Volume 4 Issue 2 (June 2012) - Ozean Publications

A PEER REVIEVED INTERNATIONAL JOURNALEuropean Journal of Educational ScienceA Peer Revieved International Journal-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Volume 4, Issue 2, June 2012ISSN 1946-6331------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Managing EditorAli Ozel, Dumlupinar UniversityPublication CoordinatorTaskin Inan, Dumlupinar UniversityEditorial BoardGerald S. Greenberg, Ohio State University, USAHakki Yazici, Afyon Kocatepe University, TurkeyHayati Akyol, Gazi University, TurkeyHayati Doganay, Ataturk University, TurkeyLaurie Katz, Ohio State University, USALisandra Pedraza, University of Puerto Rico inRio Piedras, Puerto RicoLutfi Ozav, Usak University, TurkeyMihai Maxim, Bucharest University, RomaniaIbrahim Atalay, Dokuz Eylul University, TurkeyIbrahim S. Rahim, National Research Center, EgyptJanet Rivera, NOVA University, USARamazan Ozey, Marmara University, TurkeySamara Madrid, Northern Illinois University, USASamia Abdel Aziz-Ahmed Sayed, National ResearchCenter, EgyptWeb: http://www.ozelacademy.com E-mail: editorejes@gmail.comCopyright © 2008 Ozean Publication, 2141 Baneberry Ct. 43235, Columbus, Ohio, USA

European Journal of Educational ScienceA Peer Revieved International Journal---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Volume 4, Issue 2, June 2012ISSN 1946-6331--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES ON ACTIVE LEARNING INGEOGRAPHY: A CASE STUDY OF LEVEL OF INTEREST ANDUSAGE IN TURKEYFIKRET TUNAINFLUENCE OF FAMILY STRUCTURE ON STUDENTS’ ACADEMICPERFORMANCE IN AGEGE LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, LAGOSSTATE, NIGERIAUSHIE, M. A.; EMEKA, J. O., ONONGA, G. I. OWOLABI, E. O.NARRATIVES OF VARIATION IN TEACHER-PUPIL RELATIONSHIPSACROSS A CAREERALISON KINGTONPREDICTING STUDENTS’ACHIEVEMENT IN ENGLISH LANGUAGEFROM TEACHERS’CLASSROOM BEHAVIOUR AND TEACHINGEXPERIENCEDAVID O. FAKEYEFUNCTIONAL LITERACY A TOOL FOR EMPOWERING WOMEN FORSUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENTOLALEYE F.O. & ADEYEMO C.W.THE LEVEL OF THE JOB SATISFACTION OF TEACHERS INBOTSWANAPEDZANI PERCI MONYATSIEDUCATION QUALITY MANAGEMENT AS PANACEA FORSUSTAINABLE SCHOOL QUALITY REFORM IN NIGERIAYUSUF, LATEEF ADEYEMI and ALABI CHRISTIANAH OLUWAKEMIINVESTIGATION INTO PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES, BODYCOMPOSITIONS AND NUTRITIONAL HABITS OF YOUTH BETWEEN14-18 AGESHUSEYIN YILDIZ,ADNAN ERSOY and RAMIZ ARABACIGENDER FACTOR AND LABOUR PARTICIPATION AMONGACADEMIC STAFF IN TERTIARY INSTITUTIONS IN EKITI STATE,NIGERIAOLAJIRE ADEOLA ADEGUNINCENTIVE STRATEGIES FOR RETAINING COMPETENTTEACHERS IN NIGERIAN SCHOOLSJESSICA EZEKIEL-HARTUNDERGRADUATE UNIVERSITIES STUDENT'S ATTITUDESTOWARD DISABLED PERSONS IN SAUDI ARABIAABDULHADE I. HAIMOURTEACHERS’ UTILISATION AS CORRELATE OF STUDENTS’ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE IN SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS INONDO STATE, NIGERIAJ. B. AYODELE and M. A. IGETO DETERMINE STRESS LEVEL OF LOOSING FOOTBALL TEAMSBEFORE AND AFTER COMPETITIONA.SAİM SARI, YAGMUR AKKOYUNLU, MEHMET ACET, HARUN KOCFEDERAL ALLOCATION AND ITS UTILIZATION IN THE SCIENCELABORATORIES, UNIVERSITY OF BENIN, EDO STATE, NIGERIA,1992/93 TO 1996/97 SESSIONSROSELINE O. OSAGIEEFFECTS OF CREATIVITY TRAINING IN IMPROVING THECREATIVITY MOTIVATION OF SOME MALE PRISON INMATESSTEPHENS, OLUYEMI ADETUNJI and AMAJUOYI, FESTUSAMARAEZEWeb: http://www.ozelacademy.com E-mail: editorejes@gmail.comCopyright © 2008 Ozean Publication, 2141 Baneberry Ct. 43235, Columbus, Ohio, USA

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European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012© 2012 Ozean PublicationEuropean Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES ON ACTIVE LEARNING IN GEOGRAPHY:A CASE STUDY OF LEVEL OF INTEREST AND USAGE IN TURKEYFIKRET TUNADepartment of Geography, Fatih University, Istanbul, TurkeyE-mail address for correspondence: ftuna@fatih.edu.tr__________________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: Teaching methods and techniques based on a constructivist teaching approach within a studentcenteredlearning environment have been widely accepted. In parallel to the developments in the approach toeducation, the secondary education geography curriculum in Turkey was renewed in 2005. The new curriculumwas designed on the basis of the constructivist learning approach. This study aimed to investigate students’interest levels in active learning methods and techniques and the usage of these methods and techniques ingeography lectures in Turkey. Data were gathered through a survey conducted within seven different provincesof Turkey, with the participation of 873 high school students. The relationships between the demographiccharacteristics and answers the students gave to the different methods and techniques were analyzed withSPSS® software. The study revealed that students’ average level of interest was “neutral” to active learningmethods and techniques. The average usage rate of the active learning techniques was “once a semester”.Keywords: Active Learning, Constructivist Approach, Geography Education, Level of Interest, Usage Rate__________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTIONSince we are experiencing rapid and fundamental changes more than ever before in every aspect of life today,educational strategies which promote teaching students how to access, assess and use information rather than justdirectly transferring information have become more important. Teaching methods and techniques based on aconstructivist teaching approach within a student-centered learning environment have been widely accepted(Acıkgoz 2007; Jonassen 1994; Tuna and İncekara 2010). Active learning, which can be placed within theconstructivist approach to student learning, has been perceived as a radical change from traditional instructionand has received considerable attention over the past several years (Acıkgoz 2007; Ercan 2004; Jonassen 1994;Prince 2004).Active learning is a teaching approach in which learning is encouraged by actively engaging with the learningprocess, or put more simply, learning through doing. It emphasizes students’ inquisitiveness, practicalorientation, critical thinking, and skills in investigating, interpreting and synthesizing information. A teacherfocusedinformation transfer approach to education primarily involves information recall or fact recognition, and163

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012thinking of the lowest order according to most taxonomies of thinking skills. However, a common goal of thestrategies and methods of active learning is the facilitation of higher-order thinking skills, not just knowledgeand recall of facts, but comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and the evaluation of knowledge (Bloom,Krathwohl, and Masia 1984).The active learning classroom is characterized by authentic learning tasks, collaborative learning, limited directinstruction from teachers, and self-initiated individual learning activities. Many techniques can be used to getstudents involved, including experiential learning, cooperative learning, problem-solving exercises, writingtasks, speaking activities, class discussion, case-study methods, simulations, role-playing, peer teaching,fieldwork, independent study, library assignments, computer-aided instruction, and homework depending uponthe particular situation and upon what is being taught to what level of student (Bonwell and Eison 1991; Gibbs1988; Houston 1995; Keyser 2000; Meyers and Jones 1992; Rotgans and Schmidt 2011; Scheyvens et al. 2008).According to numerous studies, active learning methods of instruction are preferable to the more traditional andpassive lecture approach (Bonwell and Eison 1991; Chickering and Gamson 1987; Dabbour 1997; Felder, Brent,and Stice 2002; Felder and Brent 1996; Simkins 1999; Allen 1995). The results of some studies that have beenconducted in Turkey including math, physics, chemistry, biology, language, and social sciences also revealedthat using active learning in classroom has a positive effect on educational outcomes (Akkurt 2010; Aksu andTıglı 2007; Aydede 2009; Aydın 2010; Aykac 2007; Arslan et al. 2011; Kalem and Fer 2003; Kayalı and Tarhan2004).The Turkish Secondary Education Geography Curriculum was renewed in 2005, in parallel to the developmentsin the mindset of education (MEB 2005). The new curriculum was designed on the basis of the constructivistlearning approach. The role of teachers as assistants or enablers to students’ learning, rather than directlytransferring the information, is emphasized in the new curriculum. A special importance is given in theprogramme to skills that are required today such as critical and creative thinking, communication, empathy,problem-solving, decision-making, and entrepreneurship. So, the 2005 Secondary Education GeographyCurriculum has a content that supports the active learning approach.Some studies have also been conducted to design geography lessons according to the active learning approach.Scheyvens et al. (2008) have clearly listed 21 of these studies in their study. These studies range in scope fromsingle class period active learning exercises to whole-course active learning implementations in human andphysical geography. In Turkey, the importance of using a constructivist approach and active learning methods ingeography courses has been referred to in some studies (Akbulut 2004; Akınoglu 2004; Artvinli 2010; Gecit2009). The findings of some studies have indicated that active learning methods and techniques make a positivecontribution to geography education (Bekmezci and Unlu 2007; Coskun 2004; Gokce 2009; Koseoglu and Unlu2006; Ozgen 2011).However, a comprehensive study investigating geography students’ interest levels in active learning methodsand techniques and the use of these methods and techniques in geography lectures has not been conducted sincethe new program was applied in 2005. This was an important gap in this field of research. Therefore, the aim ofthis study was to investigate students’ interest levels in active learning methods and techniques and the usage ofthese methods and techniques in geography lectures in Turkey.METHODOLOGYThe main data collection tool was an assessment survey. Based on the research questions of the study, the surveywas prepared in three sections as follows:Demographic questions—This section included questions on gender, type of school (in Turkey, there are fourtypes of secondary schools to which students are accepted based on entrance exams after primary education.These schools are science high schools, Anatolian high schools, vocational high schools and general highschools), ownership of school (schools are founded either by state or private companies), grade (9 to 12) andstudy area (after finishing the 9th grade all students must choose an area of study, including social sciences,Turkish language-mathematics, science and foreign language) of the students.Students’ level of interest in active learning—This section focused on the students’ level of interest in the 24most-common active learning methods and techniques in Turkey. The list of methods and techniques was164

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012prepared quite extensively after a comprehensive literature review of active learning in Turkey. Students’responses were taken on the basis of a five-point Likert scale (1, strongly uninterested; 2, uninterested; 3,neutral; 4, interested; 5, strongly interested).Usage of active learning—In this section, the students were asked about the frequency of usage of these 24methods and techniques in geography lectures. They were asked to answer by choosing one choice out of five (1,never; 2 once a semester; 3, once a month; 4, once a week; 5, in every lecture).Data were obtained from 873 high school students within seven different provinces of Turkey. Nearly 75.7% ofthe respondents were from Istanbul, but others were from different regions of Turkey including east, west andsouth (the provinces of Ankara, Denizli, Hatay, Izmir, Manisa and Tokat). Students’ interest levels in activelearning methods and techniques and the usage of these methods and techniques in geography lectures wereinvestigated in the study. The relationships between the demographic characteristics and answers the studentsgave to the different methods and techniques were analyzed with SPSS software. The reliability coefficient was97.5% based on the factor reliability analysis of dependent variables (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.975). In the study,descriptive statistics were used for demographic data and non-parametric tests were used, including the Mann-Whitney U and Kruskal-Wallis H tests, for the inferential statistics, because the data did not have a normallydistributed interval variable according to a one-sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov test (p < 0.05).FINDINGSDemographic DataAccording to demographic analysis of the respondents, out of 873 students polled, 41.5% were male and 58.5%were female. The largest number of students participating in the study were enrolled in general high schools44.3%, followed by students enrolled in Anatolian high schools 39.3%, vocational high schools 14.9% andscience high schools 1.5%. Out of these schools, 82.7% were state-owned and 17.3% were private schools.Analysis of the students’ study areas revealed that 19.4% of the students were studying social sciences, 49.4%were studying Turkish language-mathematics, 21.3% were studying science and the remaining 2.4% werestudying foreign language. In addition, analysis of the students’ grades indicated that 31.4% of them were in12th grade, followed by students in 10th grade 28.3%, 11th grade students 23.1% and 9th grade students 17.2%(Table 1).165

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012Table 1: Frequency distribution of respondents by gender, type of school,ownership of school, grade and study areaVariablesGenderType of schoolNumber ofrespondent (n)Male 362 41.5Female 511 58.5General high school 387 44.3Vocational high school 130 14.9Anatolian high school 343 39.3Science high school 13 1.5Ownership of schoolGradeStudy areaState-owned 722 82.7Private 151 17.39 th grade 150 17.210 th grade 247 28.311 th grade 202 23.112 th grade 274 31.4Social sciences 169 19.4Turkish language-mathematics 431 49.4Science 186 21.3Foreign language 21 2.4Percent (%)Students’ Level of Interest in Active LearningAccording to the descriptive analysis of students’ self rating scores on 24 different methods and techniques usedin active learning, the average interest level for all methods and techniques was 3.20 out of 5 (standard deviation= 1.50), which corresponded to ―neutral‖. The full results are set out in Table 2.166

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012Table 2: Students’ level of interest in active learning methods and techniquesMethod/Technique Mean* Method/Technique Mean*1 Case study (showcase) 3.63 13 Discussion 3.242 Laboratory (experiment) 3.59 14 Preparing newspaper/magaz. 3.193 Brainstorming 3.57 15 Metaphor (analogy) 3.144 Learning by teaching 3.54 16 Concept mapping 3.115 Problem solving 3.50 17 Fieldwork about human geo. 3.046 Learning through research 3.50 18 Fieldwork about phys. geo. 3.027 Question and answer 3.46 19 Open forum 3.008 Project 3.44 20 Mental mapping 2.909 Group work 3.42 21 Making song 2.8410 Preparing crossword 3.33 22 Drama 2.8111 Educational games 3.33 23 Six thinking hats 2.5812 Preparing poster 3.28 24 Fishbone diagrams 2.45Average for all 3.20There was no method or technique about which students stated, ―strongly interested‖ or ―strongly uninterested‖if the average scores were taken into account. The average score for the first six of the methods and techniquescorresponded to the statement, ―interested‖. The areas where students had higher scores, corresponding to―interested‖, were case study (showcase), laboratory (experiment), brainstorming, learning by teaching, problemsolving and learning through research. Students’ knowledge levels were low, corresponding to lower than―neutral‖, for the methods and techniques of mental mapping, making song, drama, six thinking hats andfishbone diagrams. In particular, their interest level was lowest, corresponding to ―uninterested‖, for fishbonediagrams.The areas where male students had higher scores, corresponding to ―interested‖, were laboratory (experiment)and learning through research. However, the areas where female students had higher scores, corresponding to―interested‖, were case study (showcase), brainstorming, learning by teaching, laboratory (experiment), problemsolving and learning through research. Mann-Whitney U analysis indicated that males and females differedsignificantly in their level of interest in the active learning methods and techniques (p < 0.05). The methods andtechniques in which males and females significantly differed were preparing newspaper or magazine, preparingposter, learning by teaching, brainstorming and case study (showcase) (Table 3).167

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012Table 3: Mann-Whitney U test results comparing gender on students’ level of interestVariable Group N Mean rank Sum ofranksAverage oftechniquesPreparingnewspaper/mag.PreparingposterLearning byteachingU Z pMale 347 399.95 138783.50 78405.500 -2.153 0.031Female 495 436.61 216119.50Male 285 330.63 94229.00 53474.000 -2.493 0.013Female 420 368.18 154636.00Male 290 332.58 96449.00 54254.000 -2.676 0.007Female 422 372.94 157379.00Male 280 318.94 89304.50 49964.500 -2.929 0.003Female 408 362.04 147711.50Brainstorming Male 300 336.79 101037.00 55887.000 -3.158 0.002Case study(showcase)Female 429 384.73 165048.00Male 285 332.09 94646.50 53891.500 -3.252 0.001Female 438 381.46 167079.50Analysis of the answers based on the type of the schools revealed that students in general high schools hadhigher scores, corresponding to ―interested‖, in problem solving, question and answer, learning by teaching,learning through research and brainstorming. Students in vocational high schools had higher scores,corresponding to ―interested‖, in laboratory (experiment) and learning through research. Students in Anatolianhigh schools had higher scores, corresponding to ―interested‖, in case study (showcase), laboratory (experiment),brainstorming, learning by teaching, educational games, group work, problem solving, project, learning throughresearch and question and answer. Students in science high schools had higher scores, corresponding to―interested‖, in group work, learning by teaching and brainstorming.Analysis of the answers based on students’ study areas revealed that students in social sciences had higherscores, corresponding to ―interested‖, in learning by teaching and case study (showcase). Students in TurkishLanguage-Mathematics had higher scores, corresponding to ―interested‖, in case study (showcase), question andanswer, brainstorming, laboratory (experiment), problem solving, learning by teaching and learning throughresearch. Students in science had higher scores, corresponding to ―interested‖, in laboratory (experiment) andbrainstorming. Moreover, students in foreign language had higher scores, corresponding to ―interested‖, inbrainstorming, problem solving, question and answer, educational games and case study (showcase).The Kruskal-Wallis analysis of variance indicated that, there was a statistically significant difference among thefour school types (general high school, vocational high school, Anatolian high school and science high school)with respect to student interest levels due to the fact that the p value was smaller than 0.05 (p = 0.018). Besides,there was no statistically significant difference among the four study areas (social sciences, Turkish languagemathematics,science and foreign language) due to the fact that the p value was not smaller than 0.05 (p = 0.170)(Table 4).168

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012Table 4: Kruskal-Wallis test results on students’ level of interest based ontype of school and study areaGrouping Variable Groups N Mean rank Df X 2 pType of school General High School 364 420.22 3 10.08 0.018Vocational High School 130 373.924Anatolian High School 335 445.02Science High School 13 327.00Study area Social Sciences 163 376.40Turkish Lang.-Math. 413 402.88Science 181 364.07 3 5.021 0.170Foreign Language 20 430.80Furthermore, to determine which of the pairs of school type differed, six post hoc Mann-Whitney tests were doneto compare students’ school types to their level of interest in active learning methods and techniques. There wasa significant difference between students in vocational high schools and those in Anatolian high schools (p

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012Table 6: Usage of active learning methods and techniques in geography lecturesMethod/Technique Mean* Method/Technique Mean*1 Question and answer 3.50 13 Preparing poster 1.942 Problem solving 3.21 14 Preparing crossword 1.893 Brainstorming 2.94 15 Discussion 1.894 Learning through research 2.78 16 Fieldwork about phys. geogr. 1.775 Case study (showcase) 2.66 17 Educational games 1.776 Learning by teaching 2.60 18 Fieldwork about human geo. 1.767 Metaphor (analogy) 2.45 19 Laboratory (experiment) 1.768 Concept mapping 2.44 20 Fishbone diagrams 1.739 Group work 2.27 21 Making song 1.7310 Project 2.13 22 Preparing newspaper/magaz. 1.7211 Mental mapping 2.07 23 Drama 1.7012 Open forum 2.04 24 Six thinking hats 1.70Average for all 2.19When the usage rates of active learning methods and techniques were analyzed, it was observed that no ratingwas at the level of ―in every lecture‖. The usage level was the highest for question and answer, with a score of3.5, which corresponded to ―once a week‖. This was followed by ―problem solving‖ with a score of 3.21, whichcorresponded to ―once a month‖. The usage rates of brainstorming, learning through research, case study(showcase) and learning by teaching were quite high compared to the others, which corresponded to ―once amonth‖. However, the scores for the other methods and techniques were quite low, at the level of ―once asemester‖.Besides, the usage rates of active learning methods and techniques were analyzed based on type of school andstudy areas. The analysis showed that the usage rates of question and answer, problem solving, brainstormingand learning through research were higher, at the level of ―once a month‖, in general high schools. The usagerates of question and answer, problem solving, learning through research, brainstorming and case study(showcase) were at the level of ―once a month‖ in vocational high schools. Anatolian high schools had thehighest rate in question and answer, which corresponded to ―once a week‖. Problem solving, brainstorming, casestudy (showcase), learning through research and learning by teaching, which corresponded to ―once a month‖,followed question and answer respectively. In addition, the usage rates of learning by teaching and brainstormingwere the highest in science high schools, which corresponded to ―once a week‖. These were followed by conceptmapping, learning through research, case study (showcase), group work and question and answer, at the level of―once a month‖. In order to assess whether there was a significant difference between type of school and usagelevels of active learning methods and techniques, Kruskal Wallis tests were performed. The results indicated thatthere was statistically significant difference between the type of school with respect to usage rates of activelearning methods and techniques due to the fact that the p value was smaller than 0.05 (p = 0.000). The sametests were also performed to investigate the difference between the students’ study areas and usage levels.However, the usage levels in different study areas did not differ significantly (p > 0.05) (Table 7).170

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012Table 7: Kruskal-Wallis test results on usage levels based on type of school and study areaGrouping Variable Groups N Mean rank Df X 2 PType of school General High School 379 405.41 3 27.41Vocational High School 129 373.012Anatolian High School 341 475.47Science High School 12 598.96Study area Social Sciences 169 394.64Turkish Lang.-Math. 427 391.980.000Science 178 418.59 3 2.011 0.570Foreign Language 21 379.95To find which of the pairs of means were different among school types in the usage rates of active learningmethods and techniques, post hoc Mann-Whitney tests were performed. The outcomes suggested that there werestatistically significant differences between general high school and Anatolian high school, general high schooland science high school, vocational high school and Anatolian high school and vocational high school andscience high school with respect to usage rates due to the fact that the p values were smaller than 0.05 (Table 8).Table 8: Post hoc Mann-Whitney U test results comparing the four school types on usage levels.Group N Mean rank Sum of ranks U Z pGeneral High School 379 258.23 97868.00 23033.000 -0.981 0.327Vocational High School 129 243.55 31418.00General High School 379 33.68 126464.00 54454.000 -3.648 0.000Anatolian High School 341 390.31 133096.00General High School 379 193.50 73336.50 1326.500 -2.459 0.014Science High School 12 274.96 3299.50Vocational High School 129 191.90 24755.50 16370.500 -4.280 0.000Anatolian High School 341 251.99 85929.50Vocational High School 129 67.56 8715.00 330.000 -3.281 0.001Science High School 12 108.00 1296.00Anatolian High School 341 175.17 59733.00 1422.000 -1.796 0.072Science High School 12 229.00 2748.00Moreover, Mann-Whitney U tests were performed to investigate whether there was a significant differencebetween state-owned schools and private schools about the usage levels of active learning methods andtechniques. The analysis indicated that state-owned schools and private schools did not differ significantly aboutthe usage level of the active learning methods and techniques (p > 0.05) (Table 9). Furthermore, the usage levelof question and answer was ―once a week‖ in both schools. Following five methods and techniques (problemsolving, brainstorming, learning through research, case study and learning by teaching) that had higher usagerates, corresponding to ―once a month‖, were not different in both schools.171

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012Table 9: Mann-Whitney U test results comparing ownership of schools on usage levels.GropingVariableGroup N Mean rank Sum ofranksU Z PSchools State-owned 710 428.19 304015.00 516610.000 -0.719 0.472Private 151 444.21 67076.00DISCUSSION AND RESULTSAs a result of study, it was revealed that the students’ level of interest was ―neutral‖ to active learning methodsand techniques. Even though the students were not ―very interested‖ in any of the methods and techniques, theywere quite encouragingly ―interested‖ in six of them including case study (showcase), laboratory (experiment),brainstorming, learning by teaching, problem solving and learning through research. However, they were―uninterested‖ in one of the methods and techniques, fishbone diagram, and ―neutral‖ to the remaining.Students’ level of interest in active learning methods and techniques differed when analyzed on the basis ofgender. In general, female students’ level of interest was higher than male students’ level of interest. Femalestudents were ―interested‖ in six of the methods and techniques including case study, brainstorming, learning byteaching, laboratory, problem solving and learning through research. However, male students were ―interested‖in only two methods, laboratory and learning through research. In addition, female students’ level of interest wassignificantly higher than male students’ level of interest for three methods including learning by teaching,brainstorming and case study (showcase). The female students were ―interested‖ in these three methods whilemale students were ―neutral‖ to them.Some differences were also observed in the students’ level of interest based on school types. Although, theaverages of each school were ―neutral‖, the rate of students in Anatolian high schools was the highest, followedby general high schools, vocational high schools and science high schools respectively. Students in Anatolianhigh school were ―interested‖ in ten of the methods and techniques including case study, laboratory,brainstorming, learning by teaching, educational games, group work, problem solving, project, learning throughresearch and question and answer respectively. Students in general high school were ―interested‖ in five of themethods and techniques including problem solving, question and answer, learning by teaching, learning throughresearch and brainstorming. However, students in science high school were ―interested‖ in three of themincluding group work, learning by teaching and brainstorming. Moreover, students in vocational high schoolwere ―interested‖ in only two methods, laboratory and learning through research. Statistically significantdifferences were observed between the students in Anatolian high schools and those in vocational high schoolsand science high schools.In addition, the analysis showed that there were no statistically significant differences among students by studyarea according to general rates. However, students in Turkish language-mathematics were ―interested‖ in sevenof the methods and techniques and students in foreign language were ―interested‖ in five of them while bothstudents in social sciences and science were ―interested‖ in two of the methods and techniques.Looking at the usage rates for active learning methods and techniques in geography lectures, the average usagerate was ―once a semester‖. The results were quite discouraging in the sense that none of the methods andtechniques were used ―in every lecture‖ in geography classes. Among 24 methods and techniques, ―question andanswer‖ had the highest rate, corresponded to ―once a week‖. It was followed by problem solving,brainstorming, learning through research, case study (showcase), and learning by teaching. However, the usagerates of these methods and techniques were only ―once a month‖. Besides, the usage rates of remaining 18methods and techniques were ―once a semester‖.Results also indicated that, usage rates of active learning methods and techniques statistically differed whenanalyzed on the basis of school type. The average usage rate in science high schools was ―once a month‖ whilethe rate was ―once a semester‖ in other three of school types. The usage rates for two of the methods andtechniques, learning by teaching and brainstorming, were ―once a week‖ in science high schools. Besides, therate of question and answer was ―once a week‖ in Anatolian high schools. However, no methods and techniques172

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012were used ―once a week‖ in general and vocational high schools. Moreover, the analysis revealed that stateownedschools and private schools did not differ significantly about the usage level of active learning methodsand techniques. Question and answer was used ―once a week‖ and problem solving, brainstorming, learningthrough research, case study and learning by teaching were used ―once a month‖ in both schools.When students’ level of interest and usage of active learning methods and techniques were compared, a parallelranking was also observed except for three methods and techniques. All of the methods and techniques exceptlaboratory (experiment) in which students were ―interested‖ had the usage rate of ―once a month‖. However, theusage rate of laboratory (experiment) was ―once a semester‖. So, laboratory (experiment) should be used more ingeography lectures. In addition, all of the methods and techniques except question and answer to which studentswere ―neutral‖ had the usage rate of ―once a semester‖, while the usage rate of question and answer was ―once amonth‖. That is to say, question and answer did not arouse enough interest although it was used ―once a month‖.So, the reasons underlying paucity of interest in question and answer should be determined well. Moreover, theusage rate of fishbone diagram, only technique in which students were ―not interested‖, was ―once a semester‖.The reasons of this problem should also be revealed.In conclusion, the following remarks can be underlined. That students were ―interested‖ in only six of activelearning methods and techniques out of 24 revealed an important lack of interest in active learning. Furthermore,the average usage rate of active learning techniques was quite low at ―once a semester‖. Perhaps the lack ofinterest in active learning methods and techniques should be seen normal for the students who do not see theusage of them more than ―once a semester‖. However, the reasons should be determined well. Moreover, thereasons underlying the low usage rate of active learning methods and techniques should be determined well. Oneof the reasons may be the teachers’ lack of knowledge about active learning methods and techniques. Therefore,some key steps, such as vocational seminars, taken by authorized institutions could help teachers to fullyunderstand the usage of active learning methods and techniques. Equipping the teachers with the knowledge ofactive learning, not only in theory, but also in practice, may help design lessons which are in accordance with theobjectives and guidelines of the new geography curriculum.REFERENCESAcıkgoz, K. (2007). Active Learning. Izmir: Bilis Press.Akbulut, G. (2004). Geography and active learning methods. Journal of Erzincan Education Faculty, 6(1), 65-77.Akınoglu, O. (2004). Constructivist learning and geography teaching. Marmara Geographical Review, 10(2),73-94.Akkurt, N.D. (2010). The effect of active learning technique on the academic achievement and the behaviorenvironment of the first grade of intermediate students. National Education, 185, 138-147.Aksu, H.H. & Tıglı, E. (2007). The effect of active learning model on thinking abilities in geometry teaching.Journal of Cukurova University Education Faculty, 34(3), 57-68.Allen, E.E. (1995). Active learning and teaching: improving postsecondary library instruction. ReferenceLibrarian, 51, 92.Arslan, A., Sahin, A., Sahin, E. & Akcay, A. (2011). Effect of creative drama method on 6th grade students’attitude towards Turkish course. National Education, 190, 234-247.Artvinli, E. (2010). Configuring of geography lessons: design of a lesson based on action research. MarmaraGeographical Review, 21, 184-218.Aydede, M.N. (2010). The effect of active learning based activities on students’ learning levels in primaryschool sixth grade science course. E-Journal of New World Sciences Academy, 5(4), 2243-2254.173

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012Aydın, G. (2010). Effect of the mind mapping technique on comprehension and retention of what is listened to.Journal of Ataturk University Social Sciences Institute, 14(2), 1-16.Aykac, N. (2007). The usage of active teaching methods impact on the attitudes, achievement and retention ofthe students in social sciences lesson. Journal of Ondokuz Mayıs University Education Faculty, 23, 24-37.Bekmezci, B. & Unlu, M. (2007). The effect of students success, using the method of group-work in geographyeducation. Marmara Geographical Review, 16, 53-62.Bloom, B.S., Krathwohl, D.R. & Masia, B.B. (1984). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classification ofEducational Goals. New York: Longman.Bonwell, C.C. & Eison, J.A. (1991). Active Learning: Creating Excitement in the Classroom, ASHE-ERICHigher Education Report no. 1. Washington, D.C.: George Washington University.Chickering, A. & Gamzon, Z. (1987). Seven principles for good practice. AAHE Bulletin, 39, 3–7.Coskun, M. (2004). Cooperative (collaborative) learning in geography teaching. Kastamonu Education Journal,12(1), 235-244.Dabbour, K.S. (1997). Applying active learning methods to the design of library instruction for a freshmanseminar. College & Research Libraries, 299-308.Ercan, O. 2004. Active learning as a learning process. Education In the Light of Science and Mind, 54-55,http://yayim.meb.gov.tr/dergiler/sayi54-55/ercan.htm.Felder, R.M. & Brent, R. (1996). Navigating the bumpy road to student-centered instruction. College Teaching,44(2), 43.Felder, R.M., Brent, R. & Stice, J. (2002). National effective teaching institute: workshop materials. AmericanSociety for Engineering Education Annual Conference, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.Gecit, Y. (2009). From the student’s point of view, who are at secondary schools in Trabzon, the latest (2005)geography education program and constructivism theory relationship. Marmara Geographical Review,19, 30-54.Gibbs, G. (1988). Learning by Doing: A Guide to Teaching and Learning Methods. London: Further EducationUnit. http://www.glos.ac.uk/gdn/gibbs/index.htm.Gokce, N. (2009). Project on preparing instructional material for general and physical geography. MarmaraGeographical Review, 20, 20-41.Houston, J.E. (1995). Thesaurus of ERIC Descriptors. 13th edn. Phoenix, AZ: Oryx Press.Jonassen, D. (1994). Thinking Technology: Toward a constructivist design model. Educational Technology,34(3), 34-37.Kalem, S. & Fer, S. (2003). The effects of active learning model on the learning, teaching and communicationprocess of students. Educational Sciences Theory & Practice, 3(2), 433-461.Kayalı, H. & Tarhan, L. (2004). Application of a guide material based on constructivism-active learning toremedy misconceptions on ―ionic bonding‖. Journal of Hacettepe University Faculty of Education, 27,145-154.Keyser, M.W. (2000). Active learning and cooperative learning: understanding the difference and using bothstyles effectively. Research Strategies, 17, 35-44.Koseoglu, İ. & Unlu, M. (2006). The effect of drama technique in geography lecture. Marmara GeographicalReview, 13, 125-132.174

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012MEB. (2005). Secondary Education Geography Curriculum. Board of Education, Republic of Turkey Ministryof National Education. http://ttkb.meb.gov.tr.Meyers, C. & Jones, T.B. (1992). Promoting Active Learning: Strategies for the College Classroom. SanFrancisco: Jossey-Bass.Ozgen, N. (2011). A different approach to physical geography teaching methods: field trip supported education.Marmara Geographical Review, 23, 373-388.Prince, M. (2004). Does active learning work? a review of the research. Journal of Engineering Education,93(3), 223-231.Rotgans, J.I. & Schmidt, H.G. (2011). Situational interest and academic achievement in the active-learningclassroom. Learning and Instruction, 21, 58-67.Scheyvens, R., Griffin, A.L., Jocoy, C.L., Liu, Y. & Bradford, M. (2008). Experimenting with active learning ingeography: dispelling the myths that perpetuate resistance. Journal of Geography in Higher Education,32(1), 51-69.Simkins, S.P. (1999). Promoting active-student learning using the world wide web in economics courses. TheJournal of Economic Education, 30(3), 278-287.Tuna, F. & İncekara, S. (2010). Skills in geography education. In Concepts and Changes in GeographyEducation, ed. R. Ozey, and S. İncekara, 263-282. Ankara: Pegem Akademi.175

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012© 2012 Ozean PublicationINFLUENCE OF FAMILY STRUCTURE ON STUDENTS’ ACADEMICPERFORMANCE IN AGEGE LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA,LAGOS STATE, NIGERIAUSHIE, M. A.*; EMEKA, J. O., ONONGA, G. I.** OWOLABI, E. O.***Dept. of Sociology, University of Calabar, Nigeria**Dept. of Guidance and Counseling, Osun State University, Nigeria***Dept. of Sociology, University of Ibadan, Nigeria*E-mail address for correspondence: ushiemike@yahoo.com___________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: The home has a great influence on the child’s psychological, emotional, social and economicstate. This is because the home in the context of a child affects his reaction to life situations and hislevel of performance. This study examined the influence of family structure on the academicperformance of students in public secondary schools in Agege Local Government Area, Lagos State.The stratified sampling technique was used to select 114 students from five public schools, while thesimple random sampling technique was used to administer the questionnaire. Also, data on students’academic performance was obtained from their scores in four selected subjects of English,Mathematics, Economics and Biology. Data obtained was analysed using crosstabulation, tables,simple percentages, independent samples test and multinomial logistic regression (MLR). The t-testresult showed that that there is no significant difference in the academic performance of students fromsingle parent families and those from two parent families (p>0.05), while the MLR result revealed thatparental socioeconomic background significantly influenced students’ academic performance(p

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012INTRODUCTIONAcademic attainment is an important parameter in measuring success in students. Observations andreports have shown that success or high academic achievement has become a herculean task toaccomplish by students in recent times. Poor academic performance were recorded both at thesecondary and tertiary levels of education in Nigeria (Tenibiaje, 2009). The performance of students atall levels in educational institutions in Nigeria has attracted much criticisms from all and sundry fromtime immemorial. The decline in the academic performance of students in Nigerian Universities hadbeen observed by Soyinka (1999), when he observed that University system in Nigeria neededrestructuring. He went further to say that academic standard had fallen drastically and the quality ofgraduates being produced by the nation’s universities is questionable and subject to re-examination.Poor academic performance of students has been of great concern to educationists, guidance andcounsellors in particular. Despite, all guidance programmes and counseling strategies mounted inschools to improve students’ academic performances yet poor performances are recorded yearly.Family background is the foundation for children’s development, as such family background in termsof family structure, size, socio-economic status and educational background play important role instudents’ educational attainment and social integration (Osunloye, 2008). However, reviewed literatureindicated that there is an awareness of the importance of the home environment or family on siblings orchildren academic performance. The home has a great influence on the child’s psychological,emotional, social and economic state. In the view of Ajila and Olutola (2000), the state of the homeaffects the individual since the parents are the first socializing agents in an individual's life. This isbecause the family background and context of a child affect his reaction to life situations and his levelof performance. Family structure in terms of single and two parent families has been noted in theliterature to have a significant influence on students’ performance and mental development (Tenibiaje,2009; Eweniyi, 2005). This is because providing a supportive learning environment at home requiresparents’ time as much as financial resources.According to Salami and Alawode (2000), the existence of single - parents in Nigeria is formerlyunknown and where they existed they are ignored as exceptional cases. However, nowadays, they arefast growing family patterns both inside and outside Nigeria. Although there are no available statisticsof single-parent families in Nigeria (Salami and Alawode, 2000), practical experience and newspaperreports show that there is an increase of single parents in Nigeria. In the western countries, there is agrowing increase in the percentage of adults and children living in single parent households(Nwachukwu, 1998). Single-parent families have on average lower income than two-parent familiesand are thus more constrained in ensuring adequate financial resources to meet their children’s learningneeds. In addition, since single parents must cope with the double responsibility of work and childrearing,it may be more challenging for them to provide and maintain a supportive learningenvironment for their children (OECD/UNESCO, 2003). Such families according to Children'sDefence Fund (1994) are faced with the challenges of diminished financial resources, assumptions ofnew roles and responsibilities, establishment of new patterns in intra-familial interaction andreorganization of routines and schedules (Agulanna, 1999). These conditions are not conducive foreffective parenting. This is because when the single parent is overburdened by responsibilities and bytheir own emotional reaction to their situation, they often become irritable, impatient and insensitive totheir children's needs which may affect children performance in school (Nzewunwah, 1995). This paperexamines the impact of family structure (i.e. single and two parent families) on the academicperformance of students in public secondary schools in Agege Local Government Area of Lagos State.In particular, it examines parental socioeconomic background on students’ academic performance aswell as compares the academic performance of students from single parent homes with students fromtwo parent homes.Theoretical construct of the studyThis study anchors firmly on the theory of Family Deficit Model (Donahoo, 2003), which sees nuclearor two-parent family as the ideal family structure and single parent family as a deviant from the idealfamily. According to this model, single-parent families have a negative impact on the child in that it isbad for the child’s upbringing and cognitive development. Indeed, children from single-parent families178

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012are at greater risk than children in two parent families; even when they have the same academicabilities, Thiessen (1997) posited that children from single-parent families are three times more likelyto drop out of high school than children from two-parent families. Likewise, Amato and Keith (1991)and Lauer and Lauer (1991) found that children in single-parent families may be at greater risk thanchildren of two-parent families. Because they are the primary and frequently sole source of financialsupport for the family, single parents have less time to help children with homework, are less likely touse consistent discipline, and have less parental control, and all of these conditions may lead to loweracademic achievement (Astone & McLanahan, 1991; Mulkey et al., 1992).The implication of this theory to the present study lies on the fact that students’ performance in schoolis mediated by their upbringing which perhaps is influenced by their family background. According toFadeiye (1985) in two parent homes, both parents have roles lo play in child education. The father is toprovide the necessary tools for the educational advancement, while the mother is supposed tosupplement the father's efforts in this regard. When the father is absent and the mother is not privilegedenough to cater for all the basic needs as well as supervised the academic performance of the child, thechild will be backward or withdrawn. In similar view, Ortese (1998) noted that when the mother isabsent and the father is not privileged enough. A single parent faces doubled responsibilities requiringtime, attention and money of the parent. A child from homes where the father and the mother arepresent will be well taken care of and socialized in the best way possible. This is due to the fact that theprocess of socialization depends on both parents playing complimentary roles in bringing up the child.Such a child is likely to achieve self-actualisation later in life; but children from single-parent homesare likely to suffer deprivation and denial of some rights and opportunities which may have tremendousinfluence on their performance in real life situations.MATERIALS AND METHODSResearch designThis study made use of the survey design which enabled relevant information to be collected from therespondents through the use of a structured questionnaire and scores in four subjects.Sampling procedureThe study employed the stratified and simple random sampling techniques. The stratified samplingtechnique was used to select one hundred and twenty students both males and females from fiveexisting public schools, twelve students were sampled in each class (SS2 and SS3) in each school. Thismeant that in each school, twenty four students (12 males and 12 females) in SS2 and SS3 wereselected; after which, the simple random sampling technique was used to administer the questionnaire.In each selected school and class, permission was taken from head/class teachers to randomly select thenames of the students that would represent the population of study from the class register. In all, a totalof 120 copies of questionnaire were administered to students in the five selected schools, out of which114 of the questionnaires were properly filled and used for analysis. The scores of students wereprovided in line with students randomly selected to fill the questionnaire.Data collection procedureThe study made use of both primary and secondary data. The primary data included data on familystructure and parental socioeconomic status; whereas, secondary data included data on the academicperformance of students. Data on family structure and parental socioeconomic status were obtainedthrough the administration of copies of structured questionnaire to students in the five existing public179

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012schools in Agege Local Government Area of Lagos State. The instrument was divided into twosections. Section A measured students demographic and parental socioeconomic background, whilesection B contained a number of questions designed to measure the influence of family structure andfamily socioeconomic status on students’ performance using a 4 – point likert scale with responsesranging from Strongly Agree= SA; Agree = A; Disagree = D; and Strongly Disagree = SD. Onthe other hand, data on students’ academic performance was obtained from their scores in four selectedsubjects of English, Mathematics, Economics and Biology examinations of first term for the 2010/2011academic session. The scores in four subjects were then converted to Z-scores to ensure their reliabilityand validity since they were obtained from different secondary schools (Salami, 2008). Performancewas therefore assessed using Z-score values where 0 represented an average performance; 1represented good performance; 2 represented excellent performance; -1 represented a poor performanceand -2 represented a very poor performance. The aforementioned subjects were selected because theyrepresented compulsory subjects for all the classes (science, commercial, and art classes). The scoreswere collected from head teachers with the permission of the principals.Method of data analysisData obtained from administered questionnaire as well as mean scores of students’ performance wasanalysed using tables, simple percentages, cross tabulations, charts independent samples test andmultinomial logistic regression. The multinomial logistic regression (MLR) was used to predict theoccurrence of student performance using parental socioeconomic variables. The multinomial(polytomous) logistic regression is the extension of the binary logistic regression. It is used when thecategorical dependent outcome (in this case, academic performance) has more than two levels (Chan,2005; Bayaga, 2010). For example, instead of predicting only poor or good performance, we have threegroups, namely: poor performance, average performance and good performance. In fact it is employedwhen the dependent variable has more than two nominal or unordered categories, in which dummycoding of independent variables is quite common (Bayaga, 2010).The model was however used for this study since most of multivariate analysis techniques require thebasic assumptions of normality and continuous data, involving independent and/or dependent variables,for this reason, multinomial logistic regression was used where the above assumptions tend to beviolated (Bayaga, 2010; Kayri and Cokluk, 2010). The application of multinomial logistic regressionarises when an analyst analyses relationships between a non-metric dependent variable and metric ordichotomous independent variables (Chan, 2005). In this study, both the dependent and independentvariables are non-metric or categorical. However, in order to effectively carryout this test, items in thequestionnaire coded for descriptive analysis were transformed or recoded into dummy variables (theindependent variables). For instance, questions like the educational background of parents (father andmother) with seven (7) options were transformed or recoded into two dummy variables of no educationas 0 and educated as 1; occupation of parents with four options was transformed into two dummyvariables of skilled as 1 and unskilled as 0; students’ academic performance with five (5) Z-scoreoptions was transformed into three categorical variables of poor performance as 0, averageperformance as 1 and good performance as 2 and so on.RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONDemographic characteristics of respondentsInformation on the sex, ages, religion, family type and family structure of respondents shows that outof the 114 respondents in public secondary schools that correctly answered the questionnaire, 19.3%were within the ages of 12 – 15 years; 65.8% of the respondents were within the ages of 16 – 19 years,while 14.9% were within the ages of 20 -23 years. No student was above 23 years. This implies that85% of the respondents are adolescents within the ages of 12 -16. In addition, information on the180

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012religion indicated that respondents were more of Christians, that is, 64.9% were individuals borne ofChristian parents, while 35.1% emanated from Muslim parents. Furthermore, the family size (in termsof number of children) of the respondents implied that majority emanated from homes of 3 – 5 children(77.6%). It also showed that 16.7% came from homes with 6 children, while 9.6% came from homeswith children above 6. This implies in essence that majority of the respondents are from medium sizefamilies. The structure of families revealed that 28.1% were from single parent families comprising ofeither only the father or mother, while 71.9% constituted two parents families that is families whereboth parents are still together. This therefore implies that majority of the studied population are fromfamilies with both parents. Family type showed that 70.2% of the respondents were from monogamousfamilies, while 29.8% were from polygyny families.Parental socioeconomic backgroundInformation on the socioeconomic (SES) background of parents (both father and mother) in terms oflevel of education, occupation and income is displayed in table 1. The table shows that 4.4% of thefathers had no formal education, while 795.6% had formal education. Also, the educational levels ofmothers indicated that 6.1% were illiterate, that is they had no formal education, while 93.9% wereliterates. This information implies that over 95% of both parents are literates. Information on theoccupation of father and mother showed both parents were more of skilled workers. The result furtherrevealed that mothers comprised a greater proportion of the unskilled workforce. The incomedistribution of parents’ implied that 72% of both parents earned above N100, 000 monthly, whichperhaps can be said was to be connected to their educational qualifications and nature of occupation.Academic performance of studentsThe performance of students as depicted in the fig. 1 revealed that 4.4% of the respondents performedbadly; 32.5% had poor performance; 31.6% had an average performance; 21.1% of the respondentsacross the five schools had good performance, while 10.5% performed excellently. In general, theinformation showed that respondents in the five schools performed above average with 63.2%.181

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012Family structure and academic performance of studentsThe performance of students between two types of family structures that is single parent families andtwo parent families is presented in table 1. A single parent family according to Tenibaije (2005) andEweniyi (2005) is one that is composed only of father or mother due to various reasons of death of aparent, divorce, separation and dissertation, while a two parent family is the direct opposite. The tableindicated that out of the 36.8% respondents who performed poorly, 11.4% were from single parentfamilies, while 25.4% were from two parent families; information on above average and goodperformances showed that 8.8% and 5.3% were from single parent families, while 22.8% and 15.8%were from two parent families respectively. Respondents with excellent and brilliant performancesrevealed that 2.6% and 7.9% came from single parent and two parent families respectively. Thistherefore indicates that respondents from two parent families have better performance than theircounterparts from single parent families. The reason for this is not far-fetched, as these category ofrespondents enjoy the company and assistance of both parents, as such are mentally stable than theircounterpart from single parent families who may lack the necessary parental assistance mostly if thefamily is that of father. This result corroborates those of Nzewunwah (1995) when he observed asignificant difference between children from single parent families and those from two parent familiesin terms of attitude to examination malpractices, attitude to studies and academic performance. Heattributed this to the fact that life in a single parent family can be traumatic and children brought up insuch family structure often suffer some emotional problems, while those raised in two parent familystructure are often stable emotionally thereby making them less anxious in the pursuit of theiracademic work.FamilystructureTable 1: Family Structure * Academic performance CrosstabulationPoorperformanceAcademic performanceAverageperformanceGoodperformanceExcellentperformanceTotalSingle parentfamilyTwo parentfamily13 10 6 3 3211.4% 8.8% 5.3% 2.6% 28.1%29 26 18 9 8225.4% 22.8% 15.8% 7.9% 71.9%Total 42 36 24 12 114Source: Fieldwork, 201136.8% 31.6% 21.1% 10.5% 100.0%Academic performance of students from single and two parent familiesThe academic performance between students from single and two parent families was tested usingindependent samples test. The t-test result in table 2 showed that calculated t-value of 1.279 was lessthan the p-value of 0.205, meaning that that there was no significant difference in the academicperformance of students from single parent families and those from two parent families.182

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012Table 2: Independent samples test of the difference in academic performanceVariables N Mean SD t-cal Sig dfStudents of single parent families 32 0.19 0.96 1.279* 0.204 112Students of two parent families 82 0.10 1.11*Difference between means is insignificant at 5% alpha levelParental socioeconomic background on students’ academic performanceMultinomial logistic regression was used to find out the effect of parental socioeconomic backgroundon students’ academic performance (table 3). The result indicated that the overall test of relationship(between the dependent and independent variables) based on the statistical significance of the finalmodel chi-square in the table 3.1 (model fitting information) showed that the probability of the modelchi-square (66.782) was 0.001, less than the level of significance of 0.05 (i.e. p

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012Observed variablesPoorperformanceTable 3.3: ClassificationAverageperformancePredictedGoodperformancePercent CorrectPoor performance 48 3 4 87.3%Average performance 20 8 6 23.5%Good performance 13 1 11 44.0%Overall Percentage 71.1% 10.5% 18.4% 58.8%In addition, the goodness of fit result (table 3.4) shows that the model adequately fits the data with; asthe p-values (sig) >0.05.Table 3.4: Goodness-of-Fit: parental socioeconomic backgroundChi-Square df Sig.Pearson 12.590 16 .702Deviance 10.848 16 .819The relationship of independent and dependent variables using the likelihood ratio test (table 3.5)revealed that among the predictor variables used in the model to predict the probability of thedependent variable, only father’s occupation (X 2 = 12.372, p

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012DISCUSSIONContrary to what the literature and the theory of Family Deficit Model holds, the results of this studyhave apparently shown that the academic performance of students from single parent families and theircounterparts from two parent families does not vary. This is because most single parent families areable to meet up with the educational needs of their children; in such home, the father or mother couldbe more concerned about the needs of the child since the second partner is not available. This is impliesthat the performance of students depends on their individual build up and aspirations in life, as studentsfrom single parent families compete and even do perform better in most cases than their counterpartfrom two parent families. As such, the father or mother though over burden and under immense homedemands, keeps to time and tries to be at home with the children mostly at their adolescents. Perhaps,depending on the income, most children from single parent homes are sometimes sent to boardingschools, and all their needs provided. This result though contradicts findings in the literature, butsomehow confirms the findings of Uwaifo (2008) that children raised in two-parent family structure areoften stable emotionally and they suffer less emotional problems thereby making them less anxious inthe pursuit of their academic work. However, he noted that this situation might not be true all the timesince there are some children in single parent family structures who still perform academically betterthan children from two parent family structure.Furthermore, the result indicates that students’ academic performance is significantly influenced byparental socioeconomic backgrounds. This indeed is true as the socioeconomic status of parents interms of income, education, nature of occupation and position in the society determine the type ofattention and involvement they have with their children. The socio-economic status (SES) of parents isan important explanatory factor associated with health, cognitive and socio-emotional outcomes ofstudents. When parents are educated, they are poised to making sure their children equally followsame; these categories of parents are more aware of the educational requirement of their children andcan make sacrifices for them. Parents that earn big salaries can effectively take responsibilities of theirchildren’s education compared to parents that earn meager salaries. Perhaps, the financial and moralsupport a child gets from his/her parents’ influences him psychologically, which is reflected in hisperformance in school.This finding also agrees with the report of OECD/UNESCO (2003) that family characteristics are amajor source of disparity in students’ educational outcomes. More family financial resources, whichare associated with parents’ occupation and educational attainment, often imply increased learningopportunities both at home and in school. Better-educated parents can contribute to their children’slearning through their day-to-day interactions with their children and involving themselves in theirchildren’s school work. However, the significance of the socioeconomic variables in predictingchanges in students’ performance identifies father’s occupation and parental income as the mostimportant and significant factors. Father’s nature of occupation which indeed determines his take homeincome and time they would have with their children, impacts on students’ upbringing; as a father whobrings home fabulous salary and has little time to spend with his children, is able to interact with themand in the process help children in resolving their school needs. According to Bloom (1980), children'sacademic success is influenced by the interrelationships among high parental educational andoccupational aspirations.CONCLUSION/RECOMMENDATIONSThe result of this study indicates that family structure does not determine students’ academicperformance, but parental socioeconomic background. This is because, irrespective of the familystructure, students whose parents have better jobs and higher levels of educational attainment and whoare exposed to more educational and cultural resources at home tend of have higher levels of literacyperformance. In order to improve students’ academic performance and reactions to life situationsirrespective of their family structure, parents are encouraged to have family size they can adequatelycater for, while government among other things is encouraged to provide schools with adequate185

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012learning materials in order to breach the gap between the rich and the poor in the society so as to givestudents’ from poor homes the opportunity to learn and improve on their performances. Also,counsellors are advised to provide the necessary assistance and psychological support for students fromdifferent family background so as to overcome their emotional problems and improve academicperformance.REFERENCESAgulanna, G. G. (1999) Family Structure and Prevalence of Behavioural Problems among NigerianAdolescents. The Counsellor, 17(1), 154-1549Ajila, C. and Olutola, A. (2000) Impact of Parents' Socio-Economic Status on University Students'Academic Performance. Ife Journal of Educational Studies, 7 (1), 31-39Amato, P. R. & Keith, B. (1991) Parental Divorce and the Well-Being of Children: A Meta Analysis.Psychological Bulletin, 110, 26-46Astone, N. M., & McLanahan, S. S. (1991) Family Structure, Parental Practices, and High SchoolCompletion. American Sociological Review, 56(3), 309-320Bayaga, A. (2010) Multinomial Logistic Regression: Usage and Application in Risk Analysis. Journalof Applied Quantitative Methods, 5 (2): 288 –297Chan, Y. H. (2005) Multinomial Logistic Regression. Singapore Med J., 46(6): 261Donahoo, S. (2003) Single Parenting and Children's Academic Achievement.http://npin.org/pnews/2003/pnew303/int303a.htmlEweniyi, G. D. (2005) The impact of Family Structure on University Students'Academic Performance.Olabisi Onabamijo University, Ago-lwoye. OnlineFadeiye, J. D. (1985) A Text of Social Studies; Socialization and Political Culture InternationalOrganization for NCE- and Undergraduates. Ibadan: EtoriKayri, M. and Çokluk, O. (2010) Using Multinomial Logistic Regression Analysis in Artificial NeuralNetwork: An Application. Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences, 3(2): 258 – 268Lauer R.H., & Lauer, J. C. (1991) The Long-Term Relational Consequences of Problematic FamilyBackgrounds. Family Relations, 43:286-290Mulkey, L. M., Crain, R. L. & Harrington, A. J. C. (1992) One-parent households and achievement:Economic and behavioral explanations of a small effect. Sociology of Education, 65(1), 48-65Nwachukwu, F. J. (1998) Single-Parent Family - An Emerging Family Pattern in Nigeria. TheCounsellor, 16 (1): 137-146Nzewunwah, P. N. (1995) The Effects of Single Parenthood on the Academic Performance of Students.Unpublished M.Ed. Project, University of LagosOECD/UNESCO-UIS (2003) Family Background and Literacy Performance.http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/43/9/33690591.pdfOrtese, P. T. (1998) Single-Parenting in Nigeria; Counselling Concerns and Implications. TheCounsellor, 16 (1): 61-66186

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012Osunloye, A. (2008) Family Background and Student Academic Performance.http://socyberty.com/education/family-background-and-student-academic-performance/Salami, S. O. and Alawode, E. A. (2000) Influence of Single-Parenting on the Academic Achievementof Adolescents in Secondary Schools: Implications for Counselling. Department of Guidanceand Counselling University of Ibadan, IbadanSchulz, W. (2005) Measuring the Socio-Economic Background of Students and Its Effect onAchievement in PISA 2000 and PISA 2003. Paper prepared for the Annual Meetings of theAmerican Educational Research Association in San Francisco, 7-11 April 2005Soyinka, W. (1999) University System in Nigeria. Tampere: University of Tampere Press.Tenibiaje, D. J. (2009) Influence of Family Size and Family Birth Order on Academic Performance ofAdolescents in Higher Institution. Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences, 6 (3): 110-114Thiessen, S. (1997) Effects of single parenting on adolescent academic achievement: Establishing arisk and protective framework. http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED412479.pdfUwaifo, V. O. (2008) The Effects of Family Structure and Parenthood on the Academic Performance ofNigerian University Students. Stud Home Comm Sci, 2(2): 121-124187

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012© 2012 Ozean PublicationNARRATIVES OF VARIATION IN TEACHER-PUPIL RELATIONSHIPS ACROSSA CAREERALISON KINGTONInstitute of Education, University of Worcester, Worcester, UKE-mail address for correspondence: a.kington@worc.ac.uk__________________________________________________________________________________________Abstract This paper reports on the findings of a research study focused on teacher perceptions of theirrelationships with pupils over three phases of a career. Data collected from thirty primary school teachers using acritical event narrative approach were coded and compared across the three groups of teachers at different pointsin their careers; 0-7 years, 8-23 years, and over 24 years. The study, based in the United Kingdom, highlighted acomplex development amongst teachers which centres on five key areas identified as differentiating between thethree career phases; interaction, behaviour, expectations, proximity and control. Results indicate that teachers gothrough a series of relationship transitions in relation to these five areas, and that these transitions can oftenconfront teachers with conflicting views of what positive teacher-pupil relationships are and create personaldissonance as they try to make sense of their role in these relationships. Based on empirical evidence, this paperargues that positive relationships with pupils are not necessarily associated with experience and that thetransitions teachers experience through their career is of concern given the centrality of teacher-pupilrelationships to effective teaching.___________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTIONTeachers are acknowledged as adults whose relationships with children contribute to the social, emotional, andcognitive development of those children (Birch & Ladd, 1998; Hamre & Pianta, 2001; Kington 2005). Therelationship that a child has with his or her teacher in the primary phase of schooling is associated with a rangeof child outcomes, including children's competent behaviour in relationships with peers, as well as theirrelationships with future teachers (Birch & Ladd, 1998; Howes & Hamilton, 1993; Howes, Matheson, &Hamilton, 1994). Aspects of the teacher-child relationship are also linked to school adjustment and academicachievement (Birch & Ladd; 1997; Greenberg, Speltz & Deklyen, 1993; Howes et al, 1994; Pianta, Steinberg, &Rollins, 1995). In addition, positive teacher-child relationships can serve as a buffer against risk (Lynch &Cicchetti, 1992; Mitchell-Copeland, Denham, & DeMulder, 1997; Pianta et al., 1995).Past research has also focused on associations between teachers’ perceptions of their relationships with childrenand their judgements about children’s school adjustment (e.g. Birch & Ladd, 1997), children’s feelings ofsatisfaction with school (Baker, 1999), and pupils’ social status in the classroom (Skinner & Belmont, 1993).There have also been a number of other studies regarding elements of classroom activity which doubtless havean impact upon teacher-pupil relationships, such as the creation of productiveclassroom environments (Hook & Vass, 2000), the role of authority in the classroom (Robertson, 1996), and howpupils interact with one another in the classroom, both academically (e.g. Kutnick & Kington, 2005) and socially(Hartup, 1998). Findings such as these indicate that positive early teacher-child relationships may help place189

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012children on a trajectory towards higher levels of school adjustment and competence, whereas negative earlyrelationships with teachers forecast a less promising trajectory for children (Kington, 2005, 2009).This paper presents findings from a study investigating teacher-pupil relationships by analysing teachers'narratives about these relationships, and examining links between these narratives and teachers' career phase.More specifically, the extent to which the phase of a teacher’s career can suggest similarities and difference inthe development and formation of teacher-pupil relationships is examined. The paper describes the perceivedqualities, elements of the formation and development of teacher-pupil relationships, as well as aspects ofclassroom life such as interactions, expectations, and proximity. It is important to emphasize that these data arenot presented as examples of a particular data collection technique, but aim to illustrate that viewing teachers’perspectives on their relationships with pupils from a career-oriented perspective can be an important means ofunderstanding classroom processes that subsequently contribute to child outcomes.Conceptual frameworkIn much policy thinking there has been a conflation between ‘career stage’ and ‘professional development phase’which has limited understandings and appreciations of the different needs of teachers which are necessary tosustain effectiveness over a career. For example, the career structure suggested by the Department for Educationand Skills (DfES, 1998) set out prescribed stages of recruitment, training and promotion and targets aimed atrewarding teachers for role-related high performance. The Teacher Development Agency (TDA) and NationalCollege for School Leadership (NCSL) both provided for teachers and headteachers in relation to organisationalneeds for role performance only at particular promotion-related stages. Studies on teachers and teaching havealso defined teachers’ careers in a sense that they are closely related to role-related promotion: ‘it [teachingcareer] implies a commitment on the part of a person to obtaining promotion through the status hierarchy thatexists according to some time schedule’ (Maclean 1992: 188; also Huberman, 1989, Prick, 1989). Likewise,studies viewing teachers’ career patterns from the perspective of age (see Sikes, Measor & Woods, 1985) fail totake into account factors independent of age and therefore, are limited in their ability to explain the complexityof teacher professional life development. Sikes et al. (1985) argue that ‘teachers are first and foremost people,and like everyone else they are subject to changes which are associated with ageing, and how the process isviewed in the society’ (1985: 56).Another approach used in the study of teacher development suggests phases which a teacher experiences overthe course of a career. The model suggested by Super (1957) essentially posits four identifiable stages:exploration, establishment, maintenance, and disengagement. Although related to sequential life cycle theories(e.g. Erikson, 1964), Super and others have emphasised strongly that individuals do not proceed through thephases in a linear manner. Not only is there considerable variation in the timing of the stages, individuals canmiss stages, revert to ‘earlier’ stages or remain in a single stage during a career (Huberman, 1989; Smart &Peterson, 1997; Super, 1990). It follows that the term ‘stage’ may not be consistent with recent theoreticalconceptualisations. Integrating Super’s (1957) model with his own, Huberman (1989) argued for a career stagemodel specifically for teachers’ professional work, and his study on the lives of Swiss secondary school teachershas been widely cited for its development of a non-linear empirically-based schematic model of a five phaseteaching career cycle (career entry, stabilisation, experimentation, conservatism, and disengagement). One majorcontribution of Huberman’s research was his identification that ‘a large part of development is neither externallyprogrammed nor personally engineered but rather discontinuous’ (Huberman, 1993: 195). Huberman asserts thatteachers’ professional career journeys are ‘not adequately linear, predictable or identical’ (1993: 264).Since Huberman’s seminal work in this area, a number of empirical studies focusing on teaching during theprofessional careers of teachers have been conducted (e.g. Agee, 2004; Brown, 2001; Craig, 2001; Henke, Chen,Geis, & Knepper, 2000; Manuel, 2003; Mulholland & Wallace, 2005; Pigge & Marso, 2000; Stinebrickner,2001; Verjovsky & Waldegg, 2005; Wilhelm, Dewhurst-Savellis, & Parker, 2000). However, there are twolimitations to these studies; firstly, that they are largely based on self-reports of teachers; and secondly, none ofthese studies included a focus on change in practice based on perceptions of students. Other studies on thecharacteristics of phases of a teaching career have focused on pre-service teacher education (e.g. Conway &Clark, 2003; Price, 2001) or the beginning of the teaching career (e.g. So & Watkins, 2005; Woolfolk Hoy &Burke Spero, 2005, Zeichner & Tabachnick, 1985), whilst some have focused on differences between novice andexpert teachers (Meyer, 2004) or veteran teachers (Day & Gu, 2009). Although these studies were not designedto describe changes across the teaching career, they implicitly started from the assumption that becoming anexpert teacher follows some kind of developmental process (e.g. Castejou & Martinez, 2001; Jay, 2002).190

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012In a study by Day, Sammons, Stobart, Kington and Gu (2007) some of these previous limitations wereaddressed. The impact of the interaction between professional and personal contexts on teachers’ careerdevelopment, as well as the possibility of distinctive key influences relevant to teachers in different phases oftheir careers were considered. In this study, teachers’ careers were divided into six phases i based upon anextensive review of previous studies on teachers’ careers and professional development. The evidence from thisinvestigation in teachers’ work and lives revealed that, for the majority of primary teachers, their original call toteaching was articulated as linked to the opportunity to work with children, and that those pupils remained themain source of their motivation and commitment. The research also found that teachers derive commitment andresilience to sustain such commitment from differing sources in different contexts and in different phases of theirprofessional and personal lives. Their functional positions/role-related career advancement only comprises partof these. The notion of teachers’ professional lives, rather than careers, therefore, enabled an understanding ofthe complex factors which influence teachers in different phases of their work and how these affected theircommitment. More recently, these career phases have been utilised in a further study into effective classroompractice (Kington et al, 2011). As with this study, for the purpose of some of the analyses, these six phases wereconflated into three broad career phases (0-7 yrs, 8-23 yrs, 24+ yrs) whilst retaining the characteristics of theoriginal phases.RESEARCH DESIGNThe sampleAdopting the three broad career phases from previous research (Day et al, 2007; Kington et al, 2011), apurposive sample of thirty primary school teachers was selected to participate who had been practitioners forbetween 0 to 7 years (N=10), 8 to 23 years (N=10) and over 24 years (N=10). The sample size was appropriatefor a study using the chosen method of data collection and gave enough rich data for a meaningful analysis.These teachers were based in a total of ten primary schools in the Midlands region of the UK and were chosen torepresent different geographical locations (e.g. rural, suburban, inner city) and levels of social disadvantage (asmeasured by pupil eligibility for free school meals ii ).Data collectionTeachers' narratives regarding their relationships with pupils were elicited through a critical event narrativeapproach and were analysed in relation to teachers’ professional experience. The critical event narrativeinterview was conducted once with each of the participant teachers and comprised two parts:Narrative approach interviewsThe narrative approach gives access to rich and complex understandings of teacher-pupil relationshipsthroughout a career for individual teachers. Furthermore, this approach has the ability to take account ofseveral contextual elements with importance for teachers’ perceptions of their work (Gudmundsdottir,2001), as well as the longitudinal aspects of personal and professional experience (see Clandinin & Connelly;1988; Huberman, 1988; Sikes, Measor & Woods, 1986).Narrative methods have previously been used to assess parents' working models of their attachment relationshipwith their own parents (George & Solomon, 1996) as well as with their children (Bretherton, Biringen, &Ridgeway, 1991). Parent narratives, elicited via semi-structured interviews, have been found to relate to parentingbehaviours (Crowell & Feldman, 1988; Main, Kaplan, & Cassidy, 1985), child behaviours toward parents(Crowell & Feldman, 1988), and parent-child relationship quality (Benoit & Parker, 1994; Bretherton et al.,1991). Findings such as these suggest that adult-child relationships are complex, multifaceted systems.191

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012The narrative approach elected for this study did not seek to collect entire life stories or seek extended accountsof lives that developed over several meetings. Instead, the interview offered the teachers an opportunity to reflecton relationship stories organized around specific critical events. In this sense, each interview was tailored to thesituations, contexts and concerns of individual teacher-participants, in order to focus on developments in theirprofessional lives and changes over time. Therefore, the narrative was directed towards a number of core areas,including key events, significant people and changes in beliefs, values and practices which have affected, andwere affected by, classroom, school, and broader social and policy contexts.Critical event line (adapted from Day et al., 2007)It was important to contextualise the individual accounts of teachers’ relationships with pupils. Such acontextualisation is considered to be necessary, as:....lives and stories link with broader social scripts--they are not just individual productions theyare also social constructions. We must make sure that individual and practical stories do notreduce, seduce and reproduce particular teacher mentalities and lead us away from broader patterns ofunderstanding (Goodson, 1997: 1 16).If teacher narratives are not contextualised, the resulting stories could potentially be reduced to an uncriticalreproduction of researchers’ understandings of teachers and the teachers’ understanding of themselves.Measor (1985) identifies three types of critical events: extrinsic (can be produced by historical or politicalevents), intrinsic (occur within the natural progression of a career, e.g. entering the teaching profession,mid-career promotion, etc) and personal (relating to family events, illness, etc). Critical ‘incidents’(Flanagan, 1954) included three features: a description of the situation, an account of the actions orbehaviour of the key player, and the outcome. Woods (1993) writes about critical events in relation toteaching and learning maintaining that they promote understanding in uncommonly accelerated ways andthat they are critical for change:Events are exceptional by virtue of their criticality. This relates not so much to the content...,as to the profound effect it has on the people involved (Woods, 1993: 356).Further, Woods (1993) says that critical events are important in four ways: i) they promote student learningin accelerated ways; ii) they are critical for teacher development; iii) they restore ideals and commitment inteachers; and, iv) they boost teacher morale.At the beginning of the narrative interview, teachers were asked to recall ‘turning points’ (Strauss, 1987: 67) intheir working lives – key moments and experiences that have had a significantly positive or negative impact ontheir relationships with pupils. These critical ‘turning points’ provide a context for interpreting the relationshipsand also provide rich data to identify and track patterns of critical events in the three broad career phases. Thistask required teachers to draw a line on a chart, indicating changes in their relationships during their career,noting any critical events or turning points that, in their opinion, had a significant impact on their effectiveness.Each critical event was coded as interaction, behaviour, expectation, control or proximity depending on thenature of the event. This event line acted as the primary focus for the interview, enabling the researcher todiscuss particular events in relation to specific points in time.DATA ANALYSISThe notion of critical incidents did not only prove useful as heuristic tools in analysing the career narratives, butthey were also considered as theoretical concepts, referring to events, people or periods that were perceived bythe teacher as having a specific and clear impact on their relationships with pupils. This process depends on thesubjective meaning that is attributed by the teacher and, therefore, the specific content of a critical incidenttherefore can strongly differ among teachers and has to be understood in relation to the entire career story.All interviews were digitally recorded and fully transcribed. Qualitative data was coded, categorized andtransferred into analytical matrices (Miles & Huberman, 1994) which were used to refine emergent themes andidentify patterns. Grounded theory coding techniques were used to define, refine and specify influences, capturevariations and emerging variables in the relationships. Subsequently these data were subjected to a thematicanalysis using NVivo.192

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012In addition, basic techniques were carried out on all statistical data collected via the event lines in order toexplore the frequencies of different professional and personal events relating to different points during a careerwhich impacted upon teachers’ relationships with pupils. This statistical analysis was then imported in NVivo,along with individual teacher attributes such as gender, age, etc. In this way the qualitative and quantitativeanalyses was integrated and thus enhanced the resulting interpretation which was subsequently validated by theteachers themselves.FINDINGSAnalysis of the critical event narrative data revealed a number of underlying core characteristics of teacher-pupilrelationships and career phase. Teachers in all three phases identified the following characteristics:(1) The ability to build and sustain good relationships with pupils was said to be crucial for the majority(93%, n=28) of teachers across all three phases. A number of factors influenced this, e.g. getting toknow the pupils well, establishing good rapport and interaction, using humour, listening to what thepupils had to say and communicating effectively with them.(2) All the teachers were concerned about the quality of the relationships established with pupils, beingaccepted by pupils and with understanding them. They also highlighted the need for relationships to bebased on fairness and consistency, and offered in a supportive and caring way.(3) The majority of teachers (87%, n=26) were concerned about discipline, yet at the same time understoodthat too much discipline could undermine the quality of the relationships.(4) The data show that the teachers gave more time to developing individual relationships with pupils, andfocused upon building self-esteem, engendering trust and maintaining respect.(5) Finally, many teachers (73%, n=22) appeared to empathise with their pupils’ needs and efforts in termsof their academic performance and desired academic outcomes.The categories shown above are, inevitably, broad descriptions of teacher-pupil relationships. However,differences in these relationships were noted in terms of the three broad phases of a teaching career; early-career(0-7 yrs), mid-career (8-23 yrs) and late-career phases (24+ yrs). There follows an exploration of the themes thatarose from a statistical analysis of the quantitative data generated via the critical event line, combined with aqualitative analysis of the narrative interviews.InteractionsMaintaining positive interactions with pupils was important for teachers across all phases. The majority ofteachers (90%, n=27) agreed that the degree of positivity (or negativity) expressed during interactions withchildren was often reflected in the development of the relationships. For example, children with whom theteacher had positive relationships were more likely to be those who had more positive classroom experiences andwhom the teacher was more positive about when talking about them.You tend to see those children who you have nice chats with as those who also seem to do well inclass, I guess they enjoy the class more if they like their teacher (Early-career teacher).Not surprisingly, teachers stated that relationships were more negative with a pupil after more negativeinteractions with that child. This is also suggestive of a dyadic systems perspective on relationships, in whichpupil and teacher hold mutually positive (or negative) beliefs and expectations of one another that are reinforcedor confirmed in their interactions. The positive or negative affect expressed in relationship narratives was relatedto the frequency of interactions between teacher and pupil.The more you get to spend time with a pupil, the more likely it is that you’re going to form a goodrelationship with them because you get to know them, you know,...bits and pieces about them thathelp you to connect to them in some way (Late-career teacher).193

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012Early-career teachers defined their interactions with pupil as positive if there was a certain level of humour andrapport with the aim of getting to know the pupil and establish a level of familiarity:It’s really easy to develop relationships with some children, especially those who you can laughand joke with sometimes, and that flows over into the classroom (Early-career teacher).Mid-career teachers tended to focus their attention on academic-related interactions, but also reported that theymaintained their personal interest in pupils outside of lesson time.When I’m in class I tend to talk about work most of the time, I don’t know when that changed(Mid-career teacher).Even though I like to keep classroom talk about work, I like to keep in touch with what they’redoing in their own time as well, so try to talk to them in the playground and on breaks (Mid-careerteacher).Whereas late-career teachers stated that they try to combine both of these previous approaches and that they oftenused humour and a relaxed, informal approach to teaching in order to utilise their relationships with pupils duringthe learning process.The more relaxed children are during the lessons, the more they enjoy it and the more they learn...and in fact, the more they enjoy learning (Late-career teacher).Late-career teachers also reported that they play a role in shaping relationships through the emotional quality oftheir interactions with children, as well as their responsiveness in terms of frequency and consistency tochildren’s needs. This was seen as particularly important to pupils in the later stages of primary school who areoften undergoing profound shifts in their sense of self and are struggling to negotiate changing relationships withtheir parents and peers. Since teachers have the advantage of standing outside these struggles, they can provide asafe context for support and guidance, while transmitting adult values, advice, and perspectives.BehaviourOverall, the majority (83%, n=25) of teachers felt that the behaviour in their classrooms was good in spite ofsome occasional disruptive behaviour by a minority of pupils. Maybe unsurprisingly, all teachers stated that anynegative behaviour expressed in the classroom was due to negative interactions between teacher and pupil.Findings suggest that these relations may be more complex than they first appear.Perceptions of behaviour occupied the thoughts of early-career teachers more than those with more experience. Itwas this group of teachers who believed more strongly that aspects of their relationships with pupils were relatedto pupil behaviour.The way that I’ve approached this is that, if I work hard on the relationship aspect, the goodbehaviour will follow. It doesn’t always work and it can take time in some cases, but there isdefinitely a connection between the two things (Early-career teacher).Although a higher proportion of the teachers in the early-career phase felt positive about pupil behaviourcompared with the other two phases, the mid- and late-career teachers defined good behaviour in terms ofstrategies adopted in order to help them manage any disruptive behaviour and keep maintain pupil discipline.It’s not so much about promoting good behaviour, that should be the default setting. It’s reallyabout managing the situation if that doesn’t happen (Mid-career teacher).In addition, late-career teachers were more likely to become dissatisfied with pupil behaviour. The high demandson pupils were reported to impact upon behaviour which was usually handled easily by these experiencedteachers, but which could gradually become a threat to a positive classroom atmosphere.Behaviour becomes more and more difficult the longer I teach. The things that used to work whenI was younger don’t work now so I have to be stronger and impose more discipline as soon as Ithink behaviour is changing for the worse (Late-career teacher).As a consequence, these teachers stated that they used further strategies to reverse the situation which, in turn,can stimulate a negative communicative spiral.194

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012ExpectationsAll teachers in the study, regardless of career phase, reported that high expectations which were clear, consistentand understood by pupils was an important issue that was closely related to positive relationships with pupils.They also emphasised the value of establishing rules and boundaries at the outset.Early-career teachers reported that they made behavioural expectations clear from the start of the year byformalising them in a document or as part of a display.We had a talk at the beginning of the school year and went through all the rules for the class andwhat I was not willing to put up with, like shouting, and then they all signed it (Early-careerteacher).They explained that they based their academic expectations around targets or learning objectives which provideda consistent way to demonstrate their aspirations for the class. This was also the approach taken by the majorityof late-career teachers who said they differentiated expectations according pupils’ abilities.You have to be so careful when developing expectations of students because it can either motivateor de-motivate them. I try to keep everything connected to what they are capable of and notproject a standardised set of outcomes on all of them (Late-career teacher).Further to this, late-career and mid-career teachers were also more relaxed about stating the behaviourexpectations to the students. Maybe due to experience, they explained that there was an assumption that studentsknew how to behave and dealt with any problems if they occurred. However, they were clear that poor behaviourwas not acceptable.It’s a self-fulfilling prophecy, I think. If you act as if behaviour has to be good, then it usually is(Late-career teacher).Mid-career teachers also focused on expectations that were individualised, consistent, sequential anddifferentiated, but tried to give pupils more control over their learning.It's having high expectations of children and making sure that you know the level of each childand can make sure that they know what the expectations are for the next level do they can aspireto them (Mid-career teacher).For late-career teachers, the ‘history’ of the relationship was a component that affected expectations betweenteacher and pupil. The history was significant because it connected the familiarity and shared knowledge whichhad developed between participants.It helps when you know something about a pupil, either because you have taught them before orfrom a colleague. You can be more realistic about communications and expectations, and theoverall atmosphere is generally more relaxed and positive (Late-career teacher).That said, relationships were continually subject to negotiation by members, such that they did not necessarilyneed to remain stable, and the content of the relationship bond had potential to change substantially.ProximityAn important principle in the development of relationships was proximity. Many of the teachers (70%, n=21)identified proximity as a means of building relationships with pupils. Early-career teachers also indicated that thisfactor supported learning targets or objectives, and forms of informal assessment.It is so much easier to support the learning of pupils who are positioned in certain places in theclassroom. I try to make sure that the children I need to support more or who I know will benefitfrom more attention are nearer my desk (Early-career teacher).The ones who sit the furthest away are the ones who will have more problems, especially withhomework or independent classroom activities (Early-career teacher).Examination of the data showed that the mid-career teachers, like their early-career colleagues, used classroomseating and proximity with pupils to promote positive relationships, develop rapport, and establish boundaries. Inaddition, this organisation offered opportunities for the teachers to engage with pupils in dialogue about learning.195

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012I make sure that I stand close to the children who are a bit too chatty sometimes and who mightdistract the others. It means I can reinforce the rules if necessary without having to stop thelesson and draw attention to it (Mid-career teacher).Findings suggest that teachers’ perceptions of proximity and teacher-pupil relationships were fairly stable for thefirst two career phases. However, there was a decline in the use of proximity towards the end of the career.I don’t give the children set places, they can move around each day if they want. So the way inwhich I maintain relationships with the pupils has to overcome that and not be based on wherethey might be sitting (Late-career teacher).ControlAll teachers reported that feeling they had a level of control and influence in the classroom was important.Unsurprisingly, early-career teachers were less confident about this issue than the other phases. However, theydefined this construct in terms of the impact of their control on pupil behaviour.I have to have control all the time. This spills over into my planning and organisation and meansthat I have control, or I feel that I have control, over the behaviour in the classroom (Early-careerteacher).The major concern of mid-career teachers related to their perceived difficulty in balancing friendliness withauthority and control.I can’t seem to do a thing right. Last week I was very friendly with the pupils. I smiled a lot, spoketo them as equals, joked with them... Today I was stern. I kept some of them in at lunch time, Iyelled and moved them away from others but I still don’t have complete control (Mid-careerteacher).Classroom control is generally perceived as an end in itself amongst early- and mid-career teachers in thesample, for whom it is an important component of the functional and positive relationship. Among late-careerteachers control seems to be taken for granted.If you are well-planned, willing to be flexible and can manage the lesson, the classroom controlfollows (Late-career teacher).These more experienced teachers display a more holistic view of classroom management and are preoccupied byissues such as flexibility and the overall management of time.DISCUSSIONThis paper has presented a description of changes in teacher-pupil relationships during the teaching career.Although there were perceptions of relationships that were common across all three phases, there also appears tobe a significant developmental transition occurring for teachers in the early- and mid-career phases and those inthe late-career phase. For example, early-career teachers felt that the relationships with their pupils were centralto their motivation and commitment, sense of self-efficacy and job satisfaction, whilst the mid-career teacherswere generally more positive about pupil behaviour than other phases. Both the mid-and late-career phases hadover half the teachers stating interactions and expectations influenced their relationships in a positive way,whereas the early-career teachers were more likely to have a problem with pupil behaviour. On the basis of thesedata, there are three generalisations that can be made regarding variations in teacher-pupil relationships across acareer.i) Early-career teachersIn this early phase, teachers were concerned about the quality of the personal relationships they established withpupils, being accepted by pupils, and with understanding their needs. As part of this, they focused on qualitieswhich facilitated empathy with pupils, as they reported the value of knowing and being familiar with pupils and196

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012understanding their backgrounds. In this sense, the findings confirm the view that teachers in the beginningphase (Huberman, 1993) benefited from a combination of influences that were mostly positive. That said,teachers in this group reported the negative impact of poor pupil behaviour on their work as a teacher.Teachers in the latter part of this career phase demonstrated a primary concern over their confidence and feelingsof having effective relationships with pupils, which is only partly in accord with Huberman’s findings thatteachers with 4-6 years of career experience were found to be going through a phase of ‘stabilization,consolidation of a pedagogical repertoire’ (1993: 13). In contrast with the teachers with 0-3 years of experience,there were more frequent references made by teachers to heavy workload which was seen as reducing the timethey had to spend with pupils. In line with Day et al’s (2007) study, many of these teachers reported that theyhad benefited from leadership support which helped to reduce the impact of workload, although there were asmall number who had experienced a lack of support from the school leadership. This indicates that, even at thisearly stage, school leaders are a key mediating influence on the relationships between teachers and pupils.ii)Mid-career teachersFor mid-career teachers, the intensity and strength of the relationship depended on the teacher’s willingness toexhibit genuine feelings to the pupils rather than play a role. The teachers who felt more successful in thedevelopment of their relationships were those who acknowledged and accepted the fact that, although therelationship could be reciprocal, it was unequal and this inequity should not be abused within the classroomenvironment. This encouraged a continuous negotiation of the relationship which was achieved by constantdiscussion with pupils which, in turn, allowed the discovery of boundaries whilst maintaining authority andinfluence.Positive pupil-teacher relationships for this group of teachers were also characterised by low levels ofbehavioural problems and high levels of closeness, supporting children’s motivation to explore, as well as theirgrowing ability to regulate social, emotional, and cognitive skills (Kutnick & Kington, 2005). This behaviourwas grounded in the care and consistency demonstrated over a period of time, in which a teacher’s concern wasreflected in response to an individual pupil and the actions they were prepared to take in order to support anddevelop the child and their relationship.Huberman (1993: 7) discusses a phase of experimentation and diversification after the ‘stabilization’/‘pedagogical consolidation’ phase. He posits that teachers, with between 7 and 25 years’ experience, ‘havingmade an initial tour of duty in the classroom’ set off in search of new challenges and new stimulations (1993: 8).For the mid-career teachers in this study, these challenges were in the form of promotion and additionalresponsibilities (Day et al, 2007) which had started to play a significant role in the relationships developed withindividual pupils. Promotion at this career phase supports research by Hilsum and Start (1974) who noted thatthe first promotion was usually achieved for primary teachers after seven years, and Maclean (1992) who foundthat the average number of years for promotion was eleven years. However, in this study (and in common withthe early-career teachers), the challenge of new roles was combined with excessive paperwork and heavyworkload which were seen as key hindrances to their relationships in the classroom. In contrast to the earlierphase, school leadership was not considered a supportive factor.iii)Late-career teachersTeaching was seen by late-career teachers as an interrelated whole. By this phase, teachers appeared to havereplaced the early-career phase view of pupils ‘as people’ with a view of pupils ‘as learners’ and were morelikely to empathise with their pupils’ needs and efforts in terms of their academic performance and desiredacademic outcomes.For these teachers, development of relationships was perceived to be based on interconnections between patternsof interaction and other elements. Moreover, positive interactions, behaviours, influence and expectationsdeveloped through familiarisation, shared construction, and knowledge of the relationship. However, this did notguarantee that a ‘good’ relationship would develop; it seemed that teachers needed to see, hear and interact withpupils sufficiently often in order to recognise the aspects of them that would contribute to a sustainedrelationship. This supports findings by Kington (2005, 2009) that suggests that if the teacher is unable tocommunicate with pupils frequently, and considers there to be differences between the self and the other(themselves and the pupil), the means for establishing a common activity may be hindered.197

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012The opportunity and time children had to interact with the teacher was an important factor in relation to this.Limited positive interactions and controlled impositions by the teacher (proximity or interruptions ofinteractions) sometimes diminished the shared opportunities with the teacher and opportunities to experiencereciprocity in their relationship. Conversely, teachers perceived that pupils whose development led to anincreased number of social encounters enjoyed more opportunities to learn about others and about relationships.This group also acknowledged a lesser use of proximity which may suggest a greater confidence in relationshipdevelopment based on experience as a practitioner.In common with the mid-career teachers, external policies and initiatives continued to demonstrate a strongnegative impact on teachers’ relationships with pupils. Although they were able to manage it, deteriorating pupilbehaviour was a key influence on teachers in this cohort. As a consequence, they were more likely to be facingchallenges to sustaining positive relationships with individual pupils. However, teachers reported that pupils’progress and positive teacher-pupil relationships were the main source of job satisfaction in this phase.Huberman (1993) maintains that there is a phase of ‘disengagement’ towards the end of teachers’ careers.However, this was not confirmed by the teachers in this study who reported a continued commitment to maintainpositive relationships and engage fully with pupils.The preliminary conceptual framework for understanding teacher-pupil relationship on the basis of career phasewas elaborated and grounded in empirical data. These findings provide a baseline to analyse changes ofindividual teachers during their career and can help diagnose special situations of individual teachers at a givenpoint in their career or regarding their development in a certain period.CONCLUSIONThis study has indicated that, as teachers develop, there are areas of tension which they often confront and whichmay have an impact on their future relationships with pupils. These areas of tension include: whether to befriendly with pupils or to exercise authoritarian management techniques; whether to value a well managedclassroom or quality learning outcomes; whether to value academic outcomes or recognise and respond to theindividual needs of pupils.Rather than a specific type of teacher-pupil relationship, a range of relationships was found to occur for teachersaccording to career phase. This research suggests that, in order to understand classroom relationships, one shouldperceive them as a dynamic, developing and contextual process. Dynamic in the sense that they involve morethan one person in the negotiation and construction of shared meanings; developing because relationshipscontinuously change in various ways; and contextual in the sense that teacher-pupil relationships, as a process,take place within a certain definable context.Using the critical event narrative interview has led to a thorough, rich, meaningful, and warranted approach tothe study of teacher-pupil relationships resulting in a research-informed description and explanation of factorscontributing to these relationships and the connection between these and teacher career phase.REFERENCESAgee, J. (2004). Negotiating a teaching identity: An African American teacher’s struggle to teach in test-drivencontexts. Teachers College Record, 106, 747–774.Benoit, D., & Parker, K.C.H. (1994). Stability and transmission of attachment across three generations. ChildDevelopment, 65, 1444-1456.Birch, S.H., & Ladd, G.W. (1997). The teacher-child relationship and children's early school adjustment. Journalof School Psychology, 35, 61-79.198

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European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012© 2012 Ozean PublicationPREDICTING STUDENTS’ACHIEVEMENT IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE FROMTEACHERS’CLASSROOM BEHAVIOUR AND TEACHING EXPERIENCEDAVID O. FAKEYEDepartment of Teacher EducationUniversity of Ibadan, Ibadan, NigeriaE-mail address for correspondence: Fako4best@yahoo.com__________________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: The study investigated the extent to which teachers ‘classroom behavior and teaching experience wouldpredict students’ achievement in English language among public senior secondary students in Ibadan Metropolis. Adescriptive research design of survey type was adopted to provide answers to four research questions. Theparticipants were 1000 S.S.II students randomly selected from 20 schools and their English language teachersTeachers’Classroom Behaviour Questionnaire (r=.76) and English Language Achievement Test(r=.72) were usedin data collection. Data collected were analyzed using frequency counts simple percentage and, multiple regressionanalysis were used to analyze the data collected. All research questions were answered at 0.05 level of significanceThe findings of this study showed that :Teachers’ teaching experience has a significant relative contribution tostudents’ achievement in English language (β = 0.116; t = 4.823; p< 0.05). Teachers’ classroom behavior also hassignificant relative contribution to achievement of students in English language (β = 0.114; t = 3.202; p < 0.05). Thejoint contributions of teachers’ teaching experience and teachers’ classroom behaviour to student’s achievement inEnglish was also found to be significant (F (1,1252) = 10. 105; P

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012INTRODUCTIONThe English language is an essential pre-requisite for propelling educational wheel of Nigeria. Joseph and Joshua(2010) added that the government having recognized the importance of English language for enhancing educationalattainment as well as for improving communicative competence and ability of citizens has made it a core andcompulsory subject for all in Nigerian schools. The English language continues to be a medium of instruction for allsubjects from primary level to tertiary level in so many countries including Nigeria. It is a medium of instruction, acompulsory and core subject that must be offered and passed at all levels of education in Nigeria’s educationalsystem. It is therefore obvious that without a thorough mastery of the language, it is not possible to have a sufficientfirm grasp of what the learner has to learn.The knowledge of English language helps in understanding other school subjects since it is used to teach all othersubjects except local languages. Good foundation of the language paves way to success in life. The knowledge ofthe content of school’s subject is transferred to the students at all levels of education via the English languagemedium.In spite of these, the English language achievement of the Nigerian school students has been on a steady declineover the years. An online article published on 6 January 2010 by News desk showed that the falling standard ofeducation as exemplified by the falling performance of students at various examinations is alarming. This is leavingmany stakeholders in the sector to wonder about the future of education in the country as well as the place of Nigeriain the 21 st century when competitors among countries will not be defined based on endowment of natural resourcesalone but more importantly on the competitiveness of their human capital.The chief examiner for 2007 May/June West Africa Senior School Certificate Examination (WASSCE) reported apoor performance of students in English language. The report had it that students failed because of the followingdeficiencies such as weakness in skills of writing, construction of loose sentences, transliteration from the mothertongue and abuse of the basic rules of grammar. Very may candidates scored zero under mechanical accuracyaspect of the essay. Candidate’s errors were listed under wrong spellings, wrong usage of concord, tense usage andwrong construction of verb.By 2009, the situation remained the same as the 2009 November/December WASSCE also recorded a poorperformance in English language. The chief examiner’s report for 2009 showed that failure of the subject was dueto the following problems: Ignorance of the proper use of punctuation marks, ignorance of the proper use of capitalletters and small letters. Others are ignorance of the difference between the present and past tenses, inability to restatethe ideas of a passage in different words and expressions and the inability to identify parts of speech and theirfunctions in sentences. The report was concluded with a remark that the demand of the senior secondary schoolsyllabus is so high that only experienced teachers who can teach the subject effectively and employ variousstrategies and tactics to carry along the learners should be made to handle the it at this level of education. Theforegoing remark by the chief examiner suggests that teachers teaching experience and classroom behavior are vitalconsiderations if efforts to improve the teaching and learning of English Language will yield fruitful results.Donna (2007) in his study found out that teaching experience is a strong determinant of on students’ academicachievement. According to Darling-Hammond (2000), Middle and high school students learn more from teacherswho hold Bachelor’s or Master’s degrees in the subjects they teach and from experienced teachers than they do fromless experienced ones. This means that inexperienced teachers (those with less than three years of experience) aretypically less effective than more experienced teachers with greater years of experience. Onukaogu (1994)confirmed that most students fail the English language because they fall in the hands of in experienced teachers. Hewent further to say that, teachers of the language do not possess the qualification and experience to teach thelanguage. Researchers have also given different opinions about teaching experience and students’ learningoutcomes in schools (Adesola, 2009; Ijaiya, 2000).Their arguments centered on the fact that experience improvesteaching skills while pupils learn better at the hands of teachers who have taught them continuously over a period ofyears.Teachers’ classroom behavior is another teacher related factor that can affect students’ performance. In hisobservational theory, Bandura (1997) demonstrated that behaviours are acquired by watching another (the model,teacher, parent, mentor, and friend) that performs the behaviour. The model displays it and the learner observes andtries to imitate it. Teachers are, invariably, role models whose behaviors are easily copied by students. What teacherslike or dislike, appreciate and how they feel about their learning or studies could have a significant effect on their204

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012students. Unfortunately, many teachers seldom realize that how they teach, how they behave and how they interactwith students can be paramount to what they teach. This kind of teacher bias, however, can have a negative effect ontheir self-efficacy perceptions, that is, their personal judgments about their capabilities to organize and executecourses of action required to produce designated types of educational performances (Bandura, 1997; Zimmerman,1999). The way the teacher handles the class has a long way to go on the academic achievement achievements. Theteachers’ classroom behaviour can be exhibited through teachers’ attitude towards the subject, the way he or shehandles topic taught in class. A teacher who exhibits a good attitude to teaching the English language or any subjectshould employ a good teaching skills and methods in content delivery. Attitude as a concept is concerned with anindividual way of thinking, acting and behaving. It has very serious implications for the learners, the teachers, theimmediate social group with which the individual learner relates and the entire school system. A teachers’ attitude toteach the language is a very important teacher related factor. A teacher’s attitude will determine how he or she willhandle the class. Positive teachers’ attitudes are fundamental to effective teaching. Adediwura and Bada (2007)sees the teacher as one that is interesting and must work his students into such a state of interest in that the teacheris going to teach him that every other object of attention is banished from his mind. The behaviour of the teacher inthe class reflects in the way the teacher handles the class. The teacher should be able to employ teaching method anduse skills that would bring about effective learning in the class. This means that the teacher should be able to useapproaches in a logical fashion, which the students can follow. Successful teachers tend to be those who are able touse a range of teaching strategies and who use a range of interaction styles, rather than a single, rigid approach(Hanushek, 2005). In addition to the ability to create and adapt instructional strategies, strong research supports haslinked student learning to variables such as teacher clarity, enthusiasm, task-oriented behavior, variability of lessonapproaches, and student opportunity to learn criterion material (Hanushek, 2005 and Zimmerman, 1999). Teachers’abilities to structure material, ask higher order questions, use student ideas, and probe student comments have beenfound to be important variables in what students learn. For instance, teachers who provide structure for their students(e.g., by informing students of what they are to learn and how they are to learn it) are likely to have students whospend more time involved in learning and who, ultimately, learn more. Similarly, teachers who regularly monitorand supervise their students' learning (e.g. by checking student work and helping individual students overcomeerrors and learning difficulties) are likely to have students who exhibit higher levels of achievement. High levels oflearning may occur as well as learners feeling good about themselves and the material they are learning whenteachers use instructional time efficiently. Learning takes place with ease and faster under teachers that are wellorganized. The way teachers interact with students influences their motivation and attitudes towards school. Skillfulteachers summarize and link ideas together at the end of his lesson. This would help the teacher review summariesof previous work and help students link what has been learnt to what is coming.Statement of the problemThe persistent problem of poor performance of students in English language at the senior secondary school level ofeducation has been attributed to students’ deficiencies various aspects of the language. Scholars have attributed thisto poor handling of the subject by inexperienced teachers who are not well versed in classroom dynamics. It hasbeen suggested that the demand of the senior secondary school syllabus is so high that only experienced teacherswho can teach the subject effectively and employ various strategies and tactics to carry along the learners should bemade to handle it at this level of education for better results . Therefore, this study investigated the extent to whichteachers’ teaching experience and classroom behavior would predict students’ academic performance in Englishlanguage among public senior secondary students in Ibadan Metropolis.Research QuestionsBased on the stated problem, the study sought to provide answers to the following research questions:(1) What is the relative contribution of teachers’ teaching experience to students’ achievement in English?(2) What is the relative contribution of teachers’ classroom behaviour to students’ achievement in English?(3) What is the joint contribution of teachers’ teaching experience and subject mastery to students’achievement in English?\(4) Which of the two teacher variables would predict students’ achievement in English language?205

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012Significance of the StudyThe study investigated teacher related factors as predictors of senior secondary students’ achievement in English inselected public schools in Ibadan Metropolis. Findings from this study would be significant in the followingrespects:The study would provide empirical information on the teacher related factors that could predict student academicachievement in English language. The study would also contribute to research efforts geared towards finding apermanent solution to the problem of poor performance of students in English language. It will also serve as an eyeopener to teachers and other stakeholders on which of the teacher related factors could predict students’ academicachievement in English language.METHODOLOGYThe study adopted a descriptive research design of survey type .The population consisted of all S .S .2 students andtheir respective teachers teaching English language in public secondary schools in Ibadan Metropolis. A totalnumber of fifty students (50) senior secondary II students were randomly selected from 20 senior secondary schoolsto participate in the study making a total of one thousand (1000) S.S.II students in all. All the S.S. II Englishlanguage teachers in the selected schools also participated in the study. Teachers’ Classroom BehaviorQuestionnaire (TCBQ) and English Language Achievement Test (ELAT) were the instruments used for datacollection. The achievement test was constructed by the researcher based on past questions in English Language. Inaddition, information on teachers teaching experience was extracted from the school nominal roll. The reliability ofthe questionnaire was determined using Cronbach alpha yielding a co-efficient of .76 respectively for items onsubject mastery and classroom behavior.The achievement test in English language was constructed by the researcherbased on past public examination questions. The test was administered on a seperate group of students from twoschools, which are not part of the schools for the main study. The reliability was determined through test-re-testyielding a value of .72. Data collected were analyzed using frequency counts ,simple percentage and multipleregression analysis. All research questions were answered at 0.05 level of significance.206

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012RESULTSAnswering the Research QuestionsTable 1: Summary of multiple Regression Analysis showing Relative contributions of Teachers’ ExperienceModeland Classroom Behaviour to Achievement in English Languageco-UnstandardizedefficientStandardcoefficientB Std. Error Beta (β) t Sig(constant) 37.969 3.847 9.871 .000TeachingexperienceTeacherclassroombehavior* Significant at 0.05 Level.534 .147 .132 4.823 .000*.501 .156 .114 3.202 .001*Research Question 1 : What is the relative contribution of teachers’ experience to students’ achievement inEnglish Language?From table 1, it was observed that teachers’ experience contributed significantly to students achievement in Englishlanguage (β = 0.116; t = 4.823; p< 0.05)Research Question 2: What is the relative contribution of classroom behavior to students’ achievement in EnglishLanguage ?According to table 1, teachers’ classroom behaviour contributed significantly to student’s academic achievement inEnglish language (β = 0.114; t = 3.202; p < 0.05).Table 2: Regression Analysis Showing joint contribution of Teachers’ Teaching Experience andModel Sum ofsquaresClassroom Behaviour to students’ achievement in English Language?Df Mean square F Sig.Regression 11840.217 1 11840.217 12.066 .000*Residual 207126 1282 161.565Total 218966.217 1283* Significant at 0.05 LevelResearch Question 3. What is the joint contribution of Teachers’ Teaching Experience and Classroom Behaviourto students’ achievement in English Language?Table 2 shows that the joint contribution of teachers’ teaching experience and classroom behaviour to student’sachievement in English is significant . (F (1,1282) = 12.066; P

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012Research Question 4: Which of the two factors would predict the academic achievement of students in EnglishLanguage?1. From Table 2 ,both teaching experience (β = 0.132; t = 4.823; P

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012students’ in English language .Based on the findings of the study, it is recommended that experienced teachersshould be employed to handle English language especially at senior level. Different teachers should be made tohandle different aspects of English language. This would enable them to be more efficient as they would be made tohandle what they have interest in and capable of doing. Experienced teachers should also be made to handle seniorsecondary level, such as teachers who have been marking West African Examinations Council (WAEC) andNational Examination council (NECO) examinations should be exposed to these students, since they are aware ofthe standard required by these external examination bodies they would be able to groom the students for futurepurposes. Teacher-training programmes should be revisited to cater for teaching skills to equip trainees with thebasic pedagogical skills necessary for teaching English language. This should be supplemented with organizingseminars and workshop for English language teachers.REFERENCESAaronson, D.,Barrow, L.,Sander, W. (2007). Teachers and student achievement in the Chicago public high Schools.Journal of Labour Economics 25 (1). Retrieved December 5 2010 from http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v10n42/Adediwura, A.A. and Bada, T. (2007). Perception of teachers’ knowledge, attitude and teaching skills as predictorof academic performance in Nigerian secondary schools. Ile-Ife, Nigeria .Academic Journals. Volume7(2).p.165-171. Retrieved on January 10, 2011 from http://www.academicjournals.org/ERRAdegbile, J.A. and Adeyemi, B.A. (2008). Enhancing quality assurance through teachers’ effectiveness. Ile-Ife,Nigeria .Academic Journals. Volume 3(2). p.61-65. Retrieved on January 10, 2011 fromhttp://www.academicjournals.org/ERRAdesola, T.A. (2009). Teacher factors as determinant of effective communication in English language in Ibadanmunicipality. An unpublished Ph.D Thesis. University of Ibadan.Bandura, A. (1997). Social learning theory. Retrieved on July 16, 2011 from www.learningthoeries.com/sociallearningDarling -Hammond, L. (2000). Teacher quality and student achievement: A review of state policy evidence.Educational Policy Analysis Archives, 8 (1). Retrieved on April 4 2011 fromhttp://credo.stanford.edu/download/tfa.pdfDonna, G.B. (2007). Studies of state teachers’ looks at what best help students to advance. Retrieved on April 8,2011 from http://www.seattlepi.com .Fakeye, D.O. (2008) Teachers’ Questionning Behaviour and EFL Classroom interaction PatternHumanities and Social Science Journal 2 (1) 35-42in Nigeria.Harris, D.N and Sass, T.R. (2008). Teacher training teacher quality and student achievement. National center foranalysis of longitudinal data for educational research. U.S.A.Hanushek, E.A (2005). Teacher quality. Handbook of the Economics of Education, Volume 2. Retrieved 4April,2011 from www.edpro.standford.edu/HESEDU2018.pdfIjaiya, N.Y.S. (2000). Failing schools’ and national development: Time for re-appraisal of school effectiveness inNigeria. Nigeria Journal Education Resource Evaluation (2).209

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012Jones, M.(2010). Trained and untrained secondary school teachers in Barbados: Is there a difference in classroomperformance? Educational research journal. Volume 39 (2),182. Retrieved on December 5, 2010 fromhttp://www.edujournal.edu.comJoseph, E.U. and Joshua, M.T. (2010). A causal model for explaining English language performance using somepsycho-academic and school variables at the junior secondary level in Nigeria. Global Journal of HumanSocial Science. Volume 3,144-156.Onukaogu, C.E. (1994). Teacher effectiveness as a factor in the use of English programme in a Nigerian university.Ph.D. thesis. University of Ibadan.Zimmerman, D. (1999). Peer effects in academic outcomes: Evidence from a natural experiment. Working paper,Williams College. Retrieved on February 16, 2011 from http://www.csun.edu/~vcmth00m/bshm.hmtl210

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012© 2012 Ozean PublicationFUNCTIONAL LITERACY A TOOL FOR EMPOWERING WOMEN FORSUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENTOLALEYE F.O.* & ADEYEMO C.W.Department of Educational Foundations and ManagementFaculty of EducationUniversity of Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria*E-mail address for correspondence: funsolaleye@yahoo.com_____________________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: This paper examines the concept of empowerment in relations to functional literacy. A symbioticrelationship exists between the two terms with regards to women and girls rights for sustainable development ofNigeria. The presentation was in three parts. The first part discusses empowerment as a life long process. While thesecond part discusses literacy that could be used to empower women. The third and final part suggests practicalways in which functional literacy can be used more especially in the African context to empower women.Keywords: Empowerment, functional literacy, continuous process, self awareness, skill, horizontal and vertical________________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTIONMainstreaming gender into organizations has become topmost development priority in Nigeria. Women and girlsconstitute 75% of Nigerian total population, yet literature and reports show that literacy rate of women is notencouraging, Aderinoye, (2004) citing UNICEF Report, 2002; (Federal Ministry of Education Status Report, 2003),it is imperative, therefore that this category of people (women) in our society should be functionally literate. If wereally want to achieve a 50% improvement in levels of adult literacy by 2015, and equitable access to Basic andContinuing Education for All adults as stated in the six goals of education for all in the Dakar Forum, 2000.Empowerment of women through functional literacy is much desired to raise the status of women to the level atwhich they would be relevant to the development of Nigerian.211

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012Concept of EmpowermentEmpowerment is a continuous and life long process and therefore should be in form of a systematic set ofcontinuous, continued, sustained, never ending (but ever improving) goal – directed effort, Grifferi and Sharman(1995) in their view said that empowerment means a degree to which or a process in which the disadvantage groupsdefine their own needs and determine the response that is made to them e.g women in the market, the destitute (thepoor) etc. All these summarizes that no matter how beautiful a programme is , if it does not meet peoples demand,that means such a project could not empower people. The use of the word “empowerment” does not mean thatpeople do not posses power already, rather it seeks to see the people as a whole entity or in groups and whoseattempts in development process helped from being marginalized and increase their level of participation. Thus anempowered individual is one, who experiences self confidence and self worth, who critically analyses his/her socialand political environment and who is able to exercise control over decision that affect his/her life.Strongquist (1999) noted that empowerment entails a process of changing the distribution of power both ininterpersonal relations and institutions. Thus at the individual level, empowerment can be perceived as the ability todirect and control one’s own life. It is the process in which women gain control over their lifes by knowing andclaiming their rights at different levels of the society. Knowledge and understanding are part of the empowerment ofwomen, the knowledge of self-awareness, acquiring the visible tools of power and a positive self concept cannot beachieved over night. Empowerment is a continuous process. This means that each stage in the process ofempowerment should be a preparation for the next stage .Obanya (2004) noted that the basic skills that may berequired of an empowerment scheme deserving functional literacy include basic literacy skill , i.e literacy ,numeracy , graphic and life skills which include self-awareness development, analytical skills , decision-makingskills ,organizational skills and technical skills. Others are socio-economic, comprising vocational skills acquisition,vocational skills improvement, sustainable income generating skills and learning to learn skills. He furtherconfirmed that empowerment is a lifelong learning skill for social support , continuous learning , life skills andsocio-economic skills. Figure 1 explains further212

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012ESSENTIAL INPUTS INTO AN EMPOWERMENT PROCESSFigure 1(a) KNOWLEDGEAcquisition of informationShifting of informationReasoningSelf- Enlightenment(b) SKILLS Mental Reasoning /Analysis(C) SELF-AWARENESSDecision makingProblem-solvingPhysical: using/Applying technical ideasSocial; interpersonal skillsSelf-search “Who” Who am I”?Self-discovery “What am I capable of”Self-development” I will not foldmy arms ?s(D) VISIBLE TOOLS OF POWERSocio-economic activityIncome (permanent with continuously improving base)Self-reliance(E)POSITIVE SELF CONCEPT (The “I am” and “I Can” and “I will” feeling(F)FULL INVOLVEMENT/FULL CONTROLAutonomy : Full participationAdopted from: The dilemma of education in Africa by (Pai Obanya 2004)From the diagram, it is clearly explained that the process of empowerment can be said to have its horizontal (spatial)and vertical (temporal) dimensions. The knowledge and skill are needed for self awareness acquiring the visibletools of power and a positive self concept will change with place and time. This means that each stage in the processof empowerment should be a preparation for the next stage. These processes can only be attained through functionalliteracy.213

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012Concept of Functional LiteracyThe concept of purposeful or functional literacy has undergone some form of evolution in the last three decades. Inthe past, functional literacy was conceived of as working or work oriented literacy .However, the evolution of theconcept over time still focuses on making the new literate to house his/her skills in changing peoples standard ofliving. However recent development and discoveries show that there is distinction between literacy that empowersand literacy that domesticates. Literacy that empowers seeks to combine both conscious raising and participation sothat (the new literates) not only understand the causes of their oppression but also take steps to ameliorate theircondition, (Anita Dighe 1995). In order words, functionality of a literacy undertaking is the extent to which it isable to empower the beneficiary. Four major dimensions are needed to enhance the functionality of a literacyprogramme for women empowerment . Figure 2 shows this:(a) The Basic SkillsDimensionsLiteracy (reading & writing skills)Numeracy(working with numbers skill)Graphicacy (working with signs,Shapes and figure skillsMeasuracy (Notions of length,width, Volume, distance, weight/measure, etc.(B) The Life SkillsDimensionSelf-awareness developmentAnalytical skills developmentDecision-making/organizational skillManipulative (technical) skills(C) The Socio-EconomicSkills Dimension(D) The Lifelong LearningDimensionVocational skills acquisitionVocational skills improvementSustainable income-generation skillsLearning-to-learn skillsSocietal support for continuously learningLifelong development of dimensions A, B, and CFigure 2: Dimensions of Functional LiteracyAdopted from: The dilemma of education in Africa by (Pai Obanya 2004)Functional literacy is a continuous process A, B, and C of the diagram which will have to be continuously, updatedand adapted to the changing and diverse circumstances of life.The current situation of women & girls in Nigeria shows that Females constitutes the majority of illiterates at alllevel of education.214

WID FULLY IN ACTION & IN EVIDENCE IN THEWIDER SOCIETYWID FULLY IN ACTION & IN EVIDENCE IN THEWIDER SOCIETYEuropean Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012UNESCO (2006) reported that girls make up 60% of all out of school children and represent two third of illiterateadults . Most Nigerian females live in rural areas and they are either semi-illiterate or non-literate.(Aboyade,1987and Onwubike 1999,UNESCO, 2003).A survey carried out in 2005 shows that 33.3% of females had no formal education in the North Eastern States ofNigeria ( Borno, Yola, Adamawa and Bauchi). In the North Western States( Kano, Kebbi, Sokoto and Jigawa)87.8% of females had no formal education. In the South Eastern States (Abia, Akwa-Ibom, Rivers, Imo, Cross-River, Anambra) only 36.2% of females had no formal Education. In the South West (Ogun, Lagos, Oyo, Osun,Ondo, Ekiti ) at least 26.1% of females had no formal education. In the Middle Belt States (Plateau, Benue, Taraba,Niger and Kogi). They are in between the south and North in terms of average figures of female literacy (Adelabu& Adepoju 2007), (FMS 2005). Women are completely powerless in areas where females had no formal educationand only a small proportion is really functionally literate and possibly ready for total empowerment.All stakeholders in education should aim at the formidable but highly desirable task of raising the status of Nigerianwomen through literacy for empowerment programmes. A Holistic approach to literacy for women empowerment isnecessary for sustainable development of Nigeria.Figure 3 Explains further how a holistic approach to literacy for women empowerment programme can be used.OVER-ALL (NATIONAL) POLITICAL WILL AND APPROPRIATEWOMEN-IN-DEVELOPMENT POLICY FRAMEWORKSOCIAL MOBILISATION, TARGETTING BOTHMEN ANDWOMEN, BOYS AND GIRLS AIMED AT CREATING ANENABLING SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT FOR WOMENEMPOWERMENTMOBLISATION OF ALL CLASSES OF WOMEN CREATION,ENCOURAGEMENT,ENHANCED WOMENSTRENGTHENING,AND GIRLS PARTICIPATIONREINFORCEMENT,FULL SUPPORT TO ALL LEVELS OF WOMEN-(EQUITY IN EMPOWERMENT ITS FULL SENSE) ORGANISATIONSIN THE FORMAL SCHOOLSYSTEMFUNCTIONAL LITERACY PROGRAMMES WITH THEULTIMATE GOAL OF EMPOWERING WOMEN AND GIRLSFigure 3: A Holistic Approach to Literacy for Women Empowerment ProgrammeEmpowerment of women should be part and parcel of a more embracing national enterprise. Affirmative action wastaking by Nigerian government recently that women will occupy 35% at least of all political positions in Nigeria .This is a right step in empowering women.Ways of Empowering Women through Functional Literacy.Every African nation has to promote WID (Women-In-Development ) not only in words but also in deed . Womenshould become more fully involved in the decision – making process at all levels. They should be proportionally215

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012represented (in demographic terms) in decision making positions in all sectors of public and private life. Allpronouncements by the government on women should be officially documented and implemented.Enabling environment should be created for women in all education programmes . Especially market women shouldbe encouraged to arrange their programmes to receive functional education programme. Social mobilization isnecessary for women to change their attitudes. Gender equity in access, completion of education should bevigorously promoted in the entire formal education system. In using functional literacy to empower women, theprogramme should be seen in a holistic sense. The overall goals should be considered, the specific objectives haveto be stated and the content methods have to be relevant to the needs of women. In raising the social, economic,political, cultural and health conditions of women, inculcation of basic literacy- numeracy and graphically skills arenecessary. Development of analytical reasoning and decision making skills are also important for their selfdevelopment.Furthermore, promotion of income generation and project management skills through women cooperative activities,promotions of information- searching and related skills, with a view of inculcating the learning to learn habit shouldbe the specific objectives of the programme.The content/method/materials of the programme should involve the learner in reading/writing, numeracy, homemanagement and development of vocational skills. Materials needed should include a good mix of audio visual,textual and semi-textual materials, draw from a life experiences of the learner.A self instructional material thatpromote independent study should be supplied.The methods to be used include: Participatory approaches, learner led groups, practical projects aimed at easing thehard life of women, improving skill generating and sustaining income.These methods if applied can assist inempowering women. The case of empowerment of women should be built into the literacy programme from the firstday of the programme.CONCLUSIONWomen achievements and women achievers should be stressed as much as possible. The facilitators should notnecessarily have to be conventional teachers only a wide variety of professionals such as health and agriculturalextensions workers, leaders of cooperative societies all should be involved. More importantly, women in a varietyof conditions can be a useful resource in this programme.Functional literacy is a forum for empowering women to build strong groups of dilligent and committed women. Itshould therefore be encouraged and reinforced by a favourable policy framework that will create an enablingenvironment in which women will contribute to the economic growth of the nation.216

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012REFERENCESAboyade B.O. (1987). The provision of information for rural development Ibadan. Fountain Publication n P. 10.Aderinoye, R.A. (2004) “Adult and Non-Formal Education and the Global Challenges: Issues and Perspectives” 55 thAnniversary lecture. Department of Adult Education, University of Ibadan.Anita Dighe (1995)” Women Literacy and Empowerment’ The Nellore Experience,” in Carolyn Medel Anonvevo(ed.) Women Education and Empowerment. Pathways Towards Autonomy, UNESCO p 39-46.Education for all (2002). Gender and Education for all. The Leap to Quality Summary Report UNESCO publishing.Federal Ministry of Education (2003). Education Sectors Status Report Abuja. Government press.Griffen L and Sharma, R. (!995). The Capital area. Women’s Local Global Forum in Development. Journal of theSociety for International Development Pg 37-40 Vol 1Onwubiko C.P.C. (1999) Information repackaging for the 21 st century rural Nigerian. African Journal of LibraryArchives and Information Science 9(2) 187-195.Pai Obanya (2004): The dilemma of Education in Africa Heinemann Educational Books p 274-281.Stronquist N.P. (1999). Gender and Literacy development in D.A. Wagner, R.L Versky and B.V. Street (eds)Literacy: An International Book P 271-282 U.S.A. West View Press.Unicef Report (2002). The women equality and Empowerment Framework Training Manual.217

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012© 2012 Ozean PublicationTHE LEVEL OF THE JOB SATISFACTION OF TEACHERS IN BOTSWANAPEDZANI PERCI MONYATSIUniversity of Botswana, Faculty of Education, Gaborone, BostwanaSenior Lecturer in Educational ManagementE-mail address for correspondence: percimonyatsi@yahoo.com.____________________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: This paper investigates the level of job satisfaction of the teachers of all categories in Botswana. Due tomany changes that have taken place in the education system of the country and internationally, there is a need tofind out how these have affected the satisfaction of those tasked to lead secondary schools. Teachers have been saidto be the most crucial part of a countries resource as they build the base for all professions in a country. Thereforeit has been found to be very important to measure their satisfaction as dissatisfaction can produce negative results.The population of the study comprised all categories of primary school teachers, junior secondary school teachersand senior secondary school teachers; that is teachers, senior teachers, heads of department, deputy headteachers,and headteachers in Botswana. The sample consisted of 150 for teachers (50, primary, 50 junior secondary, and 50senior secondary); 150 for senior teachers (25, primary, 100 junior secondary, and 25 senior secondary), 80 forheads of departments (20 primary, 40 junior secondary and 20 senior secondary), 75 for deputy headteachers (25primary, 25 junior secondary and 25 senior secondary); and 55 for headteachers (20 primary, 20 junior secondaryand 15 senior secondary) selected randomly. A modified version of the Job Descriptive Index (JDI) was used tocollect data for this study. The results of this survey, using the Job Description Index (JDI) and the Job in General(JIG) scale as published by Bowling Green State University, indicate that teachers are generally satisfied with theirjobs.Key words: Headteacher, job satisfaction, Botswana, junior secondary school, Job Descriptive Index (JDI), jobsatisfaction.___________________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTIONIn the past three decades or so, there have been numerous changes in the education system of Botswana that havegreatly influenced the way teachers conduct themselves in the workplace. The past three decades have witnessednumerous innovations being introduced into the education system in order to enhance the quality of the products.The period has among others seen the adoption of the Job Evaluation for Teachers in 1988, the Revised National219

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012Education Policy in 1994 with the resultant adoption of levels of operation, the Secondary Schools ManagementDevelopment Project of 1993, Parallel Progression Policy of 1994 with its legal entanglements, the decentralizationof the Ministry of Education, Performance Management System, and most recently the introduction of double shiftin the schools in 2006. All these should have had some effects and impact on the way teachers in the schools feelabout their jobs. It is also pertinent to gain understanding of the level of satisfaction of the teachers as employees asan indication of the health of the education system as a whole in meeting its mandate of providing educated andinformed future citizens in line with the national vision, which one of its pillars says: A prosperous, productive andinnovative nation (Republic of Botswana, 1997a:6). Literature abounds of studies conducted on the job satisfactionof teachers as employees in schools (Bishay, 1996; US Department of Education, 1997).UNDERSTANDING JOB SATISFACTIONEmployee satisfaction has taken centre stage especially in the corporate world in recent years as it has been realizedthat organizations cannot reach competitive levels of quality; either at a product level or a customer service level iftheir human resources do not feel satisfied or do not identify with the company (Garcia-Bernal, Gargallo-Castel,Marzo-Navarro & Rivera-Torres, 2005). The crucial role played by employee job satisfaction in the efficiency andproductivity of organizations was also identified by Fitzgerald, Johnston, Brignall, Silverstro & Voss, (1994) andCrossman & Abou-Zaki, (2003) who are of the view that job satisfaction is one of the criteria for establishing thehealth of the organization as rendering effective services.Although there is no universal definition of the concept job satisfaction, some researchers have come to theconclusion that it should be conceived as a multi-dimensional concept that includes a set of favourable orunfavourable feelings by which employees perceive their jobs (Mumford, 1991; & Garcia-Bernal, et al., 2005). Jobsatisfaction has been defined by Locke (1976) and Spector (1997) as a positive emotional state resulting from thepleasure a worker derives from the job. According to Spector (1997), job satisfaction is simply how people feelabout their jobs and different aspects of their jobs. It is the extent to which people like (satisfaction) or dislike(dissatisfaction) their jobs. This is echoed by Moorhead and Griffin (2004:99) who say that: Job satisfaction is theextent to which a person is gratified or fulfilled by his or her work. As a result, a satisfied employee tends to beabsent less often, to make positive contributions, and to stay with the organization longer; whereas a dissatisfiedemployee may be absent more often, may experience stress that disrupts other co-workers, and maybe continuallylooking for a job. Furthermore, Abu-Saad and Hendrix (1995:141) define job satisfaction as: the pleasurableemotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job as achieving or facilitating the achievement of one’svalues. It should be noted however that according to some job satisfaction theorists, it is a function of a combinationof situational characteristics and situational occurrences (Quarstein, McAfee & Glassman, 1992). Churchill, Fordand Walker (1974) define job satisfaction in the context of all the characteristics of the job itself and of the workenvironment in which the workers may find rewards, fulfillment and satisfaction; or conversely sentiments offrustration and/or dissatisfaction.CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKVarious authors have dealt with the subject of job satisfaction in different organizations using various variables suchas demographic characteristics, work, pay, relations with co-workers, promotion and others (Mok and Finlev, 1998;Murray & Atkinson, 1981; Sloane & Williams, 1996; Clark, 1997; and Ward & Sloane, 1998). Some research hasalso shown that gender played a part in determining job satisfaction and some studies have shown that males weremore satisfied than females (Weaver 1974; Forgionne & Peeters 1982; Smith & Plant 1982). Other factors such aseducation, experience, supervision, work and relations with co-workers may be responsible for the observeddifferences in job satisfaction (Swanepoel, Erasmus, van Wyk & Schenk, 2005; Cole, 2004; Moorhead & Griffin,220

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 20122004; and Marczely & Marczely, 2002). Figure 1 presents the conceptual framework for this study based on theModel of Herzberg‘s Two-Factor Theory showing Motivators (Satisfiers) (Achievement, recognition, work itself,responsibility and advancement); and Hygiene Factors (Dissatisfiers) (Organisation policy, supervision, salary,working conditions and interpersonal relationship). Many theories of job satisfaction have been proposed, but one ofthe most widely utilised in educational settings has been that of Herzberg and his associates (Abu Saad & Isralowitz,1992; Derlin & Schneider, 1994; Dinham & Scott, 1996; 1998; 2000; Scott, Cox & Dinham, 1999). The mainconcept of the theory is the distinction between two groups of factors called motivation factors and hygiene factors.According to the theory, the motivation factors operate only to increase job satisfaction while the hygiene factorsoperate to decrease job dissatisfaction. Herzberg, Mausner, and Snyderman (1959:113-114) stated thus:Among the factors of hygiene, when the factors deteriorate to a level below that which the employeeconsiders acceptable, then job dissatisfaction ensues. However, the reverse does not hold true. When jobcontext can be characterized as optimal, we will not get dissatisfaction but neither we will get much in theway of positive attitudes. It should be understood that both kinds of factors meet the needs of theemployees; but it is primarily the ―motivators‖ that serve to bring about the kind of job satisfaction, …, thekind of improvement in performance that industry is seeking from its work force.SatifiedAchievementRecognitionWork itselfResponsibilityAdvancementNot SatisfiedNot Satisfied____________________________________________________________Organisation policysupervisionsalaryWorking conditionsInterpersonalrelationshipDissatisfiedFigure 1: Model of Herzberg‘s two-factor theory (source: Smit & Cronje, 2002:351).221

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012Herzberg‘s two-factor theory posits that job satisfaction comes from one set of job variables (called motivator needsor satisfiers) and job dissatisfaction from another set of variables (hygeine factors or dissatisfiers) (De Nobile andMcCormick, 2005). Herzberg‘s two-factor theory, also known as the dual-structure theory illustrated that there isone dimension ranging from satisfaction to no satisfaction and another ranging from dissatisfaction to nodissatisfaction (Moorhead & Griffin, 2004:127). Satisfiers include, variables such as recognition, responsibility forones work, personal growth, achievement and advancement, while dissatisfiers include many aspects of workexternal to the self such as pay, relationships with colleagues and supervisors, work conditions and security(Herzberg, 1968).The motivators or satisfiers are intrinsic to the work itself and include factors such as achievement, recognition,responsibility, advancement, opportunity for independent thought and actions, and the work itself; while the hygienefactors are extrinsic to the work itself and include supervision, relationships with superiors, relationships with peers,work conditions, personal life, relationships with subordinates, status, and security (Swanepoel, Erasmus, van Wyk& Schenk, 2005; Cole, 2004; Moorhead & Griffin, 2004; and Marczely & Marczely, 2002). Herzberg in his studysuggested that it should not be construed that the opposite of satisfaction is dissatisfaction as removing the hygienefactors does not necessarily results in job satisfaction, but the presence of hygiene factors will not lead to a state ofjob satisfaction but simply to a state of no dissatisfaction (Moorhead & Griffin, 2004). Conversely, it has beenestablished that for motivators to operate as motivators the hygiene factors ought to be present. Marczely andMarczely (2002) contend that although hygiene factors such as salary, fringe benefits, supervision style, workingconditions, workplace climate, and policies are not in themselves motivators leading to job satisfaction, they are aprerequisite to motivational factors that lead to job satisfaction and good performance. In other words, hygienefactors can be regarded as the ingredients of job satisfaction which need to be taken care of in order to avoidemployee dissatisfaction.RESEARCH QUESTIONSThe study was guided by the following research questions:1. What is the general satisfaction level among all categories of teachers in Botswana schools?2. What are the general saisfaction levels of all categories of teachers according to the six dimensions of theJDI?3. What are the general satisfaction levels of all categories of teachers according to the demographic variableslevel of operation, gender, age, position, highest qualifications, experience.4. What is the satisfaction level of all categories of teachers for each of the six demographic dimensions of theJDI?METHODOLOGYResearch Approach and InstrumentLiterature search shows that there are many instruments that have been developed over the years to measure thelevels of the job satisfaction of employees in organizations. Some of the instruments include the MinnesotaSatisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) which was developed by Weiss, Dawis, English and Lofquist in 1959 to measurethe individual‘s satisfaction with twenty different aspects of the work environment. The Herzberg two-factor theorywas also identified as one of the most reliable instruments that can be used to measure the level of school heads as itwas applied in the United States of America and proved reliable (Newby, 1999).222

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012The data for this study was collected using the Job Descriptive Index (JDI) with an abridged Job in General Scale(Bowling Green State University, 2009). The JDI and the JIG scale were chosen for this study because they arewidely used to measure job satisfaction and they have been shown to be valid predictors (Balzer et al. 1997; Kinickiet al. 2002). The JDI is the most widely used measure of the job satisfaction extant because of several reasons.Firstly, the Job Descriptive Index is a reliable facet measure over time (Kinicki, McKee-Ryan, Schriesheim &Carson, 2002), and applicable across a variety of demographic groups (Golembiewski & Yeager, 1978). Secondly, itis the care with which it was developed which is described in Smith, Kendall, and Hulin (1969). The JDI is said topossess good content validity, impressive construct validity, and adequate reliability, and very few instruments inindustrial-organizational psychology have received the attention of researchers that the JDI has. It is short andsimple to fill out, seemed ideal from the point of view of maximization of response and practicality of scoring. "TheJob Descriptive Index (JDI) measures five important aspects or facets of job satisfaction. The Job in General (JIG)scale evaluates overall job satisfaction" (Bowling Green State University 2002). The five aspects or facets of jobsatisfaction are: Work on Present Job, Pay, Opportunities for Promotion, Supervision, and People on Your PresentJob (Bowling Green State University, 2009). Normally, the JDI contains either nine or 18 items, with an overall totalof 72 items (http://www.bgsu.edu/departments/psch/JDI/). The abridged version of the Job Descriptive Index has 30items while the Job in General has 8, making a total of thirty eight. Copies of the JDI scales and the JIG scale wereobtained from the publisher, Bowling Green State University. The surveys were mailed to the administrator at thefacility address with the introductory letter addressed to "Colleague." Surveys were not addressed to individualsbecause of the anticipated movement of administrators among organizations. Anonymity of respondents wasemphasized, thus eliminating respondent tracking. The response rate to the single mailing was 149, or 36 percent.This is an acceptable level for a single mailing (Vehovar and Lozar 1997). A followup mailing was not sent toprevent recording duplicated data. Permission to use the Job Descriptive Index including the Job in General Scalewas sought from and given by the Bowling Green State University.Population and Sample of the studyThe questionnaires were administered to primary school teachers, junior secondary school teachers and seniorsecondary school teachers. A primary school level of education in Botswana is the equivalent of elementaryeducation and it takes seven years; a junior secondary is the equivalent of intermediate school and takes three yearswhile a senior secondary is the equivalent of high school and takes two years. The first ten years are regarded asBasic Education in Botswana. For the teachers, there were five categories (positions occupied) namely, teacher,senior teacher, head of department, deputy headteacher and headteacher. All in all, five hundred and twentyquestionnaires were mailed to 60 schools that were randomly selected. There were: 150 for teachers (50, primary, 50junior secondary, and 50 senior secondary); 150 for senior teachers (25, primary, 100 junior secondary, and 25senior secondary), 80 for heads of departments (20 primary, 40 junior secondary and 20 senior secondary), 75 fordeputy headteachers (25 primary, 25 junior secondary and 25 senior secondary); and 55 for headteachers (20primary, 20 junior secondary and 15 senior secondary). The overall response rate was 67%. The response rateaccording to positions occupied is illustrated in Table 1 below.Table 1: Response rates according to Level and Position heldPositionTotalTeacher Senior Head of Deputy HeadteacherTeacher Department HeadLevel Primary (82) 41 (80) 20 (15) 3 (100) 25 (45) 9 98Junior Secondary (68) 34 (85) 85 (85) 34 (20) 5 (80) 16 174Senior Secondary (64) 32 (52) 13 (90) 18 (60) 15 (0) 0 78Total (71)107(78.6) 118 (68.7) 55 (60) 45 (45) 25 350Note: % in bold and in brackets ( ).223

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012The response rate varied according to category from 45% for headteachers to 78.6% for senior teachers. For all thecategories of teachers, the overall response rate was 67% (N = 350).RESULTSBiographic dataSatisfaction according to genderThis section presents and discusses the gender dynamics in the teaching force at primary, junior secondary andsenior secondary school levels. There were 229 females and 121 males who responded, with more females atprimary and junior secondary schools. The result of the analysis shows that the male respondents had a relativelyhigher level of overall job satisfaction compared to the female respondents. This result supports the findings ofQuitugua (1976) cited in Abdullah, Uli and Parasuraman (2009) who showed that male teachers were overall moresatisfied than female teachers but contradict the findings of Ghazali (1979) cited in Abdullah, Uli and Parasuraman(2009) who reported that there was in significant relationship between sex and teachers‘ overall job satisfaction.This also contradicts some studies thathave suggested that men and women exhibit similar levels of satisfaction(Brush, D.H., Moch, M.K. and Pooyan, 1987 & Clark, A., Oswald, A. and Warr, P. (1996) while others, in the UKand elsewhere, indicate higher levels of satisfaction among women (Hickson & Oshagbemi, 1999). At seniorsecondary level there were more males than females, a situation reflecting the real status on the ground.Satisfaction according to ageThe following are the satisfaction levels according to the age ranges: 26 to 35 years (77.4%); 36 to 45 years(74.6%); 46 to 55 years (71.7%) and finally 56 years and above (100%). The highest are also all at senior secondarylevel. That the oldest group shows a 100% satisfaction is in line with Bishay (1996, p150) that ―Job satisfactionseems to increase with age … .‖. However, the results of this study show a higher satisfaction rate at above 70% forother are ranges. Although the teaching force in Botswana according to this result is relatively young to middle age(71.2%), Government must be prepared for large exodus of teachers as and when they retire from the service whichcan create skill deficits and knowledge transfer gaps. As teachers retire early after forty five years and takeadvantage of early retirement options, the shortage of suitably qualified and experienced teachers may worsen. It canbe conluded that generally, the respondents in this study are satisfied with their job of teaching.Satisfaction according to qualificationsThe minimum teaching qualification in Botswana for primary school teachers is a Primary Teachers‘ Certificate(PTC), for the junior secondary level is the Diploma in Secondary Education (DSE) while for the Senior Secondarylevel is a Bachelor‘s Degree (BEd, Sec). All respondents in this study held the required minimum qualifications fortheir level and there were some instances where they exceeded that.The level of satisfaction according to qualifications shows the following: PTC (52%); Diploma in PrimaryEducation (60%); Diploma in Secondary Education (61.9%); Degree in Primary Education (100%); Degree inSecondary Education (91.8%); and Master of Education (82%). A review of job satisfaction literature with educationas a variable indicates that the relationship between job satisfaction and education can be negative or positive; alarge number of studies have shown that there is increased job satisfaction with increasing occupational level andclearly, the higher the education, the likelier it is that one would be at a higher occupational level (EuropeanFoundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 2007).224

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012Satisfaction according to experienceFrom this study, the results show that the higher the number of years spent in the service the higher the level ofsatisfaction; for instance, the age ranges 31 to 41+ years show a 100% satisfaction level. This supports Bishay(1996, p150) assertion that: ―Job satisfaction seems to increase with age and years of service‖. This, according toAbdullah, Uli and Parasuraman (2009) may be that the teachers who remain in their jobs for a long time are thosewho are satisfied with the job. However, there are also higher levels of satisfaction in the age ranges 0 – 5 years and11 – 15 years which contradict Bishay‘s assertion. Some studies have also found that younger teachers were moresatisfied than some seniors and this is supported by early studies which have revealed a U-shaped or curvilinearrelationship implying that employees experience high levels of job satisfaction at the start of their careers, a midcareerdecrease and an increase towards the end (Crossman and Harris, 2006; Handyside, 1967; Herzberg, Mausner,Peterson & Capwell 1957). Crossman and Harris, (2006, p33) sum this up by declaring that: As far as teachers areconcerned, there is evidence to suggest that those with less than five years service are the most satisfied while thosewho have been teaching for between 15 and 20 years are the least satisfied.Satisfaction level according to level of operation and positionFrom this study, all categories of teachers at Senior Secondary schools are highly satisfied at the level of 100%;followed by the Deputy Headteacher cadre whose satisfaction leves are above 60% except in the cadre of DeputyHeadteacher, Junior Secondary School where it is only 40%. At primary school level, Teachers and Heads ofDepartment are highly satisfied while the Senior Teachers and Headteachers are minimally satisfied. From thisstudy, it can be concluded that Junior and Senior Secondary Schools teachers at all categories are more satisfied withtheir jobs than those at Primary Schools. Furthermore, Senior Secondary Schools teachers are highly satisfied.General Level of SatisfactionAs illustrated in Table 3, all categories of teachers are generally satisfied as follows: Primary School level (65%).Junior Secondary School level (72.4%) and Senior Secondary School level (100%).Table 2: General Satisfaction Level According to Level of OperationLevelPrimary Junior Secondary Senior Secondary TotalNot satisfied at all 34 48 0 82Fairly satisfied 56 102 38 196Most satisfied 8 24 40 72Total 98 174 78 350Furthermore 85.9% respondents in the teachers‘ category, 63.5% in the senior teachers‘ category, 92.7% in the headof department category, 68% in the deputy school heads category, and 76% in the school head category weregenerally satisfied. It can therefore be concluded that all categories of teachers in Botswana are generally satisfied intheir job. Much as this study points to a generally satisfied cadre of employees, teachers at all levels have beenshowing signs over the years of being not satisfied with certain facets of their jobs.225

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012General saisfaction levels of all categories of teachers according to the five dimensions of the JDIThe six dimensions of the JDI are: Opportunities for Promotion, Supervision, Work on Present Job, Pay, People onYour Present Job.Opportunities for PromotionMuch as teachers at all levels are generally satisfied with their job, two hundred and seventy eight (79%) are of theview that there are no good opprtunities for promotion. Three hundred and twenty three (92%) believe that there arelimited opportunities for promotion. One hundred and forty six (41.7%) of the respondents were not decided onwhether their job was a dead-end one whilst one hundred and thirty two (37.7%) of the respondents believed it was adead-end job. One hundred and ninety three (57.5%) of the respondents were categorical that there were no goodchances for promotion in their job whilst ninety nine (28%) were not decided. While one hundred and thirty eight(39%) said that there were fairly good chances for promotion, one hundred and sixty eight (48%) were of theopinion that there were no chances. On whether there were regular promotions, two hundred and twenty four (64%)of the respondents said there were no such promotions.Responsibility is one of the motivating factors according to Herzberg‘s Two-Factor Theory, but according to thisstudy‘s findings, teachers are not satisfied with all the facets with regards promotion. This therefore means thatteachers in Botswana schools are not satisfied with the availability of promotions, regularity of promotions, andbelieve that their jobs are dead-end therefore no chances of being ellevated beyond the schools. Abdullah, Uli andParasuraman (2009) have argued that failure to obtain promotion is a blow to a man‘s self respect from which it willarouse and cause dissatisfaction and also frustration in work. This study reveals that teachers in general dissatisfiedthat there are no opportunities for promotion in teaching. In the 1990‘s, the Government of Botswana tried toimprove the opportunities for employment in the teaching force by implementing a career ladder model calledparallel progression, which failed and led to more dissatisfaction as there was no transparency in the promotionalprocess. There was no clear assessment model used to measure performance. The other problem was that those whowere in the field during the implementation of the model filled all the available posts and therefore limiting theprotion chances as the attrition rate was very low.SupervisionOn whether supervisors praise subordinates for good work done, two hundred and ten (60%) of the respondents saidtheir supervisors do praise them for good work. However, 81.8% of the Heads of Department, 71% of teachers,57.7% of Deputy Headteachers and 52% of Headteachers all said that they are praised when they do a good job bytheir supervisors. Only 48% of the senior teachers supported the view that they are praised for good work. On howtactful supervisors are in their job, one hundred and twenty (34%) said yes, one hundred and twenty nine (36.8%)said no while one hundred and one were undecided. Supervisors should be influential on their jobs and from thisstudy, one hundred and forty nine (42%) of the respondents believe their supervisors are influencial while asubstantial one hundred and eight (30.8%) said they are not. In order to do their job adequately, supervisors shouldbe up to date on the requirements of their jobs. From this sudy, one hundred and thirty five (38.5%) of therespondents are of the view that their supervisors are up to date while one hundred and twenty four (35%) said theywere not. Among these, 56% of the teachers‘ and 57.7% of the deputy headteachers‘ categories believe they got upto date supervision. One hundred and ninety two (54.8%) of the respondents believe the supervision they get is notannoying while 92 (26%) said it was annoying and the same number was undecided. Furthermore, supervisorsshould know their job well. In this study, one hundred and fifty one (43%) of the respondents say supervisors knowtheir jobs well while one hundred and seventeen (33%) were undecided. Among these, 56% of teachers, 82% ofsenior teachers and 54.5% of heads of department all believe supervisors know their jobs well.Leadership styles can determine the level of motivation subordinates get as they are related to teacher satisfaction. Ithas been pointed out that the quality of leadership and supervision affects a range of factors in the schoolenvironment, including the overall organizational climate of the school (Bogler, 2001). Tierney, Bauer, and Potter(2002), assert that a high quality relationship between employees and supervisors lead to high levels of jobsatisfaction. It has been found that employees are extremely productive when they feel accepted by their supervisors226

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012and the organizational environment is open to diversity of ideas and work ethos, which in turn leads to innovationand creativity. Abdullah, Uli and Parasuraman (2009) say that supervisors who establish a supportive personalrelationship with their subordinates and take a personal interest in them contribute to their employees‘ satisfaction.Generally, teachers in this study are satisfied with the supervision they get in their job.Work on Present JobThis section deals with issues related to the work in the job of a teacher. It presents and discusses whether the workis intresting, satisfying, good, exciting, rewarding, and unitresting. On whether the work is fascinationg or not, onehundred and ninety four (55.4%) of the respondents found it not; and this was also the case with 88% of theheadteachers and 70.9% of heads of department. One hundred and seventy six (50%) found it satisfying while onehundred and forty six did not find it that way. On whether the job was good or not, two hundred and nine (59.7%)said that it was good while one hundred and one (28.8%) of the respondents said it was not satisfying at all. Onehundred and ninety three (55%) did not find the job exciting but one hundred and fourteen found it exciting. Anothertwo hundred and thwenty three (63.7%) did not believe that the job is rewarding; and of these, 83% of the seniorteachers did not find it rewarding. One hundred and sixty (45.7%) found their job intresting while one hundred andeighteen (33.7%) said it was not intresting.Literature shows that the nature of the work itself generally emerges as the most important job facet (Saari & Judge,2004; Judge & Church, 2000; Jurgensen, 1978); and employers can influence job satisfaction by ensuring work is asinteresting and challenging as possible. It has been pointed out that satisfaction with the nature of the work itself—which includes job challenge, autonomy, variety, and scope—best predicts overall job satisfaction, as well as otherimportant outcomes like employee retention (Fried & Ferris, 1987; Saari & Judge, 2004). The importance of thework as a motivating factor has also been identified in the Herzberg Two-Factor Theory. From this study, the resultson the different facets of the work show a balanced outcome.PayHere, the presentation looks at whether the respondent was satisfied with the income from the pay for the job,whether the pay was good, whether they were well paid, underpaid, comfortable or the pay was enough to live on.One hundred and ninety four (55.4%) of the respondents said that they barely live on the pay. On whether the paywas bad or not, one hundred and fifty five (44%) said it was not bad while one hundred and thirty five (38.5%)found it bad. However, 88% of the deputy headteachers and 68% of the headteachers found the pay not bad at all.Two hundred and seventy eight (79.4%) of the respondents are of the opinion that they are not well paid; and amongthese, 100% of the headteachers and 97% of the senior teachers also believe that they are not well paid. One hundredand ninety three (55%) say that they are underpaid. On whether they are comfortable or not, two hundred and eight(59.4%) of the respondents are not; while among them, 80% of the headteachers were not and 73% of the deputyheadteachers were comfortable. Two hundred and twelve (60.5%) are of the view that their pay was not enough.Globally, low salaries and a truncated salary scales have been cited as the main reasons are among the main reasonsthat the most academically able leave or do not join teaching. Good pay is a hygiene factor. Herzberg, Mausner, &Snyderman (1959) stated that to the degree that motivators are present in a job, motivation will occur. Herzbergargues that good hygiene will only lead to average performance preventing dissatisfaction. The absence ofmotivators does not lead to dissatisfaction. Further, they stated that to the degree that hygienes are absent from a job,dissatisfaction will occur. When present, hygienes prevent dissatisfaction, but do not lead to satisfaction. Payinglower wages (hygiene) than what employees believe to be fair may lead to job dissatisfaction. Conversely,employees will be motivated when they are doing work in a safe area and but will not necessarily be motivated byhigher pay. Smith (1992) believes that job satisfaction and salary can lead to cost reduction by reducing absences,task errors, and turnover.The findings from this study reflect a workforce that is dissatisfied with its pay. However,those in senior management, headteachers and their deputies believe that their pay was not that bad.227

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012People in Present JobOrganizations are mostly made up of people and these have a bearing on their job satisfaction both as employees andemployers. In this section, issues of whether they are boring, slow, responsible, smart, lazy, or frustrating arepresented. One hundred and eighty three (52%) of the respondents believe that people they are working with are notboring; and amongst these, 80% of the headteachers also say they are not boring. While one hundred and thirty(37%) of the respondents say their colleagues are not slow, one hundred and twenty three (35%) believe they are.Eighty percent of the headteachers also believe that people are slow. Most of the respondents (67%) say that thepeople they are working with are responsible; one hundred and eight (62%) at junior secondary, sixty seven (68%) atprimary, and sixty (76.9%) at senior secondary level. Furthermore, 85.9% of the teachers also believe theircolleagues are responsible. Two hundred and one (57.4%) of the respondents say that the people they work with aresmart; 77.7% deputy headteachers and 68% headteachers also believe are smart. One hundred and ninety three(55%) of the respondents say their colleagues are not lazy. Some of the respondents (35.7%) believe that theircolleagues are not frustrating, one hundred and six (30%), and one hundred and nineteen (34%) were undecided.Motivation among employees is a human psychological characteristic that contributes to a person‘s degree ofcommitment (Adeyemo, 1997). Khaleque and Rahman (1987) cited in Abdullah, Uli and Parasuraman (2009, p15)observed that good working relationship among co-workers in an organization is very important in determininghigher job satisfaction of employees. The findings of this study show that teachers are responsible people whichmeans they cooperate and support each orher. They are not lazy which also means they are hard-working and are notboring which means that the environment they work in is interesting. This study reveals that generally, employeesare satisfied with the people they are working with.Job in GeneralTwo hundred and twelve (60%) of the respondents believe that generally their job is good. Eighty eight percent ofthe headteachers, 80% of heads of department and 66.8% of the deputy headteachers also say the job in general isgood. One hundred and ninety one (54.6%) belive their job is desirable; while one hundred and eighty three (52%)say that it is not better than most. One hundred and seventy seven (50.6%) of the respondents were not decidedwhile one hundred and thirty four (38.3%) believed it was not disagreeable. One hundred and thirty one (37.4%) ofthe respondents were undecided while one hundred and twenty four (35.4%) were of the opinion that it made themcontent. One hundred and eighty six (53%) of the respondents say that their job was not excellent; while onehundred and twenty five (35.7%) enjoyed and one hundred and nineteen (34%) did not enjoy their job. Two hundredand ten (60%) of the respondents think that their job is poor.CONCLUSIONFrom this study, it can be concluded that all categories of teachers in Botswana schools are generally satisfied withtheir job of teaching. The majority of respondents in this study are not satisfied with opportunities for promotion ingeneral. This may be because promotional chances in the teaching field are limited as teaching is a dead-end job.There are no good chances in teaching and therefore promotions are not regular.Generally, the results of this study show that all categories of teachers are satisfied with the supervision they get as itis not annoying but it is given tactfully; and they are praised whenever they do a good job. The majority of therespondents found their current job satisfying which is good because as illustrated earlier, a satisfied employee tendsto be absent less often, to make positive contributions, and to stay with the organization longer.An organization withsatisfied employees is bound to be productive.They feel that they are not well paid and therefore can barely live on the income from their salaries. However, alarge number of headteachers and deputy headteachers believe that their pay is not that bad; maybe because in228

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European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012© 2012 Ozean PublicationEDUCATION QUALITY MANAGEMENT AS PANACEA FOR SUSTAINABLESCHOOL QUALITY REFORM IN NIGERIAYUSUF, LATEEF ADEYEMI* and ALABI CHRISTIANAH OLUWAKEMIDepartment of Curriculum & Instruction, School of EducationEmmanuel Alayande College of Education, Oyo, Oyo State. Nigeria*E –mail address for correspondence: adedeyemi@yahoo.com______________________________________________________________________Abstract: The deteriorating quality of education and its traumatic effects on the nation is a problem ofconcern. This paper examines quality management in education as panacea for sustainable schoolquality reform in Nigeria. The paper establishes that despite all efforts being dedicated to reform for thepast three decades, quality has not been attained. Reform requires fundamental and comprehensivechange. The paper argues that there is an urgent need for refocusing and redesigning Nigerianeducational system from quality control practices to quality assurance. The paper considers applicationof Total Quality Management (TQM) Principles as an ideal process towards sustainable school qualityreform. TQM develops a culture of total commitment to quality process and quality improvement neverends. It also prevent wastages unlike quality control which is a retroactive action taken after possibledamages have been done. The paper put forward some recommendations towards enhancing qualityeducation in Nigeria. The paper strongly suggest that, decision making should be based on technicallysound data, and the result of the periodic and regular assessment should be used to drive continuousimprovement. Towards enhancing proper implementation of Total Quality Management principles, thepaper suggests a need for re-skilling, re-tooling and up-dating knowledge in planning and research unitof the ministries of education. Also, educational administrators should not only be visionary, they mustbe a missionary with zeal.Keywords: quality management in education , Nigerian educational system____________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTIONEducation in Nigeria is regarded as an instruments „par excellence‟ for effecting national development(Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004, p.iii). This could be the reason why every scholar irrespective of theschool of taught agrees to the fact that education is the bedrock of economic, political and technologicaldevelopment of a nation. A highly literate an economically productive educated citizenry can contribute233

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012far more tremendously to a nation‟s gross domestic product than a large pool of irrelevantly educatedpopulation. It is note worthy and highly pathetical that for the past three decades Nigerian educationalsystem continues to witness enormous quantitative growth at the expense of qualitative development.Thus, the current education reforms in the education sector in Nigeria in the areas of planning,curriculum innovation and teacher education among others are management mechanism to revampeducation industry to instill sustainable school quality reform.The deteriorating quality of education which has continued unabated impinges heavy traumatic effects onNigeria citizens and the nation as a whole (Adewuya, 2002; Alumode, 2006; and Ezenwafor, 2006). Asnoted by Gidado (2003) indicators of declining quality and wastages include high dropout, failure rates,rampant examination malpractices and low performance in national survey of achievement. Effectiveschool quality reform that can stand the text of time must go beyond quality control practices. Withoutquality education becomes a waste. Without quality product becomes largely counter productive, halfbaked and of little relevant to the nation‟s socio-political and economic development. Previous reformeffort includes the 1969 National Curriculum Conference, the introduction of 6-3-3-4 education systemin 1982, the education Reform Blue Print of 2000 and the introduction of the Universal Basic EducationProgramme in 1999. As noted by Herman and Herman (2000,P.57) “reform requires fundamental andcomprehensive change”. Otherwise piece meal attempts at reform cannot do much but perpetuate thestatusquo. This necessarily calls for purposeful re-engineering. It implies an urgent need forfundamental rethinking in order to refocus and to redirect Nigerian educational system towards achievingdramatic improvement in critical contemporary measures of qualitative performance.The new quality reform effort is to be characterized by Total Quality Management (TQM) principles,which are systems thinking and customer focus. However, a responsible political class, responsive andsustainable economy, an efficient and effective leadership are all required to make the system work.With commitment and determination, quality can be restored to the Nigerian educational system. Thesignificance of this paper is predicated on the need for sustainable school quality reform in Nigeria. Thus,the paper discusses the concept of Total Quality Management (TQM) as a panacea towards enhancingquality education in Nigeria.Background Reform from Quality Control to Quality AssuranceQuality control practice in Nigeria is based essentially on school inspection, monitoring and control.According to West – Burnham (1994), quality control is concerned with product testing, responsibilitywith supervisors, limited quality criteria and paper – based system. The rational model has not providedeffective educational reform. School inspection is particularly criticized for its limitation as post –mortem examination of school activities. Hence, the need for quality assurance.Quality assurance deals with the proactive or preventive means of ensuring quality inputs, teachinglearningprocess, the outcome and the academic achievement of students, (Akudo, 2004; Babalola, 2004).Quality assurance aimed at getting thing done right at the first time and every time. The perverse natureof TQM is perhaps its most distinctive characteristics, unlike the traditional quality control methods.TQM aims at organization wide quality consciousness. It looks beyond the confines of the quality controldepartment and reaches out to management at all cadres.Total Quality Management (TQM) in EducationThe first wave of quality reform was characterized by industrially constructed Total Quality Management(TQM) principles in the 1990s and a statistical focus for standard and production control, had given wayto a second wave, focusing on meeting clients need and value creation. Recently, education leaders nowrecognize the potential for TQM as applied to educational organizations. Its application to the educationsector was propelled by the fact that educating people was viewed as the same as the business ofproducing goods and services in an economy (Melisratos and Arendt, 1995).Quality is related to a body of knowledge about products, services and customer/client satisfaction. Theterm is not a synonym for excellence or goodness such as quality car or quality food (colleen, 1999).Quality is creating an environment where educators, parents, government officials and communityrepresentatives work together to provide students with the resources they need to meet current and futureacademic and societal needs (Arcaro, 2005). Quality has to be seen in terms of relationships rather than234

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012intangible and unattainable goals. The crux of the relationships may be seen from a hierarchy ofapproaches with inspection at one end of a spectrum and TQM at the other (inspection; post productionreview, Quality control; product testing, Quality Assurance; audit Quality systems and Total QualityManagement; aiming at continuous improvement). In a World Bank discussion paper, Bruce (1986)associated school quality with students‟ level of academic performance and further elaborated thoseschools with low test scores, high drop out rates, and repetition rates are allegedly of low quality.According to Igwe (2004) quality education entails that the output of institutions are acceptable,desirable, beneficial, efficient or effective. Total Quality Management is a philosophy with tools andprocess for practical implementation aimed at achieving a culture of continuous improvement driven byall employees of an organization in order to satisfy and delight Customer /client (West Burnham, 1995).(T1) According to Enefiok (2006) the ultimate goals include the attainment of total customer satisfactionthrough defect free products and quality service, the identification and exploitation of competitors‟weakness and harnessing of untapped market opportunities among others.Total Quality Management philosophy is built upon tenets that can be applied to any organization. Theyare systems thinking, client focused, continuous improvement, management by fact, participatorymanagement, professional development, team work and leadership (Baldrige National Quality Program,2001; Ojo, 2006). System theory establishes a strong interdependency and interrelatedness among thecomponent parts that make a system (Dening, 1994) while the term client encompasses not only studentsbut also stake holders such as private and public owners, funding agencies and potential employers.Total Quality Management [TQM] and School Organizational PerformanceIncreasing demand in educational institutions for accountability makes it imperative for our schools tofulfil their obligations to the clients by improving and sustaining quality education (Ajayi; 2004,Madumere-Obike; 2004). As noted by Ojo (2006) TQM is a management programmes that is qualitycentredand providing satisfaction to the organizational clients and the realization of organizational goalsobjectives. This is probably in line with the view of Babalola (2004, P.47) “TQM aimed at preventingquality problems and ensuring that only conforming products reach the students. Also, Tony and Mariane(2000) opined that most colleges should recognize that continuous improvement is essential if they are tosurvive and prosper. This is based on the fact that the pre-eminent principle for quality management isnot control but improvement.Further on quality management and performance, Senge (2000) and National Commission on Excellencein Education (1993) noted that schools that innovates and improve are these that approach change from asystem perspective and the more systemic the change the more the sustainability of the reform. However,Melissaratos and Arendt (1995) and Nicklin (2001) report that the application of TQM in highereducation in the United States proved successful because of the positive attitude to its application in theeducation. While Ojo (2006) discovered that people are aware of the importance of the use of TQM andthat TQM enhances student‟s performance. Umoru-Onuka (2003) shows very, clearly that the use ofTQM in some Nigerian schools yielded good results and tremendously improved teaching and learning.It is worthy of note that TQM looks beyond the boundaries of an organization and extend prominence tothe interest of its clientele (Birnbaum, 2001 and Ojo, 2006). The benefit of this focus is furtherevidenced by the 2001 Baldrige Award Winners in education. Chugach School District (CSD) inAnchorage, Alaska and Pearl River School District (PRSD) in Pearl River, New York. Throughsystemic changes and consistent emphasis on student achievement both district have made significantimprovements (Jacqueline, 2005).Implications of Total Quality Management in EducationThe emphasis on totality means, it is inclusive of all the employees. In education this would includesupport staff as well as teaching and lecturing staff. There is shared understanding of an explicit set ofvalues with implications for leadership and management style, therefore the school leadership must notonly be visionary, they must be a missionary with zeal. All decisions are based on supporting data;therefore, nothing is determined by feelings of precedent. TQM is based on prevention and concern withoptimizing outcomes. Customer focused rather than provider needs and customers are both external (e.g.students and parents) and internal (e.g. staff), this implies that each teacher will be a client to the next235

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012teacher by providing at least near perfect pupils for the next class (Tony and Mariane, 2000; West –Burnham, 1994).Quality management will be hailed as the most important paradigm shift to come out of the twentiethcentury. Indeed, if school organization management principles do not include management by fact,continuous improvement, the constant pursuit of excellence, knowing how to do the right thing, the firsttime not only will they not be in the game, they will not survive.RECOMMENDATIONSThe following recommendations are made with a view to enhancing sustainable school quality reform inNigeria;Decision making (on possible policy orientations, mobilizations and the channeling of resources, e.t.c)should be based on sound footing of systematically collected information and technically sound data,interpreted with the help of appropriate type of hindsight and factual knowledge. Therefore, the planningand research unit of ministries of education will accordingly need to be strengthened in terms of; reskilling,re-tooling up-dating of knowledge and improved funding. This will be a means of equippingthem for the task of ensuring quality in education.Steps should be taken to build capacity for day to day instructional and management supervision at thelocal level. There is need to institute a vigorous education and self improvement programmes. Every staffshould be properly educated on the quality philosophy, therefore seminars, conferences and workshopsshould be made compulsory.There is need to institute the practice of periodic and regular assessment of educational process.Considering various inputs and the processes involved in relation to the performance of the entire systemand use the result to drive continuous improvement on the systems and processes. The management mustre-affirm that quality improvement never ends.A strong and visionary administrator is a criterion for quality in schools. Administrators should be able todefine the school mission, manage curriculum and instruction, be truthfully focused and be able toencourage individuals to communicate to the management, the obstacles they face in attaining theirimprovement.Government should seriously address the data problem in planning the nation‟s educational programmes.It has not been possible to extrapolate school-age population figures from published census data, in asituation whereby the national population census is over-politicized. The situation has given rise to thephenomenon of discordant data and even guesstimates‟ become impossible.Education sector needs to be adequately funded by the government. Reform should be tied to theavailability of the requisite resources to achieve them, with poor funding it is impossible to implementreforms that provide quality education. Therefore, United Nation‟s recommendation of at least 26% ofthe annual budget for education sector should be implemented.CONCLUSIONThe gradual erosion of standards is perhaps the most prominent feature and obviously the mostdisheartening aspect of the Nigerian educational system in the past three decades. Scholars andeducational managers are particularly worried about the deteriorating quality of education and its adverseeffect on the nation‟s socio-political and economic development. Despite huge amount of nation‟sresources and all efforts being dedicated to reform, quality has not been attained.After well over forty years of political independence, there is an urgent need to redirect and refocusNigerian education at all levels to avoid wastages. The traditional practice of quality control through236

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012school inspection, monitoring and control is a mere damage mechanism, with retroactive action takenafter possible damage is done. TQM develops a culture of total commitment to quality process, andquality improvement never ends. The introduction and application of Total Quality Management (TQM)Philosophy is both proactive and preventive. Thus it aims at getting things done right, at the first timeand every time.REFERENCESAduwaya, S.A. (2002). Comparative education. An Unpublished paper presented in the institute ofeducation, University of Ado-Ekiti.Ajayi, K. (2004). Minimum Standards and accountability in University education. In B.A. Eheazu &M.O Ivowi (Eds.), Minimum standards and accountability in Nigerian educational system(pp.62-66). PortHarcourt: Mercury International Publishers.Akudo, F.V (2006) Towards efficient staff development and utilization for quality assurance in higherinstitutions in Anambra state. Nigerian Journal of Educational Administration and Planning 6(1), 18 – 20.Alumode, B.E. (2006). Strategies for improving human resources management for quality education inuniversities in South Eastern states of Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Educational Administrationand Planning 6(1) 53-55Arcaro, J. (2005). Quality in education: An implementation handbook. Delary Beach: St Lucie Press.Babalola, J.B.(2004).Quality assurance and child-friendly strategies for improving public schooleffectiveness and teacher performance in a democratic Nigeria in E. Fagbamiye, J. Babalola, M.Fabunmi, & A. Ayeni (Eds.) Management of primary and secondary education inNigeria,(pp.44-49). Ibadan: NAEP Publications.Baldrige National Quality Programme (2001).Educational criteria for performance excellence.Washington DC: National Institute of Standard and Technology.Birnhaum, R.(2001).Total quality management/continuous quality improvement. In R. Birnabum. (Ed.),Management fads in higher education, (pp.75-77). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. A Willey Co.Bruce, F. (1986). World Bank discussion paper II. raising school quality in developing countries.Washington D.C: The World Bank.Tony B. Mariane (2000). Leadership and strategic management in education. London: Paul ChapmanPublishing Ltd.Collleen, L. (1999). Managing Quality and standard. Buckingham Philadephia: Open University PressDeming, W.E. (1994). The new economics for industry, government and education.(2nd ed.).Cambridge-mass: Massahusett Institute of Technology.Enefiok, E.E (2006). Limitations of total quality management (TQM) as a tool for management. Journalof Management and Enterprise Development 3 (1), 51 – 52.Ezenwafor, J.I. (2006). Strategies for motivating lecturers in tertiary institutions in the South East zonefor better performance to assure quality in higher education. Nigerian Journal of EducationalAdministration and Planning 6(1), 165-169Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004) National policy on education. (4th ed.). Lagos: NERDC Press.237

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012Gidado, T. (2003). Basic education in Nigeria. Ibadan: Striling-Horden Publishers (Nig) Ltd.Herman, J. & Herman, J.L. (2000). Quality management: Effective schools through systematic change.Lancaster: Technical Publication Co.Igwe, S.O. (2004) Quality and evaluation in teaching and learning in Nigerian education‟. In B.A. Ehiazu& U.M.O, Ivowi (Eds.), Minimum standards and accountability in the Nigerian educationalsystem, (pp.81-86) Port Harcourt: Mercury International Publishers.Jacqueline, S.G. (2005). Building excellence and equity in student performance. Retrieved May 20, 2005.from http://www.chugachschools.comMadumere-Obike, C. (2004). Managing staff for quality assurance. The secondary education sector. InB.A. Ehiazul & M.U.I.Ivowi (Eds.),Minimum standards and accountability in the Nigerianeducational system, (pp.92-95). Port Harcourt: Mercury International Publishers.Melissarato, A. & Arendt, C.(1995). TQM: the westing house experience in A.M. Hoffmam & D.J.Julius, (Eds.). Total quality management: Implication for higher education, (pp.45-47).Maryvile Mo:Prescott.National Commission on Excellence in Education (1983). A nation at risk. Washington Dc: U.S.Government Printing Office.Nicklin, J.L. (2001). Corporate buzzword in higher education. London: Routledge.Ojo, L.B. (2006). Total quality management and productivity improvement amongst teachers andlearners in private secondary schools in Lagos State. Unpublished manuscript. Post field report.University of Ibadan. Ibadan, Nigeria.Senge, P.N. (2000). Schools that learn. New York: Dovbleday PressUmoru-Onuka, A.O. (2003). Total quality management: A technique for improved student achievement.Nigerian Library and Information Science Review 21(1), 82-86West-Burnham, J. (1995). Total quality management in education. London: Pitman Publishing.238

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012© 2012 Ozean PublicationINVESTIGATION INTO PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES, BODY COMPOSITIONS ANDNUTRITIONAL HABITS OF YOUTH BETWEEN 14-18 AGESHUSEYIN YILDIZ*,ADNAN ERSOY** and RAMIZ ARABACI****Yunus Emre Primary School, Bursa/TURKEY** Dumlupinar University, School of Physical Training and Sports, Kutahya/TURKEY***Uludag University, Faculty of Education, Department of Physical Education and Sport,Bursa/TURKEY**E-mail address for correspondence: adnanersoy43@hotmail.com__________________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: The aim of the present study is to determine the daily physical activities, nutritional habits and bodycompositions of female and male students studying at formal educational institutions in Gursu district of Bursa /Turkey. The research group is composed of 45 male (average weight 64.6 ±16.3 kg, height 172.7 ± 6 cm) and 54female students (average weight 58,6±15.5 kg, height:160.2 ± 6.8 cm). Pedometer determined number of dailystep method was used to assessment physical activity of subjects. Body composition was analyzed bybioelectrical impedance method. To determine the nutritional habits subjects were made to write what they ateduring this three-day period. After, the nutrition values which the students took daily were determined andaverage daily energy amounts for each subject were calculated by BEBIS 6 package program. The comparisonof dependent variables (number of steps, distance traveled, BMI, body fat percentage and energy taken)according to gender T test was used; in the comparisons made according to the BMI groups, One-Way ANOVAwas used. As a conclusion, it can be stated that of the female and the male students participating in our study,individuals with high body fat percentages perform less physical activities, the physical activity levels of youngpeople at schools giving full-time schooling are insufficient, and the male and the female students have similaractivity levels according to their daily step numbers.Keywords: ambulatory activity, pedometer, body composition, energy intake__________________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTIONGenerally speaking, many studies have revealed that today people are physically inactive, that is to say, theyseem to have adopted a sedentary life style (Kusgoz 2005, Davies 1997, Harsha). People’s having chosen asedentary life style is the main reason for their catching the obesity disease, described as the disease of our era(Sanlı 2008, Larsen 2000, Ozkarafaki 2009, Livingstone 2000, Sevimli 2008). Obesity is an indication of theextreme increase in the body fat (Sekir 2011). Today cardiovascular diseases, musculoskeletal problems, variouscancers appearing depending on obesity are among the main causes of death (Ucar 2006, Altan 2006, Mokdad2003, Bray 2002, Sanlı 2008).239

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012In many developed countries, money spent on the treatment of obesity-related diseases occupies an importantplace in countries’ budgets. For this reason, countries are trying to fight against illnesses developed dependingon obesity by developing projects to make people with sedentary life styles physically active (TSHM 2006).Humans’ most important means to fight against obesity are physical activity and proper nutritional habits. It hasbeen found that individuals who are obese when they are very young keep their conditions when they becomeadults as well. In studies made, it has been observed that physical activity habits are acquired early in life andhabits acquired in this period continue for a long period of time and those people are less likely to become obese(Sanlı 2008, Telema 1997, Yuksel 2001). For this reason, the examination of physical activities and nutritionalhabits at young ages will make an important contribution to projects to be produced to make our young peoplemore active (Sanlı 2008, Gavarry 1998, Strath 2000).Physical activity includes a set of movements requiring body to spend more energy than normal and done byskeleton muscles (Ozturk 2005, Williams ve Wilkins 2001, Pate 1995, Baranowsk, Yolcu 2008). A lot ofmethods have been developed in order to be able to measure such an effective element in fighting againstobesity. These methods are classified into three groups as subjective methods, objective methods andmeasurement methods depending on physiological parameters. Subjective methods are self-report questionnairetechnique, records, journals, recall questionnaires and universal questionnaires. Objective methods arepedometers, accelerometers, and heart-beat rate monitors. Measurement methods depending on physiologicalparameters are bilayer water method, direct calorimeter and indirect calorimeter methods (Sanlı 2008, Ozturk2005, Lamonte 2001, Montoye 2000, Welk 2000). Pedometers are basically movement sensors which can recordthe vertical oscillations of the body, that is, physical activities such as walking and running (Kusgoz 2005,Ozturk 2005, Vanhees 2005, Tudor-Locke 2004, Welk 2000, Couter 2003). They can calculate the number ofsteps and, depending on this, the distance covered and the energy spent. However, the disadvantage ofpedometers is that they cannot determine other physical activities. However, since running and walking include agreat number of daily activities, pedometer studies are important (Kusgoz 2005, Welk 2000, Going 1999).Recently we have been observing people doing sports for life-long health and carrying these apparatuses whilewalking or running in the street. It has been observed that these apparatuses were used in some healthy lifecampaigns as a motivation increasing element. In various studies, an average of 10000 steps a day has beendetermined as a threshold value for a healthy life (Kusgoz 2005, Williams ve Wilkins 2001, Welk 2000, Going1999).In order to be able to understand if individuals are obese or not, we need to know about their various bodymeasurements. While determining body composition, answer is sought to the question “How much fat do bodytissues have?” (Semra 2006 ). One of the body composition determining methods is the Bioelectric ImpedanceMethod, whose validity and reliability have been accepted in many studies and implementation is practical. Inthis method, BIA is achieved by passing a low alternating current through the body with the help of electrodestouching the body. While fat analysis can be made with BIA for the whole body, local fat analyses can be madewith different formulas developed as well. Thanks to new apparatuses and formulas developed in recent years, itcan be made with liquid analyses. Impedance can be defined as the resistance which the body shows against theelectric current and this resistance is inversely proportional to conductivity. While fat tissues decrease thepassing of electric current, other muscle tissues and internal organs convey electric current easily. Thisconstitutes the basic principle of the BIA use. In new apparatuses developed, multiple frequencies are used. Inthis case, while low frequencies pass through liquids, high frequencies pass through all tissue cells. Thanks tothis, tissue and liquids can be determined separately (Calıskan 2007, Guney 2003).One of the hypotheses of our study is that physical activity and energy taking levels of males are higher whencompared to females. Our second hypothesis is that there is a negative relationship between physical activity andBMI.The aim of the present study is to determine the daily physical activities, nutritional habits and bodycompositions of female and male students studying at formal educational institutions in Gursu district of Bursa /Turkey and examine the relationships between them.240

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012METHODOLOGYSubjectsThe research group is composed of a total of 9 th , 10 th , and 11 th grade students aged between 14-18 years old, 45male students (average weight: 64.6 ±16.3 kg, average height: 172.7 ± 6 cm) and 54 female students (averageweight: 58,6±15.5 kg, average height: 160.2 ± 6.8 cm), studying at Latif Dortcelik Trade and Vocational HighSchool and Zuhal Dortcelik Industrial High School in Gursu District of Bursa. In our study, initially, a total of123 students, 63 male and 60 female students, were studied, but since the data was incomplete and insufficient insome forms, only 24 students were excluded from the study. Students not doing a sport regularly and with nophysical handicaps were included in the study.Experimental ProcedureIn the spring term of the 2009-2010 educational year, the schools chosen for the study were visited to check ifthere are enough number of voluntary students to participate in the study as a result of a preliminary study withthe help of school administrations and physical education teachers. Measurements were made in the months ofMarch and June. The participant students were made to read the “Helsinki declaration” and the “Informedconsent form” and asked to sign the latter. In this way, they were made to participate in the study voluntarily.Related to the study to be carried out, the school administrations and district national education directorate wereinformed in detail and written permissions were obtained. In the study, primarily, a working schedule indicatingthe dates when the students would participate in the study was given to each of the students and the sameschedule was announced by hanging on the door of the physical education teachers.To determine the daily number of steps and the distances which the students take and travel daily, since 6apparatuses were used, groups of 6 students were formed and these groups were given pedometers andnourishment information forms at the same time. On the first and fourth days of the week, pedometers weregiven to the students in turn and each group was given information about how to use the pedometers and recordthe data. How the nourishment information forms given at the same time would be filled was explained with asample form. In the last week of May, the measurements of height, weight, body mass indexes and body fatpercentages were made in the multi-purpose hall of Latif Dortcelik Trade Vocational High School. Themeasurements related to the body composition were made with using the Tanita brand BC-418 MA Model(Tanita Europe B.V. Hoogoorddreef 56E1101 BE Amsterdam, Holland) apparatus. The participant students weretaken to the hall by calling their names and their measurements were taken. The measurements were completedwithin the specified period of time.Determination of Body Fat and Body Mass IndexesThe body fat percentages and body mass indexes of the subjects were determined by using the bioelectricimpedance method. The bioelectric impedance method is a method used in scientific research studies todetermine body compositions. The validity and reliability of the bioelectric impedance method have been madein many studies (Mirzaoglu 2003, Muratlı 1997, Gander 1993). By putting the values obtained in place, suchbody components as body fat percentage, body percentage without fat, body fat amount, body water amount,body mass can be found (Mirzaoglu 2003). While making measurements, the heights, ages and genders of thesubjects were entered the apparatus manually and their measurements were taken barefoot. According to theBMI values (Growing-up graphics determined by the American disease control and prevention center in 2002)obtained with the bioelectric impedance method, the subjects were classified as thin, normal and fat by using thepercentile table obtained from the website of CDC. The subjects were described as thin until the 5 th percentile,those between the 5 th and 85 th percentiles were described as normal and those between the 85 th and the 95 thpercentiles were described as fat. The percentile table used was developed by the American Disease Control andPrevention Center (CDC) suitable for the age groups of 2 and 20 (Development 2002). The percentile tables usedhave also been used by the World Health Organization (WHO) in various studies as well (MercedeS 2007).241

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012Determination of Physical ActivityThe data related to physical activity and distance covered was obtained by using Yamax PW 610M (YamasaTokei Keiki Co., Ltd., Japan) model pedometers. To determine the daily number of steps taken and dailydistances traveled by the subjects, since 6 apparatuses were used, groups of 6 students were formed and theindividuals of these groups were given pedometers at the same timer. On the first and the fourth days of theweek, pedometers were distributed to the students in turn and each group was given information about how touse the pedometers and record the data. Each subject used pedometers for three days and in the end of this threedayperiod they were taken back and given to the other groups. The mean of the steps taken a day was calculated.At the same time, pedometers calculate the length of the distance which each subject travel a day. From theobtained data, the average distance which a subject traveled daily was calculated by taking the mean of thedistances which each subject traveled within a period of three days.Nutritional DataTo determine the nutritional habits of the students, the nutrition forms were prepared. The nutrition form wasprepared for three days and spaces were provided for each meal to be written down and the students were madeto write what they ate during this three-day period. The subjects were informed about how to fill the forms andshown a sample form. First, the subjects were made to write every single food item which they took for eachmeal, then these forms were entered BEBIS 6 package program, next the nutrition values which the students tookdaily were determined, and finally average daily energy amounts for each subject were calculated.Statistical AnalysesMicrosoft Excel 2007 was used in the organization of the thesis data and the formation of the graphs, MicrosoftWord 2007 was used to form the tables and SPSS 17 for Windows (SPSS, Inc, Chicago, IL) package programwas used to analyze statistically the obtained data.To determine if the data obtained in the study had a normal distribution, Kolmogorov-Simirnov test wasemployed. Since data showed normal distribution, parametric tests were used. In our study, in the comparison ofdependent variables (number of steps, distance traveled, BMI, body fat percentage and energy taken) accordingto gender T test was used; in the comparisons made according to the BMI groups, One-Way ANOVA was used;for the 2 nd level comparisons, Bonferroni Test was employed. As the significance value was accepted p=0.05.FINDINGSThe data obtained in our study were analyzed according to gender and BMI groups. In Table 1, according to theirgender, and in Table 2, according to the BMI groups, the means were provided.Table 1: Comparisons of variables according genderVariables Male Female TX±SSX±SSBody Fat % 13,5±6,3 23,3±13,6 -4,46*BMI ( kg/cm 2 ) 21,5±4.9 22,7±4,9Number of steps (step/day) 12587±4260 13123±6137Distance Walked(m) 8810 ±2981 9186±4296Energy Intake (kcal) 1458±582 1764±635 -0,24**: There is a statistically significant difference BMI:Body Mass Index242

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012In the evaluation the subjects according to their genders, as seen in Table 1, for the boys and the girlsrespectively, the fat percentages were found to be 13.5%±6.3 and 23.3%±13.6 (p˂or>0.05), the body massindexes were determined to be 21.5±4.9 kg/height 2 and 22.7±4.9 kg/height 2 (p˂0.05), the means of the stepstaken daily were found to be 12587±4260 and 13123±6137 steps/day (p˂0.05), the means of the distancestraveled daily were determined to be 8810±2981 m and 9186±4296 m ( p˂0.05), the means of the energyamounts taken daily were found to be 1458±582 kcal and 1764±635 kcal ( p˂ 0.05).Table 2: Comparisons of variables according BMI groupsVariableUWNWOWF(n=14)(n=59)(n=26)X±SS X±SS X±SSBody Fat % 8.1±1.6 17.1±12.3 29.2±6.4 21.61*Number of step (step/day) 12626±5262 13453±4844 11714±6403 0.97Distance Walking (m) 8838±3683 9417±3391 8199±4482 0.97Energy intake (kcal) 1421±4.18 1791±1.06 1550±3.85 1.44UW: Underweight NW: Normal Weight OW: OverweightIn the evaluation of the subjects according to the BMI groups, as seen in Table 2, for the thin, normal and fatgroups respectively, the fat percentages were found to be 8.1%±1.6, 17.1%±12.3 and 29.2%±6.4 (F; 21.61*,p

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012period, primarily due to endocrine changes, body compositions of girls and boys start to differ noticeably(Patrick 2004). In another study, it was stated that after the childhood period girls have a fatter body structurewhen compared to boys (Ersanlı 2007). According to the data obtained from this study, while no statisticallysignificant differences were found between the BMI values according to gender, the finding that the BMI valuesof the girls were higher according to their means is in harmony with those of other studies. It is considered thatthis result was due to the girls’ developmental characteristics.In our study, it is observed that the means of the number of steps taken daily by female and male subjects are notstatistically different from each other, but the mean values of the girls are higher when compared to the boys. Forthis reason, it can be stated that the girls are more active when compared to the boys. In previous studies, it hasbeen determined that the daily physical activities of boys were more in number when compared to girls (Altay2007, Raustrop 2004, Lıou 2004, Le 2004). Our study, in this sense, does not overlap other studies. We considerthat the reason why the means of steps were statistically different might be that the schools where we carried outour study were the institutions providing full-time schooling and not all of the subjects performed similaractivities within a day.A significant difference was determined according to gender between the energy amounts which the subjectstook daily. When their means were considered, according to gender, it was understood that the girls took higheramounts of energy daily. Spear (2002), in a study, found that while boy students need to get an average amountof energy of 3740 kcal daily until the age of 16 and later this intake drops to 2900 kcal towards the adulthood,this intake in girl students reaches its peak level at the age of 12 and becomes 2559 kcal a day and it drops to alevel of 2200 kcal (Gumus 2009, Spear 2002). According to this study, our adolescents are undernourished.However, these values can change according to country and race. It is considered that the reason why malestudents take less nourishment might be that male students compared to their female counterparts becomeindependent earlier and skip meals more frequently. In some studies, results like this have been found and it hasbeen observed that, in the adolescent period, young people withdraw from their families and draw near peergroups and in this period they do not desire to eat at home together with their families, instead they prefer tospend time out with their friends at meal times. We consider that, as a part of the culture of the area where wecarried out the study, not letting girls go out or letting them spend less time outside might lead girls to exhibitmeal-skipping behaviors less frequently and to take more energy.In our study, according to the BMI groups of the subjects, it was observed that their body fat percentage meanswere significantly different. When the means of the groups were examined, it was found that the highest body fatpercentage mean belonged to the fat group and this was followed in order by the normal group and the thingroup. In paired comparisons, between the thin group and the normal group, between the thin group and the fatgroup and between the normal group and the fat group, there were statistical differences. In various studies in theliterature, it has been observed that body fat percentage increased with the increasing body weight. In this study,it was found that the body fat percentage means of the subjects according to the BMI groups were significantlydifferent.It was observed that the means of the daily steps of the subjects according to the BMI groups were notsignificantly different. When the means of the groups were taken into consideration, it was observed that thenormal group had the highest daily step number mean. According to the daily step number means, the normalgroup was followed by the thin and the fat groups. Tudor-Loche (2002), in a study, reviewed studies having beenmade in various countries and emphasized that the average daily step number, 10000 and over generally givenby specialists for young people, could be accepted as physically active (Tudor-Locke 2002). Moreover, in ourstudy, the step means of the subject group were examined and, as a result of this, it was observed that the subjectgroup had a value of 10000 steps and over. We can say that the subject group was active. In a study made in theUSA, 54% of 1205 students aged between 10-14 years old were observed to be obese or be inclined to be obeseand have adopted a sedantary life style (Altay 2007). Moreover, the least active of the subject groups was the fatgroup. The most active group was the normal group. According to the BMI groups, we consider that the reasonwhy they were not different might be that the schools where the study was carried out were the institutionsgiving full-time schooling and, because of this, the subjects were not involved in the same activities.As a result of the present study, it was observed that the daily taken energy means of the BMI groups of thesubjects were not significantly different. When the means of the groups were taken into consideration, it wasfound that the subjects in the normal group had the highest mean in terms of daily taken energy amount and inorder of frequency the mean values of the fat and the thin groups were lower. As a result of individuals’ notspending the energy which they take, they get fat. In studies on this matter, since individuals adopting physicallyinactive life style store their energy in the form of fat, they are at risk of becoming obese (Altay 2007). Under thelight of these studies, the results of our study overlap those of other studies. We consider that because the244

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012subjects in the normal weight group were most active physically, they needed more energy. In the end of ourstudy, as a result of the applications made to the subjects, it was observed that their physical activities increasedand they started to pay more attention to their nutritional habits.Under the light of all these data, it can be stated that the hypothesis that male students perform more physicalactivities and take more energy when compared to female students is rejected. Our second hypothesis that thereis a negative relationship between physical activity and the BMI can be accepted according to the results of ourstudy.As a conclusion, it can be stated that of the female and the male students participating in our study, individualswith high body fat percentages perform less physical activities, the physical activity levels of young people atschools giving full-time schooling are insufficient, and the male and the female students have similar activitylevels according to their daily step numbers.For these reasons, it will be useful to assess body compositions, physical activity levels and nutrition-relatedknowledge levels of young people. Under the light of the obtained information, we consider that such studies canbe used in the formation of various programs to raise more healthy individuals and contribute to this.RECOMMENDATIONSAt educational institutions, at the beginning and the end of each educational year, determining the physicalactivity levels and body mass indexes of students and informing young people about these results will help themadopt an active life style. Our young people should be given nutrition education. At educational institutions,physical activity practices should be increased. For the health of the society, the importance of physical activitiesshould be explained and necessary work should be planned to dissuade the society from living a sedentary life.For our society, according to age groups, daily step number norm should be determined. For a healthy society,we consider that it will be useful to increase the nutrition knowledge levels of families.REFERENCESAltan, K.,( 2006). Serum Testestoron Duzeyi, Vucut Kitle İndeksi ve Diabetes Mellitus ile Prostat KanseriArasındaki İliski. Zonguldak Karaelmas Universitesi Tıp Fakultesi Uroloji Ana Bilim Dalı, UzmanlıkTezi, Zonguldak.Altay, M., (2007).Cocukluk ve Ergenlikteki Fiziksel Aktivite Deneyimleri İle Yetiskinlikteki Fiziksel AktiviteDuzeyi Arasındaki İliski. Doktora Tezi, Gazi Universitesi, Ankara.Baranowski, T. at al., (2008). Asesessment, Prevalence, and Cardiovascular Benefits of Physical Activity andFitness in Youth. s.l. : Med. Sci. Sport. Exerc. 24, ph.237-246.Bray, G.A., (2002). The Underlying Basis For Obesity: Relationship to Cancer. s.l. : J. Nutr, 132, ph. 3451-3455.Calıskan, D., (2007).Yetiskinlerde Biyoelektrik Empedans Analizi Olcumleri ve Farklı DenklemlerleKarsılastırılması. Yuksek Lisans Tezi. Hacettepe Universitesi, Saglık Bilimleri Enstitusu, Ankara.Colak, M., (2007). Yatılı Olan ve Yatılı Olmayan Ogrencilerin Vucut Kompozisyonlarının Degerlendirilmesii.s.l. : Erzincan Egitim Fakultesi Dergisi, Cilt 9, 2, s. 183-195.Couter, S.E., Schneider, P.L., Karabulut, M., Bassett, D.R., (2003). Validity of 10 Electronic Pedometer ForMeasuring Steps, Distance, And Energy Cost. s.l. : Med. Sci. Sport. Exerc., skin. 35, ph. 1455-1460.245

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European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012© 2012 Ozean PublicationGENDER FACTOR AND LABOUR PARTICIPATION AMONG ACADEMIC STAFFIN TERTIARY INSTITUTIONS IN EKITI STATE, NIGERIAOLAJIRE ADEOLA ADEGUNInstitute of Education, Ekiti State University,Ado-Ekiti.E-mail address for correspondence: jireadegun@yahoo.com______________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: The role of women in nation building has continued to attract global attention. That is why issuesbordering on inequality and inequity are often addressed, as well as all forms of discrimination against women. InNigeria, gender imbalance particularly dominance of men is very well reflected in academic employment in thetertiary institutions. The study sought to find out the gender composition of academic staff in the tertiary institutionsin Ekiti State, Nigeria. It also investigated the gender composition of academic staff in the institutions based on theirdesignation. The ex post-facto research design was used, the population for the study comprised of all academicstaff of the tertiary institutions. The main source of data collection was from the planning and statistics departmentand the establishment office of the institutions. Frequency counts and percentage scores were used to analyse thedata. The result revealed that there was gross inequality in the labour participation of women in academics in thetertiary institutions in the state. The College of Education employed the highest number of females with 27.0%.Followed by the University with 18.3% and the Polytechnic with 12.8%. The percentage of women in the upperechelon in the institutions was very low and representation of women at the academic management position is poor.It was recommended among others that more women should be encouraged to pursue Postgraduate studies so as tobe qualified for lectureship appointments in tertiary institutions and that Spouse should support and encourage theirwives to take up academic job.Keyword: Gender, Labour participation, Academic staff, Tertiary Institution; Inequality___________________________________________________________________________________249

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012INTRODUCTIONGender issue has been a focal point of discussion in many regional, national and international fora. Issues borderingon inequality and inequity are often addressed as well as all forms of discrimination against women. The 1999Nigeria constitution makes provision for equality of women, guarantee the rights and protects the interest of womenconsidering the religious, traditional and cultural norms that govern the society.The role of women as nation builder and education cannot be underestimated. Education reinforces generally allhuman potential and it is a very critical factor in human life. Education is believed to be the most powerful anddynamic instrument for social, economic, political, scientific and technological development of nations. (Aghenta2001). The world bank experts observed that a country with more educated girls and women will not only heal hereconomy but will make it wealthier (UNESCO, 1985). Women have been seen to be astute managers of the homeand Local economies and so are capable of playing important management roles in Universities globally.It is not possible to ignore women employment even though the employment pattern in Africa still favours men morethan women. (Mensah, Biney and Ashang, 2009). Sutherland (2008) submitted that women face serious challengesin gaining access to their daily resources and bargaining power. These adversely affect the women, hence they areconsidered in the world as the most vulnerable to socio-economic depression. All these have culminated into hugegender gaps in literacy, education, health and access to power, despite all these women are still important and theyconstitute a visible force in terms of development and socio-economic changes of any society.Academic profession, like any other profession at the beginning of time was a single sex profession. (Singh, 2002)cited by Egunjobi, (2009). But the World War II had actually opened the gateway to women emancipation in Europeand the USA before any University was introduced to Africa. Under the colonial imperialism, whatever operated inUK became law in Nigeria. Today in the Commonwealth nations, the situation of women in academics hasimproved. The percentage of women employed as full time academic staff ranges from the highest of 50% inJamaica to the least of 9.5% in Ghana, with a Commonwealth average of 24%. The smallest percentages were foundin Ghana 9.5%, Nigeria 13.6%, Tanzania 11.0%, Zambia 10.9% and Zimbabwe 9.8% all in Africa, for example,University of Ilorin, also showed female/male ratio of 11.6% to 88.4% (Egunjobi, 2009).Like in many professions, discrimination against women in academics in the past existed throughout the world.According to Egunjobi, (2009), women academics in Nigeria were denied maternity leave under the University Lawand in some cases they were not allowed to get married or have children. Some women were even refusedemployment despite the fact that they were qualified because it was felt that the women would be a distractiveinfluence in the laboratory working in an all male career.It is on this premise that the researcher is concerned with investigating the composition of academic womenemployed as lecturers in tertiary institutions in Ekiti State, Nigeria. Ekiti State is often referred to as the `Fountain ofKnowledge’ and the general opinion of Nigerians is that the only industry in the state is Education. If this is so, whatthen is the composition of male and female employed in the academic sector in the State? Is there discriminationagainst women employment in Lecturership position in tertiary institutions in the state where education is highlyvalued?Grandu (1998) gave National Female labour participation rates in urban centres as 34.85% and 36.12% in rural areas.The world Bank (1995) quoted women average participation in manufacturing labour force as about 30% for bothdeveloping and industrial countries. Roscher and Cavanaugh (1992) discovered that only 33% of women with Ph.Ddegree in Chemistry were employed by academic institution others were employed by industries. Bush (2006)stressed that women are greatly underrepresented in senior positions in education as in many other occupations. Hestated that men dominated numerically in senior positions in all phases of education with the exception of nurseryand infant schools while Duyilemi (2007) noted that the percentage of females in the academic sector is still very lowand that in tertiary institutions most females are in junior cadre of administration. Ajayi, Goma and Johnson (1996)discovered that the percentage of women in tertiary institutions in Sub-Sahara Africa is only 25% of the totalenrolment and this is much lower than the secondary level and the latter is much lower than the primary level.Onokala and Onah (1998) studied the recruitment, promotion and appointment of women to academic andadministration positions in Nigerian Universities and found out that although there has been an increase in thenumber of female academic staff recruited into Nigerian Universities, the female percentage of total academic staff isstill very low.250

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012The importance attached to gender factor in labour participation as a way of attaining the Millennium DevelopmentGoal 2015 calls for a study of this nature in the study area. Therefore the study examined labour participation ofmale/female in academics in tertiary Institutions-University, Polytechnic and College of Education existing in EkitiState, Nigeria. They study analysed gender composition of labour participation of women in academics according tofaculties/schools, as well as the composition of women in academics according to designation. The composition ofwomen in the academic management cadre is also investigated.Research Questions:The following questions were raised for the purpose of the study.1. What is the composition of women in academics staff by faculty/schools in the tertiary institutionsin Ekiti State, Nigeria.2. What is the composition of women in academic staff by designation in the tertiary institutions inEkiti State Nigeria academics3. What is the composition of women in academic management position in tertiary institutions inEkiti State, NigeriaMETHODOLOGYThe design adopted for this study was ex-post factor research design. The population consisted of all the male andfemale academic staff of the three public tertiary institutions in the state. There is one state owned University, oneFederal Polytechnic and one state owned College of Education. All the women employed as academic staff in theseInstitutions constitute the population of the study and they were all sampled in the study. The main sources of thedata collection were from the Academic Planning Office of the University and the Establishment Office of thePolytechnic and College of Education. The data covered the current year 2011. The University has 8 faculties whilethe Polytechnic has 4 schools and the College has 5 schools. Each Faculty and School has various departmentsunder them. The data collected was as at November 2011. The data obtained were compiled, summarized andanalysed using frequency count and percentage.251

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012RESULTSTable 1: Gender Composition of academic staff in Ekiti State University,Ado-Ekiti, NigeriaFaculties Male Female TotalNo % No %ArtsAgricultureEducationEngineeringLawManagement ScienceCollege of MedicineSocial ScienceScience47344742162134517887.073.965.393.376.271.310092.778.871225352342113.026.134.76.723.88.78.17.321.3544672452123375599Total 366 81.7 82 18.3 448Source: Statistics and Planning office EKSU Nov. 2011.Table 1 above shows that eighty two (82) out of a total population of 448 in the University are female while 366 aremales.. This shows that 18.3% are females while 81.7% are males. It should be noted that only 3(8.1%) females arein the College of Medicine out of 37 Lecturers, even though the College has just taken off about two years ago unlikeother faculties that have been in existence since establishment of the University in 1982. The faculty of Engineeringhas 6.7%, female Lecturers as against 93.3% males. In the Faculty of Management Science 8.7% are females and81.3% males and Social Science has 7.3% Females and 92.7 Males. This has the least percentage in terms of femaleemployment. Faculties of Education has 34.7% female and 65.3% male and Faculty of Agriculture has 26.1%females and 73.9% males. Others like faculties of Arts has 13.0% females, Faculty Law with 23.8% female andFaculty of Science with 21.3% females.Table 2: Gender Composition of Academic Staff in Federal PolytechnicAdo-EkitiSchools Male Female TotalNo % No %Business StudiesEngineeringEnvironmental StudiesScience and Computer Studies58104496981.794.589.181.21306061618.35.510.918.8711105585Total 280 87.2 41 12.8 321Source: Establishment office Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti 2011Table 2: shows that there are only forty one (41) female academic staff in the Polytechnic out of a total of 280academic staff. This shows that 12.8% are females while 87.2% are males. The School of Business Studies has252

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 201218.3% females and 81.7% males. 5.5% females are in Engineering, as against 94.5% males. The School ofEnvironmental Studies has 10.9% females and 89.1 males while only 18.8 females are in Science and ComputerStudies as against 81.2% males.Table 3: Gender Composition of Academic Staff in College ofEducation, Ikere-EkitiSchools Male Female TotalNo % No %Arts and Social ScienceEducationLanguagesScienceTechnical and Vocational Studies382825484274.575.767.678.765.613911132225.524.332.421.334.45137366064Total 181 72.4 67 27.0 248Source: Establishment Office, College of Education Nov. 2011Table 3 revealed that there are 67 female academic staff in the College out of 248 academic staff indicating 27.0%female and 72.4% males. Schools of Arts and Social Sciences have 25.5% females and 74.5% males, Languages has32.4% female and 67.6% males Technical and Vocational studies has 34.4% females and 65.6% males whileEducation and Science has 24.3% and 75.7% males and 21.3% females and 78.7% males respectively. The tableshows that 27.0% of the College of Education staff are females while 72.4 are males.Table 4: Gender Pattern of Academic Staff by designation in the EkitiState University Ado-Ekiti, NigeriaDesignation Male Female TotalNo % No %ProfessorsReaders/Associate ProfessorsSenior LecturersLecturer ILecturer IIAssistant LecturerGraduate Assistant55226597735103928180808376750505162415160108192020171425602781121886704Total 366 81.7 82 18.3 448Source: Establishment office Ekiti State University Nov. 2011Table 4 indicate that only 5 (8%) female Professors are in the University as against 55 (92%) males, 5 (19%) femalesare Associate Professors, 16 (20%) are Senior Lectures, 24 (20%) are in Lecturer I, 15 (17%) are in Lecturer II, 16(14%) Assistant Lecturer and only 1 (25%) female is a Graduate Assistant. The female population represents 18.3%253

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012of the total academic staff indicating ratio 5:1. Majority of the females are in the middle level cadre while the maleoccupy the topmost positions in the University.Table 5: Gender Pattern of Academic Staff by Designation at theFederal Polytechnic Ado-EkitiDesignation Male Female TotalNo % No %Chief LecturerPrincipal LecturerSenior LecturerLecturer ILecturer IILecturer III47384853514390.386.392.385.483.686.00506040910079.713.77.714.616.414.0524452626150Total 280 87.2 41 12.8 321Table 5 revealed the gender pattern of academic staff based on their designation. There are 05(9.7%) are in the ChiefLecturer Cadre, 06(13.7%) females in Principal lecturer Cadre, 04(7.7%) females in the Senior Lecturers while 09(14.6%) females Lecturer I, 10 (16.4%) are Lecturer II and 07 (14.0%) are Lecturer III. Women are fewer in theSenior Lecturer and Chief Lecturer cadre than any other cadres.Table 6: Gender Pattern of Academic Staff by designation in theCollege of Education, Ikere-Ekiti, NigeriaDesignation Male Female TotalNo % No %Chief LecturerPrincipal LecturerSenior LecturerLecturer ILecturer IIAssistant LecturerGraduate Assistant311736153445373.180.975.053.673.971.41000704121412180026.919.125.046.426.128.60.038214828466303Total 181 64.9 67 35.1 248Table 6 shows that only 07 (26.9%) female of the academic staff are Chief Lecturers, 04(19.1%) female are PrincipalLecturers while 12 (25.0%) females are Senior Lecturers. Only 14(46.4%) females are in Lecturer I, 12(26.1%)females are Lecturer II while 18(28.6%) females are Assistant Lecturers. None of the female Lecturers are ingraduate assistant Cadre.254

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012Table 7: Gender Pattern of Academic Management Staff in Ekiti StateUniversity (EKSU)Principal Officers Male Female TotalNo % No %Vice ChancellorDeputy Vice ChancellorUniversity LibrarianDean of Faculties0102010810010010088.9NilNil00010.0000011.101020109Total 12 92.3 01 07.7 13Source: Establishment Unit of University RegistryThe findings on table 7 as at the period of this research indicate that none of the University principal Officer is afemale. There is only one (1) female among the nine (9) Dean of Faculties in the |University. This shows that 7.7%of the academic management staff is female and 92.3% are males.Table 8: Gender Pattern of Academic Management Staff in FederalPolytechnicDesignation Male Female TotalNo % No %RectorDeputy RectorLibrarianDean of Faculties000201400100100100010000001000000001214Total 07 87.5 01 12.5 08Table 8 revealed that the rector is the only female out of all the academic management staff. The deputy rectors, theLibrarian and the dean in the four schools are males. Therefore indicating that 12.5% are female while 87.5 aremales.255

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012Table 9: Gender Pattern of Academic Management Staff in College ofEducationStatus Male Female TotalNo % No %ProvostDeputy ProvostLibrarianDeans00Nil0104--100-01-0001-Nil00-01Nil0105Total 05 71.4 02 28.6 07Table 9 revealed that 2(28.6%) females are on the academic management cadre as against 71.4 males. The provostand one out of the four dean of schools are females. The school did not have a deputy rector at this period of theresearch.DISCUSSIONThe study revealed that women were under represented among the academic staff in the tertiary institutions in thestate. Female Lecturers accounted for 18.3% of the total number of academic staff in the University, 12.8% in thePolytechnic and 27.6% in the College of Education. On the average 19.6% female are in the academic employmentof tertiary institutions in Ekiti State. The findings support the study of Duyilemi (2007) and Bush (2006) also foundout that the percentage of female in academics cadre is low, that women participation in teaching are usually in theprimary level of schooling, that the number progressively reduces as the education level rises and that even wherewomen outnumber the men in teaching staff, the women are usually the minority among the top management level.Similarly Alani (2007) reported that the average proportion of women in teaching jobs in the CommonwealthUniversities was said to be 24% and Nigeria was identified as one of the developing countries of the commonwealththat employed the lowest number of female academic staff.The highest percentage of female academics employed is in the College of Education. Even in the University, theFaculty of Education has the highest percentage of female participation. This result may be as a result of the fact thatmany of the women had tertiary qualification in education courses proceed for their postgraduate studies inEducation thereby having the opportunity to take up lecturing jobs after their Postgraduate studies.The Faculties of Engineering in both the University and Polytechnic as well as the School of Environmental studieshave the least employment of women. They had fair standing in Faculties of Education, Agriculture, Law, School ofLanguages, School of Arts and Social Sciences. Generally men dominate in Science and Technical courses and onlyfew female students usually enroll for Science and Technology based disciplines even at the first degree level. Onlyvery few go in for the Masters and Ph.D in the technical disciplines. Most women are found in the Faculties ofEducation, Arts, Law, Social Sciences and Administration. They see the disciplines as the traditional professionsthat are considered to be the national extension of the natural roles of women as wives and mothers.The study further revealed that the percentage of women in the upper echelon is low and poor indeed. Therepresentation of women at the management position is also very poor. No woman has ever been Vice-Chancellor inthe University the present rector and provost in the Polytechnic and College of Education are females.Currently, only one female is a Dean of Faculty in the University out of the nine faculties; none in the Polytechnicout of four schools and only one female in the College of Education. This confirms the observation of Singh (1993)256

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012in Dines (2008) that “women Deans are a minority group and women Vice-Chancellors are still a rarity”. Reports ofthe 1990 survey by Dine further support this finding that men outnumber women at about five to one at middlemanagement level and at about twenty to one ratio at Senior Management level. Further reports on genderdistribution among academic staff show that on the whole, women are found in academic positions than inmanagement positions.The study further revealed that the poor representation of female Professors and female Chief Lecturers atProfessorial level result to poor representation at the management cadre. This might be because of the challengesthat women usually face. Even at times when women are qualified and available, the institutions are unwilling totake the risk of appointing women to top management positions because of women’s multiple roles or dual careerconflict between their professional obligations and home/family responsibilities. Not only this, the perceptions offemale discrimination have also contributed to the under representation of women on the academic staff ofUniversities particularly at the top academic management positions.CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONSThis study has come to the conclusion that academic opportunity is more masculine than feminine in the tertiaryinstitutions in Ekiti State. The College of Education has the highest number of female lecturers followed by the EkitiState University and the least is the Polytechnic.The percentage of women academics in the upper echelon in the tertiary institutions are low and the representation atthe management position is very poor. The ownership of the institution notwithstanding, gender disparity andinequality is vividly revealed in the tertiary institutions in the state.It is thereby recommended that the tertiary institutions, should be sensitized to contribute to national development byemploying more women Lecturers since women are seen as essential agent of change and development in humansociety. More women should be encouraged to pursue research (M.Phl and Ph.D) programmes since a doctoratedegree is required for lectureship appointments into these institutions.The Commonwealth, Federal and State Government Scholarship awards should be targeted at women in largenumbers. The National Association of Women in Academics in the University, Polytechnic and College ofEducation can institute scholarship awards to help more women engage in Postgraduate studies. Spouses shouldsupport and encourage women to develop interest in academic work. Even though recruitment and employmentguidelines do not discriminate against women, Nigeria tertiary institutions especially Ekiti State should emulate theircounterparts in the developed and some developing countries for example (India and South Africa) by establishingEqual Employment opportunity (EEO) offices. Such offices can assist in propagating information aboutemployment, research and conference opportunities for women to benefit from as done in the Universities where itexists, the office will produce and execute plans that can eradicate gender discrimination in appointments; workingconditions and generate awareness on gender equity.More efforts should be put in place to enhance gender equity at the higher level of education by the government.Other stakeholders in education must take appropriate and sufficient actions to eliminate the problems militatingagainst women labour participation in our institutions, this will enhance the realization of the MillenniumDevelopment Goals (MDGS) in the Country.257

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012REFERENCESAghenta, J. A. (2001) Educational Planning: A turning point in Education and Development in Nigeria. Inaugurallecturer series 58. University of Benin, Benin City.Ajayi, J. F. A. Goma, L. K. H. and Johnson, G. A. (1996), The African Experience with Higher Education, AAU,Accra in association with James Currey, London and Ohio University Press, Athens.Bush, T. (2006) Theories of Educational Leadership and Management 3 rdPublishing Ltd.Edition, London; Paul ChapmanDuyilemi, A. N. (2007) Girl-Child Education and Empowerment, keynode address presented at Workshop for SeniorSecondary School female students Teachers and Education officers in Ondo South West Senatorial DistrictsOkitipupa.Egunjobi, O. A. (2008) Women in Academics: The untold story of Gender Inequality and Discrimination againstWomen in the Ivory Tower. Lead Paper presented at the seminar organized by the National Association ofwomen in Academics (NAWACS), University of Ado-Ekiti Chapter, Ado-Ekiti.Gandu, Y. K (1998) The place of women in the 21 st century workworld. A paper presented at the first internationalConference by National Association of women Academics (NAWACS) at the University of JosMensah, D. O., Biney, I. K., Ashong, G. A. (2009) Gender issues that impinge on access and equity of the mastersprogramme in the institute of Adult Education, University of Ghana, International Journal of HigherEducation research (IJHER) 1(1).Onokala P.C. (2007) The Gender Pattern of Students Enrolment into the University as a constraint to theDevelopment of University Education in Nigeria. Issues in Higher Education: Research Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa, Lagos Bolabay Publishers.Roscher N. M. and Cavanaugh M. A. (1992) Academic Women Chemists in the 20 thprojections, part II. Journal of Chemical Education 9 (11).century Past, present,Singh, J. K. S. (2008) Whispers of Change, Gemale Staff numbers in Commonwealth Universities London;Association of Commonwealth Universities.Sutherland C., (2008) Gender Equity Remains a Dream’ World Bank Washington D. C.258

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012© 2012 Ozean PublicationINCENTIVE STRATEGIES FOR RETAINING COMPETENT TEACHERS INNIGERIAN SCHOOLSJessica Ezekiel-HartRivers State University of EducationRumuolumeni, Port Harcourt,Nigeria.jessvalhart@yahoo.com____________________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: The recently formulated National Teacher Education Policy has as one of its eight principles, the need toprovide adequate incentives to attract competent people into the teaching profession. An in-depth understanding ofwhat makes Nigerian school teachers incompetent will form the basis for the kind of incentives to be suggested. Lossof self esteem appears to be a major reason why teachers abandon teaching at the least opportunity. Incentivestrategies for retaining competent teachers must therefore aim at enhancing their self esteem and ensuring societalrespect for them. This paper presents some workable incentive strategies for managing teachers self esteem. Amongthe strategies discussed are statutory regulations of the teaching profession through licensure and Teachers’Conditions of Service that are in line with the 2000 ILO/UNESCO Joint Declaration on the status of teachers.Finally, it is hoped that any African country with similar historical background can adapt the principles discussedhere.Keywords: Incentive strategies, Teachers’ competence, Teacher Education Policy, Nigeria_____________________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTIONThe well deserved Nigerian National Teacher Education Policy (NTEP) was formulated based on evidences ofresearch findings, one of which is that few incentives exist to attract top talents into the teaching profession (NTEP,2010). This concern is further expressed in the first eight principles on which the policy stands. It states: in order toattract competent people into the teaching profession, there must be an adequate incentive259

Attracting competent people suggests that there are several incompetent teachers. It has to be so for it to be anational concern. Therefore there is a need to move away from counting every person who stands in class to delivera lesson as a competent teacher. There is also a need to move away from regarding everyone who possesses a paperqualification as a competent teacher. The importance of teacher competence therefore cannot be overemphasizedand this assertion is supported by a growing consensus among researchers and educators that the single mostimportant factor in determining student performance is the quality of his or her teachers.If the national goal of providing an equitable education to children across the nation is to be met, it is critical thatefforts be concentrated on developing and retaining competent and efficient teachers in every community and atevery grade level. Teacher attrition is a costly loss because the exit of teachers from the profession and themovement of teachers to better schools are costly phenomena, both for the students who lose the value of beingtaught by an experienced teacher and the schools and states which recruit and train their replacements. Henke, Chenand Geis (2000) observed that the best and brightest teachers are the first to leave. Though their research is in adifferent society, there is every reason to believe that this particular finding is applicable to Nigeria also otherwiseretaining competent teachers would not be a national concern.Who is a Competent Teacher?Competent teachers are those who have the ability or necessary qualities which contribute to realizing seteducational goals and objectives. Nevertheless available literature suggests that both nationally and internationally,the competence of teacher continues to undergo close and constant scrutiny without an agreed definition (Huntly,2003). No single formula exists for measuring teacher competence but in general it requires demonstration ofthorough preparation, a sound knowledge base, effective classroom management, professional communication witha range of stakeholders and an accurate score of self awareness in the role of teachers. In fact Hager and Beckett(1995) argue that competence is not one dimensional but relational. As such, competence is a relation betweenindividual abilities and the satisfactory completion of appropriate task. While the idea of teacher competencepresents a holistic view of developing quality by building the teacher’s person and building academic knowledgeand professional skills in the teacher, this paper will discuss the incentives that will help to build up the teacher’sperson.This writer feels very strongly about the following two qualities which a competent teacher must possess andtherefore will discuss them in detail. They are drive and ethics. Drive or the battle against inertia is the mostidealistic aspect of a competent teacher (Fleming, 2008). Drive is the urge of wanting desperately to do somethinginstead of complying with the status-quo which kills initiative while a teacher slips into mediocrity. When a teacherlacks drive, he stops teaching and simply “moves through the motions”. This is not acceptable for the present dayeducation which is constantly called upon to keep pace with change. Traditional societies were relatively stable,maintaining the same ways of life over centuries. The teachers in such societies could afford to restrain themselvesto the conservative role of preparing pupils to fit into societies into which they could simply adapt. Modern society,on the other hand, is witnessing an acceleration of history in which rapid and neck-breaking change is the norm. Forthis reason, a teacher must go beyond educating pupils to fit into a world of uncertainty (transformational).Ethics permeates all the qualities a competent teacher must have. Generally speaking, ethics means doing what isright when it really matters. Teachers do not know what situations they may be forced to face in discharging theday’s job. Judgements in matters both great and small, student related or worker related, administration etc aresometimes decided on the spur of the moment, and the decisions must be correct. An ethical teacher like any otherethical professional e.g. a medical doctor or a military commander has a great responsibility entrusted on him. Butwhile the error of the latter two can cause instant loss of lives, the unethical judgement of a teacher may not result inan instant death but can be devastating in the long run, as when a pupil drops out of school as a result of a teacher’serror in judgement.In summary, the competent teacher is proficient in disseminating knowledge to students, in modelling personalqualities and social skills, in demonstrating professional and teaching competencies. He knows how to do his joband he does it very well. But the context of the school which includes the larger socio-cultural context in which it issituated, defines the social status and expectations for teachers, and is an important influence in the effectiveperformance of their job. How has the overall value attached to schooling in Nigeria, the role teachers are expected260

to play and where teachers are placed in the overall distribution of social and/or economic rewards enhanced orfailed to enhance teachers’ competencies? The answer to this question can be derived by analysing the reason for thehigh attrition of teachers.Self-esteem and Attrition of TeachersIn spite of the paucity of statistical data, attrition of teachers is a well known phenomenon in Nigeria. At the secondNational Teachers’ Summit held in National Teachers Institute (NTI) Conference Centre, Kaduna, April 20 – 22,2004, the following observations emerged from papers and discussions:1. The summit noted with dismay the high attrition rate of teachers due mainly to unattractive conditionsof service.2. The working environment in which teachers find themselves is not conducive3. The poor treatment of pensioners reduces the capacity of the system to retain teachers and worsencurrent attrition rate.A pathetic picture was also painted in This Day of 26 April, 2004 of how someone went to visit a former PermanentSecretary in the Federal Ministry of Education, Dr Yahaya Hamza with a request to help him get a job. “But don’tyou have a job?” Hamza asked, and the visitor replied “Emm... I teach”. For him, teaching is not a job but somepastime which one engaged in as a last resort, a stepping stone to other more socially accepted jobs. To be able tooffer solutions that will retain teachers in school, it would be necessary to have a deep insight on why teachers wantto leave teaching at the least opportunity. Obanya (2009) presents the causes under the following headings:historical, sociological, conceptual/perceptual, the political/managers dimensions.Historically, teachers in pre and early colonial eras were highly respected for their relevance in society but with thegradual spread of western-type secondary “grammar” education, the prestige of teacher training institutions began todecline seriously and they were unable to attract the bright and the willing. Overtime, they became largely secondchoice institutions. In addition, as more job opportunities became available in government and in the private sector,teaching also ceased to be a first choice occupation. Most teachers have internalised public perception of who theyare – mere or ordinary teachers as the case of the former Permanent Secretary and his visitor shows. This erosion ofconfidence has resulted in low self esteem- a quality that is not in tandem with teacher competence.Closely related to the historical dimension is the sociological dimension whereby the persistent erosion of the statusof teachers has resulted in a situation in which teaching is now a very low status occupation. Instead of attracting thebrightest and the best as in previous times, it is inundated with the residue who could not be admitted for the more“prestigious professions” such as medicine, architecture, law, engineering etc. Obviously, many who end up asteachers may not be as brilliant as their counterparts in the fields of study mentioned above and certainly may nothave desired, from the beginning, to go into teaching. A combination of these factors and more have created thephenomenon of low self esteem among teachers. The bright ones leave for other unrelated jobs while others schemeor hustle to go to the Ministries of Education or their parastaltals even if the job is less interesting and monotonousand salaries are at par (Ezekiel-Hart, 2010). The point here is that they have escaped the “stigma” of being calledteachers as they acquire the more “prestigious” title of Education Officers.Also, there exist conceptual fallacies at different levels of the society on the discipline of education. TheGovernment appears to be paying lip service to education as a profession because their actions are not in agreementwith what they confess. For instance, no professional teacher is known to have served as Minister for Justice,Health, Finance or Agriculture etc. But eminent jurists, high profile pharmacists, medical doctors, engineers,political scientists, economists etc have at various times headed the Ministry of Education at both state and federallevels. The same goes for parastatals under the Ministry of Education. The Universal Basic Education Commission(federal level) and the Universal Basic Education Boards (state level) are known to have been headed at one time orthe other by non educationists who on resumption of office become proponents of education and enunciators ofeducation-related policies. This aberration is so bad that institutions designed to develop innovative teachereducation programmes are headed by non professional teachers but teachers are never given the opportunity to beexperts of other professions.261

The public also tends to equate being an academic to being an educationist, thus any professor is described as aneducationist. A good number of academics themselves reinforce this claim by arguing that they have been teaching.While they may be covertly recognising the value of teachers and teaching, the phenomenon however contributes todegrading the teaching profession as it reinforces the wrong notion that anyone can be a teacher. Higher educationalinstitutions also contribute to demean teachers. Teacher education both at the College of Education, University ofEducation or Faculty of Education in a conventional university is a combined effort of non-educational faculties andeducational faculties. The former claims to be more important since they do all the teaching while educationfaculties provide only methodology. This misconception is rooted in the methods-content dichotomy perpetuated byteacher educators themselves. For a long time, Educational Sciences were understood as simply “methods”, whichwas seen simply as instruction on what the teacher should do or not do in the classroom. Even students actionssometimes portray this error that content knowledge is more important than method knowledge. For this, they givemore attention to content knowledge. Even some aid agencies argued that professional teacher education isunnecessary, that a teacher with bare basic general knowledge will do well with regular supervision and on-the-joblearning.While the topic for this discourse centres on the teacher, one can see from the preceding paragraphs that retainingcompetent teachers in schools will require much more than providing incentives to teachers. Because it is not in theambit of this article, one can simply mention in passing that the task of giving teachers their pride of place willrequire re-engineering the mind-set of those in positions of authority who should know better. This may be a hardnut to crack but appreciable progress could be recorded if the following considerations are properly managed;1) The Political mindset: It appears that many politicians and technocrats, who themselves may have beenclassroom teachers, do not defend the interest of practising teachers. A critical case in point is whendecision concerning education and consequently the fate of teachers, teaching, learners and ultimately onsociety are made without teachers input. Although there is always a claim that the outcome of thosedecisions are from inputs from various stakeholders, in reality teachers’ contribution are often veryminimal. At best, they could be used as subjects for policy-related research, in the rare cases in which someform of research is involved. Secondly practising teachers may be sensitized to the implementation of newprogrammes which the politicians and technocrats may have not tidied up. This slight of practising teachersis a tacit admission by the political class and technocrats that teachers do not matter.2) Psychological Dimension: This is illustrated by the life path story of two identical twin brothers. Both wereat the same starting point educationally and both read the same course and graduated in the same year. Onechose teaching as a career and the marketing. Ten years later, they both occupied responsible positions intheir respective careers. But, in terms of personality they were no longer identical. The teacher - as a resultof limited exposure to the world outside and in view of limited opportunities for professional growth – hasbecome timid and less knowledgeable whereas the marketer has become more knowledgeable and moreself confident as a result of the opportunities offered him for continuous self development (Obanya, 2009).While many professions provide for compulsory continuing education, teachers hardly undergo any form ofin-service training after the initial certification (Ezekiel-Hart, 2003). A system whereby teachers areencumbered with obsolete skills and knowledge in a knowledge-driven world doubtlessly will inflict havocon their psyche. Many a time, discussions about incentives had centred on emoluments - salaries, housing,cars, medical etc to the exclusion of the psychological endowment which may even be far more importantthan some other considerations.Incentive StrategiesThis paper has established that the poor image that teachers have of themselves is dependent on society’s image ofteaching. Any attempt to restore dignity to the teachers must aim at changing their own perception of who they areand also ensuring societal respect for them as valuable professionals whose knowledge, competence andcommitment make a difference in ensuring the success of a nation’s educational development efforts. The followingincentives will help:1. Statutory regulation of the Teaching Profession: In Medicine, Law, Engineering and all those other more“respected” professions, their professionals possess some recognized professional qualifications and are262

licensed by a statutorily designated authority. A national law that compels teachers to be licensed andforbids employers from employing unlicensed teachers will help to professionalise teaching. It will nolonger be an all-comers occupation. In fact, more advanced countries are concerned with continuous reviewof the licensure examinations to place greater emphasis on “21th century knowledge” which involves theinclusion ofa. Technology literacy: The teacher’s ability to know how to integrate technology into pedagogicalstrategies across the curriculum.b. Diversity: The teacher should have the ability to help students see different perspectives acrossdifferent cultures and situations, including strategies for teaching students with disabilities.c. Collaboration skills: The teacher’s ability to model collaboration as teamwork is becoming thepreferred method of working in the 21th century.d. Global awareness: The teacher should have understanding of other nations and cultures.There are also proposals recommending licensure examinations at different points of the teacher’s career instead of aone-off examination at the point of entry (TRCN, 2010).Nigeria is one of the two African countries which has instituted a licensure policy by establishing (by an Act of1993) a Teachers’ Registration Council of Nigeria (TRCN), with a wide ranging mandate that covers accreditationof teacher education programmes, the organisation of internships, enforcement of ethical conducts among teachers,in addition to maintaining a national register of teachers (TRCN, 2005, 2007).After many years of bureaucratic logjam, Nigeria’s national teachers register was published for the first time in2007. For admission to registered teacher status, a candidate has to have the requisite qualification from a universityor a College of Education and also pass a Professional Qualification Examination (PQE). It is too early to determinethe success of the Nigerian initiative. In fact it is more appropriate to judge its intension than its achievements.Nevertheless, it is laudable that a teachers’ statutory framework is now in place. Also laudable is the fact that thisframework separates teachers from non-teachers. The framework also makes provisions for Mandatory ContinuousProfessional Development (MCPD) of teachers, though the provision is yet to be implemented.With all of these, teaching can be seen in the same way as Law, Medicine etc. Having its practices regulated is a steptowards its professionalization and an end to the debate over its professional status. Not being considered fully as aprofession has been one of the main reasons for the loss of social prestige of teachers and the associated inferioritycomplex of teachers.2. Conditions of Work in line with the Provisions of ILO/UNESCO Joint Recommendations concerning theStatus of Teachers (ILO, 2003). These conditions are predicted on the following principles;a. It should be recognized that advance in education depends largely on the qualifications and ability ofthe teaching staff in general and on the human, pedagogical and technical qualities of the individualteachers.b. The status of teachers should be commensurate with the needs of education as assessed in the light ofeducational aims and objectives; it should be recognized that the proper status of teachers and duepublic regard for the profession of teaching are of major importance for the full realization of theseaims and objectives.c. Teaching should be regarded as a profession: It is a form of public service which requires of teachersexpert knowledge and specialized skills, acquired and maintained through rigorous and continuingstudy; it calls also for a sense of personal and corporate responsibility for the education and welfare ofthe pupils in their charge.d. All aspects of the preparation and employment of teachers should be free from any form ofdiscrimination on grounds of race, colour, sex, religion, political opinion, national or social origin, oreconomic condition. Working conditions for teachers should be such as will best promote effectivelearning and enable teachers to concentrate on their professional tasks.e. Teachers’ organizations should be recognized as a force which can contribute greatly to educationaladvance and which therefore should be associated with the determination of educational policy.Nigeria can be said to be paying due attention to a number of the above mentioned provisions but one that appearsdifficult to implement is the teachers’ salary, an issue on which the recommendations provide the followingspecifications263

a. Teachers’ salaries should be calculated on an annual basisb. Advancement within the grade through salary increments granted at regular, preferably annual,intervals should be providedc. The progression from the minimum to the maximum of the basic salary scale should not extend over aperiod longer than ten to fifteen yearsd. Salary scales for teachers should be reviewed periodically to take into account such factors as a rise inthe cost of living, increased productivity leading to higher standards of living in the country or ageneral upward movement in wage or salary levelse. Where a system of salary adjustments automatically following a cost-of –living index has beenadopted, the choice of index should be determined with the participation of the teachers’ organizationsand any cost of living allowance granted should be regarded as an integral part of earnings taken intoaccount for pension purposesf. No merit rating system for purposes of salary determination should be introduced or applied withoutprior consultation with and acceptance by the teachers’ organization concerned (UNESCO, 2000).Teachers in Nigeria are some of the worst paid professionals in the country yet Nigeria is one of the richest Africancountries. After several months of strike action in 2009, the Federal Government agreed to a 27.5% increase onbasic salary which many states are yet to implement at the end of 2010 and this has led to further strike actionsespecially by state owned institutions of higher learning. When this increase is implemented and when Nigeriabegins to respect the UNESCO terms, teachers’ fortune and consequently their self worth will be enhanced and theeducational system will be the better for it.3. Provision of Opportunities for Continuous Self-Improvement: In curbing the low self esteem of teachers,they must be made to fit into the 21th century world, to be at par with colleagues in other liberalprofessions, to radiate self confidence and a feeling of fulfilment and to earn the respect of society. Thesewould, according to Obanya (2008) require opportunities in two main dimensions, namely:a. Career-long: opportunities to acquire new knowledge skills and techniques needed for quality onthe job performance at every step on the career ladder (e.g. developments in pedagogy, neweducational ideas, government policies on education, developments in educational management,evolving curriculum issues etc, andb. Career-wide: broadening horizon to keep abreast with global development in issues concerninghuman development (e.g. climate change, gender issues, HIV/AIDS etc); new techniques foracquiring knowledge and assessing information (e.g. ICT).In structuring Mandatory Continuing Education for teachers, these two dimensions should be taken into account.4. Involvement of Teachers in National Education Policy Development: Reforms in education often report of“teacher participation” and hardly does it consider “teacher involvement”. To move from mereparticipation to involvement would require attention to three main challenges. These are:a. At what point do teachers come in? Policy development usually goes through the phases ofconceptualization, consultation, articulation, implementation, evaluation, revision/reconceptualisation...and the cycle continues. Teachers have to be there in all the cycles.b. Who represents the teachers? Education sector professionals fall into the following groups - overallsystem managers (in ministries and education agencies), quality assurance personnel (inspectors andofficials dealing directly with schools), institutional managers (head teachers) and classroom teachers.The tendency is for the managers to dominate the education policy process and for the classroomteachers to be either completely absent or to be severally under-represented.c. What is the strength of teacher representation? Given that non-teachers are always in the majority, theirvoice would be the loudest and strongest when education development issues are being debated. Thiswould have to change to give parity of representation and voice to the teachers.The major advantages of shifting from teacher participation to teacher involvement are that teacherswill be in a better position to understand the spirit of an education policy initiative and so be in a betterposition to implement the substance. Secondly involving more practising teachers would bring more ofthe classroom voice to deliberations on education and policy initiatives, since the classroom is the realtheatre where the real education actions take place. Thirdly and most importantly for the purpose of264

this paper, involving teachers increases their self worth, as it enables them see themselves as valuablespecialists whose inputs matter in the scheme of things.5. Built-in incentives and merit rewards systems: Incentives are forces of attraction; they motivate andencourage one to increase and/or sustain efforts and commitment to a course; while rewards are intended torecognise and/or compensate for the value added by one’s efforts and commitment. For retaining competentteachers, the following incentive-related issues should be considered - a broad categorization of incentives,what makes an incentive appropriate and what makes an incentive adequate. Incentives can be broadlycategorized into financial (addition to official emoluments), socio-professional (promotion or advancementon a given salary scale), material (provision of transport and /or housing), psychological (enhanced socialrecognition). The appropriateness of incentives vary from person to person and from group to group,therefore the specific need of a person or group will determine what is appropriate. What makes themadequate will depend on the extent to which a given incentive meets the special needs of a person or groupof persons. For example, several teachers may have various needs which one blanket solution will notsolve. Similarly, reward also the peculiarity of each locality and school would determine what isappropriate and adequate. Competence must be recognized and rewarded but in doing this, it is importantthat very clear rules, merit criteria and guidelines be developed and regularly reviewed. Most importantlytransparency must be the watchdog.6. Teachers’ own efforts: Teachers and their associations also have responsibility for ensuring respectabilityand self worth. Improving teachers’ status can be done when teachers’ associations devote quality attentionto both conditions of teachers (teacher welfare issues) and conditions of teaching (teacher personality–educational–professional development issues, and issues related to education quality). Nigerian Union ofTeachers (an umbrella for all primary and secondary school teachers) should develop teacher professionalimprovement programmes of their own as it is done in Ghana, Uganda, Cote D’Ivoire and Zimbabwe,Kenya example states:As part of the IPEC education project for Kenya, the Kenyan National Union of Teachers (KNUT)is implementing a comprehensive programme that includes: teacher training, awareness raising ofstudents, parents and community members.... quality improvement of education to increaseenrolment and reduce drop-out rates (ILO, 2003)The Pan-African Teachers’ Centre in Lome (Togo) an initiative of African Teachers Union, registered under theTogolese Law No 40-484 of July 1, 1901 has been promoting pedagogical and curriculum material developmentskills in practising teachers. The Nigeria Union of Teachers (NUT) like many other Teachers Union in Africa havedeveloped codes of general conduct and professional ethics for their members. Some states have gone to the extentof developing standards of personal grooming and dressing, all with the objective of enhancing social respect forteachers and improving their own self concept. Much more needs to be done in the area of teacher professionaldevelopment (TPD).CONCLUSIONAt the World Education Forum in 2000, the Education for All (EFA) agenda was defined and three quantifiablegoals were set for 2015. Adequate numbers and quality of teachers are a precondition to the achievement of thesegoals. For all education and for all innovations, for inclusive and sustainable education, for reaching the poor and themarginalized, for formal and non-formal education, not only enough teachers but enough competent and motivatedteachers are needed. Yet retaining quality teachers in schools in Nigeria is a huge challenge.Two main forms of teacher attrition are retirement and voluntary resignation. The former is based on the Conditionsof Service in operation and therefore is fairly predictable. The latter which accounts for more than half of all attritionin many African countries where data is available varies with alternative labour market opportunities and istherefore volatile. An attempt to understand why teachers easily opt out of teaching shows that teachers’ self esteem265

is constantly being eroded by a number of factors which are historical, sociological, psychological, economic,conceptual/perception, political etc. Based on the above, some incentive strategies which can instil confidence andcause them to be highly motivated are recommended.REFERENCESEllis, T. I. (1984). Teacher Competency: What administrators can do? ERIC Clearinghouse of EducationalManagement, ERIC Digest, No 9Ezekiel-Hart, J. (2003). Mentoring as a quality assurance strategy in primary schools. UBE Forum, vol 3.Ezekiel-Hart, J. (2010). Rebranding Nigeria: The Teachers Perspective. A Paper presented at the Faculty ofEducation, Rivers State University of Education, Port Harcourt Seminar.Fleming, J. (2008). The most important quality of an outstanding education. Retrieved June, 2008 from http://JoshFleming_org.mht Last edited June 4, 2008.Hager, P. & Beckett, D. (1995). Philosophical underpinnings of the integrated conception of competence.Educational Philosophy and Theory, 27(1)Henke, R., Chen, X. & Geis, S. (2000). Progress through the Teacher Pipeline: 1992-93 College Graduate andElementary Secondary School Teaching as of 1997. Statistical Analysis Report: National Centre forEducation Statistics, Washington DCHuntly, H. (2003). Beginning Teachers’ conception of competence. A thesis submitted in fulfilment of therequirement for the degree of Doctor of Education, School of Education and Innovation, Faculty ofEducation and Creative Arts, Central Queensland UniversityInternational Labour Office (ILO) (2003). Facts on how IPEC works with Teachers. Geneva.Nigeria-Federal Ministry of Education (2007). Nigeria National Teachers’ Register. Abuja: FMENigeria-Federal Ministry of Education (2008). Implementation Guideline for NTEP. Abuja: FMENigeria-Federal Ministry of Education (2010). National Teacher Education Programme. Abuja: FMEObanya, P. (2008). Reforming educational reforms. In A. R. Lawal et al (Eds.), Education reforms in Nigeria. Ilorin:University of Ilorin.Obanya, P. (2009). Dreaming, living and doing education. Ibadan: University of Ibadan, Nigeria.Teachers Registration Council of Nigeria (1993). CAP T3, supplementary to official gazette extraordinary No 10,vol 80, 5 th May, Part A, Abuja.Teachers Registration Council of Nigeria (2005). Teachers Code of Conduct. Abuja.Teachers Registration Council of Nigeria (2007). Basic facts about the Teachers’ Disciplinary Committee andTeachers Investigating Panel, Abuja.266

Teachers Registration Council of Nigeria (2008). Guidelines for the Accreditation, Monitoring and Supervision ofTeacher Education Programmes in Nigeria, Abuja.Teachers Registration Council of Nigeria (2010). Mandatory Continuing Professional Development Programme,Abuja.This Day Newspaper of 26 April, 2004UNESCO (2000). The Dakar Framework for Action, Education for All: Meeting our Collective Commitments.World Forum, Dakar: Senegal.267

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012© 2012 Ozean PublicationUNDERGRADUATE UNIVERSITIES STUDENT'S ATTITUDES TOWARD DISABLEDPERSONS IN SAUDI ARABIAABDULHADE I. HAIMOURAssistant professor, King Abdul-Aziz University- Saudi ArabiaE-mail address for correspondence: haimour79@hotmail.com____________________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: This study sought to explore attitudes of undergraduate university students at (King Abdul-Aziz and Al-Baha universities) in Saudi Arabia toward persons with disabilities (PWD) based on their gender, academic major,level of education, and contact level. A total number of respondents (n= 282), both male (n= 134) and female (n=148) complete researcher-developed attitude questionnaire consisting of (25) items. The results indicated thatuniversity students generally had positive attitudes toward PWD. Also results indicated that the groups of studentswho were female, special education major, advanced level of education, and deep contact with PWD had morepositive attitudes toward students with disabilities.Keywords: Attitudes; Students; Universities; Disabilities; parents; undergraduate.______________________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTIONThe human sensation of social acceptance from the beginning of his life is affected by proper interactions withpeople surrounding him within his environment. The child during his growth and process of shaping social behavioris affected by the individuals whom he interacts with, the community where he lives, and the philosophy thatcontrols the nature of his school and family.The vital purpose that special education was seeking to achieve is to reach with the individual with disability to thehighest degree of independence and self-reliance, and also to be a contributing member in the body of his or hersociety, not to be a burden. That's because productive human is considered a real wealth of any society. Theindividuals with disabilities in the community forms more than 10% of the population. Therefore, governments andofficial and non-official organizations have direct attention toward them and provided them with all forms ofeducational services in regular schools in order to include those individuals into the surrounding environment in away that affect them positively. And this helped them to adapt and to live respectively in their society.The issue of attitudes toward PWD is considered one of the most important issues in the field of Special Education,as it is affected by the trend factors and equipment experienced by individuals and groups. The importance of trends269

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012of university students toward individuals with special needs lies in the implications of future decisions for thosetrends, whether they are positive or negative. That is having a positive trends leads to a number of decisions suchas: psychological and social acceptance for the disabled, and improved educational, social, health and professionalprograms offered to them, in addition to the ultimate goal in succeeding the integration of students withdisabilities in regular schools. In respect to the negative trends of university students toward PWD, it may leadto rejection of disabled students, as well as denial and neglect of them. Perhaps the importance underlying theknowledge of these trends summarized in modifying attitudes of the members of the community toward PWD ingeneral, in addition to modify the attitudes of university students in specific as they considered the largestresource for teachers who will in the future deal with various types of disabilities in regular schools. That in turn willcontribute to provide the best educational opportunities for students with disabilities.Also special education aims to modify attitudes of ordinary people toward individuals with disabilities in order toincrease the emotional and social acceptance of them in a way that reflects positively on the services provided tothem in addition to improve the offered educational, health, and professional programs. Furthermore , this will helpin issuance of laws and legislations that protect the rights of the individuals with disabilities in the society in whichthey live.Problem of the studyThe relationships people with disabilities have with relatives, friends, and government play a crucial role in the selfesteemand independence of the person with a disability. Attitudes people have about people with disabilities aredirectly related to the kind of relationships they have with that person. Attitudes help us to define how we perceiveand think about others, as well as how we behave towards them. Negative attitudes have been related to a lack ofknowledge and/or segregation of the person with a disability. Attitudes are so significant that they represent more ofa barrier to people with disabilities than any functional limitation of the disability. In the Arab world, we have alimited number of studies focusing on the attitudes of undergraduate students toward individuals with disabilities.Accordingly the researcher of this study aimed to measure attitudes of undergraduate students toward PWD if theywere in general positive or negative. In addition, this study aims to estimate the effect of the amount of contact withpersons with disabilities, gender, academic major, and education level on developing such attitudes.Questions of the studyThe study is a descriptive analysis of the attitudes of Saudi university students who were registered a full-time at(King Abdul-Aziz and Al-Baha Universities) in Saudi Arabia at the time the research was conducted. The purpose ofthis study was to measure attitudes of undergraduate students toward PWD if they were in general positive ornegative. Specifically, this study aims to answer the following five questions:(1) What are the general attitudes of undergraduate students at (King Abdul-Aziz university and Al-Bahauniversity) towards persons with disabilities ?(2) Is there any significant differences in the attitudes of undergraduate students depending on the gender andacademic major variables?(3) Is there any significant differences in the attitudes of undergraduate students depending on the educationlevel and level of contact variables?Importance of the studyThe importance of the study is highlighted in these points:(1) Focusing on the issue of attitudes of undergraduate students toward disabled persons as they would be thefuture teachers for those disabled students.270

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012(2) Highlight the point that future teacher's attitudes are essential in the success of educating students withdisabilities in regular education classrooms.(3) Acknowledge the effect of increasing contact of future teachers with disabled persons on the attitudes ofthose teachers toward disabled students.(4) Urged universities to include materials about special education and teaching disabled persons within alldisciplines and academic majors.Limitation of the studyThis study is limited in three main areas:(1) The spatial conditions where this research was applied within, that is generalizing the results of this study tocommunities differ from Saudi Arabia, should be done carefully.(2) The types of academic majors were involved in this study.(3) The academic levels of university students involved in this study.Previous ResearchMany studies highlighted the demographic categories founded to be influential in predicting attitudes towardsdisabilities. The following themes were found within various research studies examining university students’attitudes toward general disabilities: gender, education level, academic major, and level of contact with people withdisabilities. Although the majority of the following studies examined the attitudes of university students withoutdisabilities toward students with disabilities in an educational environment, the following variables were identified asfactors that influence university students’ attitudes toward disabilities.Effect of education level and disability type on attitudes toward PWD.Acknowledging education and educational environment when assessing university student’s attitudes towarddisabilities is critical .Stovall and Sedlacek (1983) made a connection between disability type and situation whenthey assessed university students’ attitudes toward people with physical disabilities. They concluded that disabilitytypes influence attitudes. Their study found that university students had more favorable attitudes toward studentswho used wheelchairs than those who were visually impaired.Several studies that measured attitudes of university students toward disabilities have also measured the influence ofyears in university on these attitudes. Yuker (1994) concluded that among demographic variables, the amount ofeducation might indicate the most variability in attitudes. He also found that more education was correlated withpositive attitudes in the United States. Livneh (1982) concluded that most studies show that educational level ispositively correlated with more favorable attitudes toward people with disabilities.Upton & Harper (2002) examined the attitudes of undergraduate students toward students with disabilities receivingaccommodations. Their research addressed several significant variables that influenced attitudes; two of them weregender and education level. After examining a total of 852 students without disabilities and 71 students withdisabilities, they concluded that students who were considered at a higher level in university indicated morefavorable attitudes toward students with disabilities. They also concluded that although females demonstrated morefavorable attitudes, students who were identified as either juniors or seniors also had more favorable attitudes.Effect of gender on attitudes toward PWD.Studies comparing gender differences in attitudes toward disabilities have reported varying results. Livneh (1982)found that, according to several studies he reviewed, females showed more favorable attitudes toward individuals271

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012who are physically disabled than do males. A study by Gething (1991) also concluded that females had significantlymore favorable attitudes toward disabilities compared to males. Even when various age groups’ attitudes towarddisabilities were compared, female students displayed more favorable attitudes across age groups. Upton & Harper(2002) examined the attitudes of undergraduate students toward students with disabilities receiving accommodations.They concluded that females reported more positive attitudes than males.Effect of academic major on attitudes toward PWD.Several studies have indicated that the academic major, or area of study, also influences how university studentsview students with disabilities. The Hunt & Hunt (2000) study found that university students who majored inbusiness held more negative attitudes toward disabilities in comparison to other majors. They suggested that businessmajors needed more education about disabilities so as to foster more positive attitudes toward disabilities in thebusiness sector of employment. Research has indicated that students in the help-oriented fields (special education,rehabilitation counseling, occupational therapy, education, counseling, and health) tend to display more favorableattitudes compared to students with majors such as business (Antonak, 1981).Another study conducted by Semmel & Dickson (1966) compared the difference in attitudes between specialeducation and general education majors and founded that special education majors displayed more favorableattitudes toward disabilities than general education majors.Additionally, Tashtoosh & Kazaleh (2010) identified attitudes of the faculty of Arabic and social studies at theuniversity of Qassim toward disabled persons, and the effect of some variables such as (academic major, level ofeducation, average grade point, place of residence, and contact level) on the attitudes toward persons withdisabilities. The results revealed that attitudes toward disabled persons were generally positive, in addition to theexistence of statistically significant differences in the attitudes of students towards the disabled due to the academicmajor variable (favoring special education major), and level of education variable (favoring students' third year andfourth year). The results of the study also indicated that there was no statistically significant differences in attitudestoward students with disabilities due to the different rate of students' average grade point and place of residence andcontact level.Effect of contact level on attitudes toward PWD.The effect of the behavioral variable of contact with individuals with disabilities on attitudes has also been anemphasis of many studies. The major theoretical statement regarding the effects of contact on attitudes which called“contact hypothesis” formulated most particularly by Allport (1954), which estimates that contact should lead toimproved attitudes toward a particular group if contact is cooperative, participants in the contact are of equal status,participants share common goals and the contact has support from social customs or laws (Dovidio, Gaertner &Kawakami, 2003). Allport also emphasizes the importance of relatively more intimate contact for improvingattitudes, and it has been suggested that such contact in the form of intergroup friendships may promote morepositive attitudes (Pettigrew, 1998).Level of contact with people with disabilities is a serious variable because of its main impact on attitudes. Contactwith people with disabilities was first introduced by Amsel and Fichten (1988) as a key variable for reducingnegative attitudes toward disabilities. Alexander and Link (2003) found that those who had more prior direct contacttended to believe that individuals with mental illness are not generally dangerous and desired less social distancefrom a hypothetical individual with mental illness.Another study by Narukawa (1995) examined the relationship between attitude toward people who have mentaldisabilities and actual experience with them among 136 high school students, 172 university students, and 161parents with preschool children. The results indicate that people who have been in contact with people with mentaldisabilities were more prepared to help them and interact with them socially. However, it must be noted that theirattitude was negative if they had only had unpleasant experiences with people who have mental disabilities. Roper(1990) explored knowledge about people with disabilities and its effect on attitude. He found that attitude scores forfriends and family of a person with mental retardation were higher than scores for people who had briefly met aperson with mental retardation. In addition, overall perceptions of mental retardation by volunteers for the SpecialOlympics were more positive compared with those people who had never volunteered at a Special Olympic event.272

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012Based on 25 studies, Wright (1980) concluded that increased contact with people with disabilities generally results inmore positive attitudes toward the disabled. In a study of Mahoney (2007), he examined several predictors ofuniversity students’ attitudes toward individuals with autism. Three hundred thirty university students completedmeasures of general and behavioral knowledge of autism, quantity and quality of past contact with individuals whohave autism, anxiety, attributions about behavioral and causal controllability of autism, respondent gender andsocially desirable response tendency as well as the attitude dimensions of desired social distance, views of academicintegration, the rights of business owners not to serve people with autism and behavioral intention to do volunteerwork with people who have autism. Results suggested that students had relatively positive attitudes towardindividuals with autism. In another study of Fiedler & Simpson (1987), the participation in a 10-week course aboutmental retardation and other mental disorders led to endorsement of desire for less social distance and more positiveopinions of individuals with mental disorders among high school students at least in the short-term.METHODOLOGYIn the previous sections, we discussed the general attitudes toward PWD especially for the community of educationaluniversity students at Saudi universities as a critical issue that needs to be examined and addressed. In Saudi Arabia,negative attitudes and misinformation about disabilities have affected the disabled community and may preventedthem from fully participating in society. Many individuals with disabilities are subjected to rejection and isolationdue to negative attitudes. This part of study will describe the methodology and data analysis strategies that wasutilized to examine the attitudes of Saudi university students. This chapter will discuss (a) the study population andsample, (b) the research instrument, (c) the variable and data analysis, (d) and the results.ParticipantsThis study was conducted in (King Abdul-Aziz and Al-Baha Universities) in Saudi Arabia as they are consideredtwo of the largest in Saudi Arabia, and therefore the student population reflect in part the diversity of Saudi citizens.The total number of the sample was (282) university students, (n=134 ) participants were male and (n=148 )participants were female. The two universities provide a variety of academic disciplines. King Abdul-Aziz universityis located in Jeddah in the west of Saudi Arabia, and Al-Baha university is located in Al-Baha province in the southof Saudi Arabia. This will enhance the diversity of university students sharing in this study. The two universitiesoffer undergraduate and graduate degrees from the following universities: business, law, technology information,education, medicine, engineering, veterinary medicine, and journalism and communications. The educationuniversity aims to prepare teachers in different disciplines such as ( Mathematics, Chemistry, Arabic language,English language, Islamic studies, and Special education) Participants were recruited from across the previousacademic disciplines to ensure that students from various disciplines and education levels would be incorporated inthe study. The sample was a convenience sample (voluntary) of undergraduate students at (King Abdul-Aziz and Al-Baha Universities). The criteria for participants was full-time enrollment as a student at (King Abdul-Aziz and Al-Baha Universities) during the period of the study. The recruitment process involved several steps and methods. Theresearcher was given permission from various faculty members to come to classrooms and recruit students. Thestudents who chose to participate in the study also had several options for completing the survey. Students couldchoose to go to the graduate school dean’s office, pick up a survey packet, and return it upon completion; they couldpick up packets from the researcher during classroom recruiting visits; or they could pick up packets from theresearcher’s office during office hours.273

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012The research instrumentsThe research instruments utilized for this study were, (a) demographic sheet, and (b) the questionnaire.Demographic Sheet: The demographic sheet used primarily for the purpose of collecting descriptive informationabout the participants. It included questions for obtaining the following information: (a) gender, (b) education level,(c) academic major, (d) year in university, and (e) contact level.The Questionnaire: The questionnaire which the researcher used in his study depended on two questionnaires,which are (The Attitudes toward Disabled Persons- Form O (ATDP-O) (Yuker & Block, 1986), and The St. JosephCurriculum-Based Attitude Scale (STJCBAS), (Reinhardtsen, 1980).The ATDP-O consists of twenty items with a Likert-type format indicating extent of agreement or disagreement. Therange of the scale is from +3 (agree very much) to-3 (disagree very much). Total scores range from 0 to 120, withhigher scores suggesting more positive attitudes on the part of respondents. The reliability of the ATDP has beenestablished by test-retest, split-half, equivalence, and alpha tests in several studies. Results show that the overallmedian for the instrument is approximately .80 (Yuker & Block, 1986).The St. Joseph Curriculum-Based Attitude Scale (STJCBAS), (Reinhardtsen, 1980). On this 25-item, Likert-typescale students respond to statements regarding their involvement and attitude toward handicapped individuals.Responses to each item are marked on a 6-point scale ranging from "very much like me" to "very much unlike me".Higher scores indicate more positive attitudes toward handicapped persons.After analyzing the previous two questionnaires, the researcher selected the most appropriate paragraphs for hisstudy. The questionnaire first was written in English, but then translated into Arabic. The initial version of thisquestionnaire consisted of (30) paragraphs, and after giving it to (8) specialists in Special Education for revision andtaking their feedback into consideration, five paragraphs were omitted and the final version was limited to (25)paragraphs written in Arabic.The questionnaire in its final form consists of (25) items, in which 18 were phased positively and (7) were phasednegatively in respect to attitudes toward PWD. For the items phased negatively, items were reverse coded because aresponse of “strongly disagree” was considered the more positive response. A response of 1 was converted to 5; 2converted to 4; 3 kept 3; 4 converted to 2 and 5 converted to 1. Items were scored according to a 5-point scale (1=disagree strongly, 2= disagree moderately, 3= natural, 4= agree moderately, 5= agree strongly). Total scores rangefrom 0 to 125, with higher scores suggesting more positive attitudes on the part of the respondents.Because the measurement of this study is a researcher- developed, it was evaluated for face validity only. This wasaccomplished as mentioned previously by submitting the tool to several specialists (faculty members) in SpecialEducation for revision. And after doing their comments on this tool, the percentage of agreement between the judgerwas 87%.Regarding the reliability for internal consistency of this questionnaire, it was measured by Cronbach alphawith a value 0.73.Variables and data analysisThe dependent variable for this study was (The Total Score for the questionnaire about the attitudes toward PWD).The independent variables were the following:(1) Gender (Male or Female).(2) Education level (1 st year, 2 nd year, 3ed year, and 4 th year).(3) Academic major (Special Education and other academic majors).(4) Contact level: refers to the amount of contact with PWD in four choices (Never contact, Mild contact,Moderate contact, and Deep contact).274

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012RESULTSThe purpose of this study was to measure attitudes of undergraduate students toward persons with disabilities. Theresearcher used a questionnaire consisted of 25 items, each item has a score ranges between 0-5 points, andaccordingly the total score on the questionnaire ranges from 0-125 points. Accordingly, the analysis of the results forthe questionnaire can be carried out as the following:(1) Results of the first questionTo answer the first question of the study relates to attitudes of university students toward persons with disabilitieswhether they were (positive or negative) the researcher used the (T-test) to extract the mean and standard deviationof students' grades on the attitudes questionnaire. The Test value = 75 is considered as a hypothetical separation limitbetween the positive and negative attitudes as defined by the researcher. If the means were above the value 75, it isconsidered positive attitudes. Whereas the means below the value 75 is considered negative attitudes. As shown in(Table 1) the mean of the all responses on the attitudes questionnaire was 103.88 with standard deviation 9.26. Wenoticed that it is higher than the hypothetical limit with a mean difference 28.88 which means that the generalattitudes of the university students were significantly positive toward persons with disabilities in terms of (Ttest)for independent samples at = 0.05 as shown in (Table1).TotalTable 1: One sample (T- test) for the all responses of attitudes of university students toward PWDN Mean Std.Deviationt df Sig. (2-tailed)MeanDifference282 103.88 9.26 52.351 281 .000 28.88(2) Results of the second questionTo answer the second question of the study relates to attitudes of university students toward persons with disabilitiesdepending on the gender variable (Male or Female) and the academic major variable (Special Education and otheracademic majors) the researcher has extracted the mean and standard deviation of students' total grades on theattitudes questionnaire. The results revealed as shown in (Table 2) that there are differences in the means betweenmale university students (n=134) and the female university students (n=148) on the attitudes questionnaire, anddifferences in the means between special education university students and the university students with otheracademic majors on the attitudes questionnaire.Table 2: The Mean, Std. Deviation, and ANOVA test for the significance of differences in attitudestoward PWD depending on the Gender and Academic major variablesGenderAcademic majormalefemale Special education Other majorsmean100.6493 106.7973105.0224102.8378Std. Deviation8.48196 8.990529.208919.21922F34.6993.953Sig..000.048And to find the significance of those differences, ANOVA test was done. And the results revealed that there aresignificant differences between males and females in regards to attitudes toward PWD. Female participants achieved275

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012a higher mean score, and so they have significantly more positive attitudes toward PWD than male participants. alsothe results revealed that there are significant differences between students of Special Education major and studentswith other academic majors in regards to attitudes toward PWD. Special Education major participants achievedhigher mean scores, and so they have significantly more positive attitudes toward PWD than university students withother academic majors.(3) Results of the third questionTo answer the third question of the study relates to attitudes of university students toward PWD depending on theeducation level variable (1 st year, 2 nd year, 3 rd year, and 4 th year) and the attitudes of university students toward PWDdepending on the contact level variable (Never contact, Mild contact, Moderate contact, and Deep contact), Theresearcher has extracted the mean and standard deviation of students' total grades on the attitudes questionnaire. Theresults revealed as shown in (Table 3) that the mean number of the 1 st year was 106.88 (SD=8.92), and 101.47 for the2 nd year (SD=8.7), and 104.66 for the 3 rd year (SD=8.91), and 106.7 for the 4 th year (SD=9.8). also the resultsrevealed that the mean number of the Never contact was 98.66 (SD=8.31), and 102.13 for the Mild contact(SD=8.61), and 104.86 for the Moderate contact (SD=9.11), and 103.88 for the Deep contact (SD=9.23).Table 3: The Mean, Std. Deviation, and ANOVA test for the significance of differences in attitudes toward PWDdepending on the Education level and Contact level variablesEducation levelContact level1 st year 2 nd year 3 rd year 4 th year Never Mild Moderate DeepMean 106.8750 101.4706 104.6628 106.6957 98.6596 102.1261 104.8615 110.2373Std.Deviation8.91928 8.70206 8.90553 9.78640 8.30735 8.60984 9.11708 7.64591F 5.550 18.818Sig. .001 .000When comparing the dependent variable (students attitudes toward PWD) and their academic level, the ANOVAresults indicated that there was statistically significant differences in the mean scores. (Table 3) shows that there arestatistically significant differences at (= 0.05) in the students attitudes toward PWD since calculated (f) amountedto 5.55 and significance level of *.001.276

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012Table 4: Post hoc analysis (Tukey HSD) for the university students attitudes toward PWDdepending on the education level variableEducation level Mean Difference Std. Error Sig.1 st year 2 ndyear3 rdyear4 thyear5.40441 3.30382 .3602.21221 3.34351 .911.17935 3.37839 1.0002 nd year 1 st year -5.40441- 3.30382 .3603 rd year -3.19220- 1.28023 .0634 thyear-5.22506-* 1.36872 .0013 rd year 1 st year -2.21221- 3.34351 .9112 ndyear4 thyear3.19220 1.28023 .063-2.03286- 1.46193 .5064 th year 1 st year -.17935- 3.37839 1.0002 ndyear5.22506* 1.36872 .0013 rd year 2.03286 1.46193 .506*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.A multiple comparisons between different academic levels of university students using (Tukey HSD) test was carriedout to define which differences between the means of educational levels were considered statistically significant. Asshown in (Table 4). regarding the attitudes toward PWD, there was only one significant difference located betweenthe 2 nd year university students (mean=101.47,SD=8.71) and the 4 th year university students (mean=106.7, SD=9.79),since the mean difference between them amounted to -5.23 favoring the 4 th year university students, and significancelevel of *0.05. And this leads to a result that university students with advanced years at the university have morepositive attitudes toward PWD than university students with earlier years .When comparing the dependent variable (students attitudes toward PWD) and their contact level, the ANOVAresults indicated that there was statistically significant differences in the mean scores. (Table 3) shows that there arestatistically significant differences at = 0.05 in the students' attitudes toward PWD since calculated (f) amounted to18.82 and significance level of *.000.277

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012Table 5: Post hoc analysis (Tukey HSD) for the university students attitudes toward PWDdepending on the contact level variableContact level Mean Difference Std. Error Sig.Never contact Mild contact -3.46655- 1.47753 .090Moderate contact -6.20196-* 1.62563 .001Deep contact -11.57771-* 1.65995 .000Mild contact Never contact 3.46655 1.47753 .090ModeratecontactModerate contact -2.73541- 1.32604 .168Deep contact -8.11116-* 1.36790 .000Never contact 6.20196* 1.62563 .001Mild contact 2.73541 1.32604 .168Deep contact -5.37575-* 1.52667 .003Deep contact Never contact 11.57771* 1.65995 .000Mild contact 8.11116* 1.36790 .000Moderate contact 5.37575* 1.52667 .003*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.A multiple comparisons between different contact levels of university students using (Tukey HSD) test was carriedout to define which differences between the means of contact levels were considered statistically significant. Asshown in (Table 5) regarding the attitudes toward PWD, there was a significant difference located between Nevercontact ( mean=98.67,SD=8.31) and contact moderately (mean=104.86,SD=9.12) with a (Mean difference= 6.2), andDeep contact (mean=110.24,SD=7.65) with a (Mean difference=11.56). And significant differences between Mildcontact (mean=102.13,SD=8.6) and Deep contact (mean=110.24,SD=7.65) with a (Mean difference=8.11). Andsignificant differences between Moderate contact (mean=104.86,SD=9.12) and Deep contact (mean=110.24,SD=7.65) with a (Mean difference =5.38).The Mean differences mentioned before confirm the significance of differences of contact levels at = 0.05 favoringthe type of contact that have higher Mean value. Accordingly, the students having a Deep contact with PWD havethe highest positive attitudes, then the students having Moderate contact, and the students with Mild contact, and atthe end the students Never contact with PWD have the lowest positive attitudes.DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONSThis study's aim is to measure attitudes of undergraduate students toward PWD if they were in general positive ornegative. In addition, this study aims to estimate the effect of the amount of contact with persons with disabilities,gender, academic major, and education level on developing such attitudes. The results of the first question of thisstudy indicated that the general attitudes of undergraduates students at (King Abdul-Aziz University and Al-BahaUniversity) towards PWD were positive based on the means and standard deviations calculated for the entire samplepopulation. Those results were consistent with the study conducted by Stovall & Sedlaceek (1983) confirm thatuniversity students had more favorable attitudes toward PWD, and Tashtoosh & Kazaleh (2010) study revealed thatattitudes of universities students toward disabled persons were generally positive.278

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012The results of the second question indicated that females have significantly more positive attitudes toward PWD thanmale. And those results are consistent with a number of studies that confirm that female university students havemore positive attitudes toward PWD than male students (Livneh, 1982; Gething, 1991; Upton & Harper, 2002). Alsothe results indicated that university students majoring in Special Education have significantly more positive attitudestoward PWD than university students with other academic majors. Those results are consistent with many studiesthat made a comparison between different academic majors in regards to attitudes toward PWD. The closest studywas the one conducted by Semmel & Dickson (1966) found that students with Special Education majors displayedmore favorable attitudes toward disabilities than general education majors. Other studies such as (Hunt & Hunt,2000) also had a consistent results.The results of the third question indicated that university students with advanced years at the university have morepositive attitudes toward PWD than university students with earlier years . Those results are consistent with the studycarried out by Upton & Harper (2002) that found university students with higher level in university indicated morefavorable attitudes toward students with disabilities. Furthermore, it is consistent with Yuker (1994) study that foundthe number of years of education is related to acceptance of persons who are different and positively connected withtheir acceptance and more positive attitudes toward persons who are disabled. And this study is also consistent withLivneh (1982) who concluded that most studies show that educational level is positively correlated with morefavorable attitudes toward people with disabilitiesAlso the results indicated that students having a Deep contact with PWD have the highest positive attitudes incomparison with university students having moderate, mild, and no contact with PWD. This result is well-matchedwith "contact hypothesis" formulated by Allport in the 1950’s, which estimates that contact leads to improvedattitudes toward a particular group. It is also consistent with studies conducted by a number of researchers (Wright,1980; Fiedler & Simpson ,1987; Amsel & Fichten ,1988; Roper ,1990; Narukawa ,1995; Mahoney ,2007). Thosestudies confirm that the contact level variable is considered as the most important variable that have a huge effect onattitudes toward PWD.REFERENCESAlexander, L.A , & Link, B.G. (2003). The impact of contact on stigmatizing attitudes toward people with mentalillness. Journal of Mental Health, 12, 271-289.Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley.Amsel, R., & Fichten, C. S. (1988). Effects on contact on thoughts about interactions with students who have aphysical disability. Journal of Rehabilitation, 54, 61-65.Antonak, R. F. (1981). Prediction of attitudes toward disabled persons: A multivariate analysis. The Journal ofGeneral Psychology, 104, 119-123.Dovidio, J. , Gaertner, S. , & Kawakami, K. (2003). Intergroup contact: The past, present, and the future. GroupProcesses and Intergroup Relations, 6, 5-21.Fiedler, C. , & Simpson, R. (1987). Modifying the attitudes of nonhandicapped high school students towardhandicapped peers. Exceptional Children, 53, 342-349.Gething, L. (1991). Interaction With Disabled Persons Scale: Manual and kit. Sydney, Australia: University ofSydney.Hunt, B., & Hunt, C. S. (2000). Attitudes toward people with disabilities: A comparison of undergraduaterehabilitation and business majors. Rehabilitation Education, 14, 269-283.279

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012Livneh, H. (1982). On the origins of negative attitudes toward people with disabilities. Rehabilitation Literature, 43,338-347.Mahoney, d. (2007). University Students’ Attitudes Toward Individuals With Autism. University of North Carolina,Chapel Hill.Narukawa, Y. (1995). A multidimensional study of public attitudes toward persons with mental retardation:Relationship between attitudes and contact experiences, gender, and knowledge. The Japanese Journal ofSpecial Education, 32, 11-19Pettigrew, T. (1998). Intergroup contact theory. Annual Review of Psychology, 49, 65-85.Reinhardtsen, J. (1980). The effects of a structured informational program on the attitudes of regular high schoolstudents toward the handicapped. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Kansas, Lawrence.Roper, P. (1990). Changing perceptions through contact. Disability, Handicap & Society,53, 243-255.Semmel, M. I., & S. Dickson (1966). Connotative reactions of university students to disability labels. ExceptionalChildren, 32, 443-450.Stovall, C., & Sedlacek, W. E. (1983). Attitudes of male and female university students toward students withdifferent physical disabilities. Journal of University Student Personnel, 24, 325-330.Tashtoosh, R. & Kazaleh, A. (2010) Attitudes of the faculty of Arabic and social studies at the university of Qassimtoward persons with disabilities. Gulf University Journal, Vol.2, Issue.3.Upton, T. D., & Harper, D. C. (2002). Multidimensional disability attitudes and equitable evaluation of educationalaccommodations by university students without disabilities. Journal of Postsecondary Education andDisability, 15, 115-130.Wright, B. A. (1980). Developing constructive ways of life with a disability. Rehabilitation Literature, 41, 274-279.Yuker, H. , & Block, J. (1986). Research with the attitudes towards disabled persons scales (ATDP) 1960-1985.New York: Center for the Study of Attitudes Toward Persons With Disabilities, Hofstra University.Yuker, H. E. (1994). How useful are indirect measures of attitudes toward persons with disabilities? Comments onLivneh and Antonak. Rehabilitation Education, 8, 138-140.280

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012© 2012 Ozean PublicationTEACHERS’ UTILISATION AS CORRELATE OF STUDENTS’ ACADEMICPERFORMANCE IN SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLSIN ONDO STATE, NIGERIAJ. B. AYODELE* and M. A. IGEDepartment of Educational Foundations and Management,Faculty of Education,Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti*E-mail address for correspondence: tolayodele@yahoo.com_____________________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: This paper examines the relationship between utilisation of teachers and students’ academic performancein senior secondary schools in Ondo State of Nigeria. Descriptive survey and ex-post facto designs were used. Twoinventories titled ‘Principals’ Inventory on Human Resource Utilisation’ {PIHRU} and ‘Teachers’ Inventory onHuman Resource Utilisation’’ {TIHRU} were used to collect data. Seventy two senior secondary schools -54 publicand 18 private – were sampled across the state. The senior secondary school certificate results for 2004/2005 –2006/2007 were used to determine students’ academic performance. The data collected were analysed with MultipleRegression Analysis and t-test statistic. It was found that it is the effective utilisation of teachers rather than its mereavailability that impacts students’ academic performance. This finding could be of help to educational administratorin ensuring better teachers’ utilisation. It was recommended that school hours should be supplemented with extracurricularactivities that promote learning of school subjects, while teachers supervised preparatory classes bemade compulsory in public schools like what obtains in private schools. It was also recommended that principalsshould utilise experienced workforce in administrative position like vice principals to nurture the graduating classes,since they are proficient in acts of examination administration.Keywords: Academic performance, educational administrator, principals, secondary schools, supervision, teachersutilization____________________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTIONIn view of the fact that education is considered as investment in most developing countries, the issue of poorperformance in external examinations is a source of concern to all stake holders, both at home and abroad. It is in thiswise that there seems to be a lot of controversies and concern all over the world as to the view that the standard ofeducation is falling. One of the most amenable tools for measuring such standard has been students’ performance in281

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012external examinations. The percentage failure in such examinations appears to be on the increase in recent times.(Nigerians in America, Sept.11, 2011).The failure is assumed to be more pronounced at the secondary school level. This might be because of its consumerproducerstatus among other levels of education. That is, because it consumes the products of primary school andproduces the products for higher education to consume. Since the broad aim of secondary education is to preparestudents for higher education and useful living in the society, the consequence of the aforementioned failure isstudents’ inability to meet admission requirements into higher institution and the state being unable to fill her quotain such admissions.Results of May/June 2011 NECO examinations revealed that only 25% of the candidates that sat for theexaminations scored credit in English Language and Mathematics, two subjects critical for those with the intent ofadvancing their education in any Nigerian university. According to reports, only 263,777 (or 22.16%) of the1,156,561 candidates that sat for English Language obtained credit level pass, while 295,961 (or 24.86%) of the1,190,511 candidates who sat for Mathematics passed at credit level, despite the relevance of the two subjects inobtaining admission to tertiary institutions. The core science subjects namely Biology, Physics and Chemistry werealso not spared the embarrassment of poor performance. The result did not actually come as a surprise. In 2010, outof the 1,113,177 candidates that sat for the NECO examinations, 870,305 (or 79%) failed to obtain credit passes inEnglish, while only 285,146 (or 24.9%) passed with distinction or credit in Mathematics. The situation was worse in2009 where 126,500 (or 10.53%) of the 1,184,907 candidates passed five subjects, including English andMathematics. (Sunday Punch. Oct. 9, 2011, P. 13).Deteriorating academic performance in Ondo state, which is considered to be one of the most literate states of thefederation, presents an object of concern and interest. At its creation in 1976, there are only 99 secondary schools. Inview of political awareness and the fact that the establishment of the secondary school in a community upgrades thestatus of the community, there was an upsurge in the number of the secondary schools by1976 when the number roseto 251. (Adeyemi, 2004).The National Policy on Education puts Student-Teacher ratio at the secondary school level at 40:1. The Ondo stateGovernment also puts its standard class at 40 students per class. In order to enhance effective utilisation and betterstudents’ academic performance, the state government puts its standard S-T ratio at one and half teachers per class.This makes it a maximum of 27:1. Yet, the performance still seems to be unsatisfactory to stakeholders. Althoughsubsequent governments, most especially during the democratic dispensations, tried to put many physicalinfrastructures in place, parents and other stakeholders in education seem to be disturbed with the downward trendconsidering the academic/professional qualification and the calibers of teachers in the public schools. They allegedthat teachers’ output in term of students’ academic performances do not justify their status.The impact of non-state providers of education’s re-entrance to the field of secondary education seems too importantto be over looked. While these private schools are relatively costlier than public schools, parents seem to prefer themto free public schools for various reasons. Among these are brilliant academic performances of their students inexternal examination like WASSCE and NECO. Their excellent performances in sporting and cultural activities atboth the local and state levels also lend credence to the conscious effort of the private owners to develop thestudents’ psychomotor and affective domains. Their corporate dressing and uninterrupted English speaking ability,that had become their fashion and way of life overtime, is attested to by all and sundry.Parents seem to believe that it is the supervised utilisation of the teachers in those private schools that are spurringthe students to make the aforementioned progress. They therefore rigorously pursue these attributes in defiance of thefree education policy of the government-owned schools. Aside from extraneous factor like examination malpracticesabout which many private schools are accused, public opinion adjudges their products as been better than publicschools’. They averred that the product of private school has higher standard in all the three domains of knowledge.Hence, the incidence of poor performance appears to be more predominant in public schools than in the privates.Egungun (1992), Obayan (2003), Iyamu (2005) and Darling-Hammond (2007) asserted that the quality of aneducational system depends on the quality of the teachers and that qualitative education is a function of quality andquantity of teaching personnel within the system. Levacic (1995), Adesola (2005), Ahievbolaria (2005) andAkinfolarin (2008) were unanimous in emphasizing that effective utilisation of teachers is more important than itsmere provision and that effectively utilised human resources would in turn utilise other resources of education toenhance better students’ academic performance. While Olulola (2000) did not discover any difference in the282

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012performance of students whether in private or public schools, Dyikuk & Zwakshir (2005) were of the opinion thatprivate schools’ students perform better than public schools’.Statement of the ProblemThe public, the Ministry of Education and other stakeholders in education are expressing serious concern about theconsistency of the poor performance of secondary school students in Ondo State. Increase in population and thegovernment’s free education programs make people want to take advantage of the education provided. Provision ofboth professionally qualified and non qualified teachers by government and non state providers of education alsoappear not to ameliorate the problem of declining performances. The use into which the available teachers are putseems to be a major impetus or facilitator of high or low students‘ academic performance. The public is apt at puttingthe blame on teachers’ utilisation rather than provision of qualified teachers. They are at the same time confused onwhy students of schools with less qualified teachers are doing better in terms of performances.Research QuestionsIn view of the problem of the study, the following research questions have been raised:1. Do teachers‘ utilisation determinants contribute to variation in student’s academic performance?2. Is there any difference between the academic performance of students in public and private secondaryschools?Research HypothesesThe following research hypotheses were generated in the study1. Teachers’ utilisation determinants do not significantly contribute to variation in students’ academicperformance.2. There is no significant difference between the academic performance of students in public and privatesecondary schools.Research MethodThis study made use of descriptive survey and the ex-post facto designs. The population of this study consisted of allthe principals, teachers and SSS III students of the 281 public and 94 registered private senior secondary schools, inOndo State, as at 2004/2005, 2005/2006 and 2006/2007 academic sessions. The sample for the study consisted 54principals of public senior secondary schools, 18 principals of private senior secondary schools, and teachers of eightselected subjects and SSS III students in those schools for the years under review. Multistage stratified randomsampling technique was employed to select the subjects. Two inventories titled ‘Principals’ Inventories on HumanResources Utilisation’ (PIHRU) and ‘Teachers’ Inventories on Human Resource Utilisation’ (TIHRU) were used incollecting data. In order to ascertain the face and content validities of the instruments, experts in EducationalManagement and other lecturers were consulted to make appraisal of the instrument and their comments wereincorporated before the instruments were administered. Data collected were analysed using multiple regressionanalysis and t-test statistic. All the two hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance.283

Utilisation DeterminantsRegression Co-efficientS E BBeta% ContributionTEuropean Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012RESULTSHypothesis I: Teachers’ utilisation determinants do not contribute significantly to students’ academicperformance.Table I: Contribution of Teachers’ utilisation determinants to students’ Academic performanceTime utilizedon academicworkload0.44 0.22 .40 40 2.02Time utilisedon extracurricularwork load5.92 0.39 .33 33 0.16Relevance 0.85 0.02 .02 11 0.27Time utilisedonAdministrationworkloadTeachersqualification4.16 0.01 .05 5 0.173.62 0.01 .07 7 0.34TeachersExperience6.90 0.06 .04 4 0.19Constant 2.04 1.28 1.61Multiple R=0.547Adjusted R sq = 0.311F ratio =2.411 F tab =2.37Table 1 shows that R being (0.547), and positive means that there exist an average relationship and predictabilitybetween students’ academic performance and teachers’ utilisation. R 2 of (0.311) shows that teachers utilisation can284

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012adequately account for 31% of variation in academic performance among the various resources of education. F ratioof 2.411 is higher than F table of 2.37 showing a significant multiple relationships between all the utilisationdeterminants and students’ academic performance. The table therefore shows that the independent variable –teachers’ utilisation – provides significant explanation of the variation in the dependent variable, which is students’academic performance. Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected.Hypothesis 2: There is no significant difference between the performance of students in public and private schools.Table 2: Difference between the Academic Performance of Students in Public and Private schoolsGrGroups N Mean SD DF t-cal t-tablePublic 54 1.30 0.19Private 18 1.71 0.06 70 9.64* 2.00*p

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012CONCLUSIONBased on the finding of this study, it was deduced that ownership supervision has significant and relative impart onthe performance of students of schools of non-state providers of education. It also became evident from the studythat it is the effective utillisation of human resource rather than its mere provision that has positive impact onstudents’ academic performance.RECOMMENDATIONIt is therefore recommended that public schools principals should ensure that the available teachers are maximallyutilised through strict supervision by form, subject and departmental heads. Interested experienced workforce inadministrative positions like vice principals could be made to nurture the graduating classes. Teachers’ supervisedpreparatory classes should be made compulsory in public schools like it is obtained in most of the private schoolsconsidering the fact that reading culture is at lowest ebb nowadays and domestic activities contending for the time ofstudent at home are enormous. School hours should be supplemented with extra-curricular activities that promotelearning of schools subjects and should be adequately supervised by teachers.REFERENCESAdesola, A. A. (2005) Resources provision and utilisation, Mathematics ability and learning Environment asprediction of learning Outcomes in undergraduate practical Geography. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis,University of Ibadan, Ibadan.Adeyemi, T. O. (2004). The Education Industry in Ondo State, Nigeria. : An Evaluation. Ado-Ekiti: AdedayoPrinting Nig. Ltd.Ahievboloria, J. E. V. (2005). A Comparative Study of Manpower and Physical facilities in Tertiary Institutions inDelta State. Unpublished M. Ed Dissertation, Delta State University, Abraka.Akinfolarin, C. A. (2008). Resource Utilisation in Vocational and Technical Education in Colleges of Education,South West Nigeria. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Ado-Ekiti.Darling-Hammond, L. (2000) Teachers’ Quality and Students’ Achievement. A review of State Policy Evidence.Educational Analysis Archives, 8(1); pageDyikuk, J. G. and Zuakchir, L. (2005). A Comparative Study of Private/ Public Local Government Area of PlateauState. Paper Presented at the 29 th Annual Conference of Nigerian Association of Educational Administrationand Planning, held at the University of Calabar, Nigeria.Egungun, N. V. (1992) Human Resoures Development and Utilisation in Nigeria Private Enterprices. In Yahaya,A. D and Akinyele A. (Eds) Human Resources Development and Utilisation Policies and Issues. Badagry:Administrative Staff College of Nigeria.Iyamu, E. O. S. (2003) Parents and Teachers Perception of Selection as a factor of quality in the curriculumprocess in Nigeria. International Educational Journal. 6(1); 96-103.286

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012Levaic, R. (1995) Linking Resources to Learning Outcomes in Coleman. M. and L. Anderson (eds) ManagingFinance in Education. London. Siege Publication.Obayan, P.A. (2003). Quality Education of Basic Education. A Comparative Model, Nigeria Journal ofEducational Research and Evaluation. 1(4); 87-89.Olulola, S. K. (2000) Relationship between Educational Facilities and Academic Performance of Students inAnambra State. Journal of Nigeria Educational Research in Academic Leadership. 8(1); 33-38.Sunday Punch (2011 Oct., 9) Arbitrary Trend of Mass Failure in NECO Exams, pg 13Nigerians in America (2011 Sept.,11) Exam failure, Education Minister and dearth of teachers.wwwnigeriainamerica.com/…/ /Failure…Nig/Page1Retrived on15/12/2011.287

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012© 2012 Ozean PublicationTO DETERMINE STRESS LEVEL OF LOOSING FOOTBALL TEAMS BEFOREAND AFTER COMPETITIONA.Saim SARI*, Yagmur AKKOYUNLU**, Mehmet ACET**, Harun KOC**** Physical Education and Sports Teacher- Kutahya** University Of Dumlupınar Physical Edication and Sports –Kutahya***University Of Gazi Physical Edication and Sports –AnkaraE-mail address for correspondence: yagmur0906@gmail.com__________________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: The aim of this study is to determine stress level of loosing football teams before and aftercompetition.166 active football players of 12 amateur football teams in Kutahya province participated to thisstudy. The participants ages were between 20-25.The research was done in 2009 during second term seasonmatches.78 research group questions were prepared under the supervision of consultant and applied to 15sportsmen.The data obtained from research was eliminated with the help of factor analysis and reliabilityanalysis.The questionnaire ınventory was completed with the validity and reliability approved 28questions.After giving final shape to the questions of research groups a description text and a shortinformational survey form was added and questionnaire was completed.As a result; the participants stated thatthey follow cultural activities,they don’t have regular family life,they like night life and pubs,they don’t takealcohol regularly,ant they like using slangs.Generally life satisfaction has no effect on sportsmen thought beforeand after competetion.Most of the participants stated that football isn’t seen as a life style,as an obligation,football has a unifying function,there is no direct relationship between football and individual success,andenough care is given to football in our country.The majority of participants stated that they have a nervousmood, it is hard to accept the defeat, they give harm to environment,and they have no tolerance to winningteam.The answers given by sportsmen before and after competition wasn’t found meaningful.(P>0.005).Loosinga competition has no effect on sportsmen stress level.The score of the match has no effect on sportsmen stresslevel.The results in each case ( before-after competition) were the same and it shows that a defeat doesn’t effectthe general stress level of sportsmen.Key words: Football, stres, defeat__________________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTIONIn resent years, academic studies showed that sports was not only a game but also a life style, a socialphenomenon and a need such as eating, drinking. Research also indicated social and individual benefits of sports289

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012activities and contributed the recognition of scientific branch which was necessary for whole society. Thisprestigious and respected atmosphere allowed many researches to be done on effects on individuals. Theaseareas are appear to be important issues that affect individuals such as violance, aggression, anxiety (Aysan, F.1988).The most important of all is stress. Stress seems to trigger productivity and ability in society, but actually it hasnegative psychological effects on individual and it can even result with death (Altungul, O. 2006 , Avsaroglu S.,Tasgın O. 2011). Stress isn’t easy to identify so a description is more preffered and it is one of the mostcomplicated concept. There are many stress definition. The term stress has long been widely used but therewasn’t one and enough definition. Depending on that stress was used as a meaning of resistance againstdeterioration and distortion of form due to person and object power (Baltas, A., & Baltas, Z. 2000). The conceptwas first used by Dr. Hans Selve, Canadian physiology scholar and defined it as “ organisms non-specific(common) reaction to all kinds of change .”According to the definition of Selye both happiness and pain can cause stress. Human body in general does notdistinguish pain and happiness. Therefore, both cause similar stress reaction in body (Allen, R. 1983). Stressgives harm to physical energies of athletes, to their gains and victories, pleasure and entertainment (Allen, R.1983). This reflects itself in training (mental, emotional, social, physical exhaustion) (Altungul, O.2006). Stressis an inevitable reality of everyday life (Avsaroglu, S. 2007). Any factors can be source of stress in thesurrounding environment (Kara, D. 2009). Then, individual must gain skills to struggle with stress factor anddeveloper compliance (Ozdevecioglu, M., Yalcın Y. 2010).Coping with stress is necessary to protect psychological and physical health and to live a healthy, productive life.The purpose in the process of coping with stress is not to escape from it but an instinct and an attempt to protectthe organism against the risks. Stress sources effect on individual stress life cannot be denied. However, copingskills are related to individual’s multi dimensional level and cognitive processes (Ethel R, 1994).The presence of some symptoms and signs as means of emotional and behavioral are inevitable for the peoplewho are under stress. These symptoms affect people psychologically. The most important psychological effectsof stress are anxiety, depression and aggression (Dagdeviren, I. 2009).Against the physiological consequences posed by stress, organism tries to cope with stress showing someemotional reactions. Emotions interpreted as a loss or change of stimulants in the state of equilibrum areespecially sadness or depression.These feelings cause deterioration of emotional balance, so they are also source of stress. As a result of stress,the most noticable psychological disturbances of individuals are anxiety, depression, insomnia and psychologicalfatique.According to Sahin stress reaction is a neutral energy. This energy is used against a resistance to a changingsituation or to change the existing reaction (Parmaksız, İ. 2011). However, when the existing stress situationbecomes constant, it results with anxiety, depression, anger..etc. In other words, anxiety, depression,somatization and such psychopatologic situations are types of chronic stress (Akman, S. 2004).In sports, especially in football the main goal is to beat, so level of stress existence in football is an expectedsituation (Ceylan, M. 2000). According to Ethel “ it is a power or a resistance in substanse itself”. According tothis, substance reacts to the external power applied to itself by its own resistance (Dagdeviren, İ. 2009,Karabulut, E. 2007).In this sense, it can be said that the maximum stress is on the players of loosing team. Today, increasing interestin football inevitably has brought fanaticizm with it (Eroglu, F. 2000). Increase in the level of fanaticizm andincrease in the number of fanatics cause great stress on players, referees, and supporters.Psychological help after match is more important than psychological help needed before match (Sahin, N.H.1994). A time difference of one hundredth of a second or a momentary mistakes determines the score of acompetition. The result is lost championships, medals, material gains and moral awards. Especially it may have abig impact on psychologially unstable young athletes. Therefore, after each competition, the discussion for thereasons of failure or success can be usefull for the coaches and players. If necessary a sports psychologist canparticipate to the discussions. Besides, athlethes are more open and tolerant to criticizm after success (BaserE.1998, Karabulut, E. 2007). Athletes’ emotional, cognitive and physiological structures should be taken intoconsideration and they should be directed to sports activities (Ceylan, M. 2005). In this study the aim is tomeasure stress level of footballers of loosing team before and after match.290

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012METHODSThe basic method of research consists of survey application method’s basic components of data collectionmethod in the social sciences. 166 active football players of 12 amateur football teams in Kutahya provinceparticipated to this study. Within this research, a total of 210 questionnaire was distributed, 166 of them returned.78 research group questions were prepared under supervision and applied to 15 athletes, obtained datas wereeliminated with the help of factor analysis and reliability analysis, a questionnaire inventory was created with 21validity and reliability approved questions. Before the match, a the questionnaire was applied to both teamsathletes and the forms were filled out. After the match just the athletes of loosing team were asked to completean inventory of questionnaire. Questionnaire was applied to both team before the match because of not knowingthe loosing team, but after the match the questionnaires of the winning team’s athletes were excluded fromevaluation. For each of the research premises, factor analysis was used at 0.040 level, and 4 factor group wasidentified. For reliability of these factor groups Cronbach Alpha coefficient was examined.RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONTable 1: Participants Age DistributionAge Frequency Percentage Valid Percent Cumulatıve Total20-25 166 100,0 100,0 100,0When age distribution of participants are examined, we can see that all of participants are between 20-25 agerange.Table 2: Participants Education DistributionEducation Frequency Percentage Valid Percent Cumulatıve TotalPrimary 21 12,7 12,7 12,7High School 140 84,3 84,3 97,0Collage 5 3,0 3,0 100,0Total 166 100,0 100,0The vast majority of participants is seen as high school graduate (%84,3- 140 people). In addition, %12,7 ofparticipants (21 people) are primary school graduates, %3 of participants (5 people) have Bachelor degree.All participants stated their education status.291

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012Table 3: Distribution of Paricipants According to Their Interest PeriodPeriod of Interest Frequency Percentage Valid Percent Cumulatıve TotalValid 1-3 years 81 48,8 50,6 50,63-5 years 56 33,7 35,0 85,65-8years 17 10,2 10,6 96,38 years and over 6 3,6 3,8 100,0Total 160 96,4 100,0Missing System 6 3,6Total 166 100,0Off all participants %48,8 (81 people) “1-3 years” ; %33,7 (56 people) “3-5 years” ; %10,2 (17 people) “5-8years” and %3,6 (6 people) “8 years and over” have experience. 6(%3,6) participants did not answer thisquestion.Group BeforematchAfterMatchTable 4: Getting Angry Easily and Using SlangsAgree Partially Agree No Idea Agrees5CompletelyAgreeTotalN 4 11 6 40 20 81% 4,9% 13,6% 7,4% 49,4% 24,7% 100,0%N 3 11 7 42 22 85% 3,5% 12,9% 8,2% 49,4% 25,9% 100,0%Total N 7 22 13 82 42 166% 4,2% 13,3% 7,8% 49,4% 25,3% 100,0%In general Participants reported that they loved using slangs. Before Match % 49,4 participants responded it asAgree, after match it remained the same % 49,4. According to the survey, differences between responses givenby players before and after match was not statistically significant (p>0.05).Table 5: Seeing Football as a Lifestyles6Disagree Partially agree No Idea Agree TotalGroup Before Match N 18 37 16 10 81% 22,2% 45,7% 19,8% 12,3% 100,0%After Match N 15 41 18 11 85% 17,6% 48,2% 21,2% 12,9% 100,0%Total N 33 78 34 21 166% 19,9% 47,0% 20,5% 12,7% 100,0%292

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012The majority of participants indicated that they did not see football as a complete way of life. Before matchpartially agree response was given by %45,7, after match it was %48,2. According to the survey, differencesbetween responses given by players before and after match was not statistically significant (p>0.05).Table 6: General MoodNo Ideas11AgreeCompletelyAgreeGroup Before match N 25 25 31 81Total% 30,9% 30,9% 38,3% 100,0%After Match N 29 27 29 85% 34,1% 31,8% 34,1% 100,0%Total N 54 52 60 166% 32,5% 31,3% 36,1% 100,0%Before match %38,3 participants reported it as completely agree , but after match it became %34,1.Majority of participants stated that they they were quick- tempered . According to the survey,differencesbetween responses given by players before and after match was not statistically significant (p>0.05).Group BeforematchTable 7: The Defeat Absorptions12Partially Agree No Idea Agree Completely AgreeTotalN 3 17 26 35 81% 3,7% 21,0% 32,1% 43,2% 100,0%After Match N 4 19 25 37 85% 4,7% 22,4% 29,4% 43,5% 100,0%Total N 7 36 51 72 166% 4,2% 21,7% 30,7% 43,4% 100,0%Before match %43,2 was completely agree, after match it became %43,5.Majority of participants indicated that itis hard to accept the defeat absorption. According to the survey, differences between responses given by playersbefore and after match was not statistically significant (p>0.05).293

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012Group BeforematchTable 8: Getting Nervous and Harms13Partially Agree No Idea Agree Completely AgreeTotalN 3 15 37 26 81% 3,7% 18,5% 45,7% 32,1% 100,0%After Match N 4 16 42 23 85% 4,7% 18,8% 49,4% 27,1% 100,0%Total N 7 31 79 49 166% 4,2% 18,7% 47,6% 29,5% 100,0%Before match %45,7 responded it as agree, after match it became % 49,4. Majority of participants indicated thatthey give harm to the environment when they get nervous. According to the survey, differences betweenresponses given by players before and after match was not statistically significant (p>0.05).Table 9: Tolerating the enthusiasm and the joy of winning teamNo Ideas14AgreeCompletelyAgreeGroup Before match N 12 27 42 81Total% 14,8% 33,3% 51,9% 100,0%After Match N 16 30 39 85% 18,8% 35,3% 45,9% 100,0%Total N 28 57 81 166% 16,9% 34,3% 48,8% 100,0%Before match %45,7 responded it as agree, after match it became % 49,4. Majority of participants indicated thatthey give harm to the environment when they get nervous. According to the survey, differences betweenresponses given by players before and after match was not statistically significant (p>0.05).Tablo 10: Multiplicity of stress sources in lifes15Partially Agree No Idea Agree Completely AgreeTotalGroup Before match N 3 21 25 32 81% 3,7% 25,9% 30,9% 39,5% 100,0%After Match N 4 26 30 25 85% 4,7% 30,6% 35,3% 29,4% 100,0%Total N 7 47 55 57 166% 4,2% 28,3% 33,1% 34,3% 100,0%294

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012Before match %39,5 responded it as partially agree, after match it became %29,5. Majority of participantsindicated that there are many stress sources around them. According to the survey, differences betweenresponses given by players before and after match was not statistically significant (p>0.05).Table 11: Necessity of winning the matchs16PartiallyAgreeAgreeCompletelyAgreeGroup Before match N 55 15 11 81Total% 67,9% 18,5% 13,6% 100,0%After Match N 66 12 7 85% 77,6% 14,1% 8,2% 100,0%Total N 121 27 18 166% 72,9% 16,3% 10,8% 100,0%Before match %67,9 responded it as partially agree, after match it became %77,6. Majority of participantsindicated that their team’s defeat is an expected situation after match. According to the survey, differencesbetween responses given by players before and after match was statistically significant (p

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012Table13: Opinions in the outcome of the competitions21Group BeforematchNDisagree Partially Agree Agree Completely AgreeTotal3 13 28 34 78% 3,8% 16,7% 35,9% 43,6% 100,0%After Match N 3 16 29 33 81% 3,7% 19,8% 35,8% 40,7% 100,0%Total N 6 29 57 67 159% 3,8% 18,2% 35,8% 42,1% 100,0%According to the table, before match %43,6 responded it as completely agree, after match it became %40,7.Majority of participants indicated that match scores are not fair. According to the survey, differences betweenresponses given by players before and after match was statistically significant (p0.05).Participants’ anger mood was thought to have an effect on stress after competition. Majority of participantsstated defeat as a hard condition to be accepted. According to the survey, differences between responses given byplayers before and after match was not statistically significant (p>0.05). According to the participants, bothfailure and defeat can be the reason of stress. Most of the participants stated that they gave harm to theenvironment when they were nervous. According to the survey, differences between responses given by playersbefore and after match was not statistically significant (p>0.05). This event which is a common characteristic ofpeople in our country may seen as source of stress, and there are number of athletes who say that giving harm tothe environment makes them feel good.Most of the participants stated that they had no tolerance to winning team. According to the survey, differencesbetween responses given by players before and after match was not statistically significant (p>0.05).296

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012Most of the participants stated that there were many stress sources around them. Human is a biological,psychological and a social being. For this reason the stres sources can be divided into three group as physical,psychological, and social. It is parallel to Dagdeviren’s findings (Ethel R, 1994).According to the survey, differences between responses given by players before and after match was notstatistically significant (p>0.05).Most of the participants stated that they did not trust in referee. According to the survey, differences betweenresponses given by players before and after match was statistically significant (p

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012Eroglu, F. (2000). Behavioral Sciences. İstanbul: Beta Publishing.Ethel R, (1994). Positive Dialogue with Ourselves to Cope with Stress. Coping with Stress, TurkishPsychologists Association Publications, Trans. N.H Sahin, Ankara, pp, 2.Ozdevecioglu, M., Yalcın Y. (2010). Impact on Satisfaction Levels of Sports Athlete Stress and Aggression,Nigde University, Physical Education and Sport Science Journal Volume 4, Number 1, Nigde, 63-76.Parmaksız, I. (2011). Teacher Candidates’ Attitudes of Self- Esteem and Stress Analysis by level of Optimism.Unpublished Master Thesis, Selcuk University, Institute of Education Sciences.Sahin, N. H. (1994). Stressful and Low Stressful Life Styles A positive Approach to Cope with Stress. Ankara,Turkish Psychologists Association Publications 2.Tutar, H, (2000). Crisis and Stress Management, Hayat Publications Management Series:14 Istanbul.Kara, D. (2009). Factors Causing Stress to Education Life and Examination of Students Behaviours to Copewith Stress according to their Family Features. Selcuk University Social Sciences Institute Journal, (22),255-263.Karabulut, E. (2007). Examining Active Athletes’ Relationship Psychological Sytmptoms and Reaction Timesaccording to Types of Variables, Ataturk University Institute of Health Sciences, Departments of SportsHealth Sciences, Master Thesis, Erzurum, pp, 37.Yılmaz, O. (2006). Effect of Stress on Performance, A research on 40. Infantry Educational RegimentCommand Leadership Personnel, Master Thesis, Suleyman Demirel University School of Socialsciences Department of Business Administration.298

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012© 2012 Ozean PublicationFEDERAL ALLOCATION AND ITS UTILIZATION IN THE SCIENCELABORATORIES, UNIVERSITY OF BENIN, EDO STATE, NIGERIA, 1992/93 TO1996/97 SESSIONSRoseline O. OsagieDepartment of Educational Studies and ManagementFaculty of Education, University of Benin, Benin City, Edo State, NIGERIAE-mail address for correspondence: rosarugue@yahoo.co.uk_____________________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: This study investigated the financial resources allocated to the University of Benin by the FederalGovernment and the utilization of such funds in the science laboratories between 1992/93 to 1996/97 academicsessions. The Dean and the Heads of the Departments of Physics, Chemistry, Zoology and Botany in the Faculty ofScience responded to the questionnaire in the Financial Allocation and Utilization Instrument (FAUI) developed tocollect appropriate data to answer the questions raised in the study. The research questions determined theapplication of the National University Commission (NUC) budget parameters in terms of students’ enrolment,recurrent revenue allocated to the University of Benin and the disbursement of such funds to the sciencelaboratories. The results of the study indicated that the Federal Government did not provide sufficient allocation tomeet the university’s financial requirements. Consequently, the science laboratories were grossly underfunded. Thisresulted in the lack of laboratory equipment, overcrowding of students during laboratory work, students workedunder non-conducive laboratory environment.Keyword: Federal allocation, Utilization, Science laboratories, University of Benin, Nigeria.__________________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTIONEducation is a fundamental building block of human development and is one of the strongest instruments forreducing poverty, improving health, gender equality, peace and stability in a country ( Elizabeth, 2011). The rapideconomic development which is consequent upon the scientific development in the twentieth century is attributedmainly to research and teaching activities at the university level. Due to the positive contribution of universityeducation, most nations devote a large proportion of their financial resources to strengthening research anddevelopment and opening up new areas which were not known in the nineteenth century (Bickel, 1975). Suchdisciplines as Biomedical Engineering, Biomedical Physics, Biotechnology, Computer Science, Genetics299

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012Engineering and others have made significant contributions to the solution of many problems. Education has led tothe productivity of the workforce, skilled manpower and entrepreneurs of any nation. Science and the technologies ithas spawned form the basis of modern living such as the houses people in, food production has increased in qualityand quantity as more research techniques were developed, the cars that people drive to the electronic gadgets thatpeople use to remain informed and entertained. The history of developed countries around the world has confirmedthat science; technology and innovation remain the platform that drives the national development in all spheres,including energy, agriculture, transportation, environment, health and education.Adam Smith in his wealth of nations as reported by Gabraith (1977) was categorical that the wealth of a nation wasits human capital. Training the workers in mass production will make the nation wealthy. From this viewpoint, themajor source of national wealth is the human factor. Consequently, developed and developing countries havefocused their attention on providing education especially at the university stage to transform human capital. Fletcher(1968) remarked that national progress is basically the result of human effort and that it takes highly educatedindividuals to mobilize capital to exploit natural resources and to create markets. This is perhaps one of the reasonsuniversity education was important to Nigeria, to provide high level manpower for national development ( Fafunwa,1974 and Aghenta, 1993 ).Today, the world is dominated by science and technology. Moreover, the impact of technology on society, alreadyenormous will certainly continue to increase. In order to cope with the problems of a highly technical world, it isnecessary to appreciate some of the basic scientific ideas that are the foundation stones upon which moderntechnology is built. Lacking this understanding, Nigeria would find it increasingly difficult to contribute effectivelyto the complex decisions that affect the lives of its citizens. If Nigeria is to cope with global competiveness,acquisition of new knowledge through research is inevitable as the advancement of its economy is directly linked tothe performance of its industries. This performance is a function of advancement in science and technology whichcannot be achieved without some research. A critical factor for acquiring knowledge through research is researchcapacity, specifically in this context, funding. If other factors such as human resources and institutional facilities areavailable, without financial support, research cannot be pursued (Geuna, 1999). Thus, education requires financingboth public and private investments and achieving learning for all requires increasing the effectiveness of alleducation spending (Reifuman, 1970). Better knowledge and evidence as this study provides are the levers thatmake this fact possible and enable the development of the needs of the community.The initiation into scientific enterprise takes root in the undergraduate science laboratories. For it is here thatstudents begin to acquire the skills, inculcate the culture of scientific curiosity and knowledge creation throughresearch. It is only through the use of subterfuge such as applying for money for work already done that innovativeresearch can be freely pursued (Brener, 1998). It is therefore pertinent to investigate the funds available to thescience laboratories at the University of Benin. For the science laboratory is certainly the beacon of futuredevelopment.FINANCIAL ALLOCATION MODELThe concept of financial allocation is based on the utility of tertiary institutions to provide certain weighted servicesin the future ( Ehiametalor, 2000). The assumption is that the government invests money in tertiary educationbecause of the potential gains to the government either as inputs, the human resources, or as taxes for furtherinvestment in development (Ehiametalor, 1998). The concept entails that the university is a production enterprisewhich utilizes its funds in relation to its priority. The input which is the revenue comes into the system and thesystem feeds it into its production, the departments, and the end result is the output, the students. The FederalGovernment employs the national Universities Commission (NUC) to allocate funds to the universities.By the provision setting up the NUC, its responsibility to assess the needs of the universities and make those needsavailable to the Ministry of Education. The funds for such needs are channeled through it to the universities.However, the allocation of funds by the NUC to the universities is based on the level of development of theuniversity production. The function of the university is mainly teaching, research and community service. The300

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012academic staff performs the production function because the responsibilities are so embracing, tasking andmultifarious.So, there is the need for staff support. The support staff performs several functions which are administrative,technical and service. However, academic production function cannot take place in the absence of facilities.Therefore, classrooms, laboratories, workshops and offices are important to facilitate the work of the academic staff.The preceding assertion is supported by the NUC which places emphasis on the students, staff (both academic andnon-academic), facilities for learning and other variables that attest to the allocation of funds and utilization of suchfunds (NUC, 1998).Utilization as an internal operational input transforms educational inputs, students through the production processinto educational outputs. Each university uses academic and administrative staff as well as facilities which arepurchased at a cost to accomplish the goals of its academic plans. Also, there are inputs of books, laboratoryequipment, classrooms, instructional materials, library facilities and others. The management and the utilization ofthese inputs would ensure that academic plans are implemented effectively. The allocation and utilization ofresources every year are aimed at producing graduates. The successful implementation of the academic objectives ofany university is therefore dependent on the resources available. According to Aghenta (1993), the successfulperformance of the educational process rests on the sufficient provision of financial resources, physical items,teaching and non-teaching staff and students. It also rests on adequate utilization through well outlined aims andprinciples, effective management, structure and time schedule and effective quality control (Aghenta, 1993).STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEMThe uses of the applications of science and its technology are legion. For example, society is so dependent on thegeneration of electricity which is used to power CD, DVD, computers, blenders in the kitchen and so many otherdevices that today electric power is the basis of modern civilization. These scientific breakthroughs and their myriadbenefits to society evolved from science laboratories in developed countries. If Nigeria aspires to belong to theleague of industrial and developed nations, then it must be prepared to give priority to the science laboratories in itsuniversities by adequately funding them. The aim of this study, therefore, is to find out the total revenue that wasallocated by the Federal Government to the University of Benin and how the allocations were utilized to fund thescience laboratories between 1992 and 1997.RESEARCH QUESTIONSIn order to accomplish the purpose of this study, specific questions were raised as follows:1 What was the trend of student enrolment in the faculties at the University of Benin from1992/93 to 1996/97 ?,2 What was the student enrolment in science laboratories from 1992/93 to 1996/97?3 What percentage of the total recurrent revenue budget was allocated to the University ofBenin in relation to its requests between 1992 and 1997?4 What percentage of the Federal Government’s allocation was utilized for sciencelaboratories?The study highlighted the extent to which the University of Benin was provided withfinancial resources essential for the implementation of its set objectives. It also highlighted how it utilized suchresources to fund the laboratories in the Faculty of Science.301

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDYFrom the available literature there seems to be little research on financial allocation and utilization in the universitysystem in Nigeria. Therefore, this study will provide administrators interested in educational financing an insightinto the financial problems of the university system, especially within the period studied. The answers to theallocation and utilization problems of the study are practical. As a result, the university administrators will be able toproperly disburse the allocated funds to areas of important needs and implement the NUC established guidelines. AWorld Bank (1995) study indicated that misallocation of resources contributed to low quality education in sub-Saharan Africa. With regards to educational finance management, this study will provide useful information whichwill assist educational planners and administrators in finding a more rational means of disbursing allocated funds.The findings of this study may also aid the university administrators to assess their budget performanceMETHODOLOGYThe study was an ex-post facto research. The data for the research were retrieved from various records. The targetpopulations for the study were the Dean and the Heads of the Departments of Physics, Chemistry, Zoology andBotany in the Faculty of Science. The universe also included those personnel whose functions directly or indirectlysupported the academic production function of the science laboratories. A comparative analysis of the financialallocation and its disbursement to the science laboratories at the University of Benin was undertaken. Sampling wasnot necessary because there was the need to get the response of each unit Head. There was disbursement of funds toeach unit Head for the science laboratories and the expenditure of such funds was within the authority of officeholders.INSTRUMENTATIONThe Financial Allocation and Utilization Instrument (FAUI) were developed to collect appropriate data to answerthe questions raised in the study.DATA COLLECTIONThe researcher met with the Dean and the Heads of the Departments of Physics, Chemistry, Zoology and Botany,explained the nature and purpose of the study, answered questions regarding the questionnaire and assured them ofthe confidentiality and voluntary nature of the study.DATA ANALYSISDue to the nature of the study, the data were analyzed using descriptive statistics including mean, percentages, ratiosand frequency distributions. The study used the Faculty of Science as its population.302

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012RESULTSResults Pertaining to Question 1What was the trend of student enrolment in the University of Benin, 1992/93 to 1996/97?Table 1 presents the total student enrolment at the University of Benin from 1992/93 to 1996/97 academic sessions.The table shows that enrolment increased over the years. Within a span of five years student enrolment rose from13,737 to 19,031, an increase of 28 per cent. In the 1994/95 session, the enrolment figures remained the samebecause of the Academic Staff University Union (ASUU) strike. However, there was a remarkable increase in theenrolment figure in the 1995/96 with an enrolment of 17, 872.Table 1: Total Full Time Students Enrolment by Faculty 1992/93 – 1996/97Faculty 1992/93 1993/94 1994/95 1995/96 1996/97Agriculture 489 572 572 647 596Arts 1,347 1,347 1,347 1,564 1,380Dentistry 296 307 307 391 310Education 2,161 1,904 1,904 2,079 2,427Engineering 1,410 1,809 1,809 2,235 2,733Law 986 1,012 1,012 1,260 1,346Pharmacy 503 642 642 700 775Medicine 1,167 1,338 1,338 1,471 1,586Science 2,380 2,751 2,751 3,637 4,237Social Science 2,757 2,913 2,913 3,765 3,484INSTITUTESChild Health 6 8 8 10 10Education NA 21 21 42 621Public Admin. 57 85 85 71 504Total 13,737 14,709 14,709 17,872 19,033Source: Statistical Digest, Academic Planning Division 1992-97Note: Sub-degree figures were not includedResults Pertaining to Question 2.What was the Student Enrolment in the First year Science labs?303

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012Table 2: Student Enrolment in First Year Science LabsYearEnrolment1992/93 21021993/94 23311994/95 23311995/96 24671996/97 3032Source: Dean’s Office. Faculty of Science 1992-1997.Table 2 shows the steady increase in student enrolment in science labs in 1992 -1997 academic sessions. All firstyear students in the Faculties of Medicine, Dentistry, Engineering, Pharmacy, Agriculture, Science,Education/Physics or Chemistry or Biology majors were required to take the Physics and Chemistry labs. They alsotook the Zoo or Botany lab depending on their major field of study. Thus, there was a crush of student flow in thefirst year science lab.Results Pertaining to Question 3What percentage of the total recurrent budget was allocated to the University of Benin in Relation to its Requestbetween 1992 and 1997?Table 3: Recurrent Fund Request and Federal Government Allocation 1992/93-9196/97Year University Request Fund Allocated Percentage ofN N Request received1992/93 135,412,032 101,121,304 74.681993/94 382,508,644 249,970,740 65.351994/95 456,266,173 283,210,890 62.071995/96 549,032,400 326,770,953 59.521996/97 685,224,112 362,364,124 52.88Source: Bursary Department.304

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012Table 3 shows the University of Benin financial request and the financial allocation it received from thegovernment. The table shows a drastic decline in the percentage allocation to the Institution in relation to its request.The table gives the impression that the University of Benin was better funded from year to year. However, when onelooks at the programs offered yearly by the University of Benin and the number of students enrolled in thoseprograms, it is clear that each year’s allocation had not been as good as the previous year.Results Pertaining to Question 4What percentage of the Allocation from the Federal Government was Utilized for the Science Laboratories ?Table 4: Total Running Cost and Allocation to Science Laboratories 1992/93-9196/97Year Total Running Allocation to Per Cent NUCCost Science labs % Guideline1992/93 215,593,573 1,059,000 0.5 5 %1993/94 228,998,347 1,050,220 0.8 5%1994/95 248,000,359 1,441,000 0.6 5%1995/96 303,282,102 1,344,200 0.4 5%1996/97 325,634,610 1,412,225 0.7 5%Source: Computation from data collected from the Bursary DepartmentTable 4 shows the disbursement of the Federal Government allocation to the science laboratories. The table showsthat the University of Benin did not meet the 5% stipulated by the NUC for the science laboratories between1992/93 and 1996/97 academic years. During this period of study, 1995/96 session recorded the lowest amountspent for the science laboratories.DISCUSSION OF RESULTSThe result of the study shows in Table 1 that the full-time enrolment grew from 13,737 in 1992/93 to 19,031 in1996/97 school period. This excludes part-time enrolment. The university was established to grow to about 10,000students at maturity. But within a period of five academic sessions it grew by more than four thousand students orabout 27 %. It was expected to grow at the rate of 2.5 % annually. Thus, by the NUC guideline the university is overpopulated. At the inception of the University of Benin, the master plan of the institution was carefully prepared topath the growth of the university in terms of facilities and equipment. This supposedly took into consideration theability of the federal government to fund and provide the needed qualified manpower. A growth rate beyond theprescribed 2.5 % had a considerable impact on funding, infrastructural development, manpower recruitment andtraining. The findings of Abagi (1998) showed that the increase in student population pushed the universities inKenya beyond their absorptive capacities, which clearly support the findings of this study. As a result, there isovercrowding of students in the classrooms, which put pressure on the available facilities.305

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012Table 2 shows the progression of student enrolment in first year science laboratory during the period of study. Theresearcher undertook a tour of the science laboratories when the students conducted their practical experiments. Theresearcher was dismayed to find that more than twenty students worked with one equipment and the equipment wasold. The laboratories were overcrowded. The noise decibel was high. The lecturers were overwhelmed with thesituation and were helpless to maintain any discipline with such a large crowd. The researcher questioned thelecturers about the situation. They replied that during the 60s’ and 70s’ when they were students, the situation wasvery different. Then, it was two students to equipment. A student performed all experiments by himself alone.Laboratory work was not fun but a tedious activity. Now it was different. The lecturers averred that the situation didnot augur well for the scientific development of the country.It was a similar situation in the higher level, that is; second, third and final years’ laboratories, with the exception ofPhysics laboratory where the crowd had thinned somehow.Table 3 shows that throughout the period of this study, the university was underfunded. The federal government’sallocations did not cover the running cost of the university. Hence, the university could not effectively carry out itsfunctions.Table 4 indicates that during the period of this study, the disbursement of funds to the science laboratories variedfrom 0.4 to 0.7 % of the total recurrent revenue, which was really insignificant. The fund utilization for the sciencelaboratories was much below the NUC requirement of 5%. This is indicative of the fact that the federal governmentplaced less emphasis on science laboratories to the detriment of its economic development. The Faculty of Sciencewas poorly funded, perhaps, because it depended only on one source of revenue, the federal government. Thissupports the findings of Psacharopoulos (1982) and Sherman (1990) that most of the funds for university educationin developing countries are obtained solely from government sources.CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONSThere was a wide gap between the planned budget and the amount the University of Benin actually received fromthe federal government during the period of this study. Thus, the financial allocation to the University of Benin bythe federal government during the period of this study was found to be grossly inadequate. While the studentpopulation grew in succeeding years, the funds provided by the government did not match the rate of growth. Thedelay in providing such funds to the University of Benin was a major hindrance to the smooth running of theuniversity.The underfunding of the University of Benin resulted in the inadequate funding of the science laboratories. Thefailure of the federal government to strengthen the capacity of science undergraduates in carrying out laboratorywork is a situation that is not geared toward solving national problems. The future of the country’s science lies in thehands of the undergraduate youths. It is necessary to maximize their potential by giving them the best training.Hence the need for the proper funding of the science laboratories.The National Universities Commission (NUC) guidelines for budget should be used by the federal government inthe appropriation of funds to the University of Benin. Student population should be limited to the approved growthpattern so as to fit the master plan of the university in terms of building and equipment. In order to satisfy theyearning demand for education by the growing young population, the federal government should build moreuniversities. The burden of funding tertiary education when viewed from the findings of this study is enormous forthe government to bear all by itself. The University of Benin should generate more funds internally by seekingfinancial support from private organizations such as the oil industry, banks, international agencies, the community,non-governmental bodies and others. Such a drive will enable it better fund the science laboratories.306

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012REFERENCESAghenta, J. A. (1993). Principles and Practices of Educational Planning. Benin City. Nigerian Society forEducational Planning.Bickel, A. M. (1975). The aims of education and the proper standards of the universities in Western World. In P.Seabury (ed) in Universities in the Western World: London. The Free Press.Brenner, S. (1998). The impact of society on science. Science. Vol 282 no 5393 p1411-1412.Bush, T. and Middlewood, D. (1977). Managing People in Education. London: Paul Chapman Publishing.Chapman, D. (2002). Management and efficiency in education. Goals and strategies. Comparative EducationResearch Center. The University of Hong KongEhiametalor, E. T. (1998). Restoring Quality in Higher Education. Paper presented at the tenth APQEN, October. P20-23.Ehiametalor, E. T. (2000). Academic Planning, functions and constraints. Journal of Educational ResearchAssociation. 15:1, p13-18.Elizabeth, K. (2011). Economic freedom, human rights and returns to human capital. Presented at UNGEI. WorldBank.Fafunwa, A. B. (1974). History of Education in Nigeria. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd.Flatcher, B. (1968). Universities in Modern World. London: Pergamon Press.Galbraith, F. G. (1984). The age of uncertainty. A history of economic ideas, their consequences. Noston, Mass:Houghton Company.Genna, A. (1999). The economics of knowledge production, funding and Structure of University Research.Cheltenham, UK.National Universities Commission. (1998). Guides on Accredidation of programs in the Universities. Abuja.Psacharopoulos, G. (1980). Higher education in developing countries. A cost benefit analysis. Washington, D.C.World Bank.Reifuman, L. (1970). Financing of education for economic growth. Organization for Economic Cooperation andDevelopment.Sherman, M. A. (1990). The university in modern Africa: Towards the twenty-first century. Journal of highereducation. 61: 4, p363-385307

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012© 2012 Ozean PublicationEFFECTS OF CREATIVITY TRAINING IN IMPROVING THE CREATIVITYMOTIVATION OF SOME MALE PRISON INMATESSTEPHENS, OLUYEMI ADETUNJI* and AMAJUOYI, FESTUS AMARAEZE***Department of Educational Foundations and Counselling Psychology,Lagos State University, Ojo, Lagos, Nigeria**Department of Psychology, University of Lagos, Nigeria*E-mail address for correspondence: stephensoluyemi@yahoo.com___________________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: The effectiveness of the reformatory programme of the Nigerian Prison Service has been questioned inrecent times. This study investigated the effects of creativity training in improving the creativity motivation of somemale prison inmates. Twenty male prison inmates of the Maximum Security Prisons, Kirikiri, Lagos, Nigeria whowere randomly selected participated in the study. A pre- test post test quasi experimental with a 3X2 factorial designwas employed. Two hypotheses were formulated and tested at 0.05 level of significance. Three instruments namely;Prisoners’ Bio Data Card, Akinboye Emotional Reactivity Inventory (2006) and Creativity Motivation scale ofIbadan Creativity Assessment Scale(1977) were used to obtain data. The data obtained was analysed using theAnalysis of Covariance, student t -test and a one-way analysis of variance. The result showed that there was asignificant difference in the creativity motivation score of participants in the experimental group when comparedwith that of their counterparts in the control group. However, there is no significant difference in the creativitymotivation score of participants in the experimental group on the basis of nature of offence. It was recommendedthat prison inmates should be exposed to creativity training and that prison officials should acquaint themselveswith various creativity techniques that will assist them to be effective in their discharging their duties hence, areduction in rate of recidivism.Keywords: effects, creativity training, creativity motivation, male prison inmates_____________________________________________________________________________________________309

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012INTRODUCTIONThe need for economic and political survival has made some Nigerians to engage in many unapproved andcondemnable behavior such as crime. According to Tor-Ayiin (2010), some Nigerians commit all sorts of crimessuch as kidnapping, ritual killing, political assassination, armed robbery, cyber crime, advanced fee fraud on a dailybasis for economic and political survival.Crime is defined as the commission of an act or an act of commission, that violates the law and is punishable by thestate. This is because crime is considered injurious to individuals and the society as a whole. Crime according toEmile Durkheim, a foremost sociologist, is a normal phenomenon in the society. Hughes, Kroeche &Zanden(2002),argued that social life is not only characterized by conformity but also by deviance such as crime. Asa means of controlling crime, the state punishes offenders by imprisonment. Imprisonment is an institutionalizeddevised means to effect correction in individuals who were one time or the other found to have violated set rules andregulations guiding the acceptable conduct in a socialized environment (Oyinloye&Salami,2010).Such offenders arereferred to as prison inmates who are either male or female.Ahire(2004) observed that punishing offenders in Nigeria dates back to the pre-colonial era. Chiemeka(2001)affirmed that imprisonment has served both deterrence and retributive purposes at different times and phases ofdevelopment of penal philosophy. In recent times imprisonment is anchored on the’ 3Rs’ principle of Reformation,Rehabilitation and Reintegration.However, the increase in the rate of recidivism among prisoners in Nigeria as reported in research findings ofAgali,(2004); Chenube (2009) calls to question the effectiveness of the Nigerian Prison Service in its reformatory,rehabilitation and re-integrating function. This was reiterated by the then Controller General of Prisons that ‘if theprisons does not process these prison inmates and return them unreformed to the society, the society will be in forproblems’(Ogundipe,2006) as being experienced in Nigeria today.The Nigerian Prison Service seems not to be achieving it’s primary objective due to some factors. These include thephysical condition of the prison yard, such as the filthy environment, inadequate accommodation which results incongestion; the prison culture, which is often characterized by survival of the fittest, psychological trauma such asstress and depression as well as the dehumanizing disposition of prison officials. Other identified factors include atotal infrastructural collapse of various skills acquisition within the prison yard, inadequate professional counsellorsand other social workers, and non inclusion of positive life skills training such as emotional intelligence training andcreativity training in the prison curriculum.The increase in the rate of recidivism and the non inclusion of positive life skills training such as creativity trainingin the curriculum of Nigerian Prison Service prompted this research work. This research work was geared towardsinvestigating the effects of creativity training using Akinboye Practical Creativity at Work(APCAW) in improvingcreativity motivation of some male prison inmates.Creativity is the process of generating new ideas, new designs, notable alternatives, new outcomes and newopportunities that can be transformed into profitable products and services(Akinboye,2002).He submitted furtherthat creativity enables human beings to get the most out of experiences and resources. According to him, once anindividual, group, organization master the skills of creativity and the strategies of transforming ideas to profitablegoods and services many opportunities are opened to him or her. Taking a cue from the benefits of possessingcreativity skills, it is presumed that acquiring creativity skills could help prison inmates live a constructive andproductive life rather than a life of crime.The need for improving the creativity ability such as creativity motivation of prisoners is predicated on the fact thatprison inmates suffer physiological and psychological disorders which impedes reformatory programmes. For anymeaningful reformatory exercise to take place, prison inmates have to be motivated to channel their skills towardssocially and legally acceptable ends. Creativity training is excepted to be beneficial to the prison inmates and thesociety at large. This study is intended to use APCAW, a creativity technique to improve the creativity motivationof some male prison inmates.Creativity motivation implies the ability to accept problems as part of life, face challenges with uncompromisingcourage. It also entail the ability to see prospects in chaotic situations, getting excitement at breaking new grounds,having intrinsic drives, developing positive self-image and feeling good or satisfied aboutoneself(Animasahun,2002).The creativity motivation of prisoners deserves to be improved on because some of them310

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012decided to commit crime as a way of overcoming some challenges of life such as poverty, unemployment. It alsoneed be pointed out that these prison inmates are members of the society and after their jail term they will be comingback into the society. It is therefore expedient to find out the effects of creativity training using APCAW inimproving the creativity of male prison inmates.Akinboye Practical Creativity at Work (APCAW) is a creativity technique developed by Akinboye in 1999 as achallenge to the concept that knowledge is all. He emphasised that any knowledge which does not include practicalaspect, is an exercise in futility. Akinboye (1999) reasoned that societal problems arise from the fact that manylaudable ideas, concepts and precepts are often left theoretical thereby not benefitting neither the thinker nor thesociety. Hence, practical demonstration of theoretical knowledge is the rationale behind practical creativity at work.The technique involves 10 steps:5 conceptual steps and 5 action-oriented steps.There exist research findings that showed that creativity techniques have been employed to improve creativeabilities of individuals and groups in a variety of fields(Akinboye,2000, 2001; Hammed&Ayantunji,2002).There isalso a good deal of research evidence where creativity techniques were used to improve conditions of prisoners(Eseme,2009, Animasahun,2002a, 2002b, Stephens,2006) and the various creativity techniques they employed havebeen found to be effective. In the light of this, this study therefore intends to investigate the effects of creativitytraining using APCAW on improving the creativity motivation of some male prison inmatesStatement of the problemThe seemingly inability of the prison authorities in Nigeria to reform prison inmates which has resulted in anincrease in the rate of recidivism as well as the continual call for prison decongestion requires a new approach toreform the prison inmates. This is has become necessary taken into account of the fact that these prison inmates arepart of the society who at one time or the other will come back to the society. An unreformed prison inmates posesgreat danger to the well being of Nigerians. The study therefore, is designed to investigate the effects of creativitytraining using APCAW in improving the creativity motivation of male prisoners.Purpose of the studyThe purpose of the study is to investigate the effects of creativity training in improving the creativity motivation ofmale prison inmates. The study also intended to find out if nature of offence will have any influence on the effect ofcreativity training among the experimental group.Hypotheses1. Creativity training will not have a significant effect on the creativity motivation score of the experimentalgroup as compared with those in the control group.2. Nature of offence will not have a significant effect on the creativity motivation score of participants in theexperimental group.METHODOLOGYResearch DesignA pre test, post test and quasi experimental group design with a 3X2 factorial design was employed for the study.There were two treatment conditions on the rows, APCAW treatment and the control groups, while the columnsconsisted of the personality types of participants used as moderating variable to classify participants into personalitytypes A,B & C.311

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012ParticipantsTwenty male prison inmates from the Maximum Security Prisons, Kirikiri, Lagos ,Nigeria who were selectedthrough the dip- hat method formed the sample for the study. Their age ranged between 22 and 55 years old with amean age of 36.68.The participants were allotted into the experimental and control groups through balloting. Theexperimental group was exposed to the APCAW training while those in the control group were not given anytreatment, they were however taken through anger management training at the end of the training as a form ofcompensation for their participation in the study.InstrumentationThree instruments were used to obtain data from the participants(1) The Prisoners Bio data Card (PBC) was used to elicit personal information such as age, gender,educational qualification, marital status, nature of offence, crime history of participants.(2) Akinboye Emotional Reactivity Inventory(2006) is a personality type inventory. It is a standardized 28-item self reporting inventory on a five point scale to determine respondents personality type. The facevalidity was ensured and the internal consistency reliability was indicated by co-efficient alpha 0.90.(3) Section D (Creativity Motivation Scale) of the Ibadan Creativity Assessment Scale(ICAS) developed byAkinboye(1977).The Creativity Motivation Scale has 17 items in the form of simple statements to whichparticipants are expected to indicate on a five point the extent to which he or she agrees with eachstatement. A high score indicates high creativity motivation while a score of seventy (70) indicates aminimum acceptable creativity potential in an individual. He reported a construct validity co-efficient alpha0.77 while test re-test reliabilities after a period of four weeks revealed r=0.85.For the purpose of this studythe reliability of the instrument was established through the test retest method with an interval of fourweeks on prison inmates who were not part of the study. The test re test reliability yielded a co-efficient of0.87.ProcedureThe study which was carried out at the Maximum Security Prisons, Kirikiri, Lagos, Nigeria for a period of eightweeks. The first week was used to get the participants who were selected through the dip-hat method to, ascertainparticipants personality type by administering the Akinboye T-A Behaviour inventory while the creativitymotivation scale was used to obtain the pre test scores of participants. Training sessions on APCAW were held forthe experimental group for six weeks involving twelve sessions of ninety minutes per session.The APCAW training for six weeks include-(1).Creative Pause-this is a deliberate pause or interruption in the smooth flow thinking to open a new channel ofideas ,pave way for alternatives, improve an already made decision or pay deliberate attention to somethingat some point.(2). Awareness and management of barriers to creativity-this technique teaches us to be aware of the existenceof certain barriers or blockages to creativity such as perceptual, emotional, psychological, cultural,intellectual, environmental, economic and personal barriers which must be consciously manage in order tobe successful in life.(3). Definition of broad problem areas-this step emphasizes a clear cut definition, tactical isolation,specification and clarification of the problem. A problem well stated is half solved (John Dewey) as citedby Couger (1986).(4). Focus on appropriate domain of operation-focusing on appropriate issue to work upon would disallow thethinker from engaging in irrelevancies but to focus attention mainly on the issue at hand.(5). Set criteria of success- since goal-setting is motivating this step deals with setting of the goals andobjectives we expect to achieve at the end of the thinking session.(6). Use appropriate creativity techniques to generate opportunity areas-there are different creativity techniquesfrom which one can choose the appropriate ones. This study used Six thinking hats to generate opportunityareas.312

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012(7) . Run creativity sessions to explore opportunity areas-using the creativity technique selected in No 6,onecan now engage in serious creativity sessions to seek for new ideas, new concepts, and new perceptions.(8). Harvest actionable ideas and new percepts-this step involves careful collation of all points made during thecreativity session.(9). Evaluate actionable ideas, concepts and precepts for risks, feasibility, fit, resources, fatality andeffectiveness-All the collated ideas, concepts, and precepts must be subjected to an objective assessment todetermine the level of risks involved; possibility or otherwise of immediate execution; relevance of the ideato the societal problem, availability of adequate financial, human and material resources; determining thefatality as well as whether such ideas are effective or not.(10). Sell, commercialise, innovate actionable ideas, concepts and precepts for profit, success and value-This isthe end result of the creativity session. The outcome must not be concealed but quickly communicated tothe society as part of one’s contribution to the development of the society. This is the innovative aspect ofcreativity whereby both the creative individual and the society benefit from the creative session.The control group was not given any form of training. At the eighth week the post test score of all theparticipants was obtained by administering the creativity motivation scale.DATA ANALYSISThe data obtained were statistically analysed to determine the effects of the experimental treatment in improving thecreativity motivation of male prison inmates. The Analysis of Covariance was employed for the analysis.RESULTSHypothesis one which state that creativity training will not have a significant effect on the creativitymotivation score of the experimental group as compared with those in the control group was analysed using theAnalysis of Covariance(ANCOVA).Table1: Unadjusted X-means and Adjusted Y-means of participants creativitymotivation scores on treatment(Rows) and Personality types (Columns)Groups Personality Type A Personality Type B Personality Type CX-mean N Y-meanX-mean N Y-mean X-mean N Y-meanAPCAW 66.00 6 88.33 60.50 4 80.50 67.5 2 79.50Control 58.00 4 57.75 59.66 3 59.69 61.00 1 61.50The result of table 1 showed that adjusted Y mean scores of participants have different effects. While the adjustedY-means scores of the APCAW group increased (88.33, 80.50, 79.50) compared with their X-means, those of thecontrol group did not increase (57.75, 59.66, 61.50) . This meant that the treated group (APCAW) benefited fromthe training programme than the control group. For easy comparison, an illustration to show clearly the adjusted Y-mean score of the creativity motivation variable is presented in table 2.313

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012Table 2: Rows and Columns of Adjusted Y-Means of test scores along Personality typePersonality Type A Personality Type B Personality Type CAPCAW 88.33 80.50 79.50Control 57.75 59.66 61.00The post-treatment score of the APCAW and control subsumed along their personality type shows that personalitytype A treated with APCAW (X=88.33) had the highest mean score. This was followed by participants who arepersonality type B with a mean score of(80.50) and participants of personality type C with mean score of X=79.50in table 2.The range of means scores of the participants exposed to APCAW training had higher mean score thanthe control groupTable 3: 2X3 Pre and Post –Treatment comparison of APCAW and Control group usingANCOVADependent Variable: Post test ScoreSourceCorrected ModelInterceptPretestGroupPersonalityGroup * PersonalityErrorTotalCorrected TotalTests of Between-Subjects EffectsType III SumPartial Etaof Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Squared3970.687 a 6 661.781 29.113 .000 .93150.251 1 50.251 2.211 .161 .145556.237 1 556.237 24.470 .000 .653.000 0 . . . .000130.442 4 32.610 1.435 .278 .306.000 0 . . . .000295.513 13 22.732115868.000 204266.200 19a. R Squared = .931 (Adjusted R Squared = .899)The result in table 3 showed that the pre test score was significantly different(F=24.47,d/f=1/20.The effect ofpersonaliy type was however not significant(F=1.435,d/f-4/20).Table 4: Analysis of variance table comparing the creativity motivation post-test scorebetween the experimental and control groupDependent Variable: Post test ScoreContrastErrorUnivariate TestsSum ofSquares df Mean Square F Sig.1338.253 1 1338.253 58.872 .000 .819295.513 13 22.732The F tests the effect of Treatment Group. This test is based on the linearly independentpairwise comparisons among the estimated marginal means.Partial EtaSquared.For further analysis of the effect of the treatment (table 4) showed that the effect of training on the mean score ofparticipants was significant(F=58.87,d/f =1/13 P

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012participants in the experimental group performed higher than those in the control group. This implies that theAPCAW creativity training was effective in improving the creativity motivation of some male prisoners.means’Table 5: Pairwise comparison of Rows and Columns Adjusted YDependent Variable: Post test Score(I) Personality TypeA expB expC expA conB conC con(J) Personality TypeB expC expA conB conC conA expC expA conB conC conA expB expA conB conC conA expB expC expB conC conA expB expC expA conC conA expB expC expA conB conPairwise ComparisonsMeanDiff erenceBased on estimated marginal means*. The mean diff erence is signif icant at the .05 lev el.95% Confidence Interv al forDiff erence a(I-J) Std. Error Sig. a Lower Bound Upper Bound3.368 b,c 3.259 .320 -3.672 10.4088.991 *,b,c 3.902 .038 .561 17.42124.351 *,b,c 3.393 .000 17.022 31.68123.123 *,b,c 3.503 .000 15.555 30.69125.751 *,b,c 5.227 .000 14.460 37.042-3.368 b,c 3.259 .320 -10.408 3.6725.624 b,c 4.341 .218 -3.754 15.00120.984 *,b,c 3.390 .000 13.660 28.30819.755 *,b,c 3.643 .000 11.884 27.62722.383 *,b,c 5.334 .001 10.861 33.906-8.991 *,b,c 3.902 .038 -17.421 -.561-5.624 b,c 4.341 .218 -15.001 3.75415.360 *,b,c 4.464 .004 5.717 25.00414.132 *,b,c 4.520 .008 4.367 23.89716.760 *,b,c 5.954 .015 3.898 29.621-24.351 *,b,c 3.393 .000 -31.681 -17.022-20.984 *,b,c 3.390 .000 -28.308 -13.660-15.360 *,b,c 4.464 .004 -25.004 -5.717-1.228 b,c 3.672 .743 -9.162 6.7061.399 b,c 5.357 .798 -10.174 12.973-23.123 *,b,c 3.503 .000 -30.691 -15.555-19.755 *,b,c 3.643 .000 -27.627 -11.884-14.132 *,b,c 4.520 .008 -23.897 -4.3671.228 b,c 3.672 .743 -6.706 9.1622.628 b,c 5.506 .641 -9.267 14.522-25.751 *,b,c 5.227 .000 -37.042 -14.460-22.383 *,b,c 5.334 .001 -33.906 -10.861-16.760 *,b,c 5.954 .015 -29.621 -3.898-1.399 b,c 5.357 .798 -12.973 10.174-2.628 b,c 5.506 .641 -14.522 9.267a. Adjustment for multiple comparisons: Least Signif icant Dif ference (equivalent to no adjustments).b. An estimate of the modif ied population marginal mean (I).c. An estimate of the modif ied population marginal mean (J).From the table above, the Pairwise comparison of the post test score of the different personality types using FisherLSD indicated there was no difference in the post test score of the personality types within each treatment group(that is within the experimental and control group. There was however difference in the scores between groups. Thissuggests that personality type per se did not affect the post test score of the participants.Hypothesis two which states nature of offence will not have a significant effect on the creativity motivation scoreof participants in the experimental group was statistically analysed using t-test and Analysis of Variance.315

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012Table 6: The mean creativity motivation score of prison inmates in the experimental groupon the basis of nature of offenceDependent Variable: Post test Score95% Confidence IntervalNature of Offence Mean Std. Error Lower Bound Upper BoundViolent 86.740(a) 2.333 81.462 92.019Non-violent 82.563(a) 2.773 76.291 88.836Table6 showed the estimated Y-mean of the test score between violent and non-violent offenders.The mean score ofthe violent group was higher(86.74) than the non violent groupDependent Variable: Post test ScoreSourceCorrected ModelInterceptPretestNatureErrorTotalCorrected TotalTable7: Analysis of Variance table of the comparison of post test scorebetween violent and non-violent offendersTests of Between-Subjects EffectsType III SumPartial Etaof Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Squared530.444 a 2 265.222 7.114 .014 .613207.200 1 207.200 5.557 .043 .382393.301 1 393.301 10.549 .010 .54048.315 1 48.315 1.296 .284 .126335.556 9 37.28487566.000 12866.000 11a. R Squared = .613 (Adjusted R Squared = .526)The result in table 6 indicated that the effect of APCAW creativity training was significant regardless of nature ofoffence(F=10.549,df=1/12,P=0.010).The nature of offence had no significant effect (F=1.296,d/f=1/12, P=0.384) onthe post test score of the respondents .The hypothesis is hereby rejected. This implies that regardless of the nature ofoffence APCAW creativity as effective and that regardless of nature of offence creativity can be fostered amongmale prison inmates..DISCUSSIONThe first hypothesis which states that creativity training will not have any significant effect on the creativitymotivation score of male prisoners was rejected. There was a significant improvement in the creativity motivationscores of the experimental group who were exposed to APCAW creativity training when compared to theircounterparts in the control group. This implies that the treatment was effective and that creativity motivation ofprisoners can be improved on through training. This finding is in agreement with that of Animasahun(2002) whofound that creativity motivation of convicted male adolescent’s can be enhanced through training and that of316

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012Hammed& Ayantunji(2002) who also concluded that creativity abilities of some selected labour leaders can beimproved on through creativity training. This study also led credence to the findings of Akinboye,(1990) thatcreativity could be deliberately fostered and Hirsberg (1998) who stressed that creativity is a trait that is inherent inevery individual and can be improved by training.The finding that personality type of participants had no significant effect on their creativity motivation performancecorroborate that of Adebayo (1995) which reported that there is no individual who cannot be creatively motivatedprovided there is a degree of willingness on the part of such individual.Hypothesis two which states that nature of offence will not have a significant effect on the creativity motivationscore of participants in the experimental group was accepted .However there was a difference in the pre test and posttest score of the violent and non violent participants in the experimental group. This implies that the treatment waseffective. This finding is in agreement with Ogunbanwo (1988) who in his study concluded that every individual hascreativity abilities and the potentials for improvement. He went further to say that the improvement of such creativeabilities is contingent on the individual’s level of willingness.RECOMMENDATIONSBased on the findings of this study it is being recommended1. Prison officials and other stakeholders in the penal system should acquaint themselves with creativitytechniques.2. that creativity training be included in the reformatory curriculum of the Nigerian Prison Service3. there should be a change of attitude of prison officials towards prison inmates4. That the Nigeria Prison service should make imprisonment serve its reformatory role rather than make it apunitive one.5. It is also recommended that services of professional counselors with specialization in reformatory andremedial psychology be employed by the prison authorities.6. Professional bodies such as Counselling Association of Nigeria(CASSON) should as a matter of corporatesocial responsibility conduct periodic counseling sessions for inmates of the Nigeria Prisons317

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