afrost-susceptible soi1 are the use of non-frost-susceptible subbases and bases, lowered watertables, and impermeable cutoff blankets between thesubgrade and the subbase or the base. Highfrost-action soils cal1 for seasonal closure ofroad to heavy vehicles.4.126 Compacting equipmentSoi1 compacting, related ta compressibilityand expansion, is a tenn which describes a processof densification in Reich the volume change resultsalmost entirely fran the expulsion of air fran thesoi1 mass. This is generally done by controllingthe soi1 moisture.The following is the canpaction equipmentrecommended by the U.S. Corps of Engineers(U.S.D.A. 1971) to obtain the required density,when moisture content and layer thickness iscontrolled. Minimum equipment loadings specifiedare: Crawler tractor 30,000 pounds, rubber-tiredwheel load 15,000 pounds, sheepsfoot roller 250p.s.i.Most Suitable UnifiedEquipmentSoi1 GroupCrawler tractorGW, GP, SW, SPSteel-wheeledrollerGW, GPRubber-tiredrollerAl1 groups exceptingMH, CH, OHSheepsfoot rollerAl1 groups exceptingGW, GP, SW, SP4.124 Compressibility and expansionThe compressibility of a soi1 is the decreasein volume of the mass when supporting a load.Compressibility is lowest in coarse-grained soilshaving grains that are in close contact; the volumeof the mass decreases very slightly when thesesoils support heavy loads. Compressibilityincreases as the amount of fines present increases,Note: Close control of moisture is required forGMd, SMd, and ML groups.4.127 Shear strength when saturatedThe shear strength of a soi1 indicates therelative resistance of that soi1 to sliding, whensupporting a load. Cohesion,. and thereforeshearing strength, is not constant, but varies with1'68

changes in water content, rate and time of loading,confining pressure, and numerous other factors.Soils that are compacted at drier than optimummoisture content usually exhibit greater shearstrength than those that are compacted at wetterthan optimum. Soils composed of clean grave1 (lessthan 5% fines) have the greatest resistance tosliding. Soi1 shear strength decreases as thefines increase, and is lowest in fine-grainedorganic soils (OL and OH).4.128 Permeability characteristicsThe penneability of compacted soi1 is the rateat which water moves through soi1 after compaction.Coarse-grained soils usually are much morepermeable than fine-grained soils. The presence ofsmall quantities of fines or cementing materials incoarse-grained soils or cracks, fissures, and holesin fine-grained soils soinetimes a1 ters thispattern. If a coarse-grained soil, aftercompaction, contains large continuous pores, thesoi1 transmits water rapidly and is said to havehigh petmeability. Because fine-grained soilscontain very .small , discontinuous pores, acompacted fine-grained soi1 transmits water veryslowly and is said to have low permeability.4.129 Workability as a construction materialThe soi1 materials of groups GW and SW areexcellent, while those in groups MH, CH, OH arepoor construction materials.The reader is referred to Table 13 in theAppendix for a list of rock types and theirproperties that may be relevant in engineering andconstruction.4.13 ENGINEERING INTERPRETATIONS FOR VARIOUSSOILS OF THE LARDEAU M4P AREAThe estimated interpretations in Table 4 arebased on engineering soi1 properties given inTables 2 and 3.following must be considered:a) Interpretations do not eliminate the needfor further detail ed on-site evaluationsby qualified‘persons.b) Soi1 interpretations consider only thoseparameters implicit in the definition ofeach soi1 association. Other importantlimitations may exist that were notconsidered.c) When applying soi1 interpretations for mapunits, users must realize that due ta thevariable nature of soils small inclusionsof unmappable (due to scale) soils withdifferent interpretations may be present.d) Severe soi1 ratings do not necessarilyimply that a site cannot be changed toremove, correct, or modify the soi1limitation. The implication is that themore severe the rating, the more difficultit is to overcome the limitations inherentin the soil.e) Interpretations were made only on thedominant soi1 in each soi1 associationcomponent. Significant soi1 associationcomponents such as seepage phases, lithicsoi1 subgroups and changes fran the modalsoi1 Will, in most cases, alter theinterpretation.Soils with slight limitations have propertiesfavourable for the rated use. The degree oflimitation is minor and cari be overcome easily.Good performance and low maintenance cari beexpected.Soils with moderate limitations have someproperties that are significantly limiting for use,such as excessive slopes, rocky terrain orimperfect drainage. The degree of limitation maybe overcane or modified by special planning,design, or maintenance. Soils with this rating mayrequire treatment to modify limit-ing 'features, suchas runoff control to reduce erosion.When using the soi1 interpretive ratings, theSoils with'severe limitations have one or more169

Table 3: Generalized relationship between soi1 association, unified group and their estimated engineering propertiesALLE AS SUBGRAU "ALE AS SUBBASE WTEHTIAL CCMPRESS- FREE SHEAR PEPnEABILITY Y(RKABI~ITI ASSlRENGTH CW\P.ACTER- A CoNSnlRUCTIONMJG! DIVISIONS EXPANSION CMRACTERISTICS CmPKTION ECWFWM (YHEN HT.) ISTICS ttaTER,ALGu Yel I-grsded grave,s oï KO,KX.YG.KE EXCellWlt Excellent noce to Almat mne Excellent Crawler-type tractor. Excel 1 ent PeWiWr Excellentgrave,-Sand milt"fe

properties unfavourable for the selected use, suchas steep slopes, bedrock near the surface, floodinghazard or seasonal high water tables or acombination of these properties. The soils couldbe improved by reducing or removing the soi1features that limit the use, but in most situationsthis would be very difficult and costly.A rating of very severe is confined to soilsrequiring extreme alteration and which, for themost part, cannot be used for the selected purpose.The degrees of suitability of the soils as asource of specified materials are expressed asgood, fair, poor or very poor.In Table 4, a number of subdivisions of thesoi1 parent material were made on the basis of:depths to bedrock (zero-20 inches, 20 inches tofive feet, greater than five feet) and type of soi1parent material.The criteria used to establish the degrees oflimitation for the interpretations shown in thecolumns of Table 4 are given in Appendix E and areadapted from United States Oepartment ofAgriculture, Soi1 Conservation Service, Guide forInterpreting Engineering Uses of Soils, 1971.4.131 Soi1 interpretations for septic tankabsorption fieldsRecorded observations of correctly designedand installed septic tank systems that have failedwithin a few years after installation oftenindicate severe soi1 limitation as a cause offailure. Clues to watch for are lush plant growth,seepage, or odour in the vicinity of the absorptionsystem.Although soils with rapid permeability haveslight limitations, it should be noted that acontamination hazard may exist if ground watersupplies, ponds, lakes, streams, or other watercourses are nearby and receive seepage frcm theabsorption field.Field percolation tests are reliable only ifthe moisture is at or near field capacity when thetest is run. In fact, nearly impermeable soils onwhich absorption fields have failed may give highpercolation test results after periods of droughtbecause large cracks may be present in the soil.In addition to soi1 properties that influencepercolation rates, changes in the micro-organismsin the soi1 may also help or hinder the functioningof the absorption field after it is in operation.Because the methods of measuring percolation andpeneability are different, the correlation betweenthe two values is imperfect.A seasonal water table should be at least fourfeet below the bottan of the trench at a11 timesfor soils rated as having slight limitations.Soils with a water table less than two feet belowthe bottom of the trench for extended periods havea severe limitation.Impervious layers, includirg rock, should befour feet or more below the bottom of the tiletrench floor. Creviced or fractured rock withoutan adequate soi1 caver permits unfiltered sewage totravel long distances through old or new aquifers,such as deeply cracked limestone. At least fourfeet of moderately coarse or finer textured soi1material should be between the bottom of the tiletrenches and such rock.Very coarse textured soils (coarse loamy Sand,coarse Sand, and gravel) are relatively poorfiltering materials. These soi1 materials permitunfiltered sewage to travel long distances. Theratings are based on permeability alone.Soils that are subject to flooding have severelimitations even if the permeability issatisfactory and the ground water level is belowfour feet. Flood waters interfere with thefunctioning of the filter field and carry awayunfiltered sewage. Without protection, areassubject to flooding are severely limited foron-site sewage disposa1 systems.171

strata in or immediately underlying the propasedtrench bottan is undesirable as these factors makeit difficult to excavate and could result inpollution of underground water.4.135 Soi1 interpretations for area-typelandfillVarious soi1 materials cari be used for thebackfilling of excavations, washouts, and a varietyof other purposes. However, due to theirproperties, some materials are better suited forthis purpose than others. These include loam andclay loam tills as well as some finer texturedlacustrine materials.4.136 Soi1 interpretations for roads andstreetsSoi1 properties that affect road constructionare load supporting capacity, subgrade stability,interna1 soi1 drainage and wetness, flooding,slope, depth to bedrock, content of large stonesand susceptibility to frost action. A subgradecomposed of coarse gravelly materiais with theaddition of finer-textured materials having lowshrink-swell potential is most suitable.4.137 Soi1 interpretations for waterreservoir areas or sewage lagoonsA sewage lagoon (aerobic) is a shallow lakeused to hold sewage for the time required forbacterial decomposition. Soi1 suitability' forsewage lagoons must be considered for twofunctions: (1) as a vesse1 for the impounded area;and (2) as soi1 material for the enclosedembankment. The requirements for the embankmentare the same as for other embankments designed toimpound water. There must be enough soi1 materialsuitable for the structure, and, when the lagoon isproperly constructed, it must be capable of holdingwater with minimun seepage. The material should befree of coarse fragments (over 10 inches indiameter) that interfere with compaction.Soi1 requirements for basin floors of lagoonshave: (1) a slow rate of seepage; (2) even surfaceof low gradient and low relief; and (3) little orno organic matter. Specifications for lagoonsusually state that the depth of the liquid shouldbe not less than two feet and generally not morethan five feet; the floor should be level or nearlySO; and the materials for the basin floor should beSO nearly impervious as to preclude excessive lossof liquid. The relatively impervious soi1 materialshould be at least four feet thick. This isespecially important when the local water supplycames from shallow Wells that may becomecontaminated.The slight limitation class includes soilsthat are effective in functioning as sealed-basinfloors and that are low in organic matter. Soilsin the moderate limitation class are those thatrequire special practices or treatment to modifylimitations to their use as sites for sewagelagoons. Soils placed in the severe limitationclass are those that are very porous, or high inorganic matter, or have other limitations thatprevent their use as sites for sewage lagoons.4.138 Soi1 suitability as a source of coarseaggregatesSoi1 factors to consider here are depth towater table, presence of stones and boulders,presence and amount of finer particles andthickness of sand and grave1 deposits. Theseratings are primarily intended to guide readers tosources of these materials. The ratings are good,fair, poor and unsuitable.4.139 Soi1 suitability as a source of topsoilSoi1 suitability for topsoil is detenined bythe natural fertility and ease of working andspreading the soi1 material for preparing aseedbed. The texture of the soi1 material, ease ofexcavation and the content of coarse fragments(stones) are characteristics that affect itssuitability for topsoil. Factors of slope anddepth to water table were not considered. Theratings are good, fair, poor and unsuitable.175

4.2 SOI1 INTERPRETATIONS PERTAINING TOHYDROLOGY, MASS MOVEMENT ANDERODIBILITY OF MATERIALSThe soi1 associations in the Lardeau map areaare grouped according to depth to bedrock and modeof deposition. These groups and interpretationsare noted in Table 4 and cari be useful for broadregional management considerations.4.21 AVAILABLE WATER (MOISTURE) STORAGECAPACITYField Cdpacity 100%t t t t1 I 1--wUnavailable Available Excess MaterMaterNaterThe above diagram shows therelation between the various forms of soi1moisture.The available water generally considered asuseable by plants is that held between fieldcapacity and the wilting coefficient, and theamount is primarily dependent upon soi1 texture.In the following groups it is assumed that thetexture is uniform throughout the top four feet ofthe profile. The following ratings refer to theamount of water storage expected in the Upper fourfoot soi1 section (Brownlee, 1976).half to two inches of water per foot ofsoil. The soils are generally mediumtextured and include silts, silt loam,loam, sandy clay loam, and clay loam.Water storage capacity is moderate.u - Water storage in these soils is inexcess of trm inches of water per footof soil. The soils are fine textured:(clay,. silty clay, silty clay loan,sandy cl'ay and some silt loams).Water storage capacity is high.4.22 INFILTRATION ABILITYThis interpretation groups the soils into fourclasses, indicating the general infiltration andwater movement capability of the soils. Thismethod of rating has been developed by the U.S.Soi1 Conservation Service. (Snyder and Wade,197.0) y The infiltration rate depends upon the typeof. iurface soi1 texture, rock fragment content,structure, porosity, bulk density and organicmatter content.Group A - These soils have high infiltration rateseven when thoroughly wetted. Theyconsist chiefly of deep, well-to-excessively drained sand or grave1 orboth. They have a high rate of watertransmission and result in a low runoffpotential. Water enters soi1 surfacevery rapidly and rarely ponds. Soilsare coarse-textured, porous, loose andusuallysingle-grained..- LCM - These soils store less than one and onehalf inches of water per foot of soi1and are coarse to very coarse textured(gravels, sands, sandy loam, loamy sandand sandy loam). Water storage capacityislow.Moderate - These are soils that store one and' oneGroup B - The soils in Group B have moderateinfiltration rates *en thoroughlyhetted, and consist chiefly ofmoderately deep to deep, moderatelywell to well drained soils withmedium ta coarse textures. These soilshave a moderate rate of water transmission.Water may pond for short'. periods (a few days) following veryinténsive rainfall. Soils are medium176

textured and well aggregated.Group C - Group C soils have slow infiltrationrates when thoroughly wetted and consistchiefly of: (1) soils with a layer thatimpedes the downward movement of water;or, (2) soils with moderately fine tofine textures. These soils have a slowrate of water transmission.Group D - The soils of Group D have very slowinfiltration rates when thoroughlywetted and consist chiefly of: (1)clay soils with high swelling potential;(2) soils with a high permanent watertable; (3) soils with claypan or claylayer at or near the surface; and (4)shallow soils over nearly imperviousmaterials. These soils have a veryslow rate of water transmission. Soilsare poorly aggregated and water standson surface soi1 for long periods.Note: Surface logging slash and the forest floorvegetation increases or maintains infil-tration capacity by breaking raindrop impactand preventing clogging of soi1 pores. Suchorganic materials also act as a mediumthrough which some lateral flow may occur,limiting rapid overland runoff and trappingsome sediments. When severe burning takesplace the hydrologie effectiveness ofsurface slash and the forest floor isgreatly reduced. This is most serious onshallow soils and other soils which have animpeneable layer near the minera1 surface.4.23 SUBSOIL EROSION POTENTIALThis interpretation indicates the potentialfor subsoil erosion by water. It includes erosionwhich takes place after the surface soi1 and a11the vegetative caver, including litter, has beenremoved. Factors considered in making ratings aretexture and structure of subsoil materials, slope,permeability, compaction, climate, and landform.The ratings increase drastically on steep slopes.These groups are:Low - Factors are such that little or no-erosion occurs. Very little evidence oferosion.Moderate - Considerable erosion occurs such asrills and small gullies. Factorsindicate considerable erosion is likelytooccur.-sh - Factors indicate severe erosion mayoccur.4.24 SEDIMNTATION YIELD POTENTIALThis interpretation indicates the potentialfor sedimentation or pollution from silt and clayparticles carried in suspension following timberharvest, road construction, or other activities.The factors considered in making these ratings aresoi1 texture and structure, drainage patterns andlandform. Another very important factor toconsider is climate. The intensity and frequencyof rainfall is particularly important in makingratings for this soi1 interpretation. However, dueto limited site specific climate (rainfallintensity) data, this factor was not considered.Most sediment contributions to streams resultfran failures of poorly planned road segments.Small landslides occur as a consequence of over-steepened tut-and-fil1 slopes, interruptedsubsurface drainage, removal of physical rootsupport, and the failure of culverts because ofblockage or improper location.The three ratings are:Lovf - The sedimentation levels of silt and-clay particles are not expected to besignificant following soi1 disturbance.Soils are generally moderately coarsetextured.Moderate - The sedimentation levels of silt and177

clay particles may be significantlyincreased following soi1 disturbance,with moderate loss of water quality anddamage to fisheries. The soils aregenerally medium textured.u - The sedimentation levels of silt andclay particles are expected to be highfollowing soi1 disturbance. The streamsbecome turbid and there is considerableloss of water quality and damage tofisheries. The soils are generally fineto,moderately fine textured.4.25 INTERPRETATIONS FOR MSS W'EMNTPOTENT IALThe mass movement potential of soi1 as usedhere is an estimate of the stability of landscapes.Al1 categories of mass movement from surface creepto landslides, are included (Swanston and Oyrness,1973).Soi1 mass movement involves the downslopemovement of soil, primarily from the force ofgravity. The movement ranges widely in surfacefotm, speed of movement, and volume of materialmoved downslope. It ranges from spectaculardebris avalanches and flows to the slow, downwat-dcreep of an entire hillside.The three main types of mass movement are:a)b)clOebris avalanches and debris flowsproduced by instantaneous failure inshallow soils overlying an impermeablesurface. These soils are usually coarsetextured and low in clay content.Creep, slumps, and earthflows, resultingfrom quasi-viscous flow and progressivefailure of deeply weathered materials.Speed of movement ranges from a barelyperceptible creep to high velocity slumpsand earthflows.Dry ravel, dry creep, and sliding,involving downslope movement of singleparticles and thin sheets of coarse,cohesionless material on steep, sparselyvegetated slopes.The mode of failure and subsequent downslopemovement of the soi1 mass depends greatly on soi1depth, degree of cohesion, and soi1 water content.Usually, debris avalanches and debris flows resultfran loss of stability of a relatively shallow,cohesionless soi1 mass on steep slopes as aconsequence of surface loading, such as sidecasting and road fills, increased soi1 waterlevels, removal of mechanical support, or acombination of a11 these. Creep, slump and earthflows most commonly occur on slopes characterizedby deep, cohesive soi1 parent materials and may beinitiated or accelerated by the same modifyingconditions. Dry rave1 requires bare, granular soi1and either lack of surface moisture or presence ofmoisture and active freeze-thaw cycles.Binding by root systems, cohesive strength ofthe soil, low slope angles, and unsaturatal soi1conditions tend to enhance soi1 shear strength,minimizing slope failures. After timber harvestingon steep slopes, the decay of root systems andchanges in the water regime leading to localsaturation may increase slope failures.Predictions of mass movement potential requirethe knowledge and understanding of therelationships of geology, topography, climate andvegetation. The interactions of these canponentsof the landscape cari be interpreted as anindication of type of stability.The following factors affect mass movanent:a) Status of moisture within the soil. Drymaterials act differently than wet,saturated materials. The former aregenerally more stable, while the lattertend to be much less SO.b) Type of geologic material, includes boththe soi1 mantle and the underlyingbedrock. The nature of the materialreflects the mineralogy, rock content,178

shape of the rock fragments, orientationof bedding planes, joints and otherstructures, the soil-bedrock interface,weathering characteristics and particlesize-distribution variation. The textureof the soi1 parent material together withits degree of cohesion, shear strength,and structure imparts a wide variabilityto the stability of the material.c) Topography is the combination of surfacefeatures expressing the "lay of the land".The characteristics of slope and aspectare the main topographie considerations inmass movement potential. The slope angleand the shape and length of slope, arecritical considerations. Generally thesteeper the slope, the greater is thehazard.d) Climatic conditions affecting massmovement potential include the range ofseasonal weather factors. Precipitationdistribution together with snow-melt andhigh intensity storms are the dominantfactors. Additional precipitation loadsthe surface material and results inbuoyancy effects, shear strengthreduction, and increases the seepage forceof ground water.The climatic effect is more prevalenton north slopes because of themicroclimate created by the topography andslower evaporation rates.e) The vegetative caver offers someresistance to mass movement through thebinding and holding effect of roots andutilization of soi1 water. The degree ofnatural vegetative disturbance is oftena clue to the natural stability of a site.Recently-logged or otherwise disturbedareas may create newly active areas proneto soi1 creep and surface slumping becauseroot decay may then diminish the bindingeffect to the slope. Revegetation, eithernatural or artificial Will counteract thisover time and Will again increaseinferredf)a)b)cldle)stability and resistance to mass movement.Gravity is the driving force involved inmass movement. The nature of the geologicmaterial, combined with the slope anglerelates to shear strength. In saturatedsoils, the excess water causes threeimportant consequences: (1) increasedshear stress along potential slidingsurfaces; (2) decreased shear resistanceresulting frcm high pore-water pressure;and (3) slope loading. When slope loadingexceeds shear resistance, movement occurs.Evidence of past mass movement may beas follows:Humnocky topography present belowescarpment stars may show former slippageand may serve as an indicator of unstableconditions.Pothole lakes may indicate the presence ofsoluble limestone with undergrounddrainage and resulting undergroundslumping.Bent trunks and leaning trees indicateunstable soi1 surface and a slow movementof the whole material sheet downslope.Disorderly sequence of soi1 materials andhorizons in a soi1 profile providesevidence of former movement or churning ofthe surface.The presence of crescent-shaped stars onthe hillside above the soi1 slump oftenindicates former mass movement activity.The estimation of mass movement potential asexplained here is a subjective evaluation. Thereare no positive methods of determining stability.Man is neither capable, nor are funds available, tostudy in detail, a11 slopes and expected impacts ofthe different kinds of construction or otherdisturbances. As a rule of thumb, these aretypical situations to avoid in construction:a) Restriction of ground-water flow andseepage by sidehill fill. Culverts shouldbe used.179

) Overloading of weak, underlying soi1 orrock on slope by fil1 or side casts.c) Oversteepening of cuts in unstable soi1 orrock.d) Removal of a thick mantle of pervious soi1which has been a natural restrainingblanket.e) Diversion of natural surface drainagepattern.f) Exposure of material which softens whenexposed to air and surface water.The degree of investigation, as a generalrule, depends on the risks involved and thesusceptibility of the surrounding country tomovement. Areas with ratings of moderate and highpotential should be evaluated by specialists insoi1 mechanics and engineering geology. This mayrequire deep drilling, seismographic studies andlaboratory tests.In Table 5, each dominant soi1 associationcomponent within the project area has-been placedinto one of four mass movement hazard groupsdepending on their characteristics (excludingtopography). The factors primarily considered arevegetative caver, climatic environment, type ofgeologic and parent material and moisture status.Group 1 are the most stable soils and Group IV arethe least stable. It should be noted, that onlythe dominant soi1 association is rated in thistable. Mapping ccmplexes should be handled byselecting the soi1 association in the complex tiichfalls into the more severe stability group when thesoi1 occupies 30% or more of the mapping unit.When the mass movement hazard groups areplotted against slope classes of increasingsteepness, the resulting graph indicates tien eachgroup has a slight, moderate or severé 'hazard formass movement.Group 1 - This group includes generally stablesoils that have very coarse to coarsetextures. Soi1 parent materials are offluvial and glaciofluvial origin.Typical ice contact, fluvial fan andglaciofluvial terraced materials areincluded in this category. The depth ofsoi1 parent material is greater than 10feet and is generally well to rapidlydrained. The associated vegetationis ccmposed primarily of deep rootedplant species.Group II - Moderately stable soils which aregenerally medium to coarse texturedwith high bearing strength or coarsetextured colluvial soils make up GroupII. The soils overlying bedrock aremore than five feet deep. The soils areusually ~11 drained and vegetated witha combination of shallow and deep rootedplant species. Some moderately coarsetextured glacial till soils are includedin this group.Group III- Group III is made up of unstable soils,such as clay loam textured soils in adry environment and silt loam to clayloam textured soils in a moisterenvironment. Soi1 parent material depthis variable. Glacial till soils aremedium textured. The soils aregenerally well to moderately welldrained. The bedrock from tiich someshallow soils (less than five feet ofsoi1 overlying bedrock) developed, hascleavage and fracture planes parallel tothe surface slope and is generally ofshaly and argillitic origin.Group IV - Group IV includes some soils with siltyand very fine sandy soi1 textures inmciist and cool environments. In theseareas the soils are often composed ofcolluvial veneers (less than fivefeet soi1 overlying bedrock) and areacted upon by nivation and solifluction.Steep cutbanks of fine-180

textured soils are unstable in anyclimatic environment and in seepagesi tes of fine-textured glacial tillmaterials the instability increases.Talus and avalanche tracks have a severemass movement hazard due to slope.It should be pointed out, that Tables 5 and 6cari be potentially misleading. The ratings applyonly to the dominant soi1 of the soi1 association.Significant included soils may vary due to drainageor depth to bedrock and have very differentratings. The reader is referred to Appendix G fora listing of topographie classes and theircorresponding conversion to % slope.Areas rated slight include known, stablegeologic formations. The slopes are generally lessthan 30% with south and southwest aspects and havesoils that are generally coarse textured.Areas rated moderate consist of geologicmaterial of questionable stability, such as deeplyweathered bedrock dipping with the slope, mediumand finer textured or poorly graded soils or interbeddedsedimentary rock formations.Areas rated severe include historicallyunstable geologic formations and they may exhibitevidence of past mass movement.Low lying recent fluvial soils with high watertables and in danger of flooding, as illustrated onPlate 20, are unsuitable for building. Septiceffluent may cause pollution of nearby streams andlakes. Plate 21 shows an example of sevoreslumping which has occurred on lacustrine silts andclays near an escarpent. Slumping and mass movementoccurs in some finer textured glacial tillsoils (Group III mass movement hazard) if groundcaver is removed (see Plate 22).181

Table 5: Soi1 associations grouped according to mass movem ;ent hazardTOPOGRAPHICCLASSESGROUP SOIL ASSOCIATION SYMBOL

soi1 surfaces on slopes greater than 15% havesevere erosion hazard).textured shallow colluvium overlyingbedrock.Where conventional timber harvesting iscarried out, most of the erosion which occurs isassociated with the access roads and trails, ratherthan the logged areas themselves.Soi1 erodibility groupsThe intent of these groupings is to enable theuser to produce a more detailed representation ofsoi1 erodibility in map for-m.Each soi1 dominant association component hasbeen placed in one of four erodibility groups(Table 6) depending on their water stableaggregates, bulk densities, soi1 textures, parentmaterials, soi1 structure, infiltration,percolation, and climate, regardless of topography.The soils in Group 1 are the least erodible andGroup IV, are extremely erodible. The topographytogether with the erodibility group, provides theerosion hazard rating. Map complexes cari behandled by selecting the soi1 association in thecomplex which falls into the more severeerodibility group when the soi1 associationoccupies 30% or more of the map unit.Group 1 - consists of soils developed fran verycoarse textured soi1 parent materialssuch as gravelly glaciofluvial deposits,fluvial fans, talus, and coarse-texturedcolluvium.Group II - consists of soils developed fran recentfluvial deposits, deep medium andmoderately fine textured colluvium,coarse textured glacial till and finesandy glaciofluvial materials.Group IV - consists of soils developed fromlacustrine soi1 parent materials.Three categories of potential soi1 erosionhazard are employed. These are:Slight - No to slight erosion hazard. No specialconsideration is necessary to minimizesoi1 erosion hazard. Broadcast burningcari be a forest management tool whennecessary. On fine-textured soils, soi1disturbance should be avoided during wetperiods. Slopes are generally lessthan 30%.Moderate - These soils have moderate sheet, ri11and/or gully erosion hazard. Slopes aregenerally from 20 to 50%, but includeareas of silts and fine sands from 8 to20% slope. Special consideration shouldbe given to placement and maintenance ofculverts. There should be minimal soi1disturbance on shallow soils overlyingbedrock and along permanent andintermittent stream channels. Roadconstruction arki other disturbancesshould be avoided when the soils arewet.Severe - These soils are subject to severe sheet,ri11 and/or gully erosion. Slopes aregenerally greater than 50%. Carefulmanagement practices should beemphasized in road location, placementand maintenance of culverts and intut-and-fil1 operations.Group III- is composed of a11 soils developed frommediun and finer textured glacial tillas well as moister, somewhat fine183

Table 6: Soi1 associations grouped according to soi1 erosion hazardTOPOGRAPH IC CLASSESGROUP SDIL ASSOCIATION SYMBOL A-C D ED-DE E EF FE F FG GF G GH HG H1 BB, BF, BH, BP, BR, BT, CB, CC,CP, CR, CX, FA, FT, KB, KE, KG,KO, KX, WY, YK, YRIIAS, BA, BC, BE, BK, BM, BO, BS,BU, BY, 6X, CE, CF, CH, CL, CN,CW, CY, GS, NW, SH, SN, SRIIICS, CT, RA, RL, SA, SB, SD, SF,SL,SP, STNote: Al1 glaciers have a m erosion hazard.Most bedrock areas have slight erosionhazard, except in soft weatherable bedrockareas. Topography'on bedrock areas is oftenvery steep.4.3 SOI1 INTERPRETATIONS FOR FORESTRYForestry is a very important land use in theLardeau map area. It contains parts of theWindermere, Upper Kootenay, Lardeau, Slocan, Nakuspand Arrowhead Public Sustained Yield Units as wallas portions of Tree Farm Licences 23 and 14.A number of soi1 interpretations for forestryis presented in Table 7 and are based on guidelinesand other pertinent information in Kowall, 1974.4.31 POTENTIAL CAPABILITY (CAPA~ILITYCLASSES)The potential capability relates to the soilscapacity ta grow trees under naturally occurring,fully stocked conditions. It was determined bylocating and measuring forest productivity plots ona variety of soils. The methodology of locatingand measuring the plots, and assessing the forestcapability is outlinecl by Kowall, 1971. The sevencapability classes are based on a productivityrangeas follows:Class 7 has a mean annual increment range ofO-10 CU. ft./acre/year; Class 6, 11-30; class5, 31-50; Class 4, 51-70; Class 3, 71-90; ;Glass 2, 91-110; Class 1, 111-130. Class la,131-150; Class lb, 151-170; Class lc, 171-190,etc.Subclasses are attached to capability classes2 to 7 indicating the nature of. the soi1 (orclimatic) limitations present. Class 1 (and itssubdivisions) is assumed to have no limitations totree' growth and therefore has no subclass desig-nation. The subclasses used to indicate limit-ations for tree growth are: A - droughty or aridconditions as a result of climate; C - combinationof more than one limiting climatic factor(s); D -physical restriction to rooting by dense orconsolidated layers other than bedrock; H - low184

temperatures (soi1 and air); M - soi1 moisturedeficiency; R - restriction of rooting zone bybedrock; S - a combination of soi1 factorsthat collectively lower the capability class;and W - soi1 moisture excess (McCormack,1968).Land capability for forestry maps at a scaleof 1:125,000 have been produced and are availablefrcm the Resource Analysis Branch, Ministry of theEnvironment, Parliament Buildings, Victoria, B.C.The information fran these maps has been general-ized and is shown in Figure 20.4.32 TREE SPECIES ASSOCIATED WITH POTENTIALCAPABILITYCLASSColumn 2 of Table 7 lists the tree specieswhich produce, or cari be expected to produce, thepotential productivity indicated in the foregoingsection. The species are usually those that aremost suited to the soil, climate and topographiefactors present and cari be expected to grow well ifplanted. The tree species (symbol) include alpinefir (alF), black cottonwood (bCo), lodgepole pine(1P), western hemlock (wH), white spruce (wS),Douglas-fir (D), western white pine (wP), Engelmannspruce (es), western larch (WL), and westernred cedar (WC).4.33 NATURAL REGENERATION POTENTIALSoi1 characteristics, climate, aspect,elevation, frost potential, brush canpetition, andsuitable tree species determine generally thepotential of a site to regenerate tree cavernaturally. Other factors that influence regen-eration are the condition of the seedbed, distancefrom an adequate seed source, prevailing winddirections, and shade requirements of the variouskinds of seedlings.When assessing the natural regenerationpotential, it is assumed that an adequate seedsupply is present. There is an inverse relation-ship between brush canpetition and naturalregeneration potential - if the former is high, thelatter is usually too low. This relationship isparticularly applicable to Douglas-fir, lodgepolepine, western larch ard other pioneering species.It delays regeneration by shade tolerant speciessuch as western red cedar, western hemlock,Engelmann spruce and alpine fir. The three naturalregeneration ratings are:- Low - This rating indicates that major naturalregeneration problems cari be expected.Several years may elapse before anadequate stocking level is achieved.Artificial regeneration and/or sitepreparation is required.Medium - This rating indicates that some naturalregeneration problems Will beencountered in obtaining a satisfactorystocking level. Usually regeneration isspotty arxi some artificial régenerationor site preparation may be necessary.HJ&l - This rating indicates that generally nonatural regeneration problems Will beencountered in obtaining a satisfactorystocking level of desirable treespecies.4.34 LIMITS TO NATURAL REGENERATION POTENTIALThe major limitations to natural regenerationof desirable tree species are brush competition andthe following factors:1. Frost heaving which usually occurs onclayey and silty soils;2. Low fertility levels due to coarse soi1textures (i.e. gravels and sands);3. Fertility imbalances due to high limecontent in and below the solum;4. Low water holding capacities and rapidpercolation rates in coarse texturedsoils;5. Drought conditions due to high evapo-transpiration and low precipitationlevels;6. Soi1 wetness which limits aeration;185

h189

Windthrow damage as shown on Plates 23 and 24, 4.38 RELATIVE SUSCEPTIBILITY OF SOILS TOresults when high velocity winds hit the edge of a DAMAGE BY DISTURBANCEforest stand or when the tree rooting system is This interpretation indicates the relativeinsufficient or the soi1 too shallow to adequately susceptibility of the soils to damage by timberanchor the tree. Trees growing on shallow soils harvesting, road and trail construction, slashare particularly susceptible to windthrow damage. burning ard other disturbances. Damage is causedby disturbances which destroy soi1 structure, causecanpaction, increase erosion and lower fertility.Such disturbances may affect other resourcesresulting in a loss of timber production, lowerwater quality and yield, and loss of fish values instreams.The ratings are based on such factors as soi1wetness, soi1 texture, coarse-fragment content,slope and drainage and indicate the susceptibilityof soils and other resources to incur damage.Cenerally, alluvial sands and gravels have lowto medium susceptibility to damage while those thatare silty or clayey have medium to high susceptibility.Soils derived fron lacustrine deposits andshallow soils overlying bedrock usually incur highdegrees of damage.Soils derived from glacial till incur varyingdegrees of darnage depending on their character-istics while soils of colluvial origin aremoderatelysusceptible.The three ratings are as follows:Low - This rating indicates that soils and-other resources are likely to receiveonly miner damage.Moderate - This rating indicates that soils andother resources are likely to incurmoderatedamage.HJJtJ - This rating indicates that soils andother resources are likely to incurmajordamage.190

4.39 TYPE OF DAMAGE EXPECTED FROM SOILDISTURBANCEThe following types of damage relate mainly tosoi1 texture and structure and soi1 losses byerosion, sedimentation and loss of soi1 biomass.Lake, in the Lardeau and the Incomappleux Rivervalleys, near Slocan Lake and in the Upper ColumbiaRiver valley. Plate 25 shows an example of landtopographically suited for agriculture.The types of damage are:1) Destruction of soi1 structure, usually onfine and medium-textured soils;2) Increased soi1 compaction on fine andmedium-textured soils, especially ifdisturbed tien wet;3) Decrease in soi1 organic matter content,especially on gravelly soils;4) Decrease in soi1 fertility, especiallythrough intensive cropping, destruction oforganic matter and excessive leaching ofnutrients;5) Increased erosion of finer textured soilsand on most steeper slopes;6) LO~S of the soi1 resource by physicalremoval or erosion, especially shallowsoils overlying bedrock;7) Increased mass-movement hdzard, especiallyThe agricultural potential in the Upperon steeper slopes;Columbia River valley is restricted by the limited81 Oisruption of natural drainage patterns;acreage of arable land. The arable areas are9) Increased stream sedimentation fran mediumlargely confined to me fluvial fans andto coarse-textured soils;lacustrine deposits and a few relatively level10) Increased stream siltation fran silts andareas of glacial till deposits.clayey soils.Forage crops consisting mainly of alfalfa and4.4 SOIL INTERPRETATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE perennial grasses, together with livestockproduction form the basis for agriculture in thisLess than 7% of the Lardeau map area isarea. This part of the Rocky Mountain Trencharable; the rest is steeply sloping and mountainousgenerally contains extensive natural grazing lands,or has severe cliiilate limitations. Since thealthough the overall acreage in the Lardeau map1960's the number of fanns has been decreasingarea is small. The carrying capacity on thesesteadily in the Arrow Lakes area, partly because oflands is generally low, but they help to supplementgood quality agricultural land being flooded by thethe other, better agricultural lands.High Arrow Dam reservoir.4.41 CLIM4TE CAPABILITY FOR AGRICULTURELand topographically suited for agriculture is Climate constitutes a basic limitation forscattereci throughout the main valleys. It occurs agricultural trop production regardless of soi1in small pockets near the north end of Kootenay conditions. The Lardeau map area, due to its191

mountainous terrain, includes a wide variety ofclimates. These have been categorized according totheir ability to support agricultural crops into aseries of climate capability classes (sec Figure- 21). It is apparent from this climate capabilitymap that the better climates for agriculture occurin a11 main and some tributary valleys (BritishColumbia Land Inventory, 1972). Table 8 indicatesthe climatically suited crops that could produceaverage or better than average yields on the statedsoils.4.42 SOIL CAF'ABILITY FOR AGRICULTURECLASSIFICATIONThe soi1 capability classification foragriculture is an interpretive grouping, one ofmany that cari be made from the basic soi1 surveydata and soi1 mwpi ng units. In thisclassification (Canada Land Inventory Report,1965), the minera1 soils are grouped into sevenclasses according to their limitations foragriculturaluse.characteristics and their general productivecapacity for canon field crops. Good soi1management practices that are feasible andpractical under a mechanized systen of agricultureare assumed. Distances to market, type of roads,locations and size of farts, characteristics ofland ownership and cultural patterns, as ~11 asthe ski11 and resources of individual operators,are not considered in the capability ratings.Figure 22 shows the generalized soi1capability for agriculture ratings of the Lardeaumw area. More detailed maps at scales of1:125 000 and 1:50 000 are available fran theResource Analysis Branch, Ministry of Environment,Parliament Buildings, Victoria, B.C.Very small acreages with irrigated Class 1capability occur as parts of map units in the ArrowPark area. They consist of deep, well drained,medium to fine textured soils with frost-freeperiods between 120 and 150 days.Classes 1, 2 and 3 are considered capable forthe sustained production of comnonly cultivatedcrops; Class 4 is marginal for sustained arableagriculture; Class 5 is capable of use only forpermanent pasture and hay; Glass 6 is capable ofuse only for natural grazing, and Class 7 consistsof soi1 areas unsuitable for arable culture orgrazing.The capability classification is applied toa11 soi1 areas. Research data, recordedobservations and experience are used as the basisSoils rated Glass 2 are typically deep, ~11drained and medium textured, but are slightylimited by low moisture holding capacities andadverse slopes. The Lawley and Gillis soils nearArrow Park, along Arrow Creek, southwest of Nakuspand near Brouse are rat& Class 2. Topography andclimatically suited, medium-textured portions ofAvis Soi1 Association mainly located in the Lardeauand Incommappl eux River valleys, are also ratedClass 2 (irrigated). Some Fairmont soils in thevicinity of Invermere and Radium as well as partsof the Nowitka soils are Class 2 as well.for placing soils in capability classes andsub-classes. In areas where research informationis lacking about certain soils, their capabilitieswere detetmined by interpreting soi1characteristics on the basis of experience gainedon similar soils elsewhere.The capability ratings are based on theeffects of combinations of climate and soi1Class 3 (irrigated) soils are generally deep,well or rapidly drained and often coarsetextured. The usual limitations for agriculturaluse are low moisture holding capacities, danger ofinundation or adverse climate. They mostly occuron glacio-fluvial terraces and adjacent lands nearArrow Park, Galena Bay, Lardeau River and Nakusp.They also occur on parts of the floodplains of the192

Duncan River, and on lacustrine derived soils onthe east side of the Upper Columbia River hetweenSpillimacheen and Invermere.Class 4 (irrigated) soils, limited by adverseclimate, stoniness, poor drainage and/or topoyraphyoccur in the vicinity of Fosthall, Nakusp, Hills,and Aryenta. Some fluvial fans (Fairmont soils)between Invermere and Spillimacheen are also Class4.Class 5 (irriyated) soils yenerally derivedfrom stony, coarse-textured glacial till, are foundin areas of colder climate and on steeply slopingtopography. Substantial acreayes occur west of theColumbia River northwest of RadiLon ari-l also nearHills, Galena Bay and south of Wakusp.Almost 93% of the Lardeau map area consists ofClass 6 and 7 soils (dryland rated). These arebasically non-agricultural soils, but some naturalyrazing is possible on Glass 6 soils. Severeclimate, steep topography and rockiness are themain limiting factors.Plates 26 and 27 show two areas near Nakusp--where fanniny is taking place on a small scale.4.5 EXTENSIVE AN0 INTENSIVE RECREATIONOF THE LAROEAU MAP AREA4.51 EXTENSIVE RECREATION CAPABILITY OF THE ---LARDEAU MAP AREA*Three fairly large lakes, Upper Arrow, Trout,and Duncan, and parts of Windetmere, Kootenay, andand Slocan lakes are found in the Lardeau map areaand offer a wide range of shore-based recreation.These long, narrow lakes are situated betweenrwged, scenic mountains, which often rise abruptlyfrom the water's edge to elevations of over 8000feet. Consequently, most of the shoreline,although scenic, is too steep for intensiverecreational activities. However, mountain creeksentering the lakes bave created many flat, rapidlydrained fluvial fans that are well-suited forcamping, boat-launching, anyling, and watersports. Some of these sites, such as on ArrowLake, have high quality sand beaches, but swimmingand bathing are limited by cool water temp-eratures. An exception is Lake Windermere diere* By D.R. Benn, Canada Land Inventory RecreationCapability Report :lap Area 82K, 1968.195

the shallow waters become relatively warmer duringthe sumner. The configuration of a11 the lakestends to create wind conditions which are sometimeshazardous to boaters.Some special features of the lakes includedriftwood beaches, protected bays, and good fishingfor trout and char on Upper Arrow Lake; frequentand continuous sand beaches with a scenic mountainwilderness background around Slocan Lake;outstanding views of glaciers, observation ofspawning fish in season, and gond angling at TroutLake; excellent fishing and scenic viewing onKootenay Lake (see Plate 30); good fishing andexcellent mountain scenery at Duncan Lake; and varmwater temperatures arxl waterfowl concentrations atLake Windermere.both in the Purcell Mountains, are Dugaboo Glacier(Plate 28 below) and Lake of the tianging Glacier,which have outstanding viewing potential .Opportunities for expert skiing are abundant in thehigh mountains and on glaciers where skiers #naytake advantage of sumner snow conditions.The [many rivers and creeks that drain the areaprovide potential access and scenic corridors topoints of interest throughout the region.Potential for camping and angling is good on a11the large streams. The Lardeau River is especiallyattractive for camping and has an exceptionalcapability for viewing spawning trout, kokanee, andchar (see Plate 31). The Upper reaches of theDuncan River offer opportunities for streamsidecamping in a mountain setting.The streams that drain the eastern slopes ofthe Purcell Mountains, such as the SpillimacheenRiver and Bugaboo, Forster, Horsethief and Tobycreeks, are situated in broad scenic valleys.Perhaps the best cxasple is Bugaboo Creek, whichfeatures camping along a scenic corridor and easyaccess to dramatic mountain and glacier views.Further south, Dutch and Findlay creeks offerattractive cainpsites with stream fishing.Whitetail Lake, located between these twodrainages, has opportunities for cottaging,boating, angling and swimning.Alpine meadows and ~~iountdin scetiery areThe Selkirk Mountains are more subdued andhave fewer alpine meadows and viewing opportunities.The Hamling Lakes near Nakusp are particularlyscenic and consist of about ten small tarnslocated at high elevations and surrounded by alpinemeddom.The floor of the Rocky Mountain Trench has ahigh capability for extensive activities such (asfishing, hiking, riding, camping, cross countryskiing, viewing of waterfalls and canyons andgathering and collecting rocks along the creeksthat enter the Trench fran the Purcell Mountains.Observiny waterfowl, canoeing on the ColumbiaRiver, and cottaging along the shoreline of manysmall upland lakes are other potential activitiesin this part of the Lardeau ;nap area.important features of the area. Two major sites >198

4.52 SOIL INTERPRETATIONS FOR INTENSIVERECREATIONDecisions relating to the establishment anddevelopment of recreation facilities cari beconsidered at three levels:a) The identification offor recreation, basedand aesthetic orfeatures,or both.b) The assessment ofthe area to be usedgenerallyuniqueon demandlandscapeandscape and soi1parameters in the area to provide therequired information for broad planningand location of recreation facilities.cl Site specific interpretations, based onengineering considerations, forfacilities.In this discussion only the second level Willbe covered. Such factors as aesthetics,accessibility and demand are not considered here.Site specific interpretations are dealt with byothergroups.The suitability (or limitations) of the landfor recreational use is a function of the soi1properties in conjunction with topographie andother landscape parameters. Decisions, however, todevelop areas are often determined by factors otherthan those of the soi1 or landscape. It isespecially important, therefore, to assess, at theplanning level, a11 areas at a broad scale SO thatthe consequences of decisions ta develop specificareascari be evaluated.1. Landscape ParametersScme landscapa parameters which should beconsidered in the location of recreationdevelopmentsare:- potential mass movement hazard- potential (or actual) avalanche hazard- flood hazard- regional and local grourd water regime- general ecological uniqueness andsensitivity.2. Soi1 ParametersThe following interpretations (Table 9) pet-tainto recreational development and are based onsoi1 and bedrock properties, soi1 drainage,landforms or surficial deposits, topography andvegetation.Fine-textured soils (high in silt and claycontent) are subject to puddling and cornpactionwhen wet, and tend to becane sticky andslippery. These soils also dry slowly afterwetting. Silty soils also becane dusty whendry. Generally, fine-textured soils cari beexpected to present development problems wherebuildings, playgrounds, and path and traildevelopment or a combination of these isproposed.Coarse textured, droughty, soils presentdifficulties for sane uses. On these, grasscaver is hard to establish and maintain, androads may be dusty. In sandy areas, vehicletraction may be poor and wind erosion may be aproblen when natural grass and vegetative caveris removed.Shallow soils underlain by bedrock havelimitations. for the building of structures,roads and trails, and septic tank disposa1facilities. Very stony or rocky soils havesevere limitations for use as playgrounds andcampsites.Steep slopes limit the use of soils, althoughsome of the limitations cari be overcome bylevelling for campsites and building sites ifthe cost of doing SO is justified.Sanitary facilities are essential forrecreational areas. It is important to assureadequate septic tank disposa1 facilities foreffluent. Fine textured soil-s, especiallythose in wat areas, present problems due to lowpercolation ami poor soi1 drainage. Coarse199

textured soils may serve disposa1 purposeswell, but if open water is nearby,contamination is likely.Very severe- This indicates that soi1 limitationsare such that no development should beconsidered.Soils most suitable for sewage effluentdisposa1 have textures of silt loam or sandy10alll. They should have gentle slopes and bedeep with no layer that restricts water movement.The inferred soi1 characteristics andmeasured soi1 properties which should beconsidered when rating land for recreationaluse are listed below. Their significancevaries among regions.Soi1 limitations for a number of recreationaluses of the land are listed in following table andare classified into five categories:None - This rating indicates that the soi1hasno limitations for a particular use.Slight - This rating indicates that the soi1is suitable for a particular use and anylimitations are easily overcome.It should again be emphasized that theinterpretations in Table 9 provide a "soi1foundation" on which to plan, locate and buildrecreational facilities. The criteria used toestablish limitations for the interpretations shownin the column of Table 9 are given in the Appendix(Montgomery et al, 1966).4.521 Intensive use camp and picnic areasThe most suitable soils for camping andpicnicking areas are well-drained, level to gentlysloping, moderately permeable, medium to coarsetextured, and are not influenced by seepage orground water. They should also be relativelystone-free at the surface. Plate 29 shows atypical example of soils suitable for camping andpicnicking areas.Moderate - This rating indicates that limitationsexist which may be overcome by goodplanning, careful design and goodmanagement. Some of these moderatelimitations result from the effectof slope, wetness, soi1 texture,soi1 depth, plant growthdeficiencies and stoniness.Severe - This rating indicates that soi1limitations are such that developmentshould not be considered unless majorreclamation under careful supervision isproposed. Soi1 limitations result fromthe effects of steep slopes, high watertables, stream flooding, unfavourablesoi1 texture, and very large numbers ofrocks and stones.200

ITable 9: Soi1 limitations for selected intensive recreational usesISOIL PARENT HATERIAL SOIL ASSOCIATION CMP AN0 INTENSIVEBUILDING AN0SYHEOL AhQ PICNIC MAS RAY AREAS COTTAGING SITESCWWNENTPATHSTRAILSAN0ECOLOCICAL SOIL FLATWCSOPHAGE AFFLCTINC "SCHAZARDRecent fluvial deposit(Regosol 5)1 Slight ( Slight Slight tomoderateVariablepenneabillty.son? surface stonnne55Recent fluvial deposit(Gleyhols)Floodvig hazard,reasonally higherwater tableVery shallow colluvivn BS3,BA5,BC4.6Y6> very severe very sev?r,(

Mountain goat, mule deer and whitetail deercari exist in a variety of habitats and thus arefound in various environments in the map area.Mountain sheep in the map area are found onlyin the Rocky Mountains and on the Upper, westfacing slopes of the Rocky Mountain Trench wherecalcareous soils predominate. The alkalinity ofthese soils, coupled with arid sumner climatesfavours the production of bluebunch wheat grass,Idaho fescue and pinegrass, making it the only areawhere bighorn sheep cari winter.Mountain caribou occur only in the SelkirkMountains where the general relief is relativelysubdued. Alpine vegetation for sumner forage andlichen bearing western hemlock and western redcedar for winter forage are present. Some mountaincaribou also winter at the lower elevations inareas where marsh vegetation is not too deeplycovered by snow.Rocky Mountain elk are generally found wherethe caribou are absent. Elk are distributed fromthe Rocky Mountains to the Duncan-Kootenay Lakebasin and on the south-facing slopes of the SlocanRanges. Elk appear to be limited by the lack ofwinter ranges in the western part of the map area.They require bunch grasses or sedges for winterforage and cari tolerate only moderate snow depths.The Douglas-fir forest of the Rocky Mountain Trenchand the (poorly drained) Columbia River floodplainprovide the best areas for these types ofvegetation. Few high capability winter range areasare available in the western hemlock-western redcedar forest zone. Some are present in the leewardvalleys of the Selkirk Mountains, primarily in theDuncan-Kootenay Lake basin and adjacent to SlocanLake.Moose occur primarily east of the PurcellMountains and on the west side of Upper ArrowLake. The areas adjacent to the Rocky MountainTrench produce the best browse vegetation,205

REFERENCE

REFERENCESANDERSON, J.G. 1906.Solifluction, a component of subaereal denudation: J. Geol. 14: 91-112.ASPHALT INSTITUTE. 1969.Soils Manual No. 10, College Park, Maryland.ATMOSHPERHIC ENVIRONMENT SERVICE, 1975.Canadian Normals - Temperature. Vol. ISI, Environment Canada, fbwnsview, Ontario, 198pp.ATMOSPHERIC ENVIRONMENT SERVICE, 1975.Canadian Normals - Precipitation. Vol. 2s 1, Environment. Canada, Downsview, Ontario, 333~~.BARDSLEY, C.L. and LANCASTER,.D. 1960. -Ueterminations ot reserve sulphur and-.soluble sulphates in soils. Soi1 Sci. Soc. Pm. Proc. 24:265-268.BASCGMB, C.L. 1958.Distribution of pyrophosphate extractable iron and organic carbon in soils of various groups.Soi1 Sci. 19: 251-268.BIOPHYSICAL SEMINAR. 1975.Unpublished notes. Ministry of Environment, Resource Analysis Branch.BRASHER, B.R., FRANZMEIER, D.P., VALASSIS, V.T. and DAVIDSON, S.E. 1966.Use of Saran Resin to coat natural soi1 clods for bulk-density and çater-retention measurements.Soi1 sci. 101:108.BREMNER, J.M. 1960.Determination of nitrogen in the soi1 by the Kjeldahl method. J. of Agric. Sci. 55:No.l.BRITISH COLUMBIA LAND INVENTORY. 1972.Climate Capability Classification for Agriculture, and Other Unpublished Climate Data. Departmentof Agriculture, Parliament Buildings, Victoria, B.C.BRITISH COLUMBIA DEPARTMENT OF MUNICIPAL AFFAIRS. 1972.Statistics Relating to Regional and Municipal Governments in British Columbia.BROWNLEE, C. 1976.(persona1 communications). B.C. Ministry of Agriculture, Soils Branch, Kelowna, B.C.CANADA DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 1972.Publication 1459, Glossary of Tertns in Soi1 Science, Information Canada, Ottawa, OntarioCANADA DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 1970. (amended 1973).Publication 1455, The System of Soi1 Classification for Canada, Ottawa, OntarioCANADA DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 1977.Soils of Canada, Ottawa, OntarioCANADA DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORT, METEDROLOGICAL BRANCH, 1967.Temperature and Precipitation Tables for British Columbia, Ottawa, htario.CANADA LAND INVENTORY. 1965.Soi1 Capability Cl-assification for Agriculture, Ottawa, OntarioCANADA LAND INVENTCRY. 1968.Land Capability for Recreation for map area 82K. Information Canada, Ottawa, Ontario.211

CLARK, J.S. 1965.The extraction of exchangeable cations fran soils. Can. J. Soi1 Sci. 45:322 pp. Modified byshaking for one half hour.DAWSON, A.B. 1965.Soi1 Survey of the Shuswap Lakes Area. British Columbia Department of Agriculture, Kelowna, B.C.ENVIRONMENT AND LAND USE COWITTEE SECRETARIAT, 1976.Terrain Classification System, Victoria, B.C.FAIRBRIDGE, R.W. 1968.The Encyclopedia of Geomorphology. Reinhold Book Corp, New York, N.Y.FIELD MANUAL OF SOIL ENGINEERING, fifth ed. 1970.Michigan Dept. of State Highways, Lansing, Mich.FOWELLS, H.A. 1965.Silvics of Forest Trees of the United States. Agriculture Handbook No. 271, U.S. Department ofAgriculture, Washington, D.C.GREWELLING, T., PEACH. 1960.Chemical soi1 tests. Corne11 Experiment Station Bulletin 960. New York State College ofAgriculture, Ithaca, New York, N.Y.HIGHWAYSRESEARCH BOARD. 1973.Special Report 135, Soi1 Erosion. National Research Council, Washington, D.C.HOLLAND,S.S. 1964.Landforms of British Columbia. A Physiographic Outline. British Columbia Department of Mines andPetroleum Resources, Victoria, B.C.JOHN, M.K. 1963.Soi1 analysis procedure in use in Kelowna for determination of available phosphorus. BritishColumbia Department of Agriculture, Kelowna, B.C.JOHN, M.K. 1970.Colorimetric determination of phosphorus in soi1 and plant material with ascorbic acid. Soi1 sci.109: 214-220.KELLEY, C.C. and HOLLAND, W.D. 1961.Soi1 Survey of the Upper Columbia River Valley. Report #7, British Columbia Department ofAgriculture, Kelowna, B.C.KILMER, V.J. and ALEXANDER, L.T. 1949.Methods of making mechanical analysis of soils. Soi1 Sci. 68: 15-24.KOWALL, R.C. 1971.Methology, Land Capability for Forestry in British Colrsnbia. British Columbia Department ofAgriculture, Kelowna, B.C.KOWALL, R.C. 1974.Landfonn and terrain interpretations in relation to forest management impacts. ContinuingEducation for foresters. Faculty of Continuing Education, University of B.C., Vancouver, B.C.KRAJINA, V.J. 1965.Biogeoclimatic zones and classification of vegetation in British Columbia. Pages 1-17 - in Ecologyof Western North America, Univ. B.C., Vancouver, B.C. vol. 1, 112~~.LAMBE, T.W. 1960.Soi1 Testing for Engineering. John Wiley and Sons, New York.LAVERTY, J.C. 1961.The Illinois method (Bray NO.~) for determining available phosphorus in soils. University ofIllinois, College of Agriculture, Department of Agronomy, Urbana, Illinois.212

LUNDBLAD, SVANBERG, K.O. and EDMAN, P. 1949.Availability and fixation of copper in Swedish Soils. Plant and Soil, 1: NO.~.McCORMACK, R.J. 1968.The Canada Land Inventory, Land Capability for Forestry, Guidelines for mapping, Ottawa, Ontario.MCKEAGUE, J.A. 1976.Manual on Soi1 Sampling and Methods of Analysis. Soi1 Research Institute, Ottawa, Ontario.MCKEAGUE, J.A., BRYDON, J.E. and MILES, N.M. 1971.Differentiation of forms of extractable iron and aluminun in soils. Soi1 Sci. Soc. pm. Pr-oc. 35,33-38.MCKEAGUE, J.A. and SPROUT, P.N. 1975.Cemented subsoils (durit horizons) in some soils of British Columbia. Can. J. Soi1 Sci.55:189-203.MONTGOMERY, P.H. and EDMINSTER, F.C. 1966.Use of soi1 surveys in planning for recreation, L.J.Bartelli et al. Pages 104-112 in Soi1 surveysand land use planning. Soi1 science Society of America and American Society of AgrGomy.MOSS, H.C. 1965.A guide to understanding Saskatchewan Soils. Sask. Inst. of Pedology publication Ml. Saskatoon,Sask.PEACH, M., ALEXANDER, L.T., CEAN, L.A. and REED, J.F. 1957.Methods of soi1 analysis for soi1 fertility investigation. U.S. Department of Agriculture,Circular No. 757, Washington, D.C.REESOR, J.E. 1973.Geology of the Lardeau map area. Geol. Survey Canada, Mem. 369, Ottawa, Ont.RUNKA, G.G. et al. 1969.Lands of the East Kootenay. British Columbia Department of Agriculture, Kelowna, 6.C.RUNKA, G.G. 1972.Soi1 Resources of the Smithers-Hazelton Area. Soi1 Survey Division, British Columbia Departmentof Agriculture, Kelowna, B.C.RUNKA, G.G. 1973.Methodology, Land Capability for Agriculture. Soi1 Survey Division, British Columbia Departmentof Agriculture, Kelowna, B.C.RYDER, J. 1977.(persona1 communications). B.C. Ministry of Environment, Resource Analysis Branch, Victoria, B.C.SMITH, R.E., TARNOCAI, C. and MILLS, G.F. 1975.Soils of the Red Rose-Washow Bay area. Manitoba Soi1 Survey Report No. 19, Winnipeg, Man.SNYDER, R.V. and WADE, T.M. 1970.Mount Baker National Forest soi1 resource inventory. Soi1 Management Branch, Division ofWatershed Management. U.S. Forest Service.SOILS OF THE WESTERN MITED STATES. 1964.Washington State University Press, Seattle, Washington.SOIL TEST,ASTM, D-2167-63T.A test for inplace soi1 density using rubber balloon method. (Volumeasure).SOMERWEIN, W.J. 1970.Soi1 Conservation Service, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. Guide "Woodland".213

SWANSTON, D.N. and DYRNESS, C.T. 1973.Stability of Steep Land. J. of For. 71: No. 5.TAYLOR, R.L., MACBRYDE, B. 1977.Vascular Plants of British Columbia; Tech. Bull. No. 4. U.B.C. Press, Vancouver, B.C.UNITE0 STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE. 1971.Guide for Interpreting Engineering Uses of soils.UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA. 1976.Centre for Continuing Education. Natural Resources Inventory: Methodology, Availability,Interpretation. Vancouver, B.C.UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE. 1950.Bureau of Public Roads, Vol. 26.van BARNEVELD, J. 1976.(persona1 communication). B.C. Ministry of Environment, Resource Analysis Branch, Kelovma, B.C.214

GLOSSARY OF TERMS‘IN SOI.1 SUENCE3

GLOSSARY OF TERMS IN SOIL SCIENCE'AASHO - Classification (soi1 engineering) - the officia1 classification of soi1 materials an3 soi1aggregate mixtures for highway construction used by the Anerican Association of State HighwayOfficiais.AEOLIAN CEPOSIT - Material deposited by wind; includes loess and dune Sand.AGGREGATE - A group of soi1 particles cohering, SO as to behave mechanically as a unit.ALLUVIAL DEPOSIT - Material deposited by moving water.ASSOCIATION (Soil) - A group of closely interrelated soi1 series developed on similar parent materials andunder essentially similar climates. A similar climatic condition is taken to include only oneforest zone.AVAILABLE NUTRIENT - That portion of any element or compound in the soi1 that cari be readily absorbed andassimilated by growing plants.AVAILABLE SOIL WATER - The portion of water in a soi1 that cari be readily absorbed by plant roots; generallyconsidered to be that water held in the soi1 against a pressure of up tp approximately 15atmospheres.BASE SATURATIC(II - The extent to which the absorption ccmplex of a soi1 is saturated with exchangeablecations other than hydrogen and aluminm.BEDROCK - The solid rock that underlies soi1 and the regolith or that is exposed at the surface.BOG - General term for permanent wet land with low bearing strength.BOULDERS - Stones larger than 24 (60 cm) inches in diameter.BULK DENSITY - The weight of ovendry soi1 (105'C) divided by its volume at field moisture conditions,expressed in grams per cubic centimeter.CALCAREOUS SOIL - Soi1 containing sufficient calcium carbonate (often with magnesium carbonate) toeffervesce visibly when treated with 0.1 N hydrochloric acid.CAPABILITY CLASS - (soil), a rating that indicates the general capability of a soi1 for some specified use.It is a grouping of lands that have the same relative degree of limitation or hazard. Thislimitation becomes progressively greater from Class 1 to Glass 7.CAPABILITY SUBCLASS - (soil), A grouping of soils that have similar kinds of limitations and hazards. Itprovides information on the kind of conservation problem or limitation. The class and subclasstogether provide information about the degree and kind of limitation for broad land use planningand for the assessment of conservation needs.CARBON-NITROGEN RATIO (C/N ratio) - The ratio of the weight of organic carbon to the weight of totalnitrogen in a soi1 or organic material.CATION 'XC;? CAPACITY (C!C) - A measure of the total amount of exchangeable cations that cari be held by a. Expressed in milliequivalents pet- 1009 of soil.CLAY - As a soi1 separate, the minera1 soi1 particles less than 0.002 mn in diameter; usually consistinglargely of clay minerals. As a soi1 textural class, soi1 materials that contain 40 or morepercent clay, less than 45 percent sand and less than 40 percent silt.* taken from Canada Department of Agriculture, 1972.215

COARSE FRAGMENTS - Rock or minera1 particles larger than 2 mn in diameter.COBBLES - Rock fragments 3 to 10 inches in diameter.COLLIJVIUM - A deposit of rock fragments and soi1 material \mich has accumulated on or at the base of steepslopes as a result of gravitational action.COLOUR - Soi1 colours are compared with a knsell colour chart. The knsell system specifies the relativedegress of the three simple variables of colour; hue, value and chroma. For example: 10 YR 6/4means a hue of 10 YR, a value of 6, and a chroma of 4.COMPLEX (soil) - Two or more soi1 units that are SO intimately intermixed in an area that it is impracticalto separate them at the scale of mapping used.CONDUCTIVITY, ELECTRICAL - A physical quantity that measures the readiness with which a mediun transmitselectricity. It is expressed as the reciprocal of the electric resistance (ohms) or mnhos per anat 25' C of a conductor which is one cm long with a cross sectional area of one square cm. It isused to express the concentration of salt in irrigation water or soi1 extracts.CONSISTENCE (soil) - The mutual attraction of the particles in a soi1 mass, or their resistence toseparation or defotmation. It is described in terms such as loose, soft, friable, firm, hard,sticky, plastic or cemented.CONTINENTAL CLIMATE - A general term for the typical climate of great land masses where wide ranges intemperature and other weather conditions occur, because the area is not under the influence oflarge bodies of water.CONTOUR (line) - A line on the map showing equal height above sea level.DEFLOCCULATE - TO separate or to break up soi1 aggregates into individual particles.DEGRADATION - The changing of a soi1 to a more highly leached and weathered state usually accanpanied bymorphological changes such as the developnent of an eluviated, light coloured A (Ae) horizon.DEGREE DAY - A degree day is defined as the number of degrees which the mean daily temperature is above 42"F.DELTA - An alluvial or glaciofluvial deposit at the mouth of a river that empties into a lake or sea.DRAINAGE (soil) - (1) The rapidity and extent of the removal of water from the soi1 by runoff and flowthrough the soi1 to underground spaces. (2) As a cond,ition of the soii, it refers to thefrequency and duration of periods tien the soi1 is free of saturation.DRIFT - Material of any sort deposited in one place by ice after having been moved frcm another. Glacialdrift includes a11 deposits tiether stratified or not.DRUMLIN - An elongated or oval hi11 of glacial drift, comnonly glacial till, deposited by glacial ice andhaving its long axis parallel to the direction of ice movement.DRYLAND FARMING - The practice of trop production in low rainfall areas without irrigation.DUFF - A common term for surface organic layers, developed under imperfectly to wll-drained conditions.ECOLOGY - The study of the relationship between living organisms and their enviromient.EDAPHIC - (1) Pertaining to the soil, (2) Resulting from or influenced by factors inherent in the soi1 orother substrate rather than by climatic factors.ELUVIAL HORIZON - A soi1 horizon from which material has been removed in solution or in water suspension.EROSION - The wearing away of the land surface by detachnent and transport of soi1 and rock material throughthe action of moving water, wind, ice or other geological agents such as gravity induced downslopemovement of materials.216

EVAPOTRANSPIRATION - The combined loss of water from a given area during a specific period of time byevaporation fran the soi1 surface and by transpiration fran plants.FAN - A fan-shaped deposit of outwash at the toe of a slope where a tributary valley enters a main valley.FERTILITY (soil) - The status of a soi1 with respect to the amount ami availability of elements necessaryfor plant growth.FINE TEXTURE - Consisting of or containing large quantities of fine fractions, particularly silt and clay.FLOODPLAIN - The land bordering a stream, built up of sediments from overflow of the stream and subject toinundation when the stream is at flood stage.FLUVIAL CEPOSITS - Materials laid down by recent streams and rivers.FRIABLE - A consistence tenn pertaining to the ease of crumbling of soils.FROST ACTION - Freezing and thawing of moisture in materials and the resultant effects on these materialsand on the structures of which they are a part or with which they are in contact.FROST FREE PERIOD - The average number of days between the last spring temperature of 32" F and the firstfa11 temperature of 32" F.FROST HEAVE - The raising of a surface, caused by ice in the underlying soil.GENETIC - Resulting or prcduced by soil-fotming processes.GLACIAL TILL - Unsorted and unstratified materials deposited by glacial ice.GLACIOFLUVIAL DEPOSITS - Material moved by glaciers and subsequently sorted and deposited by streams flowingfrom the melting ice. These deposits are stratified and may occur in the form of outwash plains,deltas, kames, eskers and kame terraces.GLEYED SOIL - An imperfectly or poorly drained soi1 in which the material has been modified by reduction oralternating reduction and oxidation. These soils have lower chranas or more prominent mottling,or both, in some horizons than the associated well-drained soil.GRAVEL - Rock fragnents .08 inch to 3 inches in diameter.GROUNDWATER - Water in the soi1 beneath the soi1 surface, usually under conditions &ere the pressure in thewater is greater than the atmospheric pressure and the voids are canpletely filled with water.Also water that is passing through or standing in the soi1 and the underlying strata.GROWING DEGREE DAYS - The number of cumulative degrees above 42" F during the growing season.HABITATHORIZON- The natural environment of an organism.(soil) - A layer in the soi1 profile approximately parallel to the land surface with more or lesswell-defined characteristics that have been produced through the operation of soi1 formingprocesses.HORIZONBOUNDARY - Boundaries in distinctness and in surface topography. The distinctness depends partly onthe contrast between the horizons and partly on the width of the boundary itself..HUE -HUMUS -One of the three variables of colour caused by light of certain wavelengths and changes with thewavelength.That more or less stable fraction of the soi1 organic matter remaining after most of the addedplant and animal residues have decanposed.ILLUVIAL HORIZON - A soi1 horizon in which material carried from an overlying layer has been precipated fromsolution or deposited fran suspension. The layer of accumulation.217

INCLUSION - Soi1 types found within a mapping unit which are not extensive enough to be mapped separately oras a part of a soi1 canplex.INFILTRATION - The downward entry of water into the soil.INTERGRADE - A soi1 that possesses moderately well developed distinguishing characteristics of two or moregenetically related taxa.IRRIGATION - The artificial application of water to the soi1 for the benefit of growing crops.KAME - An irregular ridge or hi11 of stratified glacial drift deposited by glacial meltwater.LACUSTRINE DEPOSITS - Material deposited by or settled out of lake waters and exposed by either lowering ofthe water levels or raising of the land. These sediments range in texture from Sand to clay andare usually varved (layered annual or rhythmite deposits).LANDFORM - Landforms are defined in terms of their size, shape, and slope pattern; the subsurface materialsof which they are composed, and their mode of origin or genesis.LEACHING - The removal from the soi1 of materials in solution.LIQUID LIMIT (Upper plastic limit) - (1) The water content corresponding to an arbitrary limit between theliquid and plastic states of. consistence of a soil. (2) The water content at tiich a pat of soi1tut by a groove of standard dimensions, Will flow together for a distance of 12 mn under theimpact of 25 blows in a standard liquid limit apparatus.LOESS - Material transported and deposited by wird and consisting of predaninantly silt-sized particles.MAPPING UNIT - A group of soils that have selected common properties: they are used as a unit to separatethon fran other groups of soils.MEAN ANNUAL INCREMENT - (MAI). The total yield (volume) of a forest stand divided by the age of the stand.MILLIEQUIVALENTS (me) - One thousandth of the weight of clay or organic colloid that has a combining powerequal to 1 gram-atomic weight of hydrogen. The atomic or formula waight divided by valence/lOOO.MORPHOLOGY (soil) - The makeup of the soil, including texture, structure, consistence, colour and otherphysical, mineralogical and biological properites of the various horizons of the soi1 profile, andthe kinds thickness and arrangement of the horizons in the profile.MOTTLES - Spots or blotches of different colour or shades of colour interspersed with the dominant colour.They are described in order of abundance (few, comnon, many), size (fine, medium, coarse) andcontrast (faint, distinct, prominent). Mottling in soils indicates poor aeration and lack of gooddrainage.ORDER (soil) - The highest category in the Canadian soi1 classification system. Al1 soils within an orderhave one or more basic characteristics in conmon.OUTWASH - Sediments "washed out" by flowing water beyond the glacier and laid down in thin foreset beds asstratified drift. Particle size may range frcm.boulders to silt.PARENT MATERIAL - The unconsolidated and more or less chemically unweathered minera1 or organic matter fromwhich the solun of a soi1 is developed by pedogenic processes.PEAT - Unconsolidated soi1 material consisting largely of undecomposed, or only slightly decomposed,organic matter.PED'JLOGY - Those aspects of soi1 science involving the origin, constitution, distribution, genesis,morphology, and classification of soils.PERCOLATION, SOIL WATER - The downward movement of water through the soil.PERMEABILITY - The ease with which water and air pass through a bulk mass of soi1 or a layer of soil.218

pH, SOIL - The negative logarithm of the hydrogen-ion acitivity, indicating the intensity of acidity oralkalinity of a soil.PLASTIC LIMIT - (1) The water content corresponding to an arbitrary limit between the plastic and thesemisolid state of consistence. (2) Water content at which a soi1 Will just begin ta crumble whenrolled into a thread approximately 3 mn in diameter.PLAST ICITY INDEX - The numerical difference between the liquid limit and the plastic limit. The plasticityindex gives the range of moisture contents within which a soi1 exhibits plastic properties.PROFILE, SOIL - A vertical section of the soi1 through a11 its horizons and extending into the parentmaterial.REACTION,SOIL - The degree of acidity or alkalinity of a soil, usually expressed as a pH value.Descriptive ternis commonly associated with certain ranges in pH are: extremely acid, < 4.5; verystrongly acid, 4.5-5.0; strongly acid 5.1-5.5; moderately acid, 5.6-6.0; slightly acid, 6.1-6.5;neutral 6.6-7.3; slightly alkaline, 7.4-7.8; moderately alkaline, 7.9-8.4; strongly alkaline,8.5-9.1; and very strongly alkaline, > 9.1.REGOLITH - The unconsolidated mantle of weathered rock and soi1 material on the earth's surface, overlyingsol id rock.RELIEF - The difference in elevations or irregularities of the land surface tien considered collectively.SAND - A soi1 particle between 0.05 and 2.0 mn in diameter.SEEPAGE - The escape of water downward through the soil. (2) The energence of water from the soi1 along anextensive line of surface in contrast to a spring where the water emerges fran a local spot.SERIES, SOIL - The second category (II) in the Canadian Classification system. This is the basic unit ofsoi1 classification and consists of soils which are essentially alike in a11 major profilecharacteristics except the texture of the surface.SILT - A soi1 separate consisting of particles between 0.05 and 0.002 mn in equivalent diameter.SITE - (1) In ecology, an area described or defined by its biotic, climatic and soi1 conditions asrelated to its capacity to produce vegetation.. (2).An area sufficiently. uniform in biotic,climatic, and soi1 conditions to produce a particular vegetation.SLICKENS - Fine-textured materials separated in placer mining and in ore-mil1 operations.SOIL - The unconsolidated minera1 or organic material on the immediate surface of the earth that servesas a natural medimn for the growth of land plants. Soi1 has been subjected .to and influenced bygenetic and environmental factors of: parent material, climate (including moisture and temperatureeffect), macro and micro-organisms , and topography, a11 acting over a period of time.SOIL GENESIS - The mode of origin of the soi1 with special reference to the processes or soil-fonningfactors responsible for the development of the solum, or true soil, fran the unconsolidated parentmaterial.SOIL STRUCTURE - The canbination or arrangement of primary soi1 particles into secondary soi1 particles,units or peds, wtich are separated from adjoining aggregates by surfaces of weakness. Aggregatesdiffer in grade (distinctness) of development. Grade is described as weak, moderate ard strong.The aggregates vary in class (size) and are described as fine, medium, coarse, and very coarse.The size classes vary according to the type (shape) of structure. The kinds of structurementioned in this report are:Granular - having more or less rounded aggregates without smooth faces and edges.Platy - having thin, plate-like aggregates with faces mostly horizontal.Blocky - having blocklike aggregates with Sharp, angular corners.Subangular blocky - having. blocklike aggregates with rounded and flattened faces and roundedcorners.219

Two forms of a structureless condition are recognized:- single grain, are a loose incoherent mass of individual particles as in sands.- massive, is a coherent mass showing no evidence of any distinct arrangement of soi1 particles.By convention an aggregate is described in the order of grade, class, and type e.g. strong,medium, blocky or moderate, coarse, granular. In the parent material of soils the material withstructural shapes may be designated pseudoblocky, pseudoplaty, etc. In stratified materials a bedis a unit layer distinctly separate from other layers and is one or more cm thick, but a lamina isa similar layer less than 1 cm thick.SOIL SURVEY - The systematic examination, description, classification and mapping of soils in an area.SOIL TEXTURE - The relative proportions of the various soi1 separates in a soi1 as described by the classesof soi1 texture.For convenience, soi1 textures are grouped into five classes as follows:Coarse-textured - sands, loamy Sand, loamy fine sand.Moderately coarse-textured - loamy very fine Sand, sandy loam, fine sandy loam.MediLPn textured - very fine sandy loam, loam, silt loam, silt, sandy clay loam (light).Moderately fine-textured - clay loam, silty clay loam, sandy clay loam (heavy).Fine-textured - sandy clay, silty clay, clay.SOLUM - The Upper horizons of a soi1 in which the parent material has been modified artd within which mostplant roots are confined. It consists usually of A.and B horizons.STONES - Rock fragments 10 inches in diameter if rounded, and 15 inches along the greater axis if flat.STONINESS - The relative proportion of stones in or on the soil.STRATIFIED MATERIALS - Unconsolidated grave1 Sand, silt, or clay or a combination of these materialsarranged in strata or layers.TALUS - Fragments of rock ancl other soi1 material accumulateci by gravity at the foot of cliffs or steepslopes.TERRACE - A level, usually narrow plain bordering a river, lake, or the sea. Rivers sanetimes are borderedby a number of terraces at different levels.TILTH - The physical condition of soi1 as related to its ease of tillage, suitability as a seedbed, andits impedance to seedling energence and root penetration.TOPOGRAPHY - The shape of the land surface such as hills, mountains or plains. The slopes may be smooth orirregular. The slope classes used in this report are defined as follows:depressional or nearly level 0 to 0.5%very gently sloping or gently undulating 0.5+ to 2%gently sloping or undulating 2+ to 5%moderately sloping or gently rolling 5+ to 9%strongly sloping or moderately rolling 9+ to 15%steeply sloping or strongly rolling 15t to 30%very steeply sloping or hilly 3Ot to 60%extremely sloping or very hilly over 60%TUFF - Volcanic ash usually more or less stratified and in various states of consolidation.UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM (Engineering) - A classification system based on the identification ofsoils accot-ding ta their particle size, gradation, plasticity index and liquid limit.220

VARVE - A distinct band representing annual or rythmite deposit in sedimentary materials regardless oforigin and usually consisting of two layers, one thick light coloured layer of silt ard fine.sandlaid down in the spring and summer , and the other a thin, dark coloured layer of clay laid down inthe fa11 an3 winter.WATER HOLDING CAPAC ITY - The ability of a soi1 to hold vater. The water-holding capacity of sandy soils isusually considered ta be low, while that of clayey soils is high. It is often express& in inchesof water par foot depth of soil.WATER TABLE - The Upper limit of the part of the soi1 or underlying rock material that is wholly saturatedwith water.WEATHERING - The physical and chemical disintegration, alteration and decanposition of rocks and minerals ator near the earth's surface by atmospheric agents.WILTING POINT - The moisture content of a soi1 at which plants wilt and fail to recover their turgidity whenplaced in a dark humid atmosphere. The wilting point is ccmmonly estimated by measuring thewater content of a soi1 at 15 atmospheres tension.

LIST OF AWEN,DICES

LIST OF APPENDICESPageAPPENDIX A Climate InformationAlAPPENDIX 6 The Canadian System of Soi1 Classification81APPENOIX C Soi1 Horizon NomenclatureClAPPENIJIX D Engineering Properties of RocksDlAPPENDIX E Guidelines for Soi1 Engineering and Recreation Interpretationsand a Classification of Soi1 and Soil-aggregate Mixtures in theAASHO Classification SystemElAPPENDIX F Acreage TablesFlAPPENDIX G Chemical Analyses and Detailed Soi1 Profile Descriptions ofLardeau Map Area SoilsGl

APPENDIX ACLIMATE INFORMATIONTable #lO Climatic Information for Some Stations in and near the Lardeau Map Area A3PageTable #11 Frost-free Period and Frost Data for the Lardeau Map Area A5Table #12 Probable Last Spring and First Fall Dates of Occurrence of MinimumTemperaturesA6(Ref: Atmospheric Environment Service, 1975, Canadian Nonnals for Temperature andPrecipitation. Vol. Xl, 2S1, Environment Canada, Downsview-Ontario.)Al

Table 10: Climatic information for some stations in and near the Lardeau map areaELEVATION AND STATION JAN FEB f4AR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC SEASONAL YEAR TYPE OFMAY-SEPTNORMALBRISCO LATITUDE 5D" 49' N LONGITUDE 116O 16' W ELEVATION 2750 FT A$LMea" rainfall (Irches) 0.20 0.18 0.35 0.88 1.58 2.22 1.37 1.45 1.16 1.10 0.56 0.28 11.33 2Man snowfall 15.6 7.8 2.5 1.4 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.8 8.1 15.2 52.5 2Nean total precipitation 1.76 0.96 0.60 1.02 1.59 2.22 1.37 1.45 1.16 1.28 1.32 1.81 7.79 16.54 2GERRARD LATITUDE 50" 30' N LONGITUDE 117' 18' W ELEVATION 2348 FT AS,LMean rainfall (Inches) 0.30 0.19 0.69 1.40 1.50 2.19 1.63 0.98 1.67 2.78 1.72 0.50 15.55 6ha" snowfall 47.3 30.6 14.0 0.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.5 24.9 45.0 16d.l 6Mean total precipitation 5.03 3.25 2.09 1.48 1.50 2.19 1.63 0.98 1.67 2.93 4.21 5.03 7.97 31.96 6GLACIER LATITUUE 51' 14' N LONGITUDE 117' 29' W ELEVATION 4094 FT ASLMean daily tenperature (Deg. F) 13.5 18.4 26.5 36.0 45.4 52.7 57.9 55.8 48.3 37.4 24.3 18.4 36.2 1kan daily maximum temperature 18.5 25.2 34.6 45.0 57.2 65.0 71.8 68.8 58.6 44.0 28.7 23.1 45.D 1Mean daily minimvn temperature 8.4 11.5 18.3 26.9 33.6 40.4 43.9 42.7 37.9 30.7 19.9 13.7 27.3 1Mean roinfall (Inches) 0.07 D.02 0.21 1.35 2.34 3.27 2.87 2.78 3.67 3.10 0.30 0.10 20.08 1Mean snowfall 76.6 60.5 47.8 17.2 2.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.7 19.3 63.6 82.3 370.2 1Mean total precipitation 7.73 6.07 4.99 3.07 2.56 3.27 2.87 2.78 3.74 5.03 6.66 8.33 15.22 57.10 1GOLDEN LATITUEE 51" 18' N LONGITULX 116' 58' Y ELEVATION 2583 FT ASLMean daily temperature (Deg. F) 13.0 19.1 30.7 42.4 52.5 58.7 64.1 61.2 53.4 42.4 27.4 19.1 40.3 1Mea" daily maximvo temperature 21.3 29.9 41.8 56.4 68.7 74.1 81.4 77.9 69.3 54.2 34.2 25.5 52.9 1kan daily minimum temperature 4.7 8.3 19.5 28.3 36.2 43.3 46.8 44.4 37.5 30.6 20.5 12.6 27.7 1Mean rainfall (Inches) 0.18 0.22 0.34 0.71 1.09 1.54 1.24 1.38 1.30 1.23 0.68 0.45 10.36 1kan snowfall 20.6 13.5 5.1 2.6 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.8 12.6 22.3 80.9 1Mean total precipitation 2.24 1.57 0.85 0.97 1.13 1.54 1.24 1.38 1.30 1.61 1.94 2.68 6.59 18.45 1INVERMERE LATITUDE 5o" 30' N LONGITUDE 116O 02' W ELEVATION 2840 FT ASLMean rainfall (Inches) 0.11 0.04 0.21 0.50 1.31 1.91 1.12 1.29 1.11 0.82 0.25 0.11 8.78 1Me.3~ snowfa11 6.4 5.4 2.5 0.4 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.D 1.5 5.6 7.9 29.8 1Mean total precipitation 0.75 0.58 0.46 0.54 1.32 1.91 1.12 1.29 1.11 0.97 0.81 0.93 6.75 11.76 1KASLO LATITUDE 49' 55' N LONGITUDE 116" 55' W ELEVATION 1930 FT ASLMea" daily temperature (Deg. F) 25.3 30.1 34.8 43.6 52.3 58.7 64.6 63.3 55.0 44.5 34.6 28.9 44.6 1Mean daily maximun temperature 30.8 36.9 43.1 54.1 64.3 70.1 78.2 76.2 66.2 52.5 40.2 33.8 53.9 1Mea" daily minimum temperature 19.7 23.3 26.4 33.0 40.3 47.1 50.9 50.2 43.8 36.4 29.0 24.1 -35.4 1No. of days with frost 29 26 26 15 2 0 0 0 1 8 20 27 154 1Mean total precipitation (Inches) 4.13 3.04 2.16 1.61 2.00 2.34 1.57 1.77 1.83 2.83 3.43 4.20 9.51 30.91 1KOOTENAY NATIONAL PARK RADIUM LATITUDE 50" 39' N LONGITUDE 116' 01’ W ELEVATION 3570 FT ASLMean daily temperature (Deg. F) 13.2 22.1 29.8 40.6 50.0 56.1 62.2 60.1 51.8 40.0 26.2 17.5 39.1 8Mean daily maximum temperature 19.7 31.1 40.1 52.2 63.5 69.7 78.3 75.6 65.3 49.9 32.2 23.2 50.1 8Mea" daily minimum temperature 6.6 13.0 19.5 29.0 36.5 42.5 46.1 44.6 38.1 30.0 20.2 11.6 28.1 8No. of days with frost 31 28 30 24 8 1 0 1 6 19 29 31 208 5No. of days with measurable rain 0 0 1 6 10 11 9 10 9 6 1 0 63 5No. of days with measurable snow 10 6 4 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 5 9 37 5No. of days with measurable precipitation 10 6 5 7 10 11 9 10 9 7 6 9 99 5Mean rainfall (Inches) 0.0 0.05 0.15 1.10 1.96 3.03 2.37 1.93 1.96 1.w 0.17 0.0 13.72 8Mea" snowfall 15.0 10.3 7.0 4.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.7 10.4 14.0 63.9 8Mean total precipitation 1.50 1.08 0.85 1.55 1.96 3.03 2.37 1.93 1.96 1.27 1.22 1.40 11.25 20.12 8LARDEAU LATITUCE 50" 12' N LONGITUE 116O 58' W ELEVATION 1805 FT ASLMean daily temperature (Deg. F) 25.2 30.2 34.9 44.5 52.6 58.4 63.8 62.5 54.9 44.8 35.2 29.2 44.7 8Mean daily maximum temperature 29.9 36.4 43.0 54.8 64.8 69.9 77.5 76.2 66.6 52.7 39.9 33.D 53.7 8Mea" daily minimum temperature 20.4 24.0 26.7 34.1 40.3 46.8 50.0 48.7 43.1 36.8 30.5 25.4 35.6 8No. of days with frost 27 23 23 11 3 0 0 0 1 8 16 23 135 6Mean rainfall (Inches) 0.88 1.51 1.18 1.26 1.75 1.96 1.52 1.66 1.74 2.32 1.84 l.M 18.82 8.Mean snowfal1 25.8 17.5 3.6 1.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.7 8.0 21.2 77.9 8Mean total precipitation 3.46 3.26 1.54 1.36 1.76 1.96 1.52 1.66 1.74 2.39 2.64 3.32 8.64 26.61 8A3

Table 10 Cont'dELEVATION AND STATION JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC SEASONAL YEAR TYPE OFHAY-SEPTNORMALNAKUSP LATITUOE 50' 14' N LONGITUCE 117" 48' W ELEVATION 1500 FT ASLMean rainfall (Inches) 0.47 0.54 1.41 1.42 2.63 2.84 1.94 1.29 2.38 2.90 2.24 1.62 21.88 6Mean snowfall 29.8 20.4 5.9 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.1 6.8 30.4 94.6 6*an total precipitation 3.65 2.58 2.00 1.44 2.63 2.84 1.94 1.29 2.38 3.01 2.92 4.66 11.08 31.34 6NEEDLES WHATSHAN PHkan rainfall (Inches)han snowfallban total precipitationLATITUCE 49" 55' N LDNGITUOE 118' 04' W ELEVATION 1421 FT A$L0.30 0.41 0.87 1.37 1.81 2.19 1.52 1.19 1.67 2.16 1.51 0.69 16.29 825.2 13.0 6.D 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 7.8 24.5 77.1 82.82 1.71 1.47 1.40 1.81 2.19 1.52 1.79 1.67 2.19 2.29 3.14 8.98 24.00 8NEW DENVER LATITUCE 49' 59' N LONGITUCE 117" 23' W ELEVATION 1850 FT ASLMean rainfall (Inches) 1.10 1.22 1.51 1.54 2.22 2.45 1.66 1.89 2.02 3.02 2.30 1.34 22.27 2Mean snowfall 27.7 15.3 5.1 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.8 24.8 79.0 2Mean total precipitation 3.88 2.75 2.02 1.57 2.22 2.45 1.66 1.89 2.D2 3.03 2.89 3.84 10.24 30.22 2REVELSTDKE LATITUOE 51" DD' N LONGITUU 118” 12’ W ELEVATION 1497 FT ASLtlean daily temperature (Deg. F) 21.3 28.7 35.4 45.0 55.0 61.5 67.0 64.7 56.: 44.6 33.4 25.6 44.9 2Mean daily maximur temperature 27.0 35.7 44.5 56.7 69.1 74.6 82.0 78.4 68.8 51.5 38.0 30.0 54.1 2Mean daily minimum temperature 15.7 21.6 26.2 33.3 40.9 48.3 51.9 50.9 44.5 37.6 28.8 21.1 35.1 2NO. of days with frost 29 - 25 24 13 3 D 9 0 1 7 20 28 150 2Hean rainfall (Inches) 1.12 1.30 1.89 2.11 2.02 2.92 2.25 2.52 2.99 4.04 2.83 1.69 27.68 2Mean snowfall 51.8 31.2 9.7 1.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 U.D 1.3 20.0 46.9 162.1 2Mean tata? precipitation 5.96 4.27 2.l?d 2.23 2.02 2.92 2.25 2.52 2.99 4.17 4.78 6.21 12.7 43.16 2SANDON LATITUDE 49" 58' N LONGITUII 117O 13' W ELEVATION 3550 FT ASLHean rainfall (Inches) 0.63 0.20 0.64 1.79 2.89 3.61 2.27 2.84 3.09 2.55 1.27 0.38 23.16 8Mean snowfall 41.4 31.2 24.8 7.6 0.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.9 27.9 44.3 183.8 3Mean total precipitation 4.11 3.32 3.12 2.55 2.96 3.61 2.27 2.84 3.09 4.14 4.06 4.81 14.71 41.54 8SIDMOUTH LATITUDE 50" 47' N LONGITUDE 118" 01’ W ELEVATION 1410 FT ASLMean daily tcmperalure (Deg. F) 18.8 26.0 32.3 42.1 53.3 58.9 63.5 61.0 53.6 42.3 32.4 24.1 42.4 8Mean daily maximum temperature 25.5 34.6 43.0 55.6 68.8 13.4 80.6 77.4 68.3 51.3 38.3 30.0 53.9 aMean daily miminun tenperature 12.0 17.4 21.6 29.7 37.8 44.3 - 46.4 44.6 38.9 33.3 26.5 18.2 30.9 8No. of days with frost 31 28 31 23 7 1 0 0 6 16 24 30 197 5Mean rainfall (lnches) 0.66 1.04 1.95 1.77 1.67 2.33 2.00 2.23 2.90 3.71 2.92 1.25 23.82 8Mean snowfal 1 58.0 31.0 12.8 2.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.2 18.5 59.1 182.6 8Mean total precipitation 6.46 4.24 3.23 1.97 1.67 2.33 2.00 2.23 2.90 3.83 4.77 7.16 10.52 42.18 8SINCLAIR PASS LATITUOE 50" 40' N LONGITUDE 115" 58' W ELEVATION 3840 FT ASLMean daily temperature (Deg. F) 11.9 19.9 25.2 35.3 44.4 50.2 56.2 54.9 46.5 37.0 22.6 15.4 35.0 8Mean daily maximum temperature 19.0 28.8 35.2 46.1 56.9 62.2 70.8 68.9 58.3 45.9 30.9 22.0 45.4 8Mean daily minimum temperature 4.8 11.0 15.2 24.5 31.9 38.1 41.5 40.9 34.6 28.1 14.3 8.8 24.5 8No. of days with frost 31 28 31 28 18 5 1 2 12 26 30 31 243 5Mean rainfall (Inches) 0.02 0.01 0.10 0.59 2.42 3.28 2.02 2.11 1.55 1.07 0.29 0.10 13.62 8Mean snowfall 20.3 14.5 13.1 8.4 1.8 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.3 5.0 14.5 25.2 103.3 8Mean total precipitation 2.04 1.46 1.41 1.43 2.60 3.30 2.02 2.17 1.58 1.57 1.74 2.62 11.67 23.94 8SPILLIMACHEEN LATITUDE 50" 55' N LONGITUDE 116" 24' W ELEVATION 2615 FT ASLkan daily temperature (Deg. F) 12.7 21.2 30.4 41.9 51.7 57.5 62.9 60.5 52.2 41.0 27.2 17.7 39.7 8Mean daily maximum temperature 19.7 30.5 41.2 54.1 65.5 70.6 78.1 75.0 65.8 50.8 33.1 23.4 50.7 8Mean daily minimun temperature 5.6 11.9 19.5 29.6 31.8 44.4 47.7 46.0 38.6 31.1 21.3 11.9 28.8 8No. of days with frost 30 28 28 21 5 0 D 0 4 17 27 30 190 5Mean rainfall (Inches) 0.21 0.37 0.31 0.88 1.38 2.06 1.44 1.36 1.19 1.01 0.71 0.42 11.34 Bkan snowfall 15.2 7.4 2.2 1.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 14.2 47.6 BMean total precipitation 1.13 1.11 0.53 0.98 1.39 2.06 1.44 1.36 1.19 1.06 1.41 1.84 7.44 16.10 8A4

Table 11: Frost-free period and frost dataAVERAGES BASED DN EXTREMES BASED ON FUL PERIOD OF RECORD1941-70 PERIOD OF REC(RD -LAST FROST FIRST FROST LONGEST SHCRTEST(SPRING)(FALL)STATION LAT. LONG. È!zYd x-Zl-VI 2G-ci e0' ery.0" El-L-ll- c 0"l&-s d8 %Es$8 wEEAggLL?s v> ci3t2.z 2c75l PIk ozi+deg. min deg. min 2 2 gg &SI C?L-27 $2v;zUV5P ;o !zeJ WL .4kc=Jcz:-w *ILlA -l z w Y 5w5u-A-4 L 0rU--lr GFauquier 49 52 118 04 1550 30 150 May 11 Oct 9 56 Apr 21 June 10 Sept 3 Nov 12 Hay 10 Nov 12 185 Hay 28 Sept 3 97Glacier 51 14 117 29 4094 14 85 June 12 Sept 6 54 Hay 13 July 13 July 27 Oct 6 Hay 14 Sept 19 127 July 6 Aug 19 43Golden 51 18 116 58 2583 30 101 May 31 Sept 10 68 May 6 July 13 July 17 Oct 8 Hiy 20 Oct 8 140 Hay 31 July 17 46Kaslo 49 55 116 55 1930 30 145 May 9 oct 2 63 Har 28 June 1 Sept 8 Nov 7 Har 28 Nov 6 222 May 18 Sept 16 120Lardeau 50 12 116 58 1805 10 134 May 15 Sept 27 10 May 3 ky 26 Sept 12 Oct 19 Ray 13 Oct 19 158 May 26 Sept 12 108Revelstoke 51 00 118 12 1497 29 140 Hay 14 Oct 2 69 Apr 16 July 8 Aug 11 Nov 7 Apr 21 Oct 19 180 July 8 Aug 11 33Sidnnuth 50 47 118 01 1410 13 88 June 9 Sept '6 13 Hay 19 July 3 Aug 6 Sept 29 May 24 Sept 17 115 June 11 Aug 6 55Sinclair Pass 50 40 115 58 3840 15 53 June 24 Aug 17 20 May 13 July 13 July 20 Sept 21 Hay 13 Sept 21 130 July 3 July 20 16Spillimacheen 50 55 116 24 2615 13 119 Hay 20 Sept 17 13 Apr 26 June 22 Sept 3 Oct 7 Hay 17 oct 7 142 June 22 Sept 6 75

TABLE 12PROBABLE LAST SPRING AND FIRST FALL DATES OF THE OCCURRENCE OF MINIMUM TEMPERATURES26, 28, 30, 32, 34 AND 36 (OF) FOR THE BRITISH COLUMBIA INTERIORTABLES FOR WEST KOOTENAY REGIONDUNCAN LAKEFAUQUIERGLACIERGOLDENKASLOLARDEAUREVELSTOKESPILLIMACHEEN(BRITISH COLUMBIA LAND INVENTORY, 1972)A6

Table12 Cont'dLAST SPRING AND FROST FALL DATE OF OCCURRENCEFOR PROBABILITY 5O% - 10%DUNCAN LARE (4 YEARS)MINIMUM TEMPERATURES OF 26,28,30,32,34.("F)SPRINGFALLLast Occurrence ("F) First Occurrence ("F)

Table12 Cont'dLAST SPRING AND FROST FALL DATE OF OCCURRENCE MINIMVI TEMPERATURES cf 26,28,30,32,34,(°F)FOR PROBABILITY 50% - 10%GLACIER (15 YEARS)SPRINGLast Occurrence (OF) First Occurrence (OF)

Table 12 Cont'dLAST SPRING AN0 FROST FALL DATE OF OCCURRENCE MINIMUI TEMPERATURES OF 26,28.30,32,34,(°F)FOR PROBABILITY 50% - 10%KASLO (35 YEARS)SPRINGLast Occurrence (OF) First Occurrence (OF)

Table12 Cont'dLAST SPRING AND FRDST FALL DATE OF OCCURRENCE MINIMLM TEMPERATURES a: 26,28,30,32,34,('F)FOR PROBABILITY 50% - 10%REVELSTOKE (35 YEARS)SPRINGlast Occurrence (OF) Fit-9 Occurrence (OF)

APPENDIX B

APPENDIX BTHE CANADIAN SYSTEM OF SOILCLASSIFICATION*A classification is an orderly arrangement of abjects or ideas placed into categories according totheir relationship to each other. Al1 abjects are arranged in such a way that they succeed or acccmpanyeach other and thus provide us with groupings from a high level with broad generalizations to succeedingseries of lower levels, each level in descending order being more specifically defined. Classes in a11 ofthe five categories: order, great group, subgroup, family and series, are based upon observable ormeasurable soi1 properties. Diagnostic properties at high categorical levels reflect soi1 genesis and hencethe environmental factors that influence soi1 genesis. The 6 soi1 orders occurring in the Lardeau map areaare defined below in brief, general tenns and the great groups are lis'&.Brunisolic order - Soils having genetic horizons but lacking the horizons diagnostic of other orders.They occur dominantly in subhumid to humid forested regions. Great groups are: Melanic Brunis01 - has amineral-organic surface horizon (Ah) and is not acid; Eutric Brunisol - lacks a ~11 developed Ah and is notstrongly acid; Sombric Brunisol - has an Ah and is strongly acid; Dystric Brunisol - lacks a well developedAh and is strongly acid.Chernozemic order - Soils of the grasslands; they have a well developed base-rich, mineral-organicsurface horizon (Ah). The four great groups are based upon colour of the surface horizon tiich reflectssoi1 climate: Brown, Dark Brown, Black and Dark Gray.Gleysolic order - Soils having drab colours, prominent mottling or other features resulting fromperiodic or permanent high water table artd reduction. They occur cmonly in depressions ard level areasthat either receive runoff water or are groundwater discharge areas. There are three great groups: HumicGleysol - well developed mineral-organic surface horizon (Ah); Gleysol - lacks a well developed Ah; LuvicGleysol - has a B horizon (Btg) of significant clay accumulation.Luvisolic order - Soils, usually in forested regions, in which leaching has resulted in significanttranslocation of clay from the A to the B horizon (Bt). The great groups are: Gray Brown Luvisol - mildsoi1 climate and forest mull Ah; Gray Luvisol - cold to cool soi1 climate and may have no Ah.Podzolic order - Acid soils developed under forest and heath; they have a B horizon enriched in Al andFe weathering products, ard humified organic matter. They usually underlie a light gray, weathered Aehorizon. Great groups are: Humic Podzol - B depleted of Fe; Ferro-Humic Podzol - B rich in organic mattercombined with Al and Fe; Humo-Ferric Podzol - B contains less organic matter than Ferro-Humic Podzol.Regosolic order - Developnent of genetic horizons is absent or very weakly expressed. Great groupsare: Humic Regosol - has a dark, mineral-organic surface horizon (Ah); Regosol - either lacks or has a thinAh.*The soils of the Lardeau map area were classified according to the soi1 taxonomie system of Canada.(Canada Department of Agriculture Publication 1455, 1970, revised 1973). The portion of the systemapplicable to the soils of the Lardeau map area is summarized here.Bl

APPENDIX CSOILHORIZON NOMNCLATURE"1. ORGANIC HORIZONS are found in organic soils, at the surface of minera1 soils, or at any depth beneaththe surface in buried soils, or overlying geologic deposits. They contain more than 17% organic carbonby weight. Two groups of these layers are recognized:Of - The fibric layer, is the least deccanposed of a11 the organic soi1 materials. It has largeamounts of well-preserved fiber that is readily identifiable as to botanical origin.om - The mesic layer, is intetmediate in decanposition between the less decomposed fibric andthe more decomposed humic materials. This material has intermediate values for fibercontent, bulk density and water contents. The material is partly altered both physicallyand biochemically.Oh - The humic layer, is the most deccmposed of a11 the organic soi1 materials. It has theleast amount of plant fiber, the highest bulk density and the lowest saturated waterholdingcapacity. This material is relatively stable having undergone considerable changefrom the fibric state primarily because of oxidation and humification.L-F-H - These are organic layers developed mainly fran leaves, twigs and wood materials underimperfectly to ~11 drained conditions.L - An organic layer characterized by the accumulation of organic matter in which the originalstructures are easily discernible.F - An organic layer characterized by the accumulation of partly deccmposed organic matter.The original structures are discernible with difficulty. Fungi mycelia are often present.H - An organic layer characterized by an accumulation of decanposed matter in which theoriginal structures are indiscernible.2. MASTER MINERAL HORIZONS AND LAYERS - Minera1 horizons are those that contain less organic matter thanthat specified for organic horizons.A - This is a minera1 horizon or horizons formed at or near the surface in the'zone of removalof materials in solution or suspension or maximum accumulation of organic matter or both.Included are: 1) horizons in which organic matter has accumulated as a result of biologieactivity (Ah); 2) horizons that have been eluviated of clay, iron, aluminum, or organicmatter or a11 of these (Ae); 3) horizons having characteristics of 1) and 2) above buttransitional ta underlying B or C (AB or A and B); 4) horizons markedly disturbed bycultivati'on or pasture (AP).- This is a minera1 horizon or horizons characterized by one or more of the following: 1) anenrichment in silicate clay, iron, aluminum or humus, along or in combination (Bt, Bf, Bfh,Bm and Bh); 2) an alteration by hydrolysis, reduction or oxidation to give a change incolour or structure fran horizons above or below or both.C - This is a minera1 horizon or horizons comparatively unaffected by the pedogenic processesoperative in A and B, excepting 1) the process of gleying; and 2) the accumulation ofcalcium and magnesium carbonates and more soluble salts (Cca, Csa, Cg and C).R - This is underlying consolidated bedrock that is too hard to break with the hands or to digwhen moist. The boundary between the R layer and any overlying unconsolidated materials is"(Ref.: Canada Department of Agriculture Publication 1455, 1970, revised 1973)Cl

called a lithic contact.3. LCWER CASE SUFFIXESbCcaccefjkmn- A buried soi1 horizon.- A cemented (irreversible) pedogenic horizon.- A horizon with secondary carbonate enrichment where.the concentration of lime exceeds thatpresent in the unenriched parent material. It is more than 10 cm thick arxi if it has aCaC03 equivalent of less than 15% it should have at least 5% more CaC03 equivalent than theparent material (IC). If it has more than 15% CaC03 equivalent, it should have 1/3 moreCaC03 equivalent than IC.- Cemented (irreversible)pedogenic concretions.- A horizon characterized by removal of clay, iron, aluminum or organic matter alone or incombination. It is higher in colour value by one or more units when dry than an underlyingB horizon.- A horizon enriched with hydrated iron. It usually has a chroma of three of more. Itcontains 0.6% or more pyrophosphate - extractable Al+Fe in textures finer than sand and0.4% or more in sands (coarse Sand, Sand, fine Sand, and very fine Sand). The ratio ofpyrophosphate - extractable Al+Fe to clay (.002 mn) is more than 0.05 and organic C exceeds0.5%. It is used with B alone (Bf), with B ard h (Bhf), with B and g (Bfg), ard with othersuffixes. The criteria for "f" do not apply to Bg horizons.- A horizon characterized by grey colours or prainent mottling or both indicative ofpermanent or periodic intense reduction. Chromas of the matrix are generally I or less.- A horizon enriched with organic matter. When used with A along, it refers to theaccumulation of organic matter and the horizon contains less than 17% organic carbon. TheAh horizon has either one Munsell colour unit of value lower than the horizon imnediatelybelow, or has 0.5% more organic carbon than the IC, or bath. When used with A and e itrefers fo an Ah horizon which has been degraded as evidence, under natural conditions, bystreaks and splotches and often by platy structure.- Used as a modifier of e, g, n, and t to denote an expression of, but failure to meet, thespecified limits of the suffix it modifies.- Denotes the presence of carbonate as indicated by visible effervescence with dilute HCl.- A horizon slightly altered by hydrolysis, oxidation or solution, or a11 of them to give achange in colour or structure, or both. The suffix is used with B to denote A B horizonthat is greater in chroma by one or more units than the parent material or that hasgranular, blocky or prismatic structure without evidence of strong gleying and containspyrophosphate extractable Fe and Al of less than 0.4% for sands or less than 0.6% fortextures finer than Sand.- A horizon in which the ratio of exchangeable Ca to exchangeable Na is 10 or less. Whenused with B, it must have a prismatic or columnar structure, dark coatings on ped surfacesand hard to very hard consistence tien ,dry.- A layer disturbed by man's activities, thot is by cultivation or pasturing or both. TO beused only with A or 0.- A horizon with salts including gypsum which may be detected as crystals or veins, asc2

surface trusts of Salt crystals, or by distressed trop growth, or by the presence of Saltsatolerant plants.- A horizon with secondary enrichment of salts, more soluble than Ca and Mg carbonates, wherethe concentration of Salt exceeds that present in the unenriched parent material. Thehorizon is 10 cm or more thick. The conductivity of the saturation extract must be atleast 4 mnhos/cm and must exceed that of the C horizon by at least one-third.- A horizon enriched with silicate clay. It is used with 6 along (Bt). B and g (Btg) andwith others.- A horizon of a fragipan character.- A permanently frozen layer.- A horizon affected by cryoturbation as manifested by disrupted and broken horizons and byincorporation of materials fron other horizons and mechanical sortings.-------MAJORHORIZONSL-HALF----------_------HAh or Ahe_---------PROFILECHARACTERISTICSTYPICAL COLOURS!Raw to well decomposedmixture of humusDark coloured layer withorganicmatterANDLight coloured leached layerBm, Bf, Bt or Bh Dark brownish layerB -----------Bmp, 13f2, Btp or Eh2 Lighter brownish layer------Il Altered parent materialUnaltered parent materialDifferent parent materialFigure 27: Usual sequence of soi1 horizons and symbol nomenclature for soi1 profilesc3

APPENDIX IlENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF ROCKSSome physical characteristics of different types of rocks aregiven in Table 13, mainly related to their suitability foruse as road building material. However, these rocks may beaffect& differently by crushing; sane may contain impuritiesof other rocks, and others may have a better physical shapefor a certain specific use (Ref: USDC, Bureau of PublicRoads, Vol. Zb, 1950).Dl

Table 13: Engineering properties of rocksTYPE OF ROCK MECHANICAL DURABILITY CHEMICAL STABILITY SURFACE CHARACTERISTICS PRESENCE OF CRUSHEDSTRENGTH UNDESIRABLE SHAPEIMPURITIESIgneous:Granite, syenite, diorite Good Good Good Good Possible GoodFelsite Good GOCKI Questionable Fair Possible FairBasalt, diabase, gabbro Good Good Good Good Seldom FairPeridotite Good Fair Questionable Good Possible GoodSedimentary:Limestone, dolaite Good Fair Goal Good Possible GoodSandstone Fair Fair Good Good Seldom GoodChert Good Poor Poor Fair Likely PoorConglomerate. breccia Fair Fair Good Good Seldan FairShale Poor Poor GOOd Possible Fair togoodMetanorphic:Gneiss, schist Good Good Good Good Seldan Good topoorQuartzite Good Good Good Good Seldan FairMarble Fair Good Good Good Possible GoodSerpentinite Fair Fair Good Fair to poor Possible FairAmphibolite Good Good Good Good Seldom FairSlate Good Good Good Poor Seldan Poor(Ref.: USDC, Bureau of Public Roads, Vol. 2b, 1950).

.APPENDIX E

APPENDIX EGUIDELINES FOR SOIL ENGINEERING AND RECREATION INTERPRETATIONSAND A CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL AND SOIL-AGGREGATE MIXTURESIN THE AASHO CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMThe fallowing guidelines for soi1 engineering (Table 14) and soi1recreation interpretations (Table 16) are extracted from: UnitedStates Department of Agriculture, Soi1 Conservation Service, Guide forInterpreting Engineering Uses of Soil, 1971 and Montgomery, P.H. andEdminster, F.C., Use of Soi1 Surveys in Planning for Recreation.The guides are placed here as a reference only. More detailedinformation is found in the above mentioned publications.El

Table 14: Guidelines for soi1 engineering interpretationsSO,L PROPERTV AFFECTING USEOECQEE Cf MIL LIHITATIONSLIGHT HODERATE SEVEREPermeabilify class Rapid, moderately rapid. dnd Loler end of moderate noderately Slcw dmd slowupper end of mcderateHydraulic conductivity rate More than 1 in. hr. l-O.6 in./hr. Less than 0.6 in./hr.(Uhlard tore methcd)Percolation rate (Auger hole method) Faster thrn 45 min.lin. 45-60 min.lin. Slmer thdn 60 min./in.Cepth to wter table )lore than 72 in. 48-72 in. Less than 48 1".Floodfng mne Rare Dccasional or frequentSlOpe O-81 8-151 mre than i5x.Depth to hard rock. bedmck. Or other Hoore than 72 in. 48-72 in. Less than 48 rn.impewlous materialsStoniness cl*ss 0 and 1 2 3. 4. and 5Rcckiness class 0 1 2, 3. 4. and 5A. INTERPRETATIONS Fa( SEPTIC TANK ABSORPTION FIELDSSOIL PROPERTV AFFECTING USEOEGREE CF SO[L LIHITATIONSLIGHT MODERATE SEVERESoi1 drainage class Excessively drain&. some*at Hcderately ,ell drained Sme,Aat poorly drain&,excessively drained, ard ne11 poorly drain&. a& verydrained poorly drarnedSeasonal *ater table Belon a depth of 60 in. Betwen depths of 30 and 60in. Above a depth of 30 in.FTooding mne Rare &xasionally or frequentSlOW O-85 8-15X Wore than 15%Texture of soi1 to depth CO Le fsl. sl. 1. sil. sicl. sel si. cl. x; a11 gravelly e. sic, 5. 1s; organicexcavated tyw soi1 a11 very gravellytypesDepth to bedrock clare than 60 in. 40-60 in. Less than 40 in.Stoniness class 0 and 1 2 3. 4, and 5Rcckiness class 0 1 2. 3, 4. and 58. OEGIEE AM LIHITATION ff SOIL RIOPERTIES FOR SHALLOU EXCAVATIONSSOIL PROPERTV MFECTING USEOEU(EE OF SOIL LIHITATIONSLIGHT HLWERATE ' SEVERESoi1 drainage class Uith basements: Uith Basements: Yith Easements:Excessively drained. sonewhat noderately rell drained Scmrhat poorly draina.excessively drained, well poorly dralned. verydrained poorly drain&Uithout basements: Yithout basements: Yithout basements:Excessively drain&, scme*hat Samhat poorly drained Poorly drain&. veryexcessively drained. *ell poorly draineddrain&. moderately well drainedseasonal water table (Seasonal means Yith basements: Yith brsements: Uith basements:for 1 month or more) 8elcm a depth of 60 in. Belcw a depth of 30 in. ALwe a depth of 30 in.Yithout basements: Yithout basemnts: Uithout basements:Belou I depth of 30 in. Below a depth of 20 in. Aboue d depth of 20 in.Flocding None mne Rare. occasiona orfrequentSl ope O-B% a-152 Hore thrn 15%Shrink-rwell potential LOY mderate HighUnified soi1 gmup Gu, 8. 9. SP. MS a. HL, CL with PI 15 or more CH, ni. a, OHSH. SC, CL rith PI less than 15Poter:tral frort action LOW mderate H,ghStoniness cldss 0 and 1 2 3. 4. ard 5Rockiness class 0 1 2. 3. 4, and 5Oepth to bedrock Uith basements: "ith basements: U,th basements:--Hore than 60 in. 40-60 7”. Less thdn 40 in.Uithout basements: Uithout basements: Ulthout basements:Uore than 40 in. 20-40 in. Less than 20 in.C. IKGREE 0: LIMITATION W SOIL PROPERTIES F@I WELLINGSNote: A distinction in above table is made rhen dellings are built with or tithout basements. B&ock limitations do netnecesrarily give sevepe limitation to the soil. The problen is more site specific dependiw upon slow of landfon.E2

Table 14 Cont'dDepth Of sed*O"l high uater tdb,e Le*s r.hd" 72 1".SOI1 dralndge CldlS C~cersl"ely dralned. ImeWhdt Saw%hdt por1y drain& *nd Poorly drain& dl-d veryexcess>ve,y drdined. reli rame mcderately leIl drdlned poorly drain&dralned. dni 50ne mcder,3te1y*ell dl-dlnedFlOOdl"g INme Rdre o.xasiona1 or rrequentPenneabll~ty Lers ttlm 2.0 I".,hr. Lesr thdn 2.0 in./hr. More thd" 2.0 ,".,hP.SlO,ze O-151 15.25% nore thd" 25%SO11 texture ;dmv"d"t 10 d depth Sdndy lodm. loam. sllt loam Silty clay loan. clay loan, Sllty clw. ctay. mue..Of 60 >"., rmdy clay lodm sandy clay, loamy Idfld peat. grave1, sanciDepth to bedrcck ilam mre thd" 72 I". Hote thdn 72 in. Les thd" 72 in.5 f:. More thdn 60 1". Le*s thd" 60 1". Lers thdn 60 1".Stonlnesr CldSS 0 d"d 1 2 3. 4, d"d 5RPCki"e>* CldS5 0 0 1, 2, 3. 4. dnd 50. DEGREE OF LIHITATION OF SOIL PROPERTIES FOR SANITARY LANOFILLHoist coni~stence Very ftlable. friable Lmse. film Very fl"", exwemely fi""Texture Sandy lodm. loan silt loam. Silty clay loara. cldy lors. silty clay. c,ay mUEt.sandy cldy ,oam randy clay, loamy aand wat. SandThictnesr Of materta ("wlly "me Lhd" 40 1". 20-40 I". Le% thd" 20 In."ppermost part Of proflIe)C~arre frayent: perceol. by volune Les thd" 15% 15-35, More thd" 352Stoninerr cldrs 0 d"d 1 2 3. 4. and 5Slope Lesr thd" 8% a-*51: "me thd" 15%Oralnage Cldll lvetners) Note class determining if better thd" pxrly drained kmrly drained ard Yery1. DEGREE OF LIMITATION OF SOIL PROPLRTIES FOR AREA TYPE LANDFILL1poorlydrainedExcessively dralned. scmeuhat 5mhtlat por1y dWi"ed F%orly drain& anJ Yeryexcess1vely drained. uell pmrly dralneddralned. an9 moderately welldrainedNO"e Snilr flooded lers than once Soils flocded mare thd"in 5 yearr once in 5 yearsIl-*: 8-151 "are tha" 15%Hore thd" 40 in. 20-40 in. Les thd" 20 in.o-4 5-a MO~= than aCU. w. 94, SP. M, CL. CL with PI less than 15 Cl. 4th PI 15 or more,SM, SC CH. tel, OH, OL, PtLOW Ploderate HighLOW Moderate High0, 1, and 2 3 4 and 50 1 2. 3, 4. and 5F. OEGREE OF LIMITATION OF SOIL PROPERTIES FOR ROADS AND STREETSSOIL PROPERTY AFFECTINC "SEDem to "ater table (Sedsondl OP More thd" 60 1". 40-60 in. Les than 40 in.year-round)Peneatlility Lesr tha" 0.6 in.,hr 0.6-2.0 i"./hr. "or-e tha" 2.0 1".oeptil io bedrock More than 60 in. 40-60 in. Lesr thd" 40 in.SlOpe Les.5 thd" 2% 2-n More thd" 72COarse fragnents, less thd" 10 Incher Lers tha" 20; 20-501 "are thd" 50:in diameter: percent. by volumepercent Of sUrface avea cavered by Les$ than 3% 3-15x "are Lhdn 151cOdt-se frq"ents more tha" 10 inches1" diameterOrgan1c matter Le~s tha" 2% Z-151. Mwe thdn ,5XFloodlng M"e M"e Soils rubject to flaodingSoi1 grows (Umfed) (rdted for use GC. SC, CL, a"d CH GM. ML. 94. aml MH GP. GU. sv. SP, OL. OH,mainly as floor of sewage) rnd PT6. DEGREF OF L,N,TA:lON OF SOIL PROPERTIES FOR WATER RESERVOIR AREA OR SFVAGE LAGOONSE3

ITable 15: Classification of soils and soi1 aggregate mixtures in the AASHO systemGENERAL CLASSIFICATION GRANULAR MATERIALS SILTY-CLAY MATERIALS(35% OR LESS PASSING NO. 200) (MORE Ttw 35% PASSING ~0. 200)A-l A-2 A-7Group Classification A-l-a A-l-b A-3 A-2-4 A-2-5 A-2-6 A-2-7 A-4 A-5 A-6 A-7-5A-7-6Sieve analysis 96 passing:No. 10 50 max. - -No. 40 30 max. 50 max. 51 min. - - - -No. 200 15 max. 25 max. 10 max. 35 max. 35 max. 35 max. 35 max. 36 min. 36 min. 36 min. 36 min.Characteristics offraction passing:No. 40 - Liquid limit 40 max. 41 min. 40 max. 41 min. 40 max. 41 min. 40 max. 41 min.Plasticity index 6 max. N.P. 10 max. 10 max. 11 min. 11 min. 10 max. 10 max. 11 min. 11 min.*Usual types of signifi- Stone fragments, Fine Silty or clayey grave1 and sand Silty soils Clayey soilstant constituent materials gravel, and sand sandGeneral rating as subgrade Excellent to Good Fair to goodl Plasticité index of A-7-5 subgroup is equal to or less than LL minus 30. Plasticity index of A-7-6 subgroup is greater than LLminus 30 (see Figure 2).

Table 16: Guidelines for soi1 - recreation interoretationsE5

APPENDIX FACREAGETABLESPageTable #17 Acreage of Agriculture Capability Classes of the Lardeau Map Area(by 1:50 000 NTS Mapsheets)F2Table #18 Acreage of Forestry Capability Classes of the Lardeau Map Area (by1:50 000 NTS MapsheetsF2Table #19 Acreage of Soi1 Association (by 1:50 000 NTS Mapsheets) of theLardeau Map AreaF3Fl

Table 17 & 18: Capability class acreagesAGRICULTURE NTS MAP % OFCAPABILITY 82K/ TOTALCLASS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 TOTAL AREA1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 02 0 1932 0 5040 768 996 1412 0 0 0 36 616 5012 0 0 0 15812 .423 0 1804 0 9904 112 1716 663 92 0 0 1412 2544 0 0 0 0 18247 .484 876 2020 1872 4432 8648 2328 872 588 8640 140 3136 976 0 0 976 7728 43236 1.155 18408 12440 5396 13584 12014 768 8312 19581 28268 1244 1848 17360 1420 9508 21720 26062 197933 5.276 31248 688 10830 13136 4972 884 2276 42916 58946 1814 14444 10764 1780 15540 20781 53650 284669 7.67 193608 215948 216780 108390 190964 239068 214022 180798 128816 234444 228446 210842 233656 220612 201607 105140 3195111 85.1TABLE 17ACREAGE OF AGRICULTURE CAPABILITYCLASSESFORESTRY NTS MAP % OFCAPABILITY 82Kd TOTALCLASS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 TOTAL AREA1 0 13440 25976 43210 37360 27422 15264 0 0 7352 38982 40466 21008 840 0 520 271840 7.052 420 7728 17264 51396 21990 38054 15088 2500 648 8272 18970 34314 22124 80 0 908 239756 6.203 14792 35198 62676 23204 18934 14762 20108 22912 27056 6794 27210 18408 14040 3176 19234 19708 348212 9.034 21038 26600 9188 43124 51356 14628 13088 30742 55276 11688 19596 26352 12652 20460 29102 56229 441119 11.425 48374 30054 33936 19568 25880 25960 26420 61275 77918 24632 28248 20444 21528 10306 33552 55727 543822 14.096 29158 22740 13768 11612 21924 25044 13716 29492 32794 15408 18820 5560 26888 22822 19720 13638 323104 8.387 130746 94694 73940 34552 40228 86475 124200 97286 42608 162052 103733 99544 241868 189538 138446 32772 1692682 43.83TABLE 18ACREAGE OF FORESTRY CAPABILITYCLASSES

SOILASSOCIATION;VMBCLTable 19: Acreage of soi1 associations of the Lardeau map areaNTS MAP82K/1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16OTAL,‘ROXOFITALAvisASAS'BadshotBSBeaton Creek BABeatriceBCoergnanBRBig FishBFBlaylockBYBlizzardBZBluejointBTBohan Creek BKBonnerBOBlWlnallBBBrouseBE1040 - - 1164 - 360 - -- 2590 408 320 - 2040 1768 < - -77545046 _ _56038817044192003670 105'307696 25201330 46203202 1420500 15101020 500____3210 40303670 12460250 -_ _3140 83664220 59505470 113018750 21506896 33405265 25704180 37144580 -12360 -4204 678012880 18680432 38702372 5220_ -1974 36009125 -2580 806017216 359985312 50709654 81705440 -7950 -1237212022265215082768902034464622912280180049432b738 2418015220 22350____328 3270136 1100232 4802120 -10052 81709964 26460520440 47322580 _ - 1846 5310165820027240 _ -45521172280 1550_ __ -4440 51963765 1124 _ _90420108 8028316 -2056 7900468 -392 2400944 29202006436 59943584 212583601308 170281681725384 -_ -6284 108608944 368302348 1760 -880 520 -2960 3420 -1880 2156 64005340 60'36 3090342085722310409632209460320 -960 -1200 -6264 684040676 146301974 -480 -1540 14748- 30130300 -280 -- 129217204636 91166712 11348100 -2900 368034472521370254960748668769834680201064179890041721217350232324294460415306410032380427560825284451925406610760438124786091581.51.3i. 71.51. 71.0!.71.33.01.81.22.33. 7Buhl CreekBunyonBurkittBurn CreekBHBPBMBU- 127601340 2405980 -_ _1748 _ _- 11501000 370820 24042960 1600536724 2720386 - 1360 1920 -12829028365412136818401688__504 8607430 1224_ _- _6314 -5440 -- 220032 54504338- 670- 216030922 -12840 -1674010478964642106345054746898249120.52.00.3

Table19 Cont'd1NTS MAP APPROXSOIL 82Kl 7. OFASSOCIATION SYMBJL 1 2 3 4 5 0 7 8 9 10 LI 12 L3 14 LS 16 TOTAL TOTALCurtis CT 232 120 1240 - 1384 - L36 180 2800 - - 6092 0.7106lJ 4010 60 3410 9348 - - - - 180 5200 - 23328Fdlnllont FA - - - - *S!+I _ _ _ _ _ 3512 5092 0.2- - . - . _ _344 960 - - _ _ _ _ 2412 3716Fruitvale FT 360 200 2170 036 320 795 - 356 540 - - 5598 0.3760 680 - - - 1040 - - 232 - - 2435 - - - 5148CIlIlS GS - 570 4472 4978 2440 40 - - - - 110 - - 12610 0.4- 3470 350 - - 360 - 4180IKSSlO KO - 190 1020 10272 6414 - 232 - - 1834 400 - - - 20362 1.75- 1650 7940 13208 8720 - 15738 281 - - - 4 7536I.ec”ey xi 3043 - - - 4264 12896 60 - - 1064 10954 32281 1.87270 - 300 1970 6254 1236 - - - - 4570 15438 37038Ll”bdsk.et FE 160 - - - 28658 - - 9964 27849 66631 3.2- 18626 - - - - 7556 32888 590701.1 ngcare ,:o :_ _ _ - 280 472 _ _ . _ . _ 1000 - 1752

xAPPENDIX G

APPENDIX GCHEMICAL ANALYSES AND DETAILED SOILPROFILE DESCRIPTIONS OF LARDEAU MAP AREA SOTLSChemical and physical methods used in the analysis of soi1 profiles are discussed below.pH measurements were made on 1:l soil:water suspensions for minera1 soils, and 1:5 soil:watersuspension for organic soils. pH was also determined using a 1:5 soil:M/lOO CaC18 solution according toClark, 1965, modified by shaking one half hour instead of 5 days. A pH meter and a combination electrodewere used for a11 pH measurements. Soi1 organic matter was determined by the wet combustion method asdescribed by Grewelling and Peach (1960).Total nitrogen was determined using the method described by Bremner.Laverty's method (1961) modified by John (1963) was used to detenine acid soluble and availablephosphorus. Colour developnent was made following John's (1970) procedure.Exchange capacity was detenined using the method described by Peach (1957). The ammoniun acetateextract was analyzed for exchangeable cations using a Techtron AA4 atomic absorption spectrophotometer.Oxalate-extractable iron and aluminm and Pyrqphosphate extractable iron and aluminum were detetminedfollowing procedures described by McKeague (1971).Sulphur analyses were made following the procedure of Bardsley and Lancaster (1960).forManganese values ware obtained by analyzing the extract from 1:5 soil:calcium chloride suspensions usedpH determination.Boron analyses were made following the method of Grewelling and Peach.The perchloric-nitric acid digestion for copper and zinc were made following the procedure of Lundblad(1949) and analyses were made using a Techtron AA4 atomic absorption spectrophotometer.Mechanical analyses were made following the procedure outlined by Kilmer and Alexander (1949).The following page is an example of a detailed profile description and laboratory data. Detaileddescriptions of Lardeau map area soi1 profiles with accanpanying laboratory data are not included in thisreport. They are stored in the B.C. Soi1 Data File and are available upon request. If needed pleasecontact:The LibraryResource Analysis BranchMinistry of EnvironmentParliament BuildingsVictoria, B.C.V8V 1X4Gl

62Example of a detailed profile description and laboratory chemical analysis.

LIST OF PREVIOUS R A Il BULLETINSThe BULLETIN is one of four Regular Publication seriesproduced by the Resource Analysis Branch. BULLETINS presentthe results of technical or scientific studies including theinterpretation or application of resource data.RAB BULLETIN 1 -RAB BULLETIN 2 -RAB BULLETIN 3 -RAB BULLETIN 4 -RAB BULLETIN 5 -RAB BULLETIN 6 -RAB BULLETIN 7 -RAB BULLETIN 8 -Terrain Inventory and Late Pleistocene History of the Southern Part of theNechako Plateau. D.E. Howes.Queen Charlotte Island, Aspects of Environmental Geology. N.F. Alley,B. Thomson.North Central British Columbia: Environmental Significance of GeomorphicProcesses. N.F. Alley, G.K. Young.Outdoor Recreation Resources of the Northeast Coal Study Area 1976-1977.H.J. Block.Visual Resources of the Northeast Coal Study Area 1976-1977. R.J. Tetlowand S.R.J. Sheppard.Wildlife Resources of the Northeast Coal Study Area 1976-1977. G. Smith.Biophysical Soi1 Resources and Land Evaluation of the Northeast Coal StudyArea 1976-1977 Volumes 1 and 2. T. Vold.Vegetation Resources of the Northeast Coal Study Area 1976-1977.A.P. Harcombe.RAB BULLETIN 9 - Aquatic Migratory Bird Resources of the Northeast Coal Study Area.N.S. Trenholme.RAB BULLETIN 10 - Aquatic System Units of the Northeast Coal Study Area. E.A. Harding.RAB BULLETIN 11 - Northeast Coal Study Area 1977-1978: A List of Vascular Plant Species.A. Ceska.RAB BULLETIN 12 - Wildlife Resources of the Northeast Coal Study Area 1977-1978. G. Smith.RAB BULLETIN 13 - Outdoor Recreation Resources of the Northeast Coal Study Area 1977-1978.K. Sky.RAB BULLETIN 14 - An Analysis of Solar Radiation for British Columbia. J.E. Hay.60 - 600 - 20

Queen’s Primer for British Columbia @Victoria, 1980