Medical Aspects of Chemical Warfare (2008) - The Black Vault

Medical Aspects of Chemical WarfareFig. 2-5. A French cylinder attack on German trenches inFlanders. The critical importance of the wind is apparent.Condensation of water vapor caused the cloud-like appearanceof the gas.Photograph: Courtesy of Chemical and Biological DefenseCommand Historical Research and Response Team, AberdeenProving Ground, Md.Fig. 2-6. Prevention of animal casualties during gas warfarewas a concern. Photograph depicts gas masks on mule andsoldier. Dun sur Meuse, Meuse, France. November 21, 1918.US Signal Corps photograph. Photograph: Courtesy of USArmy Military History Institute, Carlisle, Pa.war. Although the largest chlorine attack occurred inOctober 1915 at Reims, when the Germans released550 tons of chlorine from 25,000 cylinders, chemicalsdelivered by artillery shells soon became the norm. 9,15The Germans learned that a vapor cloud was dependenton wind direction and strength, neither of whichcould be predicted with any amount of accuracy. Theseinitial chemical attacks also proved that an infantryattack synchronized with a discharged vapor cloudwas extremely dangerous.Allied Chemical Warfare RetaliationOnly weeks after recognizing the potential of chemicalweapons at Ypres, the British and French beganplanning a chemical retaliation, which became a threeprongedstrategy to develop their own (1) protectivedevices for troops (Figure 2-6); (2) offensive toxic gasweapons; and (3) systems to deliver the toxic gases toenemy lines. The Allies developed their first protectivemask the day after the first German chlorine attack,and in September 1915 they launched their ownchlorine attack against the Germans at Loos, Belgium.These moves initiated a deadly competition to developbetter protective masks, more potent chemicals, andlong-range delivery systems to disperse the agentsmore widely. The Germans quickly replaced chlorinewith phosgene, which was more effective. In May 1916the Germans started using diphosgene, and 2 monthslater the French tried hydrogen cyanide (HCN), thencyanogen chloride. In July 1917 the Germans introducedmustard agent to provide a persistent vesicantthat attacked the body in places unprotected by gasmasks. Both sides also mixed agents and experimentedwith camouflage materials to prevent quick agentidentification. 4The Battle of LoosIn the aftermath of Ypres, it became apparent thatlacking an offensive gas capability would impair troopmorale, and the British cabinet approved the use ofchemical agents. It took 5 months to plan the large-scalegas attack at Loos, which involved chlorine-filled cylindersclustered in batteries along the front rather thanspaced far apart in one continuous line. The British hada major numerical advantage against the Germans,reaching 7-to-1 in some places along the front. Britishcommander General Douglas Haig began the offensivewith a 4-day artillery bombardment by six divisions,planning to follow the bombardment with the releaseof 5,500 cylinders containing 150 tons of chlorine gasfrom the British front line. 15(p11),20(p14–17)The gas attack occurred on September 24 with onlyminimal success. Unfavorable and shifting winds reducedthe effectiveness of the chlorine gas cloud, thenumber of chlorine cylinders was insufficient to coverthe front line, and inadequate reserve divisions wereavailable to exploit a breakthrough (a lesson learnedby the Germans at Ypres). 20 A British shell shortage also18