documentation and conservation of small mammals in the sacred ...

KFRI Research Report No: 406 ISSN 0970-8103DOCUMENTATION AND CONSERVATION OFSMALL MAMMALS IN THE SACRED GROVES OFKERALA, PENINSULAR INDIA(FINAL REPORT OF THE PROJECT KFRI 478/2005)P. PADMANABHANWILDLIFE DEPARTMENTFOREST ECOLOGY AND BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATIONKERALA FOREST RESEARCH INSTITUTEPEECHI, KERALA - INDIASEPTEMBER – 2009

ABSTRACT OF PROJECT PROPOSALProject No: KFRITitle: Documentation and conservation of small mammals in the sacred groves of Kerala,Peninsular India.Objectives:• To identify and enlist small mammal diversity of sacred groves inKerala• To document endemic and endangered species• To record threats to the groves like fragmentation, habitat,alteration, grazing, poaching, modernization of temples associatedwith the groves, etc. which serve as animal corridors• To measure and compare disturbance of groves• To formulate conservation strategy and action plan for economicallyimportant small mammals through participatory management practices.Date of commencement : April 2005Scheduled date of completion : September 2009Funding agency: Plan FundPrinciple investigator: P. PadmanabhanTechnical assistant: K. Prabhavathy2

CONTENTSAbstract 4Introduction 6Review of literature 11Materials and methods 11Results 13Conclusions 32Recommendations 33Acknowledgements 34References 34Appendices 363

ABSTRACTA survey of small mammals (weighing less than 5 kg) was conducted in the sacredgroves of Kerala from 2005 to 2009. About 300 sacred groves are documented. Theanimals found in the sacred grove were of two types, namely the group of organisms likesnakes, frogs, lizards, lower and higher group of fauna which nested there and those whichvisited the grove temporarily for food and shelter. The floristic composition was highlyinfluenced due to the anthropogenic pressures, cattle grazing, edaphic and climatic factors.The biodiversity of these areas is quite distinct from that of the surroundings.Survey and socio-cultural aspects of sacred groves was studied and threats to thesacred groves documented. The role of small mammals in the sacred grove ecosystem wasanalyzed. Protection was comparatively higher in religiously protected scared groves.Sixty species of small mammals were documented, of which 75 % were bats and rodents.Numbers of small mammals documented were 3 species of Insectivore, 27 species ofChiroptera, one species of Primates, one species of Pholidata, 14 species of Rodentia, 4species of Carnivore, one species of Lagomorpha and one species of Artiodactyla.Fragmentation of sacred groves, urbanization, disappearance of old belief system, wastedisposal, alteration of habitat, removal of biomass, fragmentation of sacred groves due topartition of joint families and formation of nuclear families, felling of old trees andthereby destruction of roosting sites of small mammals were main threats. Sacred groveswhich were religiously protected and bigger in size gave more protection to mammals.Prevention of further fragmentation, giving economic remuneration and award forprotection of groves, declaring sacred groves as community forestry center with assistancefrom Government agencies will prevent further fragmentation and protect biodiversity richsacred groves from extinction.4

INTRODUCTIONThe existence of sacred groves in India dates back to ancient pre-agrarian huntergatheringera and their presence has been documented since the early 1800’s. Believingtrees as the abode of deities and ancestral spirits, many communities set aside sanctifiedareas of forest and established rules and customs to ensure their protection. The rulesvaried from grove to grove, but often prohibited felling of trees, collection of any materialfrom the forest floor and the killing of animals. The prevailing belief was that thepresiding deities administered punishment, often death, to individuals who violated therules and sometimes to the entire community in the form of disease or crop failure. As aresult of such restrictions, several endemic and endangered plant and animal species havesurvived on sacred groves for countless number of years. They are storehouses ofmedicinal plants valuable to village communities as well as modern pharmacopoeia andthey contain wild relatives of crop species that can help to improve cultivated varieties.Sacred groves also provide for the water needs of nearby communities. Many sacredgroves contain water resources such as ponds and streams and the vegetative mass thatcovers the floor of a grove can absorb water during rainy season and release it duringtimes of drought. Trees also improve soil stability, prevent topsoil erosion and provideIrrigation for agriculture in dry climate. There has been no comprehensive survey ofsacred groves in India, so their exact number and area are unknown. At least 13,720 sacredgroves have been reported in various regions of the country, but experts estimate that theactual number is likely 1, 00,000 to 1, 50,000.In Kerala, it is the common practice among the Hindus to assign a part of their landnear the Tharavadu or house as the abode of goddess Durga, Serpent God Naga or Shastaand the place is called Kavu or Sarpakavu. Sacred grove represents the major effort torecognize and conserve biodiversity (ethnic diversity) traditionally. Sacred grovesotherwise Sindhravana or Pavithravana, Devarkadu (in Kannada), Deoban or Devraj (inMarathi), Orans (in Rajasthan), Kavu (in Malayalam), Sarpakadu (in Tamil) arereligiously protected forests and there is a widespread practice of not felling for fear ofincurring the wrath of the presiding deities. Extent wise they vary in size from 1m 2 to 1million m 2 . They provide a countrywide network of protected areas wherein inherentdiversity of flora and fauna is preserved for the best proposition for studying endemism.5

The age old system of every village having a temple, a tank and associated sacredgrove explains the ancient method of water harvesting and sharing and may be consideredas the backbone of village economy. People were prohibited from felling trees and evenremoving a twig was considered as taboo. On a rough estimate, Kerala has about 2000scared groves which are distinct and unique in biological diversity. Only very few arereported from the foothills and the high ranges. The size of the sacred grove in Keralavaries as small as one cent to 20 or more hectares. The vegetation in the undisturbedgroves is luxuriant and with multi layered trees mixed with shrubs, lianas and herbs. Theground is humus laden and abundant with fungus and ferns. Literature pertaining to thedistribution of sacred groves of Kerala is scanty. Balasubramanian and Induchoodan(1996) estimated 761 major sacred groves in Kerala. A detailed account of the animaldiversity in the kavus of northern Kerala was reported by Unnikrishnan (1995). It cannotbe expected that isolated sacred groves would shelter any major mammals. But, theyharbor numerous birds, butterflies and bats, apart from, primates and small mammals(Chandran, 1993). In ponds associated with the groves, hundreds of white tortoises areprotected. The worshippers of the groves feed these tortoises. The serpent groves of Keralaare well known for various snake species, including cobra, viper, krait and python. Ninespecies of frogs have been reported from these groves in Kerala. Sacred groves are alsothe home for fruit bats and hornbills. More than 400 species of birds recorded from Keralahave been spotted in the kavus of Northern Kerala. Nilgiri langur (Presbytis johni) athreatened species of monkey is found in sacred groves (Unnikrishnan, 1995).Comparatively, few studies have been conducted to determine the diversity ofvertebrates in sacred groves. About 100 species of mammals, 476 species of birds, 156species of Reptiles, 91 species of amphibians and 196 species of fishes were reported fromKerala. Major threats to the existence of sacred groves in Kerala are the disappearance ofold joint family system and partition of family properties along with changing socioeconomicscenario. In most of the cases the kavu and surrounding areas will be handedover to a generation, who has no faith or less faith in keeping the integrity of the kavu. Insuch instances either the kavu will be totally denied or sometimes, only the deity will beretained and big trees and associated habitat will be totally converted for other purposes.In some cases symbolic representation of grove is allowed to remain by preserving theoldest and largest tree in the grove. The second major threat is the anthropogenic activities6

and cattle grazing. As the demand for land is always high in Kerala, the shrinkage of grovewas one of the inevitable causes. Encroachment has resulted in the shrinkage of one of thelargest kavus in Ernakulam and Kannur Districts. In some case the old trees in the kavumay be uprooted by natural calamities and this will be taken as a reason for reducing thearea of kavu.Cutting of trees for temple and associated purpose had also been reported from someareas. Since the locations of these virgin ecosystems are in the middle of the people, cattlegrazing, collection of dry leaves and firewood is common. Sacred groves have existed inIndia from time immemorial as patches of densely wooded areas, venerated on religiousgrounds. Sacred groves have preserved many rare and endemic wild plant species, manyof which hold potential benefit to man as medicine, for agriculture and industry. In fact,sacred groves represent the ancient Indian way of in situ conservation of genetic diversity.Reverence for all forms of life human, animal or plant, characterizes our ancient thoughtand continues to this day as a legacy laced with spirituality, humility and recognition ofthe importance of the elements and nature. Sanctity attached to places where nature showsher bounty was both spiritual and secular. These places were considered ‘sacred’, as Godswere supposed to bless them and naturally their protection was considered a sustainableresource, ensuring the basic capital intact. These sacred groves are therefore valuable genepools.Snakes of different categories, frogs, lizards, millipedes, termites, ants, earthworms,and snails form a very important component of the sacred grove ecosystem. Termites, antsand earthworms play an important role in the make up of the soil. Many birds like crow,kite, owl, herons, mynas, and parrots, etc. nest in these sacred groves. Bats, Hummingbirds and insects like mosquitoes, wasps, honey-bees, butterflies and beetles seem to beclosely connected with pollination mechanism of various plants. Monkeys, most of thebirds, rodents like rats, mice, bandicoots, squirrels, mongoose and hare which are alsoinhabitants of these sacred groves besides preserving biological wealth. But tragically,they are slowly disappearing under the influence of modernization (Gadgil and Vartak,1976). The ponds and streams usually adjoining the groves are perennial water sources.These groves are good repositories of humus, which is formed by the adjoining agroecosystems like paddy fields, tapioca and rubber plantations. The floral diversity of thesegroves is very high. It is also interesting to note that particularly some members are7

Fig. 1. Kerala State, the study area10

Quadrate and transect studies were also undertaken. First hand information aboutthe existence of sacred groves was gathered from literature, personal contacts with villagemen, temple authorities, environmental action groups and various social organizations.When a sacred grove was visited, the neighboring people and temple worshipers wereinterviewed in addition to this, information available from earlier study on small mammalsof Kerala with special relevance to endangered species, and information from WesternGhats Division, of ZSI, Calicut, were also consulted.RESULTSSacred groves as Community forestsCommunity forestry aims to assist local people to improve their livelihood bysuccessfully managing their natural resource, particularly trees and forest, through forestryand forestry related projects. The animals of all community projects are two fold: First,they enrich and improve the well being of human community and second, they helppreserve the World’s Biological Diversity. As can be seen from the numerous examples,when local inhabitants are included in the decision making process and given theresponsibility for and the benefits from the sustainable management of local wildlife,projects are more likely to be assured of success and the resource is more likely to beprotected. Our ability to manage the fragmented sacred groves as pools of flora and faunaand which serve as animal corridors for small and medium sized mammals is crucial. Themost critical factor is the conflicting interests in managing the privately owned fragments.List of sacred groves in Kerala is given in Table.1Table 1. List of sacred groves in KeralaS.No. Name of the groves Name of the deity Area (m 2 )1. Anchalumoottil Naga 4402. Cheppallil Kavu Siva/Naga 80803. Cherukkara Kavu Naga 33004. Kaithavanam Nallaveettil Kavu Naga 8005. Kajoor Kavu Bhagawathi/Naga 11,0006. Kalavoor Kavu Naga 5607. Kottinadu Kavu Naga 4048. Kuzhivelil Kavu Bhagawathi/ Naga 300012

9. Mannarassala Naga 52,80010. Panikkasseril Kavu Bhagawathi/Naga 88011. Pavuruthu Kavu Bhagawathi/ Naga 88012. Siva Temple Kavu Siva/ Naga 1,60013. Tampuran Kavu Naga 440014. Thekkemankuzhi Bhagawathi,Naga 41,40015. Valiyaveettil Kavu Naga 132016. Vandanum Kavu Naga 11,00017. Velamkudi Devi Kshetram Bhagwathi/ Naga 840Ernakulam District18. Ameda Kavu Naga 1,320019. Chempakasseril Kavu Naga 20020. Choorakkattu Kavu Naga 240021. Iringole Kavu Bhagawathi 2,00,00022. Kavumpattu Kavu Bhagawathi 404023. Velanmutayil Kavu Bhagawathi 600Idukki District24. Kolana Kavu Vanadaya 4040Kannur District25. Bhuthathar Kavu Bhuthathan 404026. Edattu Kavu Naga 202027. Edeangal Family Kavu Naga 808028. Kolichar Veeran Kottam Kalichan 13,20029. Madayi Kavu Bhagawathi 10,00030. Munda Kavu Naga 300031. Muthukadu Kavu Sastha 1100032. Pararathu Kavu Naga 10,00033. Poongodu Kavu Naga 1,00034. Siva Temple Siva/ Naga 880035. Thazhek Kavu Bhagawathi 10,00036. Undiyalam Nagaru Kavu Naga 80037. Varikkara Kavu Bhagawathi/Thayippara 12,000dhavathaKasargode District38. Cheruppadi Kavu Bhagawathi/ Naga 404039. Dharma sastha Kavu Sastha 40,40040. Edaneer Kavu Sastha 35,20041. Hundi Kavu Bhagawathi/ Naga 11,00042. Kachamaram Kavu Kalichal 404043. Karakka Kavu Bhagawathi 60,70044. Mannupurathu Kavu Bhagawathi/ Naga 18,00045. Naik Kavu Spirit 20046. Puthiyaparambil Kavu Vishnu/ Bhagawathi 17,60047. Sree Bhadra Kavu Bhagawathi/ Naga 440048. Theyottu Kavu Bhagawathi 1,80,00049. Vishnumoorthi Kavu Vishnu 4040Kollam District50. Ayiravally Bhagavathi Kavu Bhagawathi/ Naga 55013

51. Charakkal Kavu Naga -52. Elengireethil Kavu Naga 40053. Endalayappan Kavu Naga 85054. Kannan Kavu Naga/Bhagawathi 65055. Karalathu Bhagawathi Kavu Bhagawathi, Naga 20056. Karalathu Kavu Naga 20057. Kelethu Kavu Naga 40058. Klariyil Kavu Naga 25059. Kalavara Sarpa Kavu Naga 80060. Kuzhikkal Kavu Naga 50061. Madampithara Kavu Naga 25062. Mavidi Temple Naga 25063. Mulliyakkadu Kavu Naga 404064. Naduloor Kavu Naga 20065. Neelimana Kavu Naga 100066. Ondi Kavu Naga 26,40067. Panamoottil Kavu Naga 80068. Pariyarathu Kavu Naga 282069. Pattupurakkal Kavu Naga 20070. Pazhangala Dharma Sastha Kavu Sastha 86071. Puliyan Kulangara Kavu Naga 45072. Sasthakotta Temple Sastha 605073. Siva Temple Naga 100074. Sree Krishna Swamy Temple Naga 20075. Thamarakudi Naga 100076. Udhayakovil Bhagawathi Temple Bhagawathi/ Naga 40077. Velamkudi Devikashetrum Bhagawathi 450Kottayam District78. Kannezhathu Kavu Naga 440079. Koypathi Kavu Naga 220080. Nattithara Kavu Naga 10,00181. Vallal Kavu Naga 1,20082. Manathattil Kavu Naga 1,40083. Ayyan Koil Kavu Sastha 44084. Padathu Kavu Naga 80085. Nellezhathu Kavu Naga 82086. Kumbala Pallil Kavu Naga 101087. Nagampuzhimana Kavu Naga 800088. Kottarathil Kavu Naga 120089. Kollarathil Kavu Naga 40090. Perumbali mana Kavu Naga 200Kozhikode District91. Arayankode Sree Thalassiva Thalassiva/Kirthamoorthy 890392. Bhayan Kavu Naga 32093. Bhayan Kavu Vanadurga & Bhadrakali 20,23494. Chembakkottu Kavu Siva and Bhagavathi 12,14095. Chimmanath Kavu Naga 809396. Gururkkan Kavu Naga 242014

97. Huayil Kotta Durga 38,44498. Kalarikkal Kotta Naga 202399. Karimala Karimala Temple 40,468100. Kariyathan Kavu Naga 1214101. Kilipparambu Kavu Naga 1000102. Kuttiattu Kavu Naga 2023103. Mandakathinkal Kavu Naga 1011104. Mankudi Kavu Bhagawathi 1,000105. Muchukunnu Kavu Siva sastha, Bhagawathi 19,800106. Nagathankotta Naga 81107. Nelikkavu Naga 2023108. Otakali Kali 2023109. Paramannil Sree Nagali Naga Temple 2023Kshethram110. Peralan Kavu Puliyankal Siva 6070111. Perumpally Kavu Kizhakkovil 4046112. Petiyathu Kavu Naga 1011113. Pishari Kavu Bhagavathi 6,600114. Poil Kavu Durga 44,514115. Thazheppurakkal Kavu Thazheppurakkal 2023116. ThechottuPalliarkotta Ittikkurumba and Bhadrakali 11,533117. Thurayil Kavu Naga 600118. Tikkotoor Kavu Naga/Ganapathi 5,000119. Vallikkattu Kavu Vanadurga 63,737120. Vanadurga Kavu Vanadurga 39,600121. Vatekkavu Naga 1011122. Vayappurathu Kavu Naga/Bhagawathi 8,000123. Vellikkattu Kavu Bhagawathi 16,000Malapuram District124. Bhagawathi Kavu Bhagawathi 28,000125. Adhikaraykkotta Kavu Naga 2100126. Shobhapparambu Kavu Bhagawathi/ Naga 1500Palakkadu District127. Murthikkavu Naga 4400128. Naythamangalam Nagaraja, Nagayakshy Siva 81Ayyappan129. Kallingal Nagaraja Maninagam 1,619130. Chemmala Nagaraja, Maninagam,445Chithrakoodakallu131. Karimkulathi Kavu Nagaraja Anjana Maninagam, 364Aiswarya kallu132. Thekkaeveetil Kavu Nagaraja,Anjana Maninagam 1,214133. Puthiyamundayathu Kavu Nagaraja 4,856134. Gurikkanmar Kavu Nagaraja 12,141135. Pathallu Kavu Nagaraja 22,258136. Valluthan Kavu Nagaraja Nagayakshy 4,047137. Kizhakkaeveetil Kavu Nagaraja Nagayakshy 809138. Kizhhaveetil Kavu Nagaraja Maninagam Utramala 40515

Bhagavathy139. Chumathan Kavu Nagaraja 809140. Kalarivathukkal Kavu Nagaraja 4,047141. Kunnathu Kavu Nagaraja, Maninagam,405Utramala Bhagavathy142. Vadakkae kalathil Kavu Nagaraja Maninagam8,094Brahmarakshas143. Valiaveetil Kavu NagarajaAnjana,Maninagam 566Cithrakoodakkalu144. Naythamangalam Nagaraja, Nagayakshy Siva 81Ayyappan145. Kallingal Nagaraja Maninagam 1,619146 Chemmala Nagaraja, Maninagam,445Chithrakoodakallu147 Karimkulathi Kavu Nagaraja Anjana Maninagam, 364Aiswarya kallu148 Thekkaeveetil Kavu Nagaraja,Anjana Maninagam 1,214149. Puthiyamundayathu Kavu Nagaraja 4,856150. Sharathu Nagaraja Chithrakoodakallu 405151. Angaval parambu Nagaraja 202Mandapam pambum Kavu Nagaraja 1,619152. Cheeramthy puthan Nagaraja Nagayakshy 20,235153. Thottupurayil Snake mound 61154. Kollathu Nagaraja Maninagam,Utramala 20Bhagavathy155. Vadakkaenada Nagaraja Maninagam81Brahmarakshas156. Thekkae parambil Nagaraja Anjana Maninagam 40Cithrakoodakkalu157. Sharathu Nagaraja Chithrakoodakallu 405158. Angaval parambu Nagaraja 202159. Mellaeveetil Nagaraja Chithrakoodakallu 97160. Mukkolathu Nagaraja 73Pathanamthitta District161. Kodiuyattu Naga 1320162. Choorakkunnu Bhagawathi/Naga 600163. Idathitta Kavu Bhgawathi/Naga 4040164. Vadakkedathu Kavu Naga 2000165. Chamak Kavu Bhagawathi/Naga 17,600166. Nellurathu Kavu Naga 4040167. Kaliyikkal Kavu Naga 4040168. Karingodathu Kavu Naga 1200169. Enathu Kavu Naga 200170. Kadakkattu Kavu Naga 4400Thiruvanathapuram District171. Alakkattu Kavu, Liamba Naga 80172. Ayaniyerathaladevi Temple Kavu,Naga 1400Karimamoola173. Ayiravilli Temple Kavu, Liamba Naga 60016

174. Bhadrakali Temple Kavu, Azhakikonam Naga 200175. Bhagavathi Kavu, Karippur Naga 600176. Bhagavathi Kavu, Pulimuttathu, Poovar Naga 2025177. Chamundeswary Kavu, Neelakesi - 400178. Chathambarakonathu Kavu, Chathambara Naga 1200179. Chavar Kavu, Pulluvila, Nagaroor - 400180. Chavaru Kavu, Njekkadu Manthramurthy 800181. Chavaru Kavu, Vellarackal Madan, Marutha, 1000Mayamayakki182. Cheennivila Kavu, Karingal, Kattakada Naga 800183. Chenavila Kavu, Uchakkada Naga 1200184. Cherukulathu Kavu, Aryanadu Naga 200185. Cherukulathu Sree Mannadi Kavu, Changa Bhagavathi 240186. Cherukulathoor Kavu, Vellanadu Naga 80187. Cherunilakkodu Kavu, Pangappara Naga 280188. Chittalloor Devi Temple Kavu,Naga 1200Ambalamukku189. Chokkan Kavu, Pachalloor Naga 4000190. Erathu Kavu, Thokkadu, Panayara Naga 400191. Erumakavu, Chirayil Keezhu Naga 550192. Erumkulangara Bhagavathi Temple Kavu, Naga 3200Manacaud193. Erumkulangara Kavu, Manacaud Naga 200194. Gurunagappan Kavu, Chirayinkeezhu Naga 600195. Idivizhunna Kavu, Kidarakuzhi Naga 600196. Iiamkulam Mahadevan Kavu, Sreekaryam Naga 40197. Indalayappan Kavu, Venkode Naga 8800198. Irinjayamkavu, Irinjayam. Naga 400199. Kallarathekkal Kavu, Liamba - 40200. Kamukarakkonam Kavu, Vattappara Madan 400201. Kanjirathummoodu Kavu, Kulathoor Naga 205202. Kannamkkottu Kavu Naga, Nagayekshi 800203. Karathala Kavu (a), Balaramapuram Naga 400204. Karathala Kavu (b), Balaramapuram Naga 330205. Karichayil Kavu, Velamkonam Naga, Nagayekshi 200206. Karimbi Kavu - 120207. Karimkada Kavu, Karimkada Naga 400208. Karingal Thottikkara Nagaru Kavu, Naga 100Kattakada209. Karingottu Kavu, Mevarkara Naga 40210. Karumbichivila Nagaru Kavu, Pattom - 200211. Kavil Sree Bhagavathy Temple Kavu, Naga 1200Pangode212. Kavinmoola Kavu Naga 600213. Kizhettikavu, Pongummoodu Naga 2600214. Kochalummoodu Devi Temple Kavu, Naga 1200Chathambara215. Kochalummoodu Devi Temple Kavu,ChathambaraNaga 120017

216. Kulangara Kavu Naga 660217. Kunnuvila Devi temple Kavu,Naga 320Kesavadasapuram218. Madan Kavu (b), Meverkara Naga 400219. Madankavu, Karimamoola Madan, Naga 80220. Madan Kavu, Nedumangadu Madan 40221. Madan Kavu, Veyiloorkonam,- 400Kumarapuram222. Madanada Kavu, Kallara Naga 400223. Madan Temple Kavu, Paruthippara Naga 40224. Madanada Kavu, Chathambara Naga 1200225. Madanda Temple Kavu, Plakkodu,- 1200Chathambara226. Madankavu, (a), Meverkara - 1600227. Madanthamburan Kavu, Erattakulangara Naga 800228. Madathil Kavu, Kazhakkoottam Naga 800229. Madavilakathu Kavu, Chathambara - 40230. Manchadimoodu Kavu Naga 700231. MannadyDevi temple Kavu, Ambalamukku Naga 400232. Manthuruthu Kavu, Chippanchira Naga 400233. Maruthumangalam Madom Kavu,Naga 1200Muttappalam234. Mathanathu Kavu, Manikkal Madan 200235. Mechamkode Kavu, Vattappara - 160236. Moopuram Kavu, Kollamkkodu Sastha, Naga 6000237. Mulampallikonam Kavu, Kattakada Naga 200238. Mulloor Kavu, Chowwara Naga 600239. Murava Kavu, Kulathoor Naga 200240. Myvalli Ela Kavu, Ayilam Naga 200241. Nagarkavu, Keezhathalakuzhi,Naga 410Kavalakkulam242. Nagaramma Kovil Kavu, Thiruppuram Naga 1600243. Nagarkavu, Plavilakom, Kulathoor Naga 400244. Nagaru Kavu, Karimamoola Naga 200245. Nagaru Kavu, Kazhakkoottam Naga 40246. Nagaru Kavu, Kottiyottu, Attinal Naga 1200247. Nagaru Kavu, Puliyoorkonam, Nalanchira Naga 200248. Nagaru Kavu, Nedumangadu Naga 60249. Nagaru Kavu, Ullorkonam Naga 810250. Nagaru Kavu, Velamkonathu Naga 280251. Nagayekshi Kavu, Ayilam Nagayekshi, Naga 80252. Nagayekshi Kavu, Thennoorkonam Naga 400253. Nakramkodu Kavu, Avanavamchery Naga 520254. Nanniyode Kavu, Nanniyode Naga 4000255. Neelakesi Kavu, Marayamuttam,Naga 6075Neyyattinkara256. Nilami Nagar Kavu, Neyyattinkara Naga 610257. Onathuthodi Kavu, Velamkonam - 40018

258. Oorankudi Kavu, Chirayinkeezhu Naga 800259. Ottavettil Kavu Naga 400260. Padayarakam Kavu, Thiruvallam Naga 1200261. Padinjatte Kavu, Thachottu - 600262. Panayarathala Kavu, Perumpazhuthoor Naga 410263. Pannikonam Kavu, Thiruthippally Naga 200264. Parambarathala Kavu, Karingal, Kattakada Naga 200265. Parayaru Kavu, Nedumangadu Naga 400266. Parottukonam Kavu, Parottukonam Naga 400267. Pattupurak Kavu, Chittayikkode,Naga 4000Kallambalam268. Pazhanchira Devi Temple Kavu,Naga 280Pazhanchira269. Perin Kavu, Mevarkara Naga 40270. Pillathamburan Kavu, Veettukonam, Naga 6000Pothenkode271. Pillaveedu Kavu, Kesavadasapuram Naga 200272. Ponnumthuruthu Kavu Naga 2200273. Poolanthara Kavu, Manikkal Naga 160274. Poovampara Kavu, Mevarkara Rakshassu 80275. Poovathoor Kavu, Poovathoor Naga 600276. Puliyankeezhu Kavu, Chiayinkeezhu Naga 800277. Pulickal Bhagavathi Kavu, Pongummoodu Naga 400278. Pulickal Kavu, Pongummoodu Naga 120279. Pulivalam Mulelthottam Devi Temple Kavu, Naga, Nagayekshi 400IIamba280. Pulivila Sree Dharma Sastha Kavu, Naga 200Pachalloor281. Punnakkattu Edathara Nagaru Kavu, Naga 400Chemmaruthy282. Punnattu Sri Thampuran Kavu,Naga 120Kazhakkoottam283. Puthanvila Kavu, Iiamba Naga 4000284. Siva Temple Kavu, Ambalathara Naga 200285. Sree Aryankuzhi Bhagavathi temple Kavu, Naga 80Kamaleswaram286. Sree Bhadrakali Temple Kavu, Pachalloor Naga 2000287. Sree Bhagavathi Temple Kavu, Nelliyode Naga 800288. Sree Bhoothathan Kavu, Kudappanakunnu Naga 80289. Sree Bhoothathan Kavu, Vazhayila Naga 200290. Sree Dharma Sastha Kavu, Amaravila Naga 210291. Sree Dharma Sastha Kavu, Pirayil Naga 40292. Sree Dharma Sastha Kavu, Thachttu Naga 4000293. Sree Dhurga Devi Temple Kavu,Naga, Nagayekshi 400Kaduvayilkonam, Thottakkadu294. Sree Eswari Bhoothathan Kavu, Kanjikuzhi Naga 800295. Sree Indalayappan Kavu, Karumam Naga 1600296. Sree Thamburan Kavu, Punamkulam Naga 200297. Sree Thamburan Kavu, Thampanoor Naga 16019

298. Sri Bhagavathi Kavu, Kariprathala Naga 200299. Sri Dharma Sastha Kavu, Karyavattom Naga 200300. Sri Dharma Sastha Kavu, Thuruthippally Naga 400301. Sri Dhurga Temple Kavu, Thoppil Naga 400302. Sri Kunnathu Mannadi Bhagavathi Temple - 200Kavu, Mekkepattom303. Sri Naduvathan Kavu, Kazhakkoottam Naga 40304. Sri Raja Rajeswary Devi Temple Kavu, - 600Thennoorkonam305. Thachoor Kavu, Avanavamchery Manthramurthy 400306. Thachottu Madan Kavu, Thachottu Madan, Marutha, 2000Mayamayakki307. Thannimmoottil Kavu, Oruvathilkotta Naga 800308. Thaivilakom Sri Nagaraja Kavu Naga 400309. Thannikkattu Kavu, Kazhakkoottam Naga 80310. Thekkekonam Dhurga Kavu, Chowwara Bhagavathi 320311. Thengazhiyathu Kavu, Thottakkadu Naga 800312. Therikunnathu Nagaru Kavu, Karingal, Naga 4000Kattakada313. Thiruchittoor Kavu, Nedumangadu Naga 800314. Thoppilmele Sri Nagaru Kavu,Naga 200Maruthoorkonam315. Thottakkadu Devi temple Kavu,Naga 1200Pongummoodu316. Thripporittakavu, Panayara Naga 2000317. Udavan Kavu, Edavattom Naga 800318. Vadakkathil Kavu, Avanavamchery Naga 40319. Vadakkodu Kavu, Thottakkadu Naga 2000320. Vadavila Sree Dharma Sastha Kavu, Naga 600Pangode321. Valiya Kavu, Chittayikkodu Naga 4000322. Valiya Thoppil Kavu Naga 800323. Valiyaveettil Thekkedathu Kavu,Naga 400Nedumangadu324. Venmaranelloor Kavu, Thirumannom - 2000325. Viruthiyottu Kavu, Attingal Madan 1000Thrissur District326. Polanchery Kavu Bhagawathi/ Naga 2020327. Nijayapalli Illam Naga 8080328. Vallathu Kavu Naga 800329. Kottathu Bhagawathi Bhagawathi 2020330. Koothu Parambil Kavu Naga 300331. Pampumekkattumana Naga 44025332. Sankulangara Kavu Siva/Naga 6600333. Eramangalam Kavu Naga 1212Classification of sacred groves20

The sacred groves found in India can be classified under three categories: (1) Traditionalsacred groves - It is the place where the village deity resides, who is represented by anelementary symbol. (2) Temple groves– here a grove is created around a temple andconserved (3) Groves around the burial or cremation grounds.Ecological significanceConservation of biodiversity – The sacred groves are important repositories of floraland faunal diversity that have been conserved by local communities in a sustainablemanner. They are often the last refuge of endemic species in the geographical region.Recharge of aquifers – The groves is often associated with ponds, streams or springs,which help meet the water requirements of the local people. The vegetative cover alsohelps in the recharging the aquifers.Soil conservation – The vegetation cover of the sacred groves improves the soilstability of the area and also prevents soil erosion.Distribution of sacred groves in IndiaIn India, sacred groves are found all over the country and abundantly along theWestern Ghats in the State of Kerala and Karnataka. Although, there has been nocomprehensive study on the sacred groves of the entire country, experts estimate the totalnumber of sacred groves in India could be in the range of 100,000.Table 2. List of sacred groves in India.StateLocal term for sacred GrovesNo. ofdocumentedsacred grovesKerala Kavus 2000Arunachal Pradesh Gumpa forests (sacred groves attached to 91Buddhist monasteries)Andhra Pradesh - 750Assam Than, Madaico 40Chhattisgarh Sarna, Devlas, Mandar, Budhadev 600Goa - 55Gujarat - 29Haryana - 248Himachal Pradesh Deo Bhumi 5,000Jharkhand Sarana 29Karnataka Devara Kadu 1,424Madhya Pradesh Devkot, Matikot, Devsthali, Budhadev 2121

Maharashtra Devrais 2,837ManipurGamkhap, Mauhak (sacred bamboo 365reserves)Meghalaya Law Lyngdhoh 103Orissa Jahera, Thakuramma 322Pondicherry Kovil Kadu 108Rajasthan Orans, Kenkris, Jogmaya 225Sikkim Gumpa Forests 56Tamil Nadu Kovil Kadu 528UttaranchalDeo Bhumi, Bugyal (sacred alpine 18meadows)West BengalGaramthan, Harithan, Jahera,Sabitrithan, Santalburithan670Table 3. List of small mammals in the sacred grovesSl. Order Species Common name Distribution StatusNo.1 Insecitvora Hemiechinusmicropus(Horsfield), 1851Pale hedgehog Kottayam District Endemicto IndiaLR/lc2 Insecitvora Suncus murinus Grey musk shrew Throughout Kerala LR/lc(Linnaeus), 17583 Insecitvora Suncus dayii(Dobson), 1888Day’s shrew Ernakulam andThrissur DistrictVU,endemicto India4 Chiroptera Cynopterus Short nosed fruit Throughout Kerala LR/lcsphinx (Vaval)5 Chiroptera Petropusgiganteus(Brunrich)6 Chiroptera Rousettusleschenaulti(Desmarest)7 Chiroptera Taphozousmelanopogon(Jemmnic), 18388 Chiroptera Taphozous longimanus (Hardwicki) 18259 Chiroptera Taplozoussaccolaimus(Temminc)10 Chiroptera Megaderma lyra(E. Geoffrey)11 Chiroptera Megadermaspasma(Linnaeus)batIndian flying fox Throughout Kerala LR/ntFulvous fruit bat Throughout Kerala LR/lcBeard sheathLong wingedtomb batPouch bearing batIndian falsevampireMulay falsevampireThiruvanathapuram/Ernakulam, ThrissurDistrictsErnakulam DistrictThrissur andErnakulam DistrictsThroughout KeralaThrissur, Ernakulam,Thiruvanathapuram,Palakkad DistrictsLR/lcLR/nt?LR/lcLR/lc12 Chiroptera Hipposideros Fulvous leaf Ernakulam District LR/nt22

fulvus (Gray)13 Chiroptera Hipposiderosspeoris(Schneider)14 Chiroptera Hipposiderosater(Temppleton)15 Chiroptera Hipposiderospomona(Andersens’s)16 Chiroptera Rhinolophusrouxii(Temminck)17 Chiroptera Rhinolophuslepidus (Blyth’s)18 Chiroptera Rhinolophushipposideros(Beddomii)19 Chiroptera Tadaridaaegyptica (E.Geoffrey)20 Chiroptera Kerivoula picta(Pallas)21 Chiroptera Pipistrellusceylonicus(Kelaart)22 Chiroptera Pipistrelluscoromandra(Grey)23 Chiroptera Pipistrellus(Temminck)24 Chiroptera Pipistrellusaffinis (Dobson)25 Chiroptera Pipistrellusdormeri(Dobson)26 Chiroptera Scotophilusheathii (housefield)27 Chiroptera Scotophiluskuhlii (Leach)28 Chiroptera Tylonycterispachypusnosed batIndia house shoebatDusky leaf nosedbatAndersens’s leafnosed batIndia horse shoebatBlyth’s horseshoe batLesser woolyhorse shoe batEgyptian freetailed batPainted batKelaart’spipistrelleKozhikode,Ernakulam,ThiruvanathapuramDistrictsThiruvanathapuram,Alappuzha,Ernakulam,Kozhikode, ThrissurDistrictsThrissur andAlappuzha DistrictsThrissur, Ernakulam,Malappuram,Palakkad, Kannur,DistrictsKozhikode, Kollam,Silent ValleyWayanad, Palakkad,Kannur, ThrissurDistrictsThrissur andErnakulam DistrictsKottayam, Thrissur,Kozhikode, KannurDistrictsWayanad andThrissur DistrictsLR/ntLR/nt?LR/ntLR/nt?LR/ntLR/ntLR/lcIndian pipistrelle Malabar LR/ntLeast pipistrelle Thrissur andErnakulam DistrictsLR/lcChocolate Wayanad District ?pipistrelleDormer’s bat Thrissur District LR/ntYellow house bat Thiruvananthapuram.Ernakulam, ThrissurDistricts?Common yellow Palakkad District LR/ntbatBamboo rat Thrissur District LR/nt29 Chiroptera Myotis Peshwari bat Palakkad, Kozhikode UV23

horsfieldii(Temmnick)30 Chiroptera Myotismontivagus(Wrongthow &Ryby) 191331 Primates Lorislyddekerianus(Linnaeus)32 Pholidota Maniscrassicaudata(Gray)33 Rodentia Funambuluspalamarum(Linnaeus)34 Rodentia Funambulussublineatus(water house)35 Rodentia Petinomysfuscocapillus(Jerdon)36 Rodentia Tatera indica(Hardwickeii)37 Rodentia Bandicotabengalensis(Gray)38 Rodentia Bandicota indica(Bechsterin)39 Rodentia Rattus rattus(Linnaeus)Burmesewhiskered batDistrictsKozhikode DistrictENSlender loris Wayanad UVIndian pangolinThree stripedpalm squirrelDuskystriped squirrelSmall Travancoreflying squirrelThrissur, PalakkadDistrictsThroughout KeralaThiruvanathapuram,Ernakulam, WyanadDistrictsPathanamthitta,Kannur, ErnakulamDistrictsLR/ntLR/ntLR/ntUVIndian gerbil Throughout Kerala LR/lcLesser bandicootratThroughout KeralaLR/lcBandicoot rat Throughout Kerala LR/ntCommon houseratThroughout KeralaLR/lc40 Rodentia Rattus blanfordi Unite tailed Thiruvanathapuram, LR/nt(Thomas) wood rat Ernakulam, Thrissur41 Rodentia Vandeleuria Indian long tree Idukki, Wayanad LR/lcoleracea(Bennett)mouse Districts42 Rodentia Mus musculus House mouse Throughout Kerala LR/lc(Linnaeus)43 Rodentia Mus booduga Common Indian Throughout Kerala LR/lcfield mouse44 Rodentia Mus cookeii Ryle’s spiny Kannur District LR/lc(Ryley), 1914 mouse45 Rodentia RattusBrown rat Throughout Kerala LR/LCnorvegicus(Berkemhont),179646 Rodentia Hystrix indica Indian Throughout Kerala LR/lc24

(Kerr) 1790 porcupine47 Carnivora Paradoxurus Toddy cat Throughout Kerala LR/lchermaphroditus(Pallas) 177748 Carnivora Viverricula Small Indian Throughout Kerala LR/ntindica(Desmorest),804civet49 Carnivora Herpestesedwardsii(Geoffroy)Mongoose Throughout Kerala EndemictoW.G.E.N50 Carnivora Felis chaus Jungle cat Throughout Kerala VU51 Lagomorpha Lepus nigricollis Blacknaped Throughout Kerala LR/Ic(F. Cuvier) 1823 hare52 Artiodactyla Moscholameminna(Erxlenben)1777Mouse deer Throughout Kerala LR/nt25

Plate 1. Iringole Kavu scared grove in Ernakulam DistrictPlate 2. A sacred grove in Thrissur District26

Plate 3. Habitat of rodents and bats in sacred grovesPlate 4. Cynopterus sphinxPlate 5. Cynopterus brachyotis27

Plate 6. Latidens salimaliiPlat 7. Pteropus faunulus28

Plate 8. Pond in the sacred grovePlate 9. Habitat alteration29

Ecology of batsSacred groves serve as roost sites and feeding grounds under naturalconditions. The holes and cracks in the trunk of trees and rotting woodpecker holesserve as ideal roosts for about 50 different animal species. Among them, bark crevicesand loose bark can serve as hiding place. Protection of roost sites, tree holes, fulfillseveral basic functions throughout the year. Bats use a large variety of tree roost andwoodpecker holes served as ideal habitat for bats. Woodpecker conservation isbeneficial to bat conservation, because they offer a number of roost sites to bats. A120 year old tree has permanently provided 25 to 30 tree holes. Ecologically, thesemini forest (Sacred groves of older days) endowed man, with all the service of atropical forest ecosystem.Threats to the sacred groves: Fragmentation of sacred groves1. Fragmentation of sacred grovesHabitat fragmentation is a significant threat to conservation due to two reasons.First it leads to the fragmentation of contiguous, large population into several small andisolated populations. These small populations are prone to extinction from several threatsthat are well known. Second the habitat fragments decay in the long run due to change inthe macro and microhabitat conditions. This process is often aggravated by humanactivities. The impact of habitat fragmentation differs among species, depending on theirbiology, ecology and social behavior. Species that are rare, endemic and habitat specialistare more adversely affected and tend to be lost fast than other species. Similarly morecomplex and species rich habitats are much more adversely affected than other habitats.2. Modernization of temples and habitat alterationBecause of the modernization of temples and constructions of concrete protectionwalls to the temples, habitat of bats and rodents are destroyed in large.3. Removal of biomass.Removal of biomass from the sacred groves largely affects the micro habitat ofground nesting forms like rodents and removal of old walls also affects the roosting sitesof bat. In addition, the area under sacred grove is fast deteriorating due to many reasons30

including the cost of performing rituals, modernization, evolution of nuclear families atthe cost of joint families, etc.Plate 10. InvertebratesPlate 11. Seeds31

Socio economic importance of sacred gravesIn Kerala, based on owner patterns, sacred groves can be broadly categorized intothree groups namely, those managed by individuals group of families and the statutorybodies like youth clubs, schools, forest department, municipality and local Panchayath.Sacred groves (Kavukal) are seen throughout Kerala having varied forms of culturalpractices and belief systems. This primitive tribal culture are of Dravidian and is mostlydistributed along the plains and lower elevations i.e. means sea level to 450 m altitude,near settlements and away from the forest. Kollam, Alappuzha and PathanamthittaDistricts in the South and Kannur, Kasargode and Kozhikode District in the North havebeen described as the hotspot of sacred groves of Kerala. Even though the groves are moreor less disturbed and reduced in size, many of them are still rich in biodiversity.Associated with faith, taboos and believed over the years, local people havedeveloped a strong affinity towards the temple and the sacred grove. The local people ofeach sacred grove in general also believe that their livelihood, security and culturalexistence are complementary to the blessings of the deity. However belief in super naturalforces can be traced back to time immemorial. Behind each belief, we can find storiesconnecting it with the purpose of pleasing someone, or the fear of something, although thesacred groves are profited by social taboos, they are not minimum to anthropogenesis likedevelopmental activities, grazing, poaching, invasive, weed collection of wood and timberetc. The present work reveals that, sacred groves act as preservation plots and often harborrare, endemic, endangered and economically and medically important plants. Neglectingthe small groves will lead to the disappearance of both vegetation and cultivatedbiodiversity.CONCLUTIONSSince the 1990’s sacred places have emerged as a new frontier for interdisciplinaryresearch on their own merits and also for their actual or potential relevance forbiodiversity conservation. This reflects the emerging recognition in many sectors of theimportant role that religion and spirituality can play in environmentalism. In some waysattention to these phenomena is a natural development. Even secular approaches to32

environmental protection often become a kind of sacralization of a space, such as pursuingwilderness as an ideal. This is exemplified by John Muir (1838-1914), who experiencedthe forested mountains of the Western United States as a sacred place, and who wasespecially influential in the creation of the national park system. Many students of sacredplaces and related subjects are convinced that there is a demand for a fundamentalrethinking and reworking of contemporary spirituality, Human ecology,environmentalism, and conservation are interconnected. They believe that the recognitionand protection of sacred places in nature may be needed more than ever before for thesurvival of biodiversity and accordingly that of humankind in the 21 st century. AldoLeopold (1887-1948), a prominent pioneer in Wildlife Biology and Conservation, statedmost succinctly the essence of a viable eccentric environmental ethic in his classic essaythe “Land Ethic”: “A thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, andbeauty of the biotic community. It is wrong when it tends other wise.” This ethic appliesas well to sacred places and their role in biodiversity conservation. Preservation of sacredgroves is an important necessity in this era of dwindling forest cover; but the problem isdifficult to tackle, as the number of sacred groves is many and the agencies in charge ofthem are diverse. Hence a common approach in all cases may not be feasible. Howeverfollowing are some suggestions to save the relics from total extinction.RECOMMENDATIONS1. Government may encourage the owners, who are willing to conserve their grovesby granting them incentives in the form of maintenance grants or awards.2. Create awareness among the public about the importance of the sacred groves andthe necessity for their preservation through mass media.3. Two conservation measure urgently required are (1) Prevention of any reduction inthe area of sacred groves (2) Prevention of any further degradation.4. Completely ban the removal of biomass for maintaining the sustainability ofecosystem.33

5. Creation of awareness among local people and all stakeholder groups.6. Identification of the type of contribution of stakeholder group which will help inmanaging the sacred grove.7. Encouragement for all stakeholders in the management of sacred groves taking intoconsideration the wisdom and interest of the major stake holder groups.8. Do not disturb trees, covers, buildings or any other roosting sites.9. Do not cut down trees that have bat roosts.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSI express my heart felt gratitude to the former directors of the Institute Dr. J.K. Sharma,Dr. R. Gnanaharan and present Director Dr. K.V.Sankaran for their constant guidance andencouragement. I acknowledge the financial assistance by the Science Technology,Environment Council (STEC) Plan Fund. Assistance received from Technical AssistantsK. Prabhavathy and M.N. Shaji is gracefully acknowledged. Thanks are also due to Dr.E.A. Jayson, Scientist F, who revised the manuscript and offered many suggestions. Dr.K.K. Ramachandran and Dr. P. Vijayakumaran Nair offered critical comments on the draftreport.REFERENCESBalasubaramanian, K. and Induchudan, N.C. 1996. Plant diversity in the sacred groves ofKerala Evergreen 36: 3-4.Blandford, W.T. 1888. The fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma.Mammalia Part I. Taylor and Francis, London.Burlier, F. 1975. Mammals small and large: the implication of size. in: Small mammals:their productivity and population dynamics, 1-8 pp. F.B. Golle, K. Petrusewicz andRyskowski (Eds.) Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.34

Chandran, M.D.S. 1993. On the ecological history of the Western Ghats. Current Science73: 149-155.Chuvan Robort, M. 1978. The impact of small mammals in ecosystem studies andfunction In: Population of small mammals in India 167-180 pp. Das, D. Sugeth, P.(Eds.) Special Publication Service, Plmaluming Laboratory of Ecology, Universityof Pittsburgh.Corbet, G.B. Hill, J.E. 1991. A World list of Mammalian species, Third Edition. BritishMuseum (Natural History) Publication, London.Gadgil, M. and Vartak, V.D. 1976. Sacred groves in the Western Ghats of India. Eco. Bot.30:152-160.Unnikrishnan, E. 1995. Sacred groves of North Kerala –an eco folklore study (inMalayalam), Jeevaraksha, Thrissur.Wilson, D.E. and Reeder, D.M. 1993. Mammal species of the world. A Taxonomic andGeographic reference. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington.Wroughton, R.C. 1920 a. scientific results from the Mammal survey No. XXIV. BombayNatural History Society 27: 249-250.35

AppendicesAppendix I. Fauna of the sacred grovesSl.No Zoological Name Common NameEnglishMalayalamAmphibians1. Rana hexadactyla Green/ Pond frog ThavalaReptiles2. Bungarus caeruleus Krait Vellikkettan3. Calotes versicolor Garden lizard Onthu4. Ahaetulla nasuta Green whip snake Pachalapampu5. Mabuya carinata Common skink Arana6. Naja naja Cobra Nagam, Moorkhan7. Xenochrophis piscator Freshwater snake Neerkoli8. Coluber mucosus Rat snake Chacra9. Varanus bengalensis Monitor lizard Udumpu10. Vipera russellii Russell’s viper AnaliAves11. Acridotheres tristis Common myna Myna12. Phoenicurus auroreus sp. White brested waterhen Kulakozhi13. Ardeola grayii Paddy bird/Pond heron Kokku14. Bubo nipalensis Forest eagle owl Kattu munga15. Bubo oriental Owl Munga16. Centropus sinensis Crow pheasant Uppan/ Chempothe17. Ciconia episcopus Whitenecked stork Karimkokku18. Corvus macrorhynchos Jungle crow Kattu kakka19. Corvus splendens House crow Kakka20. Egretta alba White egret Vellakokku21. Eudynamys scolopacea Asian koel Kuyil22. Falco tinnunculus Common kestrel Pullu23. Galerida malabarica Crested lark Kompan vanampadi24. Glaucidium radiatum Jungle owlet Chempan nathu25. Gorsachius melanolophus Tiger bittern Thavittu kokku26. Gracula religiosa Common hill myna Kattu myna27. Halcyon smyrnensis WhitebreastedKingfisherPonman28. Haliastur indus Brahminy kite Garudan/Krishnaparunthu29. Milvus migrans Pariah kite Chakkiparunthu30. Nycticorax nycticorax Night heron Pathira kokku31. Oriolus kundoo Indian oriole Manja kili32. Oriolus xanthornus Blackheaded oriole Manja karuppan33. Psittacula krameri Roseringed parakeet Mothirathatha34. Pycnonotus jocosus Blackcrested bulbul Irata thalachiMammals35. Bandicota indica Bandicoot rat Thurappan36

36. Canis aureus Jackal Kurukkan/Oolan37. Funambulus palmarum Palm squirrel Annarakannan38. Herpestes edwardsii Mongoose Kurangu39. Lepus nigricollis Indian hare Moyal, Chaviyan40. Macaque radiata Bonnet macaque Kurangan41. Mus musculus Mouse Chundeli42. ParadoxurusPalm civetMarapattihermaphroditus43. Pteropus giganteus Fruit bat/Flying fox Vouwal44. Viverricula indica Small civet Veruke45. Cynopterus sphinx Shortnosed fruit bat Vouwal46. Rattus rattus House rat Eli47. Mus booduga Little Indian fieldmouseVeedu EliAdapted from the final report of the D.O.E N. Sponsored project entitled “Studies on the Sacred Groves ofKerala” conducted by Dr. K.K. Ramachandran and Dr. C.N. Mohanan., Center for Science Studies,Thiruvanathapuram.Appendix II. Name of the Grove: Mulakunnath KavuObserver’snameP. PadmanabhanDate & time ofobservation26/01/2008District Taluk City/Town/VillageLocationNameThrissur Thrissur MulakunnathKavuSacred grove Templesituated in/ areaElevation fromsea level500 mRoad Forest PrivatePlaceName of deityNagaworshippedTempleOthersTabooAreaPresence ofpond: Yes/No37

ThreatHabitat lossinformation9e.g.,disturbance,killings, habitatloss):Protection information (e.g., Temple , sacred groves, sanctuary) : sacred grovesNotes & Comments: Modernization of the sacred.Photographs of the groove (showing details as well as surrounding area): YesExample of Observation sheetAppendix III. Mammals of sacred groves in Northern MalabarSl.No Scientific name Common name1. Suncus mucenius Grey musk show2. Mus booduga Indian field mouse3. Rattus rattus Common house rat4. Bandicota indica Bandicoot rat5. Tatera indica Indian gerbil or Antelope rat6. Hystrix indica Indian porcupine7. Funambulus palmarum Three- striped palm squirrel8. Pteropus giganteus Indian flying fox9. Cynopterus sphinx Short- nosed fruit bat10. Megoderma lyrce Indian false vampire11. Pipistrellus ceylonicus Indian pipistrelle12. Lepus nigricollis Blacknaped hare13. Herpestes edwardsii Common mongoose14. Paradoxurus hermaphrodites Palm civet15. Canis aureus Jackal16. Vulpes bengalensis Indian fox17. Felis chaus Jangle cat18. Trachypithecus johnii Nilgiri langur38

19. Macaca radiata Bonnet macaque20. Loris lydekkerianus Slender loris21. Felidae bengalensis Leopard cat22. Viverricula indica Small Indian civet23. Lutrogale perspicillata Small Indian otter24. Manis crassicaudata PangolinUnnikrishnan, E. (1995)Appendix IV. Observation sheetNo.AnimalsobservedTime ofobservationNo.observationGroupsizeNature ofobservationSite ofobservationRemarksName of the Grove: Iringole Kavu39