Medical Aspects of Chemical Warfare (2008) - The Black Vault

Medical Aspects of Chemical Warfareratory distress. Casualties with moderate exposurepresent with the same signs but more exaggeratedsymptoms. Casualties with a severe exposure presentwith frank respiratory distress, productive cough, pulmonaryedema, and dysphagia. After a brief exposuredamage is usually limited to the upper airway mucosa.However, a brief exposure at a very high concentrationcan be overwhelming to the victim and the entirerespiratory system.Ammonia inhalation injuries also lead to pain of theoroharyngeal and retrosternal areas. Symptoms of dyspnea,hemoptysis, hoarseness, and loss of consciousnesscould be noted. Tissues of the airway becomeswollen, and, longer term, scar tissue may form alongthe airway. Frequently, damaged tissue in the airwaywill die, slough off, and lead to obstruction. Individualswith reactive airway disease are particularly sensitiveto ammonia inhalation.Ammonia can also be absorbed by dust particlesthat travel to the small airways. Respiratory symptomscan develop after the ingestion of ammonia productsif aspiration pneumonia or pneumonitis complicatesingestion. Most casualties who survive the first 24hours will recover. Patients show improvement within48 to 72 hours, and patients with mild exposure couldrecover fully in this time. For patients with more severerespiratory symptoms, recovery can be expectedwithin several weeks to months. 91smallest segments of the respiratory system, the terminaland respiratory bronchioles, the alveolar ducts, thealveolar sacs, and the alveoli. These agents also causeinflammation and necrosis to the thin membrane thatseparates the capillaries from the alveoli by reactingwith the proteins and enzymes in the membranes. Thefunction of these membranes is to separate the bloodin the capillaries from the air in the alveoli, but whenthe membranes become damaged, this process cannotoccur. When the normal elimination of plasma serumfrom the respiratory system is interrupted becauseof this damage, the plasma leaks into the alveolarsepta, causing the air sacs to fill with fluid, blockingoxygen exchange. The casualty then suffers oxygendeprivation leading to hypoxia and apnea. The pulmonarytissue fills with massive amounts of fluid (upSulfur MustardsProduced solely for warfare, sulfur mustards arevesicants and alkylating agents that act on the centralairway if inhaled. Sulfur mustards cause a dosedependentinflammatory reaction in the upper andlower airways that develops several hours after exposureand progresses. Burning of the nasal pathwayresults in pain, epistaxis, larynigitis, loss of taste andsmell, coughing, wheezing, and possible dyspnea.Necrosis of the respiratory epithelium causes tissueto slough off in large sheets, known as pseudomembranes,causing local airway obstruction. 92 Prolongedor repeated acute exposure to sulfur mustards couldlead to chronic respiratory disease. Repeated exposuresresult in cumulative effects because mustardsare not detoxified naturally in the body. 93 Chapter8, Vesicants, provides more information on themedical management of sulfur mustards agents.Peripherally Acting Toxic Industrial ChemicalsAir moves in the peripheral compartment of theairways only by diffusion. When peripherally actinglung-damaging TICs are inhaled, they travel to theFig. 10–5. The chest radiograph of a male chemical worker2 hours postexposure to phosgene with mild resting dyspneafor the 2nd hour. His physical examination was normalwith a Po 2of 88 mm Hg breathing room air. The radiographis normal.356