Medical Aspects of Chemical Warfare (2008) - The Black Vault
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Medical Aspects of Chemical Warfare (2008) - The Black Vault

Medical Aspects of Chemical Warfare (2008) - The Black Vault Medical Aspects of Chemical Warfare (2008) - The Black Vault

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History of the Medical Management of Chemical CasualtiesTable 3-2SIX CHLORINE-PHOSGENE CLOUD ATTACKS:BRITISH CASUALTIES DECEMBER 1915–AUGUST 1916CasualtiesPercentageGas casualties as a percentage of exposed 4.1troopsDeaths from gas as a percentage of troops 0.7Deaths from gas as a percentage of total gas 23.6casualtiesAdapted with permission from: Moore W. Gas Attack. London,England: Leo Cooper; 1987: Appendix D.tions were encumbered by protective gear; soldierswho did not follow the strict protective measuressoon became casualties. Ultimately, half the battlecasualties during the war were attributed to gas. Oneofficer wrote of the attacks:When sent out into the darkness to bring in thewounded or perform other duties . . . the [soldiers]repeatedly removed the face part of the S.B.R. [smallbox respirator] so as to see what they were doing orwhere they were going. . . . Others, straining at theheavy loads of bringing in casualties found the maskpainfully oppressive and removed it. [Only] one whohas been under such a night bombardment can realizethe difficulties attending the supervision and controlof gas discipline during such a time. 15(p13)The early poor gas discipline was blamed on theineffectiveness of the British small box respirator andFrench M2 masks, which were issued to all AmericanExpeditionary Forces (AEF) personnel entering thetheater (Figure 3-4). The adoption of a better mask wasrecommended early in response to the AEF’s ChemicalWarfare Service (CWS) and 1st Division Medical Corpscomplaints. 15 One soldier said of the equipment: “. . .surgeons, stretcher bearers, and runners, had found itimpossible to carry on in the SBR because the arrangementof the eyepieces and the fogging of the lensesimpaired vision.” 15(pp19–20)Pulmonary agents were used first on the battlefield,and the resulting casualties were managed under themedical doctrine of the French and British medicalsystems. Later, the Germans developed sulfur mustard,a vesicant (blister agent) that attacked the skin, makingmasks less effective (Figure 3-5). Mustard was firstused on July 12, 1917, just prior to the Third Battle ofYpres, and the Allies had to devise a medical responseto this new type of agent. 16Fig. 3-4. The British small box respirator, introduced in 1916and seen in 1918 in this photograph, was vastly more effectivethan the earlier British versions. The wearer breathedthrough a mouthpiece. Because a spring clip was applied tothe nose, only air that had passed through the mouthpiececould enter the lungs. An absolute seal between the faceand mask was unnecessary. The mouthpiece was connectedby a tube to the canister containing neutralizing chemicals,which was worn around the trunk. Although the small boxrespirator was more protective than its predecessors, it wasprobably less user-friendly.Reproduced from: Pictorial History, Gas Defense Division,Chemical Warfare Service. Vol 5. Edgewood Historical Files.Located at: Chemical and Biological Defense CommandHistorical Research and Response Team, Aberdeen ProvingGround, Md.As World War I progressed, physicians became moreadept at managing chemical casualties, though bedrest remained the most common form of treatment.Soldiers who inhaled large volumes of asphyxiatinggases usually died. Mustard was probably the mostdifficult agent to medically manage because it temporarilyblinded individuals, produced blisters on theskin, and resulted in a large number of casualties whorequired extensive medical treatment. As the numberof chemical casualties increased, field hospitals becameoverburdened. Eventually, some special hospitals wereerected to deal solely with soldiers suffering fromchemical-related injuries. The number of chemicalcasualties produced was staggering, and the forwarddeployedCanadian, French, and Algerian dressingstations were quickly overwhelmed.Another setback early in the war was the abysmalfield sanitation French and British troops had to deal83

Medical Aspects of Chemical WarfareFig. 3-5. Allied response to the use of gas was to create myriad devices designed to protect the respiratory system. By 1917the Germans had found a way to defeat the effectiveness of these masks by introducing vesicants, agents that attacked theskin as well. Top row, left to right: US Navy Mark I mask; US Navy Mark II mask; US CE mask; US RFKmask; US AT mask; U.S. KT mask; US model 1919 mask. Middle row, left to right: British Black Veil mask; British PH helmet;British BR mask; French M2 mask; French artillery mask; French ARS mask. Bottom row, left to right: German mask; Russianmask; Italian mask; British Motor Corps mask; US Rear Area mask; US Connell mask.Photograph: Courtesy of Chemical and Biological Defense Command Historical Research and Response Team, AberdeenProving Ground, Md.with. The French trenches taken over by Canadianand American forces were found in poor condition.Personal accounts from Canadian soldiers documentthe overpowering stench from numerous deadFrench and German soldiers buried in shallow gravesin or near the trenches or left unburied. CaptainTC Irving, commanding officer of the Second FieldCompany, Canadian Divisional Engineers, reportedthat “. . . things were in a deplorable state from thestandpoint of defence, safety and sanitation, andlarge quantities of disinfectant should be sent intothe trenches immediately for liberal use.” 10 His reportcontinues:The right flank and the next portion to the left had aparapet of mud heaped up in front approximately 2feet thick at the bottom and from 4 inches to 1 foot atthe top with an occasional loophole punched throughthe earth. . . . The water level is about two feet downbelow the surface of the ground with numerous shellholes and also a section of the trench behind partiallyfilled with water. There was a plugged drain passingbetween these two sections in a North Easterly directionthrough the German lines. In front of these sectionsare numerous bodies buried at a very shallowdepth making it impossible for us at many places toexcavate at all. There is also human excreta litteredall over the place.Going to the left we next strike 650 feet of firing linecompletely enfiladed by the enemy’s artillery, whichhad no traverses in it. The parapet ranged from 2 feetto 4 feet in height and from 6 inches at the top to threefeet at the bottom in thickness. The ground where themen stand in the firing position is paved with rotting84

<strong>Medical</strong> <strong>Aspects</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Chemical</strong> <strong>Warfare</strong>Fig. 3-5. Allied response to the use <strong>of</strong> gas was to create myriad devices designed to protect the respiratory system. By 1917the Germans had found a way to defeat the effectiveness <strong>of</strong> these masks by introducing vesicants, agents that attacked theskin as well. Top row, left to right: US Navy Mark I mask; US Navy Mark II mask; US CE mask; US RFKmask; US AT mask; U.S. KT mask; US model 1919 mask. Middle row, left to right: British <strong>Black</strong> Veil mask; British PH helmet;British BR mask; French M2 mask; French artillery mask; French ARS mask. Bottom row, left to right: German mask; Russianmask; Italian mask; British Motor Corps mask; US Rear Area mask; US Connell mask.Photograph: Courtesy <strong>of</strong> <strong>Chemical</strong> and Biological Defense Command Historical Research and Response Team, AberdeenProving Ground, Md.with. <strong>The</strong> French trenches taken over by Canadianand American forces were found in poor condition.Personal accounts from Canadian soldiers documentthe overpowering stench from numerous deadFrench and German soldiers buried in shallow gravesin or near the trenches or left unburied. CaptainTC Irving, commanding <strong>of</strong>ficer <strong>of</strong> the Second FieldCompany, Canadian Divisional Engineers, reportedthat “. . . things were in a deplorable state from thestandpoint <strong>of</strong> defence, safety and sanitation, andlarge quantities <strong>of</strong> disinfectant should be sent intothe trenches immediately for liberal use.” 10 His reportcontinues:<strong>The</strong> right flank and the next portion to the left had aparapet <strong>of</strong> mud heaped up in front approximately 2feet thick at the bottom and from 4 inches to 1 foot atthe top with an occasional loophole punched throughthe earth. . . . <strong>The</strong> water level is about two feet downbelow the surface <strong>of</strong> the ground with numerous shellholes and also a section <strong>of</strong> the trench behind partiallyfilled with water. <strong>The</strong>re was a plugged drain passingbetween these two sections in a North Easterly directionthrough the German lines. In front <strong>of</strong> these sectionsare numerous bodies buried at a very shallowdepth making it impossible for us at many places toexcavate at all. <strong>The</strong>re is also human excreta litteredall over the place.Going to the left we next strike 650 feet <strong>of</strong> firing linecompletely enfiladed by the enemy’s artillery, whichhad no traverses in it. <strong>The</strong> parapet ranged from 2 feetto 4 feet in height and from 6 inches at the top to threefeet at the bottom in thickness. <strong>The</strong> ground where themen stand in the firing position is paved with rotting84

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