Medical Aspects of Chemical Warfare (2008) - The Black Vault

History of Chemical WarfareExhibit 2-4Mustard: “King” of the War GasesSulfur mustard was used extensively because it caused more casualties than any other chemical in World War I. Thecountermeasures against mustard were ineffective because gas masks did not afford protection against skin absorption.Mustard takes its name from the unpurified form, which is yellow-brown with an odor resembling mustard, garlic, orhorseradish. Other names for mustard are “yellow cross,” “sulfur mustard,” “hun stoffe (HS),” “Distilled Hun (HD),”“senfgas,” “blister agent,” “Yperite,” “S-LOST,” or “Kampfstoff LOST.” LOST is derived from Lommel and Steinkopf,who developed the process for mass producing mustard during wartime use at the German company Bayer AG. Mustardis a thioether with the formula C 4H 8Cl 2S. The compound eliminates chloride ion by intramolecular nucleophilicsubstitution to form a cyclic sulfonium ion. This reactive intermediate is detrimental to cells of the body as a mutagenand carcinogen because it can bind to the guanine nitrogen in DNA strands, leading to cell death, cancer, and geneticalterations.The term “mustard gas” is a misnomer; the agent is not a true gas. Dispersed as an aerosol, mustard is not watersolublebut contains high lipid solubility, contributing to its rapid absorption into the skin. Blister agent exposure overmore than 50% body surface area was fatal during World War I; however, mustard was lethal in only 1% of cases. Asa persistent agent, mustard can remain in the environment for days and continue to cause casualties. This propertyenabled its use as an area-denial weapon, forcing soldiers to abandon heavily contaminated positions. Contaminatedclothing from one soldier could spread to others during battle.Mustard gas is perhaps best known for the Bari disaster. A US stockpile on the SS John Harvey was bombed in Bari, Italy,in 1943 during World War II. This disaster exposed thousands of civilians and Allied troops to the chemical agent.of Armentieres. During the battle, mustard was said tohave “run in the gutters like water.” 9(p15)Although the first gas attack on a US unit did notinvolve mustard exclusively, American soldiers fearedmustard the most. Despite the many warnings, mustardagent injured over 27,000 Americans. 25US Experience with Chemical WarfareThe use of chemical warfare at Ypres in April, followedby the sinking of the Lusitania by a GermanU-boat off the Irish coast on May 7, 1915, rocked theUnited States. Americans began to take greater interestin the nature of warfare taking place in Europe andelsewhere. In May 1915 President Wilson proposedthat Germany halt chemical warfare in exchange forthe British ending their blockade of neutral ports. BothGermany and Great Britain refused to comply. 26US Declaration of WarIsolationism left the United States outside whatwas initially perceived as a European conflict. However,German mistakes resulted in America throwingits weight toward the Allies. Early in 1917 Germanyresumed its policy of unrestricted submarine warfare.The Zimmerman telegram, a proposal to the Mexicangovernment initiated by Germany to form an allianceagainst the United States, was intercepted by theBritish, leading to public indignation and hasteningthe entry of the United States into the war. PresidentWilson asked Congress for a formal declaration of waron Germany on April 2, 1917. Congress declared waron Germany on April 6, and on Austria-Hungary inDecember 1917.US Preparation for Chemical WarfareThe United States entered the war a full 2 years afterthe German army’s first successful chlorine gas attackagainst the Allies. Although the US Army was aware ofthe increasing use of chemicals on both fronts, it madeno effort to prepare for gas warfare until 2 monthsbefore the American declaration of war. As a result,the Army began the war with no doctrine or adequatetraining program for chemical warfare, depending onthe Allies for gas-related equipment. However, oncebegun, preparations advanced quickly.Only a day after Wilson’s call to war, Congressestablished a subcommittee on noxious gases underthe leadership of the director of the US Bureau ofMines. The subcommittee included Army and Navyordnance and medical officers as well as two membersof the chemical committee of the National ResearchCouncil. Its mission was to investigate noxious gases,the generation of chemical warfare agents, and the21