Medical Aspects of Chemical Warfare (2008) - The Black Vault

Medical Aspects of Chemical Warfarechlorosulphonate, an agent known to cause irritation tothe mucous membranes. 15 Germans called these “NernstNi-Shrapnel” or “ni-shells,” partly derived from theGerman word for sneezing powder, “niespulver.”After the French deployed tear gas, Germany saw noreason to refrain from using its own chemical weapons.Western Front: The Battle at Neuve-ChapelleGermany first tested the Nernst weapon on thewestern front. On October 27, 1914, 3,000 of theseshrapnel irritant shells fell on British and Indian troopsnear Neuve-Chapelle in Northern France. Althoughthe British were unprepared for such an attack, thesoldiers suffered no ill effects. The Germans remainedconvinced that chemicals had merit, however, and continuedto experiment with new gas formulations. 15Eastern Front: T-Shells at the Battle of BolimovThree months after Neuve-Chapelle, the Germanstried xylyl bromide (a form of tear gas) on the Russianfront in Poland. The Battle of Bolimov, launched onJanuary 31, 1915, preliminary to the Second Battle ofthe Masurian Lakes, was the site of the German army’sfirst extensive use of poison gas. Germany employed anew gas shell (“Tappen-shell,” “T-shell,” or “T-Stoff”)that contained an explosive charge for producing aduel shrapnel and poison effect, designed by ProfessorHans von Tappen of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute forPhysical Chemistry and Electrochemistry in Berlin. Forthe new weapon, von Tappen made two improvementsto Nernst’s shells. First, he stabilized the chemical liquidwithin the shell casing to reduce tumbling whenfired from a standard 15-cm howitzer, increasing theshell’s accuracy and range. Second, he designed a shellcasing to prevent accidental mixing of the extremelyreactive chemical substances inside. Each shell contained7 lb of xylyl bromide, a burster charger forsplinter effect, and a lead lining to prevent contact betweenthe burster charge and the chemical payload. 15,16However, the firing of 18,000 shells at Russianpositions around Bolimov proved entirely unsuccessful.The Russians easily repulsed the overconfidentGerman attack and the German gas failure halted anyfurther assaults on Bolimov. The chemical failed forseveral reasons. The winter weather was too cold tocause the liquid to vaporize to the gaseous state, andthe agent was either blown back towards the Germanlines or fell harmlessly to the ground. Also, xylylbromide was a weakly irritating tear gas, and the liquidcould not be dispersed in sufficient concentrationto cause damage. Although aware that the Germanshad attempted an attack with poison gas, the Russiansdid not widely report it to their Western allies becauseof its failure. The Germans again attempted to use T-shells on the western front at Nieuport in March 1915,with similar results. 14,17,18 Although unsuccessful, theseexperiments provided Germany with the experienceto improve future attempts. Poison gas next appearedwith much greater success on the western front in April1915, during the Second Battle of Ypres .Development of ChlorineFritz Haber, professor at the Kaiser Wilhelm PhysicalInstitute of Berlin (and later the 1918 Nobel Laureatein chemistry), directed German field operationsinvolving chemical warfare (Exhibit 2-1). Haber iscredited with the concept of creating a toxic cloud fromchemical cylinders in late 1914. Learning the lessonsfrom von Tappen’s T-shells, Haber suggested the useof large commercial gas cylinders as a delivery systeminstead of artillery shells, which were in short supply.He also postulated that gas from storage cylinderswould cover a far broader area than gas dispersed fromartillery shells. In addition, neither the T-shell nor thechlorine gas cylinders technically violated the Hagueban on projectiles. Haber selected chlorine because itwas readily available from the German dye industryand satisfied requirements for military application: itwas lethal, immediately effective, nonpersistent, andvolatile. Chlorine could form a toxic gas cloud denseenough to resist dilution in a moderate wind but withno prolonged influence over the terrain. 15The Second Battle of YpresDuring October and November 1914, the French,British, and Belgian forces had stopped the advanceof Germany’s Schlieffen Plan, at great costs to bothsides. The First Battle of Ypres had resulted in astalemate, with each side entrenched. Germany selectedthe front of the Fourth Army facing the Frenchat Ypres as the location for a gas attack (see Figure2-2). On March 10, 1915, Pioneer Regiment 35, underHaber’s guidance, placed 1,600 large and 4,130 smallcylinders (containing a total of 168 tons of chlorine)opposite the Allied troops defending Ypres. 15 Thechosen site was a sector between Bixschoote andLangemarck in Belgium (Figure 2-3), a tactical weakpoint where French and British forces joined. 9 TheEnglish-speaking troops consisted of Canadians andthe British 28th Division. The French troops were the87th Territorial and 45th Algerian Divisions. 9 PioneerRegiment 35 waited for winds to shift to the westtoward Allied trenches before the actual gas attackwas delivered late in the afternoon on April 22, 14,15,17,1914