Wise Before the Event - Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation

Published by theCalouste Gulbenkian FoundationUnited Kingdom Branch98 Portland PlaceLondon W1B1ETTel: 020 7908 7604Email: info@gulbenkian.org.ukWebsite: www.gulbenkian.org.ukAll rights reserved; unauthorised reproduction of any part of this workin any medium is strictly prohibited.© 1993 Calouste Gulbenkian FoundationReprinted 1994, 1997,2006The right of William Yule and Anne Gold to be identified as the authorsof this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright,Designs and Patents Act 1988.ISBN O 903319 66 7ISBN (13) 978 903319669British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the British LibraryDesigned by The Upper RoomPrinted by Lightning Source UK Ltd, MK13 8PRDistributed by Central Books, 99 Wallis Road, London E9 5LNTel: 0845 458 9911, Fax: 0845 458 9912, Email:orders@centralbooks.comWebsite: www.centralbooks.com

AcknowledgementsThe authors would like to thank Elizabeth Jones HMI and SimonRichey (Assistant Director, Education, at the Calouste GulbenkianFoundation UK Branch) for their continuous support and guidance;also, grateful thanks to Jeremy Caddy (Head Teacher, GreenhamCourt County Primary School, Berkshire), Elizabeth Capewell(Director, Centre for Crisis Management and Education), KarenDagwell (Deputy Head Teacher, Sydenham School, LondonBorough of Lewisham), Beverley Hamilton (Senior Teacher,Whitefield School, London Borough of Barnet), and ElizabethMonck (Senior Research Fellow, Institute of Child Health) forcommenting so helpfully on the text.

of the incident, the distress caused to the individuals involved can beequally devastating.No-one can predict when a disaster will occur; and thinking aheadand planning will not make the disaster happen. Forward planning,however, may help a school to cope better after a disaster, and itmay well help reduce the distress of young people and staff.The text starts with five short case studies which illustrate ways inwhich children, as well as adults, react to life-threatening events. Itdescribes their various stress reactions and shows how theseinterfere with adjustment and attainment in school. Then itconsiders how schools can plan ahead in the short, medium andlonger-term so that when, and if, a disaster strikes, however largeor small, staff and parents are better prepared to cope with itseffects.

FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCYCOLLIN COUNTY, TXAND INCORPORATED AREASFLOOD PROFILESSTREAM 5B18660 660BACKWATER FROM WHITE ROCK CREEK650 650640 640630 630620 620610 610600 600590 590580A B C D E F G5700 .5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4STREAM DISTANCE IN THOUSANDS OF FEET ABOVE CONFLUENCE WITH WHITE ROCK CREEK188PCONFLUENCE WITHWHITE ROCK CREEKCAMPBELL RDVILLAGE CREEK DRPEDESTRIAN BRIDGELIMIT OF DETAILED STUDYLEGEND0.2% ANNUAL CHANCE FLOOD1% ANNUAL CHANCE FLOOD2% ANNUAL CHANCE FLOOD10% ANNUAL CHANCE FLOODSTREAM BEDCROSS SECTION LOCATIONELEVATION IN FEET (NAVD 88)

Wise before the eventable to talk about death, bereavement and tragedy, they mayunwittingly stop children talking about similar emotionalexperiences.A school which has thought seriously about issues, such asconfidentiality, and has made plans within the curriculum to exploresuch matters as birth and death, will be more open to exploringdifficult feelings. This in turn might better prepare staff to cope withthe range and complexity of feelings that a crisis can engender.

Disasters and their effectsFive case examplesIn recent years a great deal has been learned about the effects thatlife-threatening traumas have on adult survivors. Children too areaffected emotionally. For a long time adults assumed that theseeffects were short-lived but since sympathetic professionals began toask the children themselves how they were affected, it transpired thatthey showed a similar range of difficulties to adults.The following case examples drawn from clinical practice illustratethe range of traumas that school children may encounter; the waysthat some schools have reacted; and the different types of emotional,behavioural and learning problems experienced by the childrenthemselves.D Survivors of the 'Herald of Free Enterprise'An eight year-old boy was physically unharmed when the'Herald of Free Enterprise' capsized. He quickly learned not todiscuss his emotional reactions for fear of upsetting adults. Thus,neither his parents nor school staff were aware of the extent ofhis suffering.Bill had gone on the day trip to Belgium with his parents and eldersister to practise crossing in a ferry as they feared he might not be agood traveller. Otherwise, he was a well-adjusted eight year-old. Billwas standing by the table near the cafeteria just as the boatshuddered and cups started to slip off the table. His father grabbedhis arm and held him as the boat keeled over. As the water started torise, his father helped him climb the sides of the now vertical tables.His mother was trapped in the water. When the helicopters arrivedand ropes were lowered through the smashed portholes, the childrenwere got out first and therefore separated from their parents. They

Wise before the eventwere not reunited until all were on dry land a few hours later.Fortunately Bill and his family survived. They were flown home thefollowing day.For the first three weeks at home all the family were very distressed.They wanted to be close together initially, but after three days Billwas returned to school as his constant questioning and distress weretoo difficult for his mother to cope with: uncharacteristically, he wasperpetually on the move, snatching things, fiddling with things, notdoing as he was asked, making noises, and generally beingdisruptive and defiant. His sleep was disrupted. He had frighteningdreams of the boat going over and would regularly go into hisparents' room to sleep in their bed. At school he had great difficultyin concentrating, didn't listen to teachers and couldn't answerquestions.Nearly three months after the accident, he was downstairs on adouble decker bus going to a football match when the bus swayed asit went round a roundabout. He shouted, "It's going over, Dad!",and had to be taken off the bus as he was so terrified. Wheninterviewed alone, he confided, "Sometimes when I am in myclassroom, and I am standing over my desk, I think the room isgoing to go over. At night, I often dream that the world is going overon its side, all the people will go in the air, up in the sky, and all willget separated". Neither Bill's parents nor teachers had reported anysignificant level of disturbance. Nonetheless, he was diagnosed assuffering from Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), a conditionwe shall discuss later.Bill joined a group with other child and adolescent survivors to talkthrough his reactions. At one point he suddenly broke down intoinconsolable tears. He said that he was being teased at school byanother child who said such things as "/ wish you had died on theFerry". The others were asked how he should deal with this. Anolder girl who had lost both parents on the ferry said that she too hadbeen teased at school and called 'orphan'. It had hurt hertremendously, but she knew that she had to ignore it. The therapistsaid that while this was hard, but right for her, it could not beexpected that the younger child should do so. The group agreed that

Disasters and their effectsthe therapist had to ask the boy's parents to intervene and talk to thehead teacher, and that this was not 'telling tales'. The parents told thehead who dealt with it promptly. Nonetheless, neither the parents northe teachers had known about the teasing and its effects on the boy.This next example illustrates the added complications of physicalinjury and bereavementMary, aged 13, was sitting in the cafeteria of the 'Herald of FreeEnterprise' with her parents and a friend when the boat went over.She and her mother were catapulted out of their seats, across theroom, and smashed through a glass partition. Mary remembers beingclose to her mother in the water in the dark with all the noise around.She must have been close to her mother when her mother drowned,but she cannot recall any details after reaching the water where sheremained for over two hours. She was in hospital in Belgium for afew weeks recovering from her injuries.Once home she found it very difficult to talk to her father or siblingsabout her experiences, but spent hours obsessionally discussing itwith her friend. She was very upset by references to the disaster madeat school. She was totally unable to concentrate on school work. Shefound great difficulty getting to sleep at night. She had worries abouttravelling by ferry or aeroplane. She needed to be out of the house,seeking her friends' company. She suffered flashbacks, especially rehearingthe sound of breaking glass.Mary had to cope with the feelings of the loss of her mother. She hadnot been able to attend the funeral as she was still in hospital, and socould not say goodbye to her mother. Once home, her schooling wasdisrupted further by many hospital appointments. Her father's owngrief prevented him from comforting her. It was many months beforeprofessional help was organised for her.Most children find it difficult to concentrate following a disaster,which consequently affects their school work. Exam preparationand standards of achievement may suffer unless the problem isrecognised

Wise before the eventJohn was nearly 16 when he accompanied his parents and elderbrother on the day trip to Belgium. He should have been in school;so, in order to salve his conscience a little, he took his GCSE Englishcourse work with him to prepare for the exam. Fortunately, when theship capsized, all his family survived...but not the English coursework.Back home he had tremendous difficulties getting to sleep. He couldnot discuss the accident with his parents as they were still too upset.He was tired and could not concentrate in school or revise at home.Months later it emerged in a group session that the teachers were notonly pressurising him to keep up-to-date with his preparation forGCSE but were also expecting him to re-write all the course workdestroyed in the accident (the GCSE had just been introduced andteachers and pupils alike were under pressure). Once the problemwas acknowledged, a brief discussion with the teachers resulted inrescheduling his revision and a letter being sent to the examiningboard to explain the unusual circumstances. John felt that the burdenhad been lifted and was better able to concentrate.El The 'Jupiter' cruise sinkingIn the 'Herald of Free Enterprise' disaster, most of the survivingchildren were unknown to each other: up to 25 schools had onlyone affected pupil to care for. This made for difficulties ingetting an adequate picture of what the children had actuallyexperienced and in recognising that much of their behaviourwas indeed reaction to their experience. In contrast, when the'Jupiter' sank, about 20 schools each had up to 30 pupils onboard. One school had to cope with the death of one pupil;another school had to adjust to the death of a teacher. Most, likethe school in the next example, had to try to understand thereactions of a very traumatised group of teenagers. This sectiontherefore illustrates the effects of a disaster on a whole school, asopposed to the previous example which described the effects onindividuals.

Disasters and their effectsAs the ship left Piraeus harbour it was beginning to get dark. Some ofthe groups of pupils were lining up for the evening meal, some wereattending a briefing lecture on what they were to see on the trip.At first, when the collision occurred, no one realised the seriousnessof the situation. Very quickly the 'Jupiter' shipped water and beganlisting to port and aft. Children were told to assemble in a lounge onan upper deck, but many were unfamiliar with the layout of the ship.As the vessel listed at 45° and then worse, they found it very difficultto get around. Children became separated from friends and teachers.Many were able to jump across to tugs that had come alongside, buttwo seamen assisting in the transfer were fatally crushed between theship and the tug: many children saw their dead bodies.Other children, some of whom were non-swimmers, clung to therailings on the topmost deck under the lifeboats and had to jump intothe water as the 'Jupiter' went down, its funnel hissing and spurtingout soot and smoke. Children and staff in the dark clung to wreckagein the oily water until rescued. Some of those who were swimmingwere terrified that they would be run down by the rescue craft. It wasmany hours before it was realised that all but one child and oneteacher had survived. After spending a sleepless night on a sister shipmoored in Piraeus harbour, the children were flown home to abarrage of publicity.Some reactions in schoolIn one of the schools, a girls' school, the staff invited psychologists induring a Staff Development Day. The psychologists met the teacherswho had led the trip, girls who had survived and most of the parents.This initial, marathon meeting permitted the girls to discuss theirfeelings both at home and at school.Over the next few weeks there were many incidents of girls gettingvery upset and having to leave the classroom. Arrangements weremade for making this as easy as possible and for the head of year tobe informed. Such incidents were regularly reviewed with thepsychologists when they visited the school.Even the most experienced teacher can be caught on the hop. A

Wise before the eventminor and apparently unconnected incident can trigger off a majorreaction. For instance, it was an unfortunate coincidence that whensurvivors went in to the geography class it still had a display on thesubject of 'Great Disasters of the World'. Once the girls could seewhat was triggering off their distress they were far better able tocope.In some cases it took longer to spot the connections. One girl gotvery upset and felt that staff were not caring about her (althoughthis was far from the truth). She cited as an example that she hadcome in late one wet day and the class teacher had ignored her. Itturned out that while sitting in her wet clothes she felt just as shehad done on the quayside at Piraeus. It took a long time toconvince her that perhaps she should have taken someresponsibility herself and told the class teacher, who, after all,could hardly have read her mind.Things settled down in that particular school over the next twoterms. Then a number of girls in the fifth form experienced anupsurge of difficulties going into assembly, having been able tostand the crowds before the summer break. Careful questioningrevealed that one of the privileges of being in the fifth year was thatthese girls could now sit in the balcony during assembly. Thebalcony was steeply raked and had a small iron hand rail at thebottom of the steps. Unfortunately, this reminded many of them oftheir ordeal in negotiating the steeply sloping deck of the ship withthe iron rails going around the decks. Once this was realised, thisproblem went away.Effects on school workIn all the examples so far, the children had difficulties with sleep andwith concentration. Inevitably, teachers and parents were worriedabout the effects on their school performance. Surprisingly, thisphenomenon had rarely been studied. The following provides someuseful insights.In one school, the end of year exam results for the three years beforethe disaster were compared with the end of term results ten monthsafter the sinking. The results can be seen in the graph:

Pisasters and their effectsz-score+•1.25 -•-fl.OO -•40.75 -+0.50 -+0.25 -Mean --0.25 --0.50 --0.75 --1.00 --1.25 --1.50 -

Wise before the eventFourteen year-old Mark went with his mother to see his favouritefootball team play at Hillsborough. She was crushed to death. Heescaped onto the pitch where he saw others die. Later he had toidentify his mother from a polaroid photo taken at the scene. Formonths, in addition to coping with his bereavement, he found that hewas irritable at school and got into a great deal more trouble thanusual. He also became considerably distressed whenever he heard aword including '...borough' mentioned in any news bulletin orelsewhere.Mark went through the usual pattern of grief and was greatlysupported by a social worker and a teacher in school. Talking overthe details of what happened that day helped him deal with hisfeelings about the accident, but he was left with this marked reactionto 'borough' words. The psychologist treating him made up a tape ofhundreds of such words. Mark was taught the rudiments of relaxationand then, when relaxed, he would listen to the tape repeatedly. Aftera few sessions with the tape, the dreaded word lost its power to raiseanxieties and he was able to resume a relatively normal life.DA teacherAccidents during school journeys affect teachers as well aspupils. This case illustrates how a good teacher, before skilledtherapy was arranged, came close to giving up the profession.Miss Leader was 35 years old and had been teaching in secondaryschools for just over 10 years. She was an excellent teacher who hadtaken many groups of pupils on school journeys. On one tripoverseas, the coach in which her group was travelling was involvedin a collision. At first it was not clear how many children had beenkilled because the survivors were dispersed to several local hospitals.Miss Leader recalls that initially she felt calm and in charge. She didwhat she could to comfort wounded children and then set about thetask of trying to find out if all were safe. She remembers that theworst moment was when she arrived at the first hospital and took outher tattered list containing the names of the children in the party.10

Disasters and their effects"Up until then I had been fairly calm, almost operating on anautomatic pilot. But as I ticked the names off my list, suddenly it hitme. How on earth could I tell Mr and Mrs Briggs that Sharon wasdead? What about Mrs Hollis who had relied on Gavin since hisfather died? Every name without a tick meant another set of parentsto tell, another funeral to attend. I just knew I couldn't face that. Ifelt so helpless."In the event none of her party was badly hurt and all were returnedhome within a few days. On getting back to school Miss Leader hadto tell her story many times, but she never shared her worst fears offeeling so helpless and having to attend the funerals. For the firstfew weeks she seemed to cope at work, but she had increasingdifficulty sleeping. No matter how tired she was, as soon as herhead hit the pillow, she kept replaying the scenes of the crash in herhead. She grew steadily more tired, more irritable and less able toconcentrate. Halfway through the following term she decided tochange from full-time to part-time work.Her colleagues were sympathetic and supportive, but felt out oftheir depth. Eventually, she saw a nurse therapist who discussed thecrash in detail, concentrating on her most private feelings andthoughts about it. As they confronted these fears and feelings, soshe overcame them and within two months was fully functioningonce more. She still remembers all that happened, but now cancontrol those memories and they no longer upset her.E A road traffic accidentWhen a child dies or is badly hurt in an accident on the way toschool, the school has to decide how to respond and what to tellthe other children. As the next case illustrates, teachers need tobe aware of how being involved in a traumatic death can affecta pupil.David was 10 when he walked home from school one day with hismother, younger sister and other pupils and their parents. They allwalked on the pavement as usual, but this did not save them when a11

Wise before the eventlorry skidded on a wet road, mounted the pavement and ploughedinto their party. David's sister and one other pupil were killed, andhis mother slightly injured.This is an all too familiar sad story that can be read daily in a localnewspaper. However, the effects on David and the school weredevastating. Staff were shocked, but dealt well with the immediateaftermath. They told the children in broad outline what hadhappened; they helped them to make cards to send to the bereavedfamilies. They were quietly sympathetic as the funerals came andwent. They resolved to keep their teaching on road safety high onthe agenda.Meanwhile, David became more tearful and listless. He could notconcentrate on his work and often seemed to be day-dreaming. Helost interest in football, something that had been his great passion.One day, as he was on his own in the classroom, he blurted out tohis teacher that he had imagined that his mother had been killed inthe accident. She listened and took David to a quiet room where hecould tell her all that had happened and all that he had feared."/ was walking on the inside of the pavement, just behind Lisa (hissister). Suddenly, I heard a noise and saw a lorry come up onto thepavement and hit her and mummy. I saw Lisa being crushed and Iknew straightaway she was dead. Mummy was knocked over a wall,and she was taken to hospital. I was taken home to a friend'shouse."At the time of the incident David had not known whether hismother would live. He had no one with whom to share hisreactions after seeing his sister killed. His mother was so obviouslyupset that he did not want to upset her further by telling her whathe had seen.David needed a sympathetic adult to hear his story in all its gorydetail. He needed to make sense of what he saw; to reassurehimself that his sister was killed outright; to know that he couldhave done nothing to prevent the accident; and to share his sense ofloss when he thought his mother had also been killed. All werefeelings that were too painful to share with his distressed mother. Histeacher listened, explained and reassured him. When he was ready,12

Disasters and their effectsshe got him to talk through how he was going to cope without hissister as customary playfellow. She made a note to remember theanniversary of the accident so that she could acknowledge thatimportant date to David and to talk through how he wanted to mark it.The wide range of these crises, whether affecting one child, onefamily, one school or a whole community, shows many similarities ofresponse and illustrate a wide range of individual reactions.13

Wise before the eventReactions to major stress inadults and young peopleSchools need to be aware of the range of symptoms (illustrated inthe previous section) that both children and teachers may show aftera major trauma. The most important thing is for teachers and thosewho have management responsibility for teachers to note any majorchange in behaviour after a disaster; to note the nature of thosechanges; and to alert others as agreed in the school contingency plan(discussed later).The case examples drew attention to the wide range of reactionsshown by children following a variety of traumatic experiences. It isimportant for parents and teachers to realise that a high proportion ofchildren may experience intense distress and that this may last morethan two years in a sizeable minority.Following the Aberfan disaster, Lacey (1972) described how 56children reacted over the following four years:"Symptoms varied but the commonest were sleeping difficulties,nervousness, lack of friends, unwillingness to go to school or out toplay, instability and enuresis. Some of the children too had shownsome of these symptoms before the disaster, but they were said to bevery much -worse after it. Broadly speaking, the children who weremost affected were those with other anxiety-creating situations intheir backgrounds." (Lacey, 1972, p 259)Some anxious parents became over-protective of their children.Fears of the dark and nightmares caused sleep problems. Badweather upset the children as a period of bad weather had precededthe tip slide. Children rarely spoke spontaneously of theirexperiences. Three children played games of 'burying' in the sand.Where certain symptoms are present the child is likely to besuffering from a syndrome that is now recognised as PostTraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD).14

Disasters and their effectsPost Traumatic Stress DisorderPost Traumatic Stress Disorder is defined by the World Health Organisation andthe American Psychiatric Association as a reaction that may follow an event that isoutside the range of usual human experience and would be very distressing toalmost anyone.There are three main groups of symptoms or reactions:(1) The traumatic event is persistently re-experienced in thoughts, dreams orflashbacks where the individual thinks it is all happening again.(2) There is persistent avoidance of stimuli associated with the trauma, or thereis numbing of general responsiveness.(3) There are signs of increased physiological arousal such as disturbed sleepand poor concentration.PTSD is now recognised as a normal reaction to an abnormalsituation. Along with that recognition has come improved ways ofsuccessfully helping those affected. It is important that people arereassured that, while distressing, the symptoms described here canbe treated successfully.Like most of us, children - especially adolescents - worry that theyare going mad when they start experiencing some or many of thesesymptoms. They need to be reassured that they are not. However,not everyone shows all these responses. There is a wide range ofindividual reactions. For example, some people get very anxious,phobic about particular objects or situations encountered during adisaster, or become very depressed or suicidal.In the following section we describe in greater detail the symptomsassociated with PTSD, additional reactions to major crises and someof the ways in which individuals and schools can support pupils andtheir families. Although staff may also develop PTSD, and thisneeds to be recognised and treated, here we concentrate on theeffects on pupils, mainly in the eight to eighteen year range or juniorto secondary age.15

Wise before the event(1) Re-experiencing the traumaMost young people are troubled by repetitive, intrusive thoughtsabout the accident. These may occur at any time, although they areoften triggered by something in their environment that remindsthem of the accident - for example, as we have seen, children fromshipping disasters may get upset by movement on a bus, the noiseof glass smashing, the sound of rushing water, the sight of tableslaid out like a ship's cafeteria and so forth. Distressing thoughtstend to intrude when the children are otherwise quiet. Sometimesthey can have 'flashbacks' as if they were reliving the experience.They may also relive the incident in recurring nightmares.(2)Avoiding thinking about the experienceThe emotions that the intrusive thoughts give rise to can be verypainful and often young people try to avoid thinking about thetrauma or avoid dealing with the emotions. They may steer clear ofthings that remind them of the trauma because such things are likepowerful fears which actually happen. While in many adults thereis evidence of difficulty in sustaining emotional relationships or inhaving loving feelings, these signs may be different in children. Forexample, they may often show a lack of interest in hobbies andpastimes previously enjoyed.The symptoms of this kind of avoidance may appear as:a. Not talking with parents Many young people do not want totalk about their feelings with their parents so as not to upset them.Thus, parents are often unaware of the finer details of the children'ssuffering, although they can see that they are upset. There is often agreat sense of frustration between parents and children at momentslike this.b. Not talking with peers After a few days, survivors may feel agreat need to talk over their experiences with their peers.Unfortunately the timing is often inopportune. Peers hold back fromasking in case they upset the survivor further; the survivor oftenfeels rejected.e. Foreshortened future and change of priorities Learning howeasily life can be extinguished can cause young people to lose their16

Disasters and their effectsfaith in the future. They may feel that their whole view of theworld, and their own priorities, have been altered. Many feel thatthey should live each day to the full and not plan ahead: they losetrust in long-term planning. Others realise that they have been overconcernedwith materialistic or petty matters and resolve to re-thinktheir values, sometimes within a formal religion.d. Guilt 'Survivor guilt' has long been considered a paradoxicalreaction following a disaster. Child and adolescent survivors oftenfeel guilty that they are alive when others have died. They feelguilty that they could have done more to help others during thedisaster. They sometimes also feel guilty about things they didduring the crisis in order to survive.(3) Heightened anxiety and arousalIn children and adolescents, heightened anxiety and arousal mayappear as:a. Concentration difficulties During the day children may havemajor problems concentrating on school work. For example, whenit is silent in the classroom they may have intrusive memories ofwhat happened to them.b. Sleep disturbance Almost every young person involved in adisaster will have major sleep problems in the first few weeks.They report fears of the dark, fears of being alone, intrusivethoughts when things are quiet, bad dreams, nighnnares andwaking at intervals throughout the night. For some, these problemscan persist over many months. Listening to music while droppingoff to sleep can help divert distressing thoughts.e. Separation difficulties Initially, most children want to bephysically close to their surviving parents, often sleeping in theparental bed during the first few weeks. Some distressed parentsfind their children's clinginess difficult to cope with and manyparents may find that they are irritated by this 'babyish' behaviour.d. Memory problems Young people may have problemsremembering new material or even old skills such as readingmusic.17

Wise before the evente. Heightened alertness to dangers Survivors have learnt thehard way that life is fragile. They become alert to all sorts ofdangers in the environment that they previously ignored. Forexample, those who survive transport accidents are wary of allforms of transport and are unwilling to put their safety in the handsof other people. They may also be affected by reports of otherdisasters.f. Fears Most survivors of disasters are likely to develop fearsrelated to their experiences. Survivors of transport accidents maydevelop fears of travelling by sea and air. Others have fears ofswimming, or the sound of rushing water. Children who are badlymauled by dangerous dogs develop fears of other dogs andanimals. It is this spread of fears from an original threat tosomething different that often prevents adults from spotting theconnection between the child's behaviour and the traumatic event.g. Irritability Many children find themselves much more irritablethan previously, both with parents and peers. Some also find thatthey get much more angry.Many children also show other reactions and symptoms such as:h. Depression Adolescents involved in disasters reportsignificantly higher rates of depression than do others of the sameage. Many adolescents experience fluctuations in their mood and,understandably, such ups and downs may be worse after acatastrophe. However, it is important to differentiate betweenfluctuating low mood and persistent low mood coupled withfeelings of low self worth, loss of appetite and disrupted sleep. Thisamounts to a clinical depression. A few adolescents also developsuicidal thoughts and occasionally take overdoses.i. Bereavement reactions When children have been bereaved byan accident, no treatment plan can ignore the children's grief.Bereavement reactions complicate the way other symptoms showthemselves but must be attended to. (See Further Reading inAppendix 2)j. Anxiety and panic A significant number of children becomevery anxious after accidents, although the appearance of panicattacks is sometimes considerably delayed. Usually it is possible to18

Disasters and their effectsidentify stimuli in the child's immediate environment that triggeroff panic attacks, hence the need to obtain as detailed an account aspossible of the impact of the trauma on all the child's senses.(4) Effects on younger childrenInfants and pre-school children have been less systematicallystudied than older children and adults. In part this is because adultsoften avoid talking to the child about what happened hoping thatthey are too young to appreciate fully what happened to them. Evenvery young children can be keenly sensitive to their parents' distressand quickly learn not to talk about their bad experiences. However,it is possible to get children as young as four to six years old todescribe vividly what they had experienced.Very young children may show all sorts of regressive or anti-socialbehaviour. Children who have been dry at night may start wettingtheir beds again. Children who have slept in their own beds mayneed to sleep with their parents for a while. Children who have beenwell-adjusted and happy may become easily frustrated, irritable anddestructive.A number of the pre-school children who survived the sinking ofthe 'Herald of Free Enterprise' were reported by their parents andteachers as getting involved in repetitive play or drawings involvingthemes about the ship. One four year-old girl involved herplaymates in endless games of nurses patching up the injured whichwent on for many months. A six year-old boy drew many picturesof 'the bad ferry' and spoke about it often in class with anunderstanding teacher. The day the head teacher took the class sheforbade him talk to about it again. That night he began havingnightmares and a few months later he tried to kill himself by pokinga metal rod into an electric socket He said he wanted to die to stopthe pictures of the bad ferry in his head.Three other pre-school boys became aggressive and anti-social bothat home and at school. Their parents knew they were still upsetthinking about the ferry, but they could never talk about it toanyone. When things got bad, the children would gouge out piecesof plaster or destroy toys or pick fights with other children.19

Wise before the eventVery young children have only limited understanding of the lifethreateningnature of disasters. Even so, we know that some preschoolchildren also have very adult concepts of death and dying. Itis important that we remember the range of individual differences inunderstanding when discussing (or not discussing) the effects ofdisasters with children. It is always a good strategy to get children torepeat to you what you have tried to explain. That way, any muddlesor misunderstandings are quickly revealed and can be corrected.As young children's understanding develops they will need to goback over the troubling events, to make better sense of them from amore advanced level of understanding.(5) Effect on teachersTeachers have to relate to all pupils, those involved in an incidentand others. They also have to relate to the rest of the staff and to theirown relatives and friends outside school. Teachers may alsoexperience difficulty in knowing when to talk about the incident andwhen not to. If they have been involved in the crisis, they maydevelop problems in concentration and memory. Some may tryworking out their problems inappropriately. For example, they maysometimes seek out children to confide in, thereby adding to thechildren's burden. At other times, instead of discussing theirdifficulties with other teachers, they may discuss them in class withthe children. Other staff need to be aware of this to ensure thatappropriate help and support (see later) are available for teachers andother staff who are involved in major incidents.20

Disasters and their effectsTo talk or not to talk?When a personal tragedy befalls someone it is often difficult to know what best todo or say. Teachers in schools are in much the same dilemma - when should theytalk about it to the young person? When should they leave well alone? There are noeasy answers; but it is clear that not feeing the dilemma can often make thingsworse.For example, one party of school children returned from a trip abroad duringwhich they were invoked in a bloody terrorist attack Fortunately no one in theparty was killed. Although they came back to a blaze of publicity, a harassed seniormember of staff thought the best thing to do was to try to pretend nothing hadhappened. In contrast to another group who had also been on a school journey atthe same time, those involved in the attack were forbidden to put up pictures oftheir trip and were strongly discouraged from talking about their experiences.Offers of help from outside agencies were ignored. Three months later, survivorsneeded specialist help.21

Wise before the eventWho is most likely to beaffected?Sometimes it is immediately obvious when young people areaffected by symptoms of PTSD. Certain symptoms, however, maytake longer to surface. It is important, therefore, to know who areliable to be affected the most, so that teachers can keep an eye onthose most likely to need help.(1) Young people whose lives were at greatest risk are mostlikely to suffer emotional consequencesThis is illustrated by the case of the sniper in the Califomian school.Those children who were trapped in the line of fire in the playgroundsuffered most, as judged by individual clinical assessments; thosewho were on the school premises, but not in direct danger, sufferedto a medium extent; those not attending school that day (one thirdwere out of school on planned rotation) were affected least. Therewere however exceptions to this. The little boy who went off to playfootball, leaving his sister in the playground, felt very guilty andsuffered a great deal.A similar gradation was found in one school where a party of 25girls survived the 'Jupiter' sinking. It was considered that those girlswho had asked to go on the cruise but were not awarded placeswould be more affected than those who never expressed an interest.And so it was found: there was a relationship between exposure andafter effects with respect to measures of anxiety and depression.However, only the girls who experienced the sinking showed anincrease in fears related to boats, drowning and the like.(2) Those who witness death and carnageSurvivors of disasters are more adversely affected if the cause istechnological or deliberate than if it is a natural disaster. Either way,children who see people badly injured or killed are likely to be moredistressed.

Disasters and their effectsRelationship between personal risk and outcome12 _•oB1O1 month6 months 14 monthsPlayground(n SchoolNol al school ~—C3 —Off TruckNader K, Pynoos R S, Fairbanks I and Frederick C (1991) Childhood PTSD reactions oneyear after a sniper attack, American Journal of Psychiatry, 147,1526-1530Increased fears in survivors and other pupilsUnrelated and related fears at 5 months10Controls No interest Near missFear survey schedule for childrenCruiseYule W, Udwin O and Murdoch K (1990) The 'Jupiter' sinking: effects on children's fears,depression and anxiety, Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 31,1051-1061(3) Children who come from unstable family relationshipsAlthough it is less well founded in empirical studies, children whoare emotionally unstable or come from unstable family relationshipsare likely to suffer more and for longer than those in more supportiverelationships.23

Wise before the event(4) Children who are less able intellectuallyAlthough it might be expected that more able children would bemore affected by having a better understanding of all that hadhappened, current evidence suggests that it is the less able child whois more adversely affected.(5) Gender differencesThere is a higher proportion of problems among girls than amongboys.(6) Refugee childrenRefugee children are often suffering from Post Traumatic StressDisorder, culture shock and language difficulties. It is important totry to disentangle the three sets of responses. Recently severalschools have developed excellent strategies to help children insimilar positions. We refer to a useful book on this subject, inFurther Reading, at the back of this book.Schools cannot do anything about most of these risk factors, but if adisaster does strike, the factors can be used to identify children whoshould be monitored with especial care.24

WHAT SCHOOLS CAN DO

What schools can doDeveloping a contingency planNew South Wales Department of School Education, Australia (March 1991)School management teams and governors should develop a plan that involves thefollowing steps:1 Identifying Potential Critical Incidents2 Identifying Support Agencies and Personnel3 Developing a School Critical Incident Management Plan4 Clarifying Roles - for all Personnel including Ancillary StaffWe have described how pupils and staff can be affected bothemotionally and in their work achievements by crises, and that theseeffects can sometimes last for many years.What can a school do to plan ahead to minimise the impact of suchcrises? How can it avoid making a 'drama out of a crisis'?We now describe what schools are likely to face in the immediate,short, medium and long-term phases of a crisis. Each of these phasespresents a variety of challenges that school managers will need toconsider. We draw attention to the principal decisions, not alwaysobvious, that have to be faced, and offer suggestions as to how thetasks should be assigned. We also consider the broader implicationsfor curriculum planning. The section concludes with advice ondeveloping a school contingency plan.Immediate tasks(1) The need for factual informationWhen a crisis occurs the first task is to obtain accurate informationand to relay it to senior management within the school. Disastershappening away from school premises will be unclear for manyhours, but there is still a need to convey as much accurateinformation as possible. Uncertainty breeds rumour, which adds todistress.27

Wise before the event(2) Information out and inAfter a fire that destroyed the science block in aCambridgeshire school, the deputy head was reported assaying:"Communications were a top priority. The school's onlyoutside line was jammed with incoming calls, but we wereable to use another number in the community educationoffice. It is very important in a crisis to have a lineexclusively for outgoing calls." (Times EducationalSupplement 24.1.92)Where pupils have been involved in an accident outside theschool, the party leader needs to have an emergency number onwhich to make contact with senior management back at school orat their homes. This should be different from the regular schoolnumber.Some thought should also be given to the possibility of borrowinga portable telephone for use by senior management to maintaincontact with the appropriate authority and the party leader. Thiswill enable the school to get on with its business while parents andpress are trying to phone in.(3) Dealing with enquiriesThe families of the young people caught in a tragedy will need fulland accurate information. They may need to be brought to theschool to receive it.In the event of a tragedy, the school will be inundated withtelephone calls. This means that people will need to staff theschool switchboard which can be a stressful task dealing withdistressed and worried enquirers, especially when there isuncertainty or bad news.Those answering the phones should keep notes and have themchecked against school records so that there is certainty about whohas phoned in and who should still be contacted.Schools should always have an up-to-date list of the pupils' nextof-kinand where to make contact with them. When groups of28

What schools can dochildren and teachers go off the premises, a named member of staffstill at school should have a copy of the list. Other members of staffshould at least know where to find it. As soon as an incident isreported, in or out of school, parents and guardians should beinformed and advised how further information will be conveyed andby whom.(4) Informing parentsParents need to be made contact with promptly but the speed willdepend on the nature and scale of the disaster. This may be done inperson or may have to be undertaken by telephone. Many schoolsalready operate a 'telephone tree': some parents telephone others tomake sure that accurate information is passed on more quickly.Wherever possible, parents of all the other children in the schoolshould be warned that the school has experienced a crisis and thattheir child may be upset.It is difficult to give very specific advice here because of the manydifferent ways crises occur, but there are some general pointerswhich will ensure that the information is passed on effectively andsensitively:a. brief the member of staff making the contact, perhaps rehearsingthe message first;b. take careful note of those parents who still need to be informedso that those who already know are not made contact withunnecessarily;e. offer help with the arrangement of transport;d. check that the parents are not left alone in distress, perhapsmaking suggestions for making contact with relatives orneighbours;e. offer useful phone numbers, either for support or for moreinformation. For example, the emergency disaster number or thehospital number;f . where appropriate, give the contact numbers of other familiesinvolved in the crisis.29

Wise before the event(5) Dealing with the mediaOne of the tasks of schools must be to protect children, parents andstaff from the glare of publicity, particularly during the first week orso. While the media can help inform the public responsibly, it canalso be harmfully intrusive at times of stress and personal grief.Reporters move on to the next catastrophe; a survivor may live foryears with a foolish quote in an unguarded moment.A senior person on the staff should be nominated as press officer todeal with the media. It is not advisable to permit press and televisionon to the school premises or to give them access to staff or childrenunless there are specific reasons for doing so. All enquiries should bedirected to and through the press officer who can arrange to have abriefing session with the press if necessary (ie journalists may be invitedto a particular part of the school at a specified time). If the pressare aware of these arrangements, they may be less inclined to crowdthe school gates or try to interview individual pupils, staff or parents.While factual information may be given to the press, the privacy ofstaff, young people and their families should be maintained.Members of staff dealing directly with families involved in the crisisshould not be asked to take on the task of dealing with the press aswell. It may be possible to get a person seconded from theappropriate authority to act as press officer.(6) Informing the staffAs soon as an incident is confirmed, the senior management teamneeds to meet to decide their strategies. This group should appoint asmall team (eg the class teacher, deputy head, home/school liaisonteacher), relieve them of other duties, and allow them to manage thecrisis over the next few hours. Some of the tasks facing that team willalready have been thought through and need only to be activated, butthe nature of the incident and the immediate availability of staff mayrequire some adjustment.The rest of the staff should be informed as soon as possible,preferably at a specially convened staff meeting. Again it is essentialthat both teaching staff and ancillary staff share the same informationso that untrue rumours do not circulate.30

What schools can do(7) Informing the pupilsPupils should be told simply and without fabrication what hashappened. It is probably best if this is done in the smallest groupspossible - their classes, their year groups, tutor groups or howeverthe school is organised. Their questions should be answered asstraightforwardly as possible. Staff who undertake this task shouldbe told to pass on facts only and never to speculate on the causes ofthe crisis or its consequences. Where questions cannot be answeredat the time, this should be acknowledged.If a school is to close, children and parents should be told by the endof the school day, preferably at the same time as parents are toldabout the incident. Closure should, on the whole, be avoided.(8) Stick to a normal routineAs far as possible the school's normal routine should be followed.This is to ensure some security in the lives of the pupils at a time ofcrisis.(9) Inform governors and the appropriate authorityThe chair of governors, the chief education officer and otherappropriate officers of the authority should be informed as soon aspossible after a major incident so that previously agreed assistancecan be given.(10) Attendance at funeralsPeople from differing backgrounds and religions have differentburial rites. Some, including Parsees, Sikhs and Jews, may holdfunerals within 24 hours of death. There is not always timetherefore to prepare staff and pupils for attendance. In this case amember of staff should swiftly make enquiries about the burialcustoms (for example, if flowers are in order and whether womenand men and representatives from the school - including pupils -would be welcome).31

Summary• Ensure that accurate information can get into and out ofthe school• Ensure that several staff have access to next-of-kin lists• Set up strategies for dealing with enquiries• Inform (with care and sensitivity) parents• Choose a member of staff to deal with the media• Inform staff and pupils in an appropriate and careful way• Attempt to stick to normal school routines• Inform the governors and appropriate authority• Make plans for attendance at funerals

What schools can doShort-term actionOnce it is confirmed that the school is facing a major crisis, staff andpupils may feel shocked and numbed as well as under strong pressureto talk. Head teachers and staff will face a number of decisions. Ifthey understand normal reactions to disaster, these decisions will bemore appropriately informed.(1) Re-uniting children with their parentsIf a disaster happens outside school it is essential to ensure thephysical safety of all the children - to obtain whatever first aid orother medical help is needed - and then to inform their parents.Generally, it is important that children should be re-united with theirfamilies as soon as practicable.While in most instances children should be brought home, sometimesthe parents may need to be taken to the children, and also to the sceneof the accident: parents, appreciating the circumstances and thelocation of the accident, will be better able to share this later withtheir children. Children may get a different view of the scene of theaccident in the presence of their parent(s); in consequence they maydevelop fewer fears.(2) Managing the staffA whole school is involved in a tragedy even though some may bemore affected than others. The burden of coping with the crisisshould not be allowed to fall on only one or two staff, howeverwilling and dedicated. All staff, both teaching and support, will needan opportunity to express their emotional reactions to the crisis.Support should be organised, as far as possible, from within theschool itself. It may be that one member of staff, who is morecomfortable than the others when talking about feelings, couldarrange to be accessible to those who need support. The same33

Wise before the eventmember of staff may set up a regular support group for staff inwhich they can talk about their reactions. If no member of staff feelsconfident in doing this work then a reliable agency outside theschool could be approached (see later).Senior staff need to protect their colleagues from over-working.People need to have some rest: others have to ensure that the seniorstaff follow their own advice. It is important that the co-ordinator isaware of the length of duties and makes sure that regular relief anddebriefing are given. Even if senior staff do not feel able to offercounselling support to other staff, they can make sure that it isavailable. Tired and upset staff will not be able to make sensibledecisions if the crisis persists over many hours.(3) Giving staff 'permission' to talkAfter a major trauma staff need to know that it is perfectly natural towant to talk about the incident and to share their feelings. It isimportant, however, to distinguish between the continual rehearsingof the incident that shows that some may need more professionalhelp than schools can usually offer, and those who need space andtime to talk before getting on with their lives.(4) Making contact with outside professionalsThis is the point at which to refer to the list of contacts in thecontingency plan. It is hoped that the time spent developing the linkswill now reveal that the contacts outside the school are reliable andfit the way the school wishes to work. As soon as practicable,arrangements should be made for formal help to be available withinthe school - whether from specially chosen teaching staffer fromoutside mental health professionals. The role of the psychologists,psychiatrists, social workers, counsellors or volunteers should be tosupport the efforts of the staff, not to replace them.Contact should be made, where appropriate, with local religious andcommunity leaders who can advise on funeral and mourning rites,who can support the families during this time, and who couldperhaps be invited into an assembly to talk to the whole school aboutissues previously agreed. Some voluntary agencies such as Cruse34

What schools can doand the Samaritans may also be able to offer helpful guidance fordealing with death and mourning.At such a time of crisis there may be many offers of help fromoutside the school. It may be difficult to know when to say 'yes' andwhen to say 'no' and whom to work with. Before accepting offers ofhelp, head teachers should check on the experience and qualificationsof the people concerned. They could do this by checking the social,medical and psychological services they have already vetted on thecontact list in Appendix 1.The head teacher has legal responsibility for what happens to thepupils in school. When the head teacher invites help and advice fromprofessionals outside, this is done by creating a partnership. The headteacher has the right to decide who has access to the children inschool. They are entitled to clarify what arrangements are to be madefor imparting information. Referring children to other agencies doesnot mean handing over all responsibility for them.(5) Encouraging pupils to talkAfter a disaster pupils as well as staff may feel an enormous pressureto talk about their experiences. After a few days this can becomeirritating for those young people who were not involved. Initiallyadults should listen, no matter how disruptive it is to the task in hand;after a few days the young people should be encouraged to talk to adesignated member of staff, although the young people themselvesshould obviously have some say in the choice of listener.Adolescents, and in particular boys, may have difficulty sharing theiremotional reactions with parents, peers and teachers alike. Teachingstaff should recognise that whatever formal, pastoral care is already inplace, they should capitalise on any informal, personal supportnetwork. They need to be aware of the trauma, be prepared to talk andto listen. They will need to make themselves more available thanusual. Inexperienced staff may get overwhelmed by the youngpeople's distress and should, in that event, seek advice from moreexperienced colleagues.As always, it is important to observe and to listen to the child. Aperceptive teacher is not intrusive, and knows when to talk and when35

Wise before the eventto listen. When a child looks distressed or, uncharacteristically, hasgone quiet over several days, then the perceptive teacher may takethat child aside and ask what he or she is feeling. Experience hasshown that children will not talk about their innermost feelings toparents and teachers unless they are given strong signals that it issafe to do so. Plenty of time must be allowed once the child starts tounburden. A word of warning, however - teachers need to obtain'permission' from the child to talk this way.Children quickly read the cues when adults do not wish to getinvolved. Their subsequent silence should not be taken as evidenceof lack of suffering.(6) Remembering the eventSensitivity is required in gauging whether young people want to talkabout their experiences, or whether they would prefer to keep themto themselves, especially if they do not feel 'safe' and at ease withother young people around. It often helps children to expresswhatever has happened to them through mime, dance, writing,drawing or other art forms. Many may do this spontaneously. Veryyoung children, for example, may choose to draw. In the immediateaftermath it can be helpful to allocate time for this and to share thestories or poems or drawings that children may produce. The teacherneeds to be aware that in doing so children may get upset, butequally that such distress can be healing.(7) Helping the rest of the class or the school to come to termswith the crisisOther pupils in the school may need some education about 'normal'stress reactions and the need not just for immediate sympathy, butlonger-term understanding.Many young people who have not been directly involved in theincident may need to find ways of working through their owndistress, particularly if they were close to someone involved in thecrisis. Opportunities can be created for the whole class to support thedistressed child, and to alleviate their own distress. If the youngperson in question is at home or in hospital the class could think ofways of showing their support, such as writing and sending cards,36

What schools can dovideos, or audio tapes. If the child is present and wants to talk aboutthe incident, especially where deaths may have occurred, the classcould discuss memorials such as photographs or flowers.(8) Individual differences in adjustmentChildren and staff may respond to a crisis in different ways and at adifferent paces. For example, not every child will be ready to make adrawing of the accident or write about it. Teachers and other staffwill need to be sensitive to such individual differences otherwisemore harm than good may be done.(9) Reactions of younger childrenYounger children may incorporate features of the accident into theirplay. For them this may be the equivalent of having repetitiveimages or dreams and may well be a way of their gaining controlover their lives. The play should be noted and allowed, providedalways that it is not upsetting or interfering with others. It is not asign of ghoulish obsession with death or carnage. Teachers and otherstaff such as playtime supervisors may be less upset by suchactivities once they realise that they may well serve a healthypurpose.(10) Monitoring the effectsMany of the most distressing effects of major traumas are subjectiveand internal. It is not always possible tell by looking at a survivor ifhe or she is having constant video-like replays of the events.Spotting that children are concentrating less well than usual, or thattheir work is deteriorating or that they look tired and upset, is a skill.Strategies such as asking friends to look for signs of distress,reminding class teachers and form tutors to be alert to the potentialsigns, and talking with parents more regularly than usual about theyoung person's state in the classroom, are all ways of keeping an eyeon their well-being.(11) A debriefing meetingMany people recommend that there should be a formal meeting to'debrief all those involved, both staff and children. Such a meeting37

Wise before the eventmay serve a number of important purposes. For example, it may:a. Clarify what happenedb. Allow for a sharing of reactionse. Reassure the participants that such reactions are not abnormald. Mobilise resourcesDuring a major trauma, people are often numbed. They feel as ifthings are not really happening to them. For a few days after theevent they are often in a state of shock. Thereafter, upset as they maybe, it is important that someone helps them to begin to make sense ofwhat actually happened. Debriefing is a way of talking about notonly what happened, but of sharing the often frightening emotionalreactions to the events. By holding a debriefing meeting in theschool, usually led by an experienced person from outside, theschool is giving the pupils and staff permission to exchange theirreactions and educating them in how best to cope in the period thatfollows. A separate debriefing meeting may be necessary for staffwho are directly affected by the crisis.(12) Expressing sympathyIn the chaos that can follow a major incident it is important toexpress sympathy to those families and children and staff who havebeen hurt or bereaved. Not only should someone from school visitthe injured in hospital but other children should be encouraged tosend them cards and messages. The school also needs to think aboutsending a representative to funerals.38

What schools can doSummary• Organise reunion of children with parents• Activate those on the list of outside contacts• Arrange briefing meeting for staff• Arrange debriefing meeting for directly affected staff• Check that procedures for monitoring staff and pupils arein place• Activate strategies for allowing young people to expresstheir feelings about the situation, if they wish• Contact families of those hurt or bereaved and expresssympathy39

Wise before the eventMedium-term actionAs the school settles into its normal routine after a few days, staff andpupils will begin to realise more clearly what has happened to them.The initial period of numbness may give way to a period of morepublic expressions of distress. While schools will want to maintain asnormal a routine as possible, some alterations will be inevitable. Forexample, decisions about continuing the monitoring of pupils,referring for specialist help, and attending funerals or memorialservices may have to be taken. We describe below some other tasksthat may arise.(1) Helping people to come back into schoolSome schools already have careful plans for welcoming and phasingin children after long absences or illnesses. These plans includenegotiating with both the young people and their parents a date forreturning; planning with teachers the actual entry into lessons,including the possibility of part-time attendance at first; developingfeasible plans of work; briefing classmates and identifying particularteachers and children to provide the closest support.Although young people often worry about the work they havemissed, staff should ensure that re-entry into school is not just aboutcatching up with work - it is also about meeting friends andbeginning to get back to normal. If necessary, the missed work can beleft undone because getting the child back into school may be thepriority.Sometimes young people who are trying to recover away fromschool welcome school work at home. Their re-entry into school maynot be so daunting if their backlog of undone work is decreased,either by the teacher giving permission not to do it, or helping a pupilto catch up on the most important pieces of work, or by the workbeing done at home. A home visit from teachers may be the first step40

What schools can dotowards re-entry; friends may want to arrange a rota of visits withthe intention of keeping them informed of daily events in school,including some of the assignments they have had.It may help re-entry if discussions are held about planning the actualmoment with the rest of the class. Some classes may want to discusswhat to say by way of welcome, and some young people comingback into school may wish to know what information has been givenabout them to their class.Some young people may be coming back into school havingsustained injuries which have changed them physically in some way.For example, they may have scars, they may have had limbsamputated, they may limp, they may have lost their hair, or they mayhave gained or lost considerable amounts of weight. Re-entry can bevery difficult for these people, particularly if they are caught up inthe self-consciousness of adolescence. The change in their selfimagemay well be much greater than the visible signs of theinjuries. A discussion with them about what to say to the rest of theclass may ease their re-entry and allay some fears. It should also bepossible to help them evolve strategies to deal with the teasing thatmay come from people who have not been part of the preparation fortheir return.As part of the contingency plan we suggest that schools review theirstrategies for easing young people's re-entry into school after aprolonged absence or illness. This list could include:a. A form teacher visiting a pupil at home or in hospitalb. Making a decision about how to maintain contact with schooland who should do thise. Checking whether any work or books have been lost in theincident; if so, making a decision about replacementsd. Checking what worries there are about public examinations; ifthere are any, considering special arrangements with examiningboards. This is easily done. There are formal mechanisms witheach examination board which are triggered by a letter from theschoole. Considering part-time attendance and deciding on a suitablecurriculum within a realistic time span41

Wise before the eventf. Checking on worries about meeting other pupils and discussinghow to react to questions and commentsg. Setting up 'sanctuary' arrangements for the young person to goto in school should he or she get particularly upseth. Talking about what is happening in school, both generally andspecifically, including reactions to the incidenti. Re-scheduling projects and other work in so far as it is necessaryand possible(2) Exploring alternative teaching methodsOn coming back into school, concentration, or even the physicalactivity of writing, may be very difficult. If one teacher has beeninstrumental in negotiating the re-entry into school, that teacher willknow what expectations other teachers may have of the young person.Everyone involved should then be clearly informed.(3) Specialist support for the staffThe aim of the work done (in the school and the classroom, as well asany specialist work done in groups or individually) is the same - toenable pupils and staff to adapt. In particular the aim is to help themcope with what happened, rather than to undermine their copingstrategies. It may be that a school has made a decision in itscontingency plan to ask a consultant to work indirectly with the staffand children by helping them to understand and encourage thedevelopment of coping strategies. This might mean talking to otherpeople who will then work with the staff.A clear distinction needs to be made between outside supportorganised for the teachers to help them with their own reactions, andsupport arranged for the children to be mediated through the teachers.Staff needs may be pressing and require attention, but sessions set upby specialists to help staff to help children should not be hijacked todeal with staff members' own difficulties.(4) Staff supporting the childrenChildren can be taught to develop effective coping strategies such asthe ability to relax when they feel tense or anxious. They can be helpedto make sense of what happened and to understand that, even though42

What schools can dothey may feel guilty, they are not to blame. Children can be helpedto cope with feelings of being overwhelmed. They can be helped toacc-ept that temporarily they cannot do as much as they did beforeand to realise that they will need to take things at an easier pace thanbefore.Teachers should take every opportunity to praise children for usingthese techniques. Children who admit to having difficulty withconcentration should be praised for recognising this rather thanbattling on; then they can be helped to work out a realistic workschedule.(5) Specialist treatment for the childrenWhere the school chooses to have an outside consultant (such as apsychologist, social worker, counsellor or psychiatrist) to advisestaff on how to help the children, a few ground rules need to beagreed to avoid misunderstandings.Some ground rules to observe when working with outside consultants• Children, staff and the consultant should agree the boundaries of sharingconfidential information. Many medical and non-medical therapists,particularly those trained in individual psychodynamic therapies, are used tomaintaining complete confidentiality between therapist and child. This is notappropriate when staff are being helped to help the child. Equally, it is notappropriate to share all information with everyone. Adolescents may feelparticularly strongly about what information is to be shared with their parentsor with teachers. Staff need to keep to a minimum the information they shareabout a pupil. Pupils should never be given a promise that all information willbe kept secret.• Staff should be clear about whom to make contact with when they are worriedabout a particular child.• Regular meetings between the consultant and appropriate staff will enableprogress to be reviewed and the consultant to suggest ways in which the schoolcan continue to offer support.43

Wise before the eventOne question that working with health, social work, psychological oreducational specialists invites is: who has overall responsibility andcontrol for what happens in school? The answer is that this remainswith the head teacher. The normal ground rules, clarified in theChildren Act of 1989, apply: schools cannot take unilateral decisionsabout help for children without the permission of parents and of theolder pupils themselves.Part of the planned approach may involve calling in some of theseother professionals to run groups in schools. These groups will aim toboost the children's coping skills, educate them further about theways disasters may affect them, train them in relaxation techniques tohelp reduce anxiety and promote better sleep patterns, suggesttechniques to help them gradually expose themselves to the situationthey have been avoiding, allow them to discuss feelings of guilt forthings done or not done during the disaster, and so on.Therapists will probably want to work closely with teaching staff andkeep them informed of progress. It may be to everyone's benefit thatteachers and young people use the therapists as go-betweens tonegotiate such issues as attendance and work. Therapists need tomake sure that they do not usurp the pastoral role of staff, butstrengthen and support it. Teachers will be there long after thespecialists have left and it is important that they do not feel de-skilledas a result of the specialists' relationships with pupils.Some children will not want to participate in formal treatment groupswithin the school nor even use teachers as confidants: they or theirfamilies may want individual help. Individual therapy will resemblegroup work, but will be more intense. There will need to be clearprocedures for referring children for individual help, or for ensuringthat families have arranged for this. Negotiations about the flow ofnecessary information are important here - for example, when theoutside treatment is coming to a close, the school will need to knowthis. The school and the agency need to get together to agreecommon strategies for dealing with subsequent problems: how tomonitor the child(ren); what to expect and how to maintain contact.For example, lists of specialists and their addresses should beavailable to staff, parents and pupils alike, in case they wish to seekhelp at a later date.44

What schools can do(6) Attendance at funeralsThere are many different religious and cultural views about theparticipation of young people in funeral rites. The school will wantto respect these views and customs as well as the wishes of parentsand the children themselves.The current consensus among mental health professionals is thatmost children (and adults) come to terms with their grief morequickly if they say farewell formally. Whenever possible, survivorsshould be encouraged and enabled to attend the funerals of thosewho died, and the parents of those who died should be encouraged toallow it.(7) Special assemblies and memorial servicesIn addition to funerals that families may choose to be private,schools may wish to mark the event with a special assembly or amemorial service. Discussions could be held with staff, governors,parents, pupils and the local community on what form this shouldtake and who should be involved. Planning the ceremony oftenbecomes an important therapeutic act in itself.For many who have been affected by a major incident, a memorialservice acts as a way of acknowledging that it is now over. Even so,many staff and pupils may be upset during the service and this needsto be considered in planning, for example, where it is to be held andif access should be given to the media. Some schools have plantedspecial gardens in memory of pupils or staff members, others haveinstalled seats in the playground in their memory or havecommissioned sculptures or paintings.(8) Keeping families informedRemember to keep families informed. Information sheets forfamilies can be useful. The information could include:a. who has been called in to advise staff and pupilsb. how parents can have access to helpe. whom to make contact with if they are worried about their child'sprogress45

Wise before the event(9) Continued monitoring of children's progressBy now staff and parents should know the person to whom to reportany concerns about a child. Pupils too should be clear about whomto talk to. Some staff will be meeting regularly, occasionally with anoutside consultant, and part of the agenda should be to keep childrenunder review. Records should be kept and children referred asnecessary. It should be made clear that records held in the schoolsare open to inspection by parents and older pupils. Guidelines shouldbe established on how to maintain contact with parents: for example,a short letter home might draw attention to the progress made bypupils in their return to 'normality'.The parents of children in any of the high risk groups describedearlier should be given the option of receiving specialist help. If thechildren's distress remains high six to eight weeks after the incident,they should be referred to a specialist with skills in treating PTSD.Staff and parents need to be clear about the procedures for ensuringappropriate help quickly.46

What schools can doSummary• Ensure a member of staff makes contact with children athome or in hospital• Make sensitive arrangements for the return to school• Arrange alternative teaching if necessary• Arrange support for affected staff• Arrange consultation so staff can better support children• Ensure clear understanding of consultation, especially itsconfidentiality• Clarify procedures for referring children for individualhelp• Liaise with parents, to include the sending of bulletins• Decide about attendance at funerals• Share the planning of the special assembly or memorialservice• Check that monitoring procedures are in place andfollowed47

Wise before the eventLonger-term planningHowever painful and stressful, traumatic events often provideopportunities for reappraisal, sometimes of practice and moreespecially of attitudes and values. Tragedies can bring peopletogether. In schools the experience can be so profound that staffwant to retain the sense of community that the event has generated.Schools should remember that the effects of a crisis can reverberatefor years. In this section we highlight some of the more predictableissues that merit consideration.(1) Keeping an eye on vulnerable peopleIt is difficult to keep the memory of events alive as schools areabsorbed by their day-to-day affairs. A school may consider devisinga system of record-keeping in which information on such a disasteris recorded. It is important that new staff and staff new to vulnerablechildren are briefed on the most helpful way of continuing to supportthe children of a disaster as recorded in the system.(2) Marking anniversariesAnniversaries are often difficult times. It is better if decisions abouthow to treat anniversaries are made collectively in good time beforethe anniversary. These decisions could include an annual memorialprize; the planting of a special garden that blooms at the appropriatetime; a commemorative assembly or concert. Decisions mustobviously take account of the wishes and feelings of the parents ofpupils who were maimed or killed.(3) Legal processesThe legal processes after a disaster, such as inquests, boards ofenquiry, postponed funerals and court appearances, can interferewith mourning. They can prolong or impede it, or even begin itagain as a new legal process commences. Schools, both in their48

What schools can dorecord-keeping and in their general vigilance, need to be aware whenmembers of the school are involved in these legal processes.(4) The story changesPart of the normal process of mourning is trying, repeatedly, tounderstand what happened and why. Guilt and blame areapportioned, and enormously uncomfortable feelings are aroused.Often during official enquiries long afterwards, the story is piecedtogether and re-told. History is re-written. Explanations, guilt andblame are re-distributed, and those people most closely connectedwith the tragedy may be left with deeply distressing feelings whichdiffer from those they felt just after the event.Schools need to be aware when these stories are being re-told, and tobe ready, if necessary, with the emotional support that was originallyavailable.49

Wise before the eventSummaryIntroduce strategies to continue monitoring vulnerablepupils and staffConsult and decide on whether and how to markanniversariesEnsure that new staff are aware of which pupils wereaffected, and in what way, and that they know how toobtain further help if necessaryRemember that legal processes, enquiries and even newsstories may bring back distressing memories and causetemporary upset within the school50

What schools can doImplications for thecurriculumWe noted early on that some schools respond better at times of crisisthan others. Many schools have coped well with dreadful crises and,for them, much of what we have said will be obvious. They may nothave been fully aware of the effects of crises on the children, but theyhave had carefully thought-through procedures in place and havebeen able to put them into practice effectively.Here we want to draw attention to some implications for curriculumplanning: to what is taught and how schools tackle sensitive issuessuch as death and injury. We choose to write about 'curriculumplanning' because we think that schools should not have to deal withsuch enormously difficult issues as death and bereavement for thefirst time after a disaster. The appearance of these issues in thecurriculum will mean that pupils will already have had somefamiliarity with them, even if only in the classroom. Whatever theage of the children, the issues can be embedded in the curriculum, sothat the young people are used to talking about such subjects. In thisway they will not be shrouded in mystery and taboo. As with thedevelopment and implementation of sex education policies, parentsand governors can be involved in the planning.(1) Dealing with sensitive issues within the curriculumThe curriculum of some schools includes looking at life, death,bereavement and other rites of passage within a multi-cultural andmulti-faith framework. These issues are often explored through wellchosenliterature in RE, drama, history, humanities and sociology.Primary schools often include such issues in projects about self,health or families. Some secondary schools explore subjects such asdeath and bereavement through the pastoral co-ordinators. Wherevera school chooses to refer to life, death and bereavement within thecurriculum, they should not be dealt with simply as topics to be51

Wise before the eventcovered. In our Further Reading section there are some suggestionsfor teachers which may be of help.(2) Helping teachers to deal with sensitive issuesSome teachers find it uncomfortable to explore ideas and feelingsthey are not completely at ease with. Increasingly, schools includestaff development sessions for dealing with difficult feelings. Thesesessions may include specialist consultants working with smallgroups of teachers to help them address uncomfortable feelings anddevelop strategies for dealing with them, both for themselves and forthe young people they work with.(3) Multi-cultural and multi-faith issuesSchools need to be aware of their pupils' backgrounds. This includeshaving an informed understanding of different cultural and religiousattitudes to disability, disasters, death, bereavement, mourning andfunerals. Such awareness of diverse views and expectationscontributes towards creating a supportive ethos within the school.(4) Attributing blameIt is now reasonably well established that the explanations peoplegive on the cause of any disaster can influence the speed with whichthose involved adjust. People who feel guilty for having somehowcaused the accident generally take longer to recover. Schools shouldknow their pupils and be aware of how different religious and ethnicgroupings may interpret the causes of disaster. Such knowledge willbe invaluable to all those, teaching staff and outside professionals,who are trying to help the children make sense of what happened.(5) Social supportIn general, people who feel socially supported in relationships wherethey can confide their feelings survive all sorts of tribulations better.Thus a school able to promote such an atmosphere of support, trustand confiding among its staff and pupils will be better able to copewith a disaster.52

What schools can doSummary• Plan the curriculum to work with 'rites of passage' as amatter of course• Set up strategies to support teachers when working withpainful emotions and sensitive subjects• Be aware of multi-cultural and multi-faith issues• Remember that inevitably blame gets attributed• Develop strategies for increasing social support betweenstaff and between pupilsIn the Further Reading and Useful Addresses sections thereare suggestions to help schools work with the ideas in thissection. The most useful suggestion, however, is that schoolsshould recognise that they need to develop procedures forworking with difficult feelings and painful emotions. Havingmade that decision, they will begin to deal with thosefeelings.53

Wise before the eventDeveloping a contingencyplanAll that we have said points to the need for planning. Here weattempt to set out what contingency planning involves and what sucha plan should look like. Although the development of this plan mayinitially seem time-consuming, it is important that all members ofstaff in a school understand that they are part of it. It is worthdevoting a staff meeting or part of a staff development session to itsformation. In the event of a crisis staff will be more able to moveinto action without having to waste time making decisions, andwithout having to wait for clarification about tasks to be done.We suggest that a member of the senior management team isnominated to review and up-date the plan annually and to make iteasily accessible to all members of staff.The plan should include:(1) The identification of potential crisesIn the early part of this publication we listed a number of examplesof disasters that might occur in your school. In developing your planyou may want to identify others that are likely to occur:a. Death of a pupil or teacherb. Violence and assault in schoole. Destruction or vandalism of part of schoold. Pupil or teacher being taken hostagee. Road, sea or air traffic accident involving pupilsf. Natural disaster in the communityg. Death or injuries on school journeysh. Civil disturbances and terrorism(2) Choosing suitable support agencies and personnelThe list of significant contacts and telephone numbers will entailresearch, but the time involved will be worthwhile should an54

What schools can doemergency arise. Personal contact with specialist services will makeit more likely that there is mutual respect for expertise and assistance,and working relationships will not have to be established fromscratch in a time of crisis. It also a good idea to establish whichcontacts will be more helpful than others.In Appendix 1 we have suggested some of the people who might besuitable for the list. The list of contacts will vary according to thelocation of the school and the involvement of the school in the localcommunity. We have designed the list so that phone numbers andrelevant addresses can be added.(3) Actions planned and responsibilities apportioned so that inthe tase of a crisis the whole operation moves as smoothly aspossible to avoid delay and further harmWithin the school assign responsibility for the following tasks:1234TaskObtain factual information at start of crisisSenior management meet with support personnelEstablish an intervention teamContact familiesTime-scalewithin hourswithin hourswithin hourswithin hours:continue until all informedsame day if practicablesame day if practicable56Call a staff meeting to give informationInform pupils in small groups7 Arrange a debriefing meeting for staff involved in same day if practicabledisaster8 Debriefing for pupils involved in the disaster as soon as possible,allowing for health andsafety9 Identify high risk pupils and staff next few days •10 Promote discussion in classes next few days and weeks11 Identify the need for group or individual incrementally over days ortreatmentweeks after disaster12 Organise treatment, etc as required55

C\Appendix 1: Useful ContactsAs part of the contingency plan this list of contacts should be obtained as a matter of course. Their phone numbers can beadded to this page and the whole list can be attached to the staff notice board or the school handbook, and regularly updated.Office support staff should also have such a list readily available:Contact Name Phone numberDirector of EducationChair of Governing BodyPoliceFire BrigadeSchool Doctor/Community Medical OfficerSchool NurseEducational PsychologistChild Guidance ClinicChild/Family Psychiatry ServiceClinical Child PsychologistEmergency Department at the Local HospitalHome School Liaison OfficerEducation Social WorkerSocial Services Area Team Leader

Counselling ServicesLocal Religious GroupsOther Voluntary AgenciesPress and Media ContactsThis list was updated on / / 19This list was updated on / / 19This list was updated on / / 19Iog.

Wise before the eventAppendix 2: Further ReadingAyalon, O (1988) Rescue! Community oriented preventative education for coping withstress Haifa: Nord PublicationsDisasters Working Party (1991) Disasters: planning for a caring response London: HMSODyregrov, A (1988) 'Critical incident stress debriefings' Research Centre for OccupationalHealth and Safety: University of Bergen, NorwayOatliffe, E (1988) Death in the Classroom - a resource bookfor teachers and othersLondon: Epworth PressHodgkinson, P E and Stewart, M (1991) Coping with Catastrophe: a handbook of disastermanagement London: RoutledgeHopson, B and Scally, M (1981) Lifeskills Teaching Programmes - No 1, LifeskillsAssociates, LeedsJohnson, Kendall (1989) Trauma in the Lives of Children Basingstoke: MacmillanLacey, O N (1972) 'Observations on Aberfan' Journal of Psychosomatic Research, Vol 16,257-260Lott, P (1989) Out of School: a practical guide to the responsibilities of teachers in chargeof school journeys (4th edition) AMMAMelzak, Sheila (1992) Integrating Refugee Children Into Schools, Minority Rights Groupand Medical Foundation for the Care of the Tortured.Mitchell, J (1993) 'When disaster strikes—the critical incident stress debriefing process'Journal of Emergency Medical Services, 8, 36-39National Union of Teachers (1989 revised edition) Beyond the Classroom: guidance fromthe NUT on school visits and journeysNew South Wales Department of School Education (1990) Management of CriticalIncidents • a guide for schools NSW Department of School Education, South Coast Region,PO Box 1232, Wollongong, NSW, AustraliaParry, Glenys (1990) Coping with Crises, British Psychological Society and RoutledgePerkins, G and Morris, L (1991) Remembering Mum London: A & C BlackPlant, S and Stoate, P (1989) Loss and Change - resources for use in a personal and socialeducation programme Oxford: Pergamon Educational PressPynoos, R and Nader, K (1988) 'Psychological first aid and treatment approach for childrenexposed to community violence: research implications' Journal of Traumatic Stress,1,243-267Raphael, B (1986) When Disaster Strikes London: HutchinsonWagner, Patsy (1993) Children and Bereavement, Death and Loss: what can the schooldo? Available: NAPCE Base, e/o Education Dept, University of Warwick, Coventry,CV4 7AL Tel: 0203 52381058

AppendicesWagner, Patsy 'Schools and pupils: developing their responses to bereavement' in PastoralCare and PSE; Entitlement and Provision (1993) eds R Best, P Lang, C Lodge andC Watkins, CassellWallbank, Susan (1991) Facing Grief- bereavement and the young adult Cambridge:Lutterworth PressWard, B and Associates (1989) Good Grief- exploring feelings, loss and death with underll's -a holistic approach, Good Grief, Grimstone Manor Mews, Yelverton, PL20 7QYWard, B and Associates (1988) Good Grief for Secondary Age, FE and Adults, Good Grief,Grimstone Manor Mews, Yelverton, PL20 7QYYule, W, Udwin, O and Murdoch, K (1990) 'The 'Jupiter' sinking: effects on children'sfears, depression and anxiety' Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 31,1051-1061Yule, W (1991) 'Work with children following disasters' chapter in M Herbert (ed) ClinicalChild Psychology: social learning, development and behaviour Chichester: John WileyYule, W and Udwin, O (1991) 'Screening child survivors for post traumatic stress disorders:experiences from the 'Jupiter' sinking' British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 30,131-138Yule, W 'Post traumatic stress disorder' (1993) in Rutter, M, Hersov L and Taylor E (eds)Child and adolescent psychiatry: modern approaches (3rd edition) Oxford: Blackwells59

Wise before the eventAppendix 3: Useful AddressesDr Dora BlackStress ClinicDepartment of Child and AdolescentPsychiatryRoyal Free HospitalPond StreetLONDON NWS 2OGTel: 0171 794 6874The British Red Cross9 Grosvenor CrescentLONDON SW1X7EJTel: 0171 235 5454They have a useful leaflet on coping withstress in a major crisis.Centre for Crisis Management andEducationElizabeth Capewell93 Old Newton RoadNEWBURYRG147DETel: 01635 30644CRUSE - Bereavement Care126 Sheen RoadRICHMONDSurrey TW91URTel: 0181 940 4818Good Griefe/o Barbara Ward3 Wheelwright CourtWALKHAMPTON PL20 6LATel: 01822 855 619Medical Foundation for the Care ofVictims of Torture96 Grafton RoadLONDON NWS 3EJTel: 0171 284 4321The Minority Rights Group379 Brixton RoadLONDON SW97DETel: 0171 978 9498National Association for Pastoral Care inEducatione/o Department of EducationUniversity of WarwickCOVENTRY CV4 7ALTel: 01203 523523The Refugee CouncilBondway House3 BondwayLONDON SW8 1SJTel: 0171 582 6922Samaritans17 Uxbridge RoadSLOUGHBerks SL1 1SNTel: 01753 32713Dr James ThompsonStress ClinicAcademic Department of PsychiatryUniversity College and Middlesex HospitalSchool of MedicineRidinghouse StreetLONDON WIN 8AATel: 0171 380 947560

AppendicesVictim Support Schemes OrganisationCranmer House39 Brixton RoadLONDON SW9 6DZTel: 0171 735 9166Patsy WagnerDeputy Principal Educational PsychologistThe Royal Borough of Kensington andChelseaProfessional Development Centre108a Lancaster RoadLONDON W111QSWork on children and families, death andloss - what schools can do. See also FurtherReading, Appendix 2.Professor William VuleTraumatic Stress ClinicMaudsley HospitalDenmark HillLONDON SE5 9AFTel: 0171 703 5411See also Further Reading, Appendix 2.61

Wise before the eventBelow are some education books published by the Foundation.A complete booklist is available free from Calouste GulbenkianFoundation, 98 Portland Place, London W1N4ET. Tel: 0171 636 5313Tomorrow's Parents: developing parenthood education in schools byPhilip Hope and Penny SharlandThis report is the result of an innovative project designed to implementparenthood education in secondary schools.Here Today, Here Tomorrow: helping schools to promote attendance bySusan Hallam and Caroline Roaf"...useful tips on what schools can do to promote a more positive attitudeand inviting school environment." Teacher UpdateThe Arts in Schools: principles, practice and provision, edited byProfessor Kenneth Robinson (1982, with new introduction 1989)Over 20,000 copies sold, "...it should be not merely placed but forced intothe hands of all heads, governors and administrators...The book bristleswith practical organisational suggestions, most of which depend more onthe exercise of ingenuity and imagination than on large amounts of cash."Times Educational SupplementMoving Culture: an enquiry into the cultural activities of young people byPaul Willis"No one should dismiss the behaviour of the young as trivial, chaotic ormeaningless before they have read this book." Young People NowArtists in Wigan Schools by Rod Taylor"An absorbing book, stunningly illustrated...put it on the required readinglist not just of art and design teachers, but heads and administrators too."Times Educational SupplementBullying: a child's view by Jean La FontaineAn analysis of telephone calls from children to ChildLine about beingbullied."This research should be used by every school in the country, primary andsecondary: it is a realistic, sympathetic and constructive curriculumplanningtool." The Guardian. Copies of this book were mailed to everyschool in 1992.62

William Yule trained as a clinical psychologist andspent six years in educational and epidemiologicalresearch before returning to the staff at the Instituteof Psychiatry where he is Professor of AppliedChild Psychology and head of the clinicalpsychology services. He has published 300 articlesand 9 books on a wide range of topics in childpsychology such as autism, the use of behaviouraltechniques by parents and teachers, the effects oflead on children's development and children's fears.Since the capsize of the cross-channel carferry/Herald of Free Enterprise', in 1987 he hasbeen very involved in the study and treatment ofPost Traumatic Stress Disorder in adults andchildren.Anne Gold taught in Inner London comprehensiveschools for 20 years. She was head of a SpecialEducational Needs Department and then a pastoralhead. She is now a lecturer in the ManagementDevelopment Centre at the University of London,Institute of Education, where she works closelywith schools and teachers on managing theirinstitutions.

Schools get caught up unexpectedly in disasters and crises suchas major loss following a fire, injuries and deaths of pupils on aschool journey, or deliberate violence. Wise Before the Eventdescribes some of the ways that crises can affect schools. Itsuggests how schools can help to lessen the physical andemotional effects of disasters. Above all, it argues thatdeveloping a school plan to deal with a disaster will lessen theimpact when a crisis does occur. Many of the strategiessuggested can be built into the curriculum of every school.William Yule is Professor of Applied Child Psychology at theUniversity of London, Institute of Psychiatry, and Head ofClinical Psychology Services at the Bethlem Royal and MaudsleyHospital.Anne Gold is a lecturer in the Management Development Centreof the University of London, Institute of Education.ISBN 0-1D33n-tb-7900001II Illl II Illl II III80903"319669""...this book is excellent...includes arange of straightforward practicalsuggestions...wise and level-headed,and I think every school should use it."Times Educational Supplement"This practical and concise booklet isa must for every staffroom."Association of Teachers and Lecturers"An imaginative title and a formatthat will not daunt heads and teachers...writing is clear and direct...excellentadvice...this is a timely and valuablepublication and I wish it widecirculation."Pamela F McKeown, former Inspectorfor Avon LEA