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CIMMYT ANNUALREPORT 1972ON MAIZE AND WHEAT IMPROVEMENT

Finalmente se llega a lo que hoy en día se conoce como Calidad Total, un sistema degestión empresarial íntimamente relacionado con el concepto de Mejora Continua y queincluye las dos fases anteriores. Los principios fundamentales de este sistema de gestiónson los siguientes:La filosofía de la Calidad Total que también forma parte de la primera unidad proporcionauna concepción global que fomenta la Mejora Continua en la organización y laparticipación de todos sus miembros, centrándose en la satisfacción tanto del clienteinterno como del externo. Podemos definir esta filosofía del siguiente modo: Gestión (elcuerpo directivo está totalmente comprometido) de la Calidad (los requerimientos delcliente son comprendidos y asumidos exactamente) Total (todo miembro de laorganización está involucrado, incluso el cliente y el proveedor, cuando esto sea posible).En la segunda unidad y continuando con el tema de gestión y administración, se trata deanalizar la aplicación de los procedimientos desde el punto de vista administrativo, desdela parte interna organizacional, considerando los sistemas de información, laidentificación cliente-proveedor hasta la implantación del sistema de calidad total.La metrología es el tema de la tercera unidad se analiza como en los Estados UnidosMexicanos el Sistema General de Unidades de Medida es el único legal y de usoobligatorio. El Sistema General de Unidades de Medida se integra, entre otras, con lasunidades básicas del Sistema Internacional de Unidades: de longitud, el metro; de masa,el kilogramo; de tiempo, el segundo; de temperatura termodinámica, el kelvin; deintensidad de corriente eléctrica, el ampere; de intensidad luminosa, la candela; y decantidad de sustancia, el mol, así como con las suplementarias, las derivadas de lasunidades base y los múltiplos y submúltiplos de todas ellas, que apruebe la ConferenciaGeneral de Pesas y Medidas y se prevean en normas oficiales mexicanas. También seintegra con las no comprendidas en el sistema internacional que acepte el mencionadoorganismo y se incluyan en dichos ordenamientos.También se revisa como se instituye el Sistema Nacional de Calibración con el objeto deprocurar la uniformidad y confiabilidad de las mediciones que se realizan en el país, tantoen lo concerniente a las transacciones comerciales y de servicios, como en los procesosindustriales y sus respectivos trabajos de investigación científica y de desarrollotecnológico.En la cuarta unidad se integra el HACCP del inglés Hazard Analysis and Critical ControlPoint, es un enfoque sistemático que con base científica nos permite identificar riesgosespecíficos y medidas de control con el fin de asegurar la inocuidad de los alimentos.Ingeniería de la Calidad la última unidad del programa es una rama de la ingeniería queinterviene en las actividades de cada departamento de la empresa cuya actividad másimportante es la implementación de programas de control de calidad. La ingeniería de lacalidad también ayuda en la evaluación mediante el establecimiento de métodos.De manera general la asignatura debe contemplar mucho trabajo de campo, que permitael análisis y reflexión sobre el proceso de gestión de la calidad que algunas empresastienen implantado, así como plantear propuestas de diseño de sistemas acordes a lasnecesidades del entorno, capaces de poder incorporar tanto la filosofía como,organización, normalización, implementación, el análisis y control de puntos críticos y eldiseño de experimentos.3.- COMPETENCIAS A DESARROLLAR2

ContentsPage2BOARD OF TRUSTEES3 OFFICERS AND STAFF7 INTRODUCTION9 WHEAT9 Introduction12 Mexico .12 CIMMYT Program Conducted with the NationalProgram of Mexico12 Bread Wheat Program16 National Inltitute of Agricultural Re.arch,Cereals Department16 Pathology20 Bread Wheat Industrial Quality24 Nutritional Improvement in Bread Wheats25 Winter-Spring Wheat Program26 Hybrid Wheat Re.arch27 Durum Improvement Program31 Triticale36 Physiology and Agronomy41 •Wheat Training and Visitors43 BarleyNational ProgramsAsia45 India49 Pakistan51 Afghanistan52 Iran54 Turkey62 LebanonAfrica63 Morocco70 Algeria74 TunisiaPageSouth America82 Ecuador83 Brazil84 Argentina88 Appendix92 MAIZE92 Intraduction93 Breeding102 Quality-Protein Breeding112 Agronomy and Physiology118 In.ct Control118 llliaize Educational Program121 Germ Plasm Bank123 International Maize Trials125 SorghumOutreach Activities126 Zaire127 Egypt129 Pakistan130 Colombia132 Nepal134 Philippines135 Thailand136 Inter-Asian Corn Improvement Program139 PlJEBLA PROJECT139 Developing Recommendations141 U. of Recommendations143 Training144 Assistance to Other Programs145 SUPPORTING SERVICES145 Service Laboratories148 Economics Unit147 Experiment Stations147 Communications Services1

Mlize Postdoc;tor.1 Ind Predoctorll FellowsDAVID W. SPERLING, M.S., Maize Breeding/Physiology (through May 1972)SUTAT SRIWATANAPONGSE, Ph.D., Maize BreedingJUNICHI YAMAGUCHI, M.S., Maize Physiology (through April 1972)MAIZE INTERNATIONAL COOPERATIVE PROGRAMS (CIMMVT STAFF)Colombia:ElIVPt:Nepal:Pakistan:Zaire:CANUTO CARDONA, Ph.D., AgronomistN. L. DHAWAN, Ph.D., Maize BreederMELVIN SPLITTER, Ph.D., Maize Breeder (from February 19721TAKUMI IZUNO, Ph.D., Maize BreederA. FREDERICK E. PALMER, Ph.D., Agronomist (transferred from MeXico, Mey 19721THOMAS HART, Ph.D., Agronomist (from February 19721FRANS DE WOLFF, Ph.D., Maize Breeder (from June 19721MAHESH C. PANDEY, Ph.D., Plant Protection Specialist (from June 19721MAIZE INTERNATIONAL COOPERATIVE PROGRAMS (PROGRAM·ASSOCIATED STAFF)CIAT, Colombia:CHARLES FRANCIS, Ph.D., Meize Breed.rIITA, Nigeri.:M. N. HARRISON, M.S.. Maiz. Breed.rInter-Asian Corn Program, Rockefeller Found.tion, Theiland:BOBBY L. RENFRO, Ph.D., Pathologist, Teem L.adarCHARLES L. MOORE, Ph.D., Maize BreederDALE G. SMELTZER, Ph.D., Training AgronomistWHEAT HEADQUARTERS STAFFNORMAN E. BORLAUG, Ph.D., DirectorR. GLENN ANDERSON, Ph.D., Associate Dir.ctorARNOLDO AMAYA C., Ph.D.. Cereal ChemistARMANDO CAMPOS V., Ph.D., Bread Wheat BreederR. ANTHONY FISCHER, Ph.D., Agronomist/PhysiologistSANTIAGO FUENTES F., Ph.D., PathologistMAN MOHAN KOHLI, Ph.D., Triticale BreederJOHN H. LINDT, M.S., Training AgronomistALFONSO LOPEZ B.. M.S.. Allistant Triticale BreederDAVID MACKENZI E, Ph.D., Pathologist, I nternational Nurseries, Rockefeller Foundation appointment(through Mev 19721KASEM, B. MEXAS. Consultant, Computer Services (from February 19721MARCO A. QUlIQONES, Ph.D., Durum Wheat BreederSANJAYA RAJARAM, Ph.D., Geneticist/PathologistENRIQUE RODRIGUEZ C., Ph.D., Bread Wheat BreederRICARDO RODRIGUEZ R., M.S., Geneticist and Barley BreederFRANK J. ZILLINSKY, Ph.D., Triticale BreederWhelt Postdoc:tClral FellClwROBERT REDDEN, Ph.D., Bread Whellt Breeder (from October 1972)Rese.rch AllistlntsIMMER AGUILAR M., Ing. Agr., Agronomy/PhysiologyJUAN ENRIQUE DELGADO G., Ing. Agr., Bread Wheats (from February 19721MARGARITA HERNANDEZ DE S., Laboratory Technician, Triticale (from July 19721CARLOS LEON 0., Ing. Agr., International NurseriesROSA MARIA MARTINEZ, Chemist, Wheat Quality Laboratory (through February 1972)GUI LLERMO ORTIZ F., I ng. Agr., Durum WheatCARLOS PEI'iIA 0., Ing. Agr., Hybrid Wheats (from February 19721JOSE LUIS RIVERA, Ing. Agr., PathologyJESUS MARIO SALAZAR, Ing. Agr., Durum Wheat (through August 1972)JUAN J, SALMERON, Ing. Agr., Triticale (from August 19721WHEAT INTERNATIONAL COOPERA"nVE PROGRAMS (CIMMVT STAFF)Algeria:WILLIS L. McCUISTION, Ph.D., Wheat Breeder, Team LeaderHERBERT FLOYD, M.S., AgronomistWALTER NELSON, M.S., Wheat Breeder/AgronomistFRANCISCO PLOUIN, Wheat Agronomist (from September 1972)Morocco:ARISTEO ACOSTA C., Ph.D., Wheat BreederFRANCIS BIDINGER, M.S., Agronomist (through August 19721W'LLIAM E. HALL, Ph.D., Agronomist4

Tunisia:JOHN B. DOOLETTE, B. Ag. Sc., Agronomist/Team Leader (from September 1972)TORREY LYONS, Ph.D., AgronomistPAUL N. MARKO, B.A., Extension Agronomist (on study leave)GEORGE VARUGHESE, Ph.D., Wheat BreederKENNETH WILHELMI, M.S., Agronomist (through August 1972)Turkey:ARTHUR KLATT, Ph.D., Wheat BreederJON PRESCOTT, Ph.D., PathologistWHEAT INTERNATIONAL COOPERATIVE PROGRAMS (PROGRAM·ASSOCIATED STAFF)India:EUGENE E. SAARI, Ph.D., Pathologist, Ford Foundation StaffLebanon:GERBRAND KINGMA. Ph.D.. Wheat Breeder, ALAD Program, Ford Foundation StaffUniversity of California, Davis:JOSEPH A. RUPERT. Ph.D., Wheat Breeder, Winter Wheat Program, Rockefeller Foundation Staff(desease, may 19721Turkey:BILLY C. WRIGHT. Ph.D., Agronomist, Team Leader. Rockefeller Foundation StaffFLOYD E. BOLTON, Agronomist, Oregon State University StaffECONOMICSDONALD L. WINKELMANN, Ph.D., EconomistCOMMUNICATIONSGREGORIO MARTINEZ VALDES. Ph.D., Head. Communications ProgramDEAN C. BORK, M.S., English EditorGil OLMOS B., M.S., Visual Aids SpecialistLEOBARDO TERPAN, PhotographerJUAN ZAMORA L., PhotographerMARTHA BERMUDEZ, B.A., librarianGENERAL SERVICE LABORATORIESEVANGELINA VILLEGAS M., Ph.D., Biochemist,ln·chargeREINALD BAUER. Dr. Sc. Agr., Nutritionist, Animal Nutrition LaboratoryFRANCISCO RODRIGUEZ B., M.S., Chemist, Plant and Soils Nutritibn LaboratoryLaboratory Research AssistantsERNESTO J. ALCANTAR G., Chemist, Protein Quality Laboratory (from November 1972)MARGARITO CORONADO M., Biochemist, Protein Quality Laboratory (through August 1972)ISMAEl JIMENEZ D., Chemist. Protein Quality laboratory (through June 1972)JAIME LOPEZ C•• Chemist, Protein Quality Laboratory (from November 1972)ENRIQUE ORTEGA M., Chemist, Plant and Soils Nutrition LaboratoryLUIS PATI 1Il0 G., Chemist, Wheat Quality Laboratory (from July 1972)ALEJANDRO REBOLLEDO V., Chemist, Plant and Soils Nutrition LaboratoryEXPERIMENT STATION OPERATIONSJOHN STEWART, HeadFLORENTINO AMACENDE, Farm Foreman at Poza RicaJOSE JIMENEZ R., Ing. Agr., Farm Foreman at TJaltizapanJOSE A. MIRANDA M., Farm Foreman at TolucaRAFAEL TRUJANO S., Farm Foreman at EI Batan5

IntroductionThe year 1972 was a period of continued progress forCIMMYT and its network of collaborators.To summarize: significant scientific gains aredescribed in this annual report for each branch ofCIMMYT'scrop research. In-service trainees at CIMMYTreached an all-time high for one year (82). CIMMYTstaff scientists were in residence in nine countriesoutside Mexico to assist wheat and maize productionprograms. CIMMYT donors under leadership of theWorld Bank provided the Center with financing whichtotalled $6.4 million, more than in any previous year.This continued growth required a more careful programreview, and CIMMYT responded by holding two programreviews and one administrative review duringthe year (see below).In research, one significant breakthrough in 1972came from the maize staff, which harvested a newopaque-2 line containing higher lysine levels and highertryptophan levels combined with the hard endosperm(inner kernel) preferred by most of the world's maizeeaters. This maize with higher quality protein wasundergoing field trials in 16 countries of Asia, Africa,and Latin America at the end of 1972.Other significant improvements for cereals are reportedin the following pages: for example, for the breadwheats, progress in crossing winter-spring wheats; forthe durulllS, which now are dwarfed and rapidlyimproving in yield potential; for triticale, the rnanmadewheat-rye cross, in which the problem of shrivelledgrain was substantially solved in 1972; for barley, aprogram resumed in 1972 after an interval of 10 years;for short, lodging-resistant tropical maize lines, nowreduced in height by more than one meter; and forcold-tolerant sorghum, which sets seed at elevationsabove 2,000 meters in the tropics. The CIMMYTscientists report each of these developments.Training programs at CIMMYT are considered anindex of progress because the trainees returning homestrengthen the capacity of their governments to conductlocal research under climatic conditions faced by localfarmers. The number of in-service trainees at CIMMYThas increased each year during the last three years:1970, 42 trainees from 18 countries; 1971, 67 traineesfrom 20 countries; and 1972, 82 trainees from 35countries.Pressure to accept a larger number of traineescontinues to increase, but the CIMMYT scientific staffbelieves that the number of trainees should not exceedthe number that can be given individual attention-­which may already be close.In 1972 CIMMYT stationed members of its scientificstaff in two new national production programs (Zaireand Nepal), both for maize. These new assignmentswere in addition to earlier programs still continuing.The older programs are: for wheat production, inAlgeria, Morocco, Tunisia, and Turkey; and for maizeproduction, in Colombia, Egypt and Pakistan.CIMMYT's financing, it now appears, has becomemore stable and more adequate after the organizing ofthe Consultative Group for International AgriculturalResearch in November 1971. This body consists of27 members interested in supporting the internationalresearch centers. Members of the Group includegovernments, international agencies, and private foundations.CIMMYT received assistance in 1972 from eight ofthese donors: from the Governments of Canada,Denmark and the United States; from three internationalo;ganizations.-the Inter-American DevelopmentBank, the U.N. Development Fund, and the WorldBank; and from the Ford Foundation and RockefellerFoundation. The financial support provided to CIMMYTover the past three years is summarized in the followingtable.CIMMYT FINANCING FOR 1970-72 (US$)1~0 1~1 1~2General operationsin Mexico 2,156,000Capital plantinvestment inMexicoGrants for projectsspecifiedby the donorMiscellaneousincomeTotal financing2,259,0002,998,0002,540,000 1,947,000 975,0001,055,000 1,713,000110,000 256,0005,861,000 6,175,0002,152,000322,0006,447,000CIMMYT's new headquarters, 50 kilometers northeastof Mexico City, experienced its first full year of use6

during 1972. The buildings and laboratories provedboth functional and attractive. New staff service unitshave been organized for building and grounds maintenance,for vehicle and machinery repairs, and fordormitory and food services, and these slowly gainedexperience during the year.An important new element of the CIMMYT programin 1972 was the addition of an economic studies unit.By recommendation of the Trustees, the first thrust ofthe economic unit was a series of studies on theadoption of new technology for wheat and maize.These studies were in progress at the end of 1972 infour Wheat-growing countries (I ndia, Iran, Turkey andTunisia) and in four maize-growing countries (Kenya,Mexico, EI Salvador and Colombia). Preliminaryfindings are expected in mid-1973, and a comprehensivereport in 1974. .A program review was requested in 1972 by thedonors, and CIMMYT responded energetically (somestaff think too energetically). CIMMYT invited anexternal panel composed of three scientists and oneeconomist to review its program in March 1972. ThePanel's thoughful report was made available to donorsat International Centers Week in July 1972. Toexplore a different type of program review, the CIMMYTsenior staff held a series of seminars in their ownresearch plots and laboratories during September-December1972. This review resulted in a programevaluation which will be available to donors at InternationalCenters Week in 1973. In December 1972CIMMYT invited still another external panel to reviewCIMMYT's administration. The report was madeavailable to donors.Although review of programs and administratIonproved a heavy burden to the senior staff in 1972. Itis expected that a simpler procedure will developwhereby an annual review can be held and thefindings distributed to the Consultative Group.The number of senior staff at CIMMYT in 1972remained at about 40, the same as in 1971.Haldore HansonDirector GeneralEI Batan, MexicoJune 19737

Dr. Joseph A. Rupert1916-1972In 1972 death came to an agricultural officer whohad given distinguished service to the RockefellerFoundation and to CIMMYT.Dr. Joseph A. Rupert first arrived in Mexico in1947 to assist N. E. Borlaug in wheat pathology.The Rockefeller Foundation subsequently appointedDr. Rupert head of its cooperative wheat improvementprogram in Colombia (1950-55) and director of itscooperative agricultural program in Chile (1955-68).The governments of both Colombia and Chile decoratedDr. Rupert for his services.In 1968 the Rockefeller Foundation transferredDr. Rupert to the University of California (Davis) todirect a new program for intercrossing spring and winterbread wheats, in collaboration with CIMMYT. Thiswork was beginning to show important results lastyear, before Dr. Rupert died.No one can replace Dr. Rupert. But CIMMYT iscontinuing the winter-spring crossing program by cooperativeaction among the University of Oregon, theGovernment of Turkey, and the wheat staff at CIMMYT.8

WHEATPage121212161620242526Xl3136414345495152546263707482838488MexicoCIMMYT Program Conducted with the NationalProgram of MexicoBread Wheat ProgramNational Institute of Agricultural Research,Cereals DepartmentPathologyBread Wheat Industrial QualityNutritional Improvement in Bread WheatsWinter-Spring Wheat ProgramHybrid Wheat ResearchDurum Improvement ProgramTriticalePhysiology and AgronomyWheat Training and VisitorsBarleyNational ProgramsAsiaIndiaPakistanAfghanistanIranTurkeyLebanonAfricaMoroccoAlgeriaTunisiaSouth AmericaEcuadorBrazilArgentinaAppendixINTRODUCTIONThe precariousness of the world food supply wasbrought sharply into focus by events in the last sixmonths of 1972. It became clearly evident again that apoor harvest in a single large cereal-producing countrycan have worldwide impact on food grain stocks, foodprices and shipping. What would happen if there werepoor harvests in two of the large cereal-producingcountries in the same year?Although the 1972 world grain harvest has beenestimated at 1.064 billion metric tons, the second largestcrop on record, production declined by approximately42 million tons from the previous year. Much of thisdecrease resulted from a poor wheat harvest in theUSSR, caused by severe winter-killing and a severedro~ght in the spring wheat areas. The poor harvestresulted in Russia's contracting for 20 million tons ofwheat in the international market as of October, 1972.Estimates indicate that these Russian purchases, as wellas increased imports by several other countries, willincrease wheat world trade during the 1972-73 year toabout 67 million metric tons compared to 52 milliontons for the previous year. With the increased demandfor wheat grain, prices have risen sharply on the ,internationalmarket. On July 1, 1972, the cash price forNo. 2 Red Winter wheat at United States Gulf portswas about US$55 per metric ton; by December 31it was more than US$100 per ton. The heavy demandfor freighters and shortage of shipping capacity alsoincreased ocean freight rates by 40 percent during thesame period. The poor harvest coincided with a growingshortage of fertil izers, especially phosphorous, on theinternational market and prices have increased 10 to 30percent.9

Fortunately, the poor harvest in the USSR coincidedwith a period when the total world grain stocks, includingfeed grains, were at a moderately high level, forexample, Ju Iy 1, 1972, 132 mill ion metric tons. It isestimated that the stocks will fall to 117 million tonsby July 1, 1973. The world grain situation, however.is much more critical for food grains than for feedgrains.The world wheat stocks in exporting nations stood at49 million metric tons on July 1. 1972. and currentestimates indicate they will fall to 34 million tons byJuly 1. 1973. The food grain situation in Asia is alsofurther complicated by a shortage of rice, caused bymilitary disruptions in Bangladesh, Vietnam, and Cambodia,by floods in the Philippines, by drought inIndia, and by unwise, short-sighted economic policieswhich restrict production in some other countries.Fortunately, the 1972 wheat harvests from ·India toMorocco were good to excellent. India, Afghanistan,Pakistan, Iran, Iraq, Turkey, Jordan, Lebanon, Tunisia,Algeria and Morocco harvested record or near-recordcrops. Throughout the area the impact of the GreenRevolution. especially on wheat production, continuesto expand. The area sown to high-yielding varietiesand the use of chemical fertilizers and other improvedcultural practices continues to spread. Favorable weatherthroughout the India-Pakistan subcontinent, theMiddle East, Near East and North Africa during the1971-72 wheat crop season also contributed greatly tothe excellent harvest.Losses from diseases and insects were of little consequenceanywhere. in North Africa, the Near East andMiddle East during the 1971-72 crop season. Moreover,several new high-yielding dwarf wheat varieties developedin these countries and carrying different types ofdisease resistance are beginning to reduce the area sownto the widely grown cross 8156 derivatives, for example,Kalyansona, Mexipak. 7 Cerros, etc., that wereintroduced directly from Mexico. This diversificationof genotypes reduces, though it does not el iminate.the danger of widespread disease epidemics. Vigorousbreeding programs must be maintained to provide acontinuous flow of varieties with new sources of resistanceto provide better protection against new races ofthe pathogens.Despite the progress being made in increasing wheatproduction in many of the aforementioned countries,there is no room for complacency. One can easilyimagine the famine and human suffering that wouldhave resulted if adverse weather conditions such as theUSSR suffered during 1972 had also simultaneouslystruck the India-Pakistan subcontinent. Indeed, it islargely because of the consecutive record-breaking wheatharvests culminating in a 1972 crop of 26.5 millionmetric tons (compared to a 1965 harvest of 12.4million) that permitted India to stockpile more than 9million tons of food grains, mainly wheat. Thisstockpile is now serving Ind ia well to offset the poor1972 rice and sorghu m harvests.Moreover, in times of pending food crisis, such as theworld now faces, one must take stock not only of theshortfalls in production, but also of the progressachieved in recent years. What would the world foodgrain situation be today without the achievements of theGreen Revolution in the subcontinent of India andPakistan? What would the plight of their people betoday if these countries were still producing 15.5million metric tons of wheat jointly as they did in 1965,instead of the 33 million tons they harvested in 1972?It becomes ever more apparent that the developingnations must be aided in improving their agricu Iture sothey can produce most of the food that they need.One of the greatest obstacles to achieving this goal isthe lack of trained, well-motivated agricu Itural scientists.CI MMYT continues to provide practical training formany young scientists in the fields of agronomy, plantbreeding, plant pathology, plant physiology and cerealtechnology. Within the past year funds for this purposehave been increased, and the number of trainees hasbeen increased to the maximum that can be instructedeffectively by the present staff.CIMMYT continues to provide genetic materials.both segregating and advanced fixed Iines, of breadwheat, durum wheat, triticale and barley to cooperatorsthroughout the world. The CIMMYT gene pools ofthese crops are constantly being modified and broadenedto increase the spectrum of disease and insect resistancein the material distributed. Wheat yield stability, to alarge extent, is dependent upon the development andwidespread use of disease-resistant varieties.Increased yield stability in wheat production--as wellas in all cereals--is a major need for all countries.Widespread disease epidemics can lead to famine. Bettercontrol of diseases is the most important factor contributingtoward increased yield stability that can bemanipulated by plant breeders. Are we giving thisaspect of varietal improvement sufficient emphasis?More effort must be on breeding for increased yieldstability, especially as it relates to disease resistance.CIMMYT scientists believe that the present nationalyields of wheat in all the developing nations can bedoubled with the currently available commercial varietiesif adequate fertilizer is applied and if diseases arecontrolled. Wheat breeders must not be lured intoplacing undue stress on developing higher yieldingvarieties without improving the level and spectrum ofdisease resistance.In-service trainees fill seed packets for distribution tosome 60 countries with which CIMMYT exchangesmaterials.10

From 1963 to 1972 the small CIMMYT wheat staffwas heavily committed to assisting India and Pakistan,and more recently to many Near East, Middle Eastand North African countries, to increase their wheatproduction. During this period, there was little opportunityto continue directly assisting the Latin Americancountries with their wheat production problems, althoughCIMMYT did continue to supply them withgenetic materials. CIMMYT wheat staff members visitedseveral of these countries during 1972 with the aim ofre-establishing closer cooperation. The countries visitedinclude Guatemala, Ecuador, Peru, Brazil and Argentina.Tentative plans have been made to visit Colombia,Chile, Bolivia, Paraguay and Uruguay during 1973.Plans are also being made to establ ish a cooperativeregional testing program to serve South American countries.A shortage of chemical fertilizer continues to be oneof the greatest obstacles to increasing cereal productionin the developing nations. While top priorities andallocation of huge sums of monies are often devoted todam and irrigation development projects, only lowpriorities and inadequate funds, if any at all, areallocated for developing an efficient fertilizer industry,even when the raw materials are available. Theresult of inadequate planning for fertilizer productioncapacity as well as for timely imports of fertilizers will"make it difficult for several developing countries toattain their 1973 cereal production targets. Currently,the world demand for fertilizer has outgrown productioncapacity. Consequently, several countries, such asIndia and Pakistan, which are attempting to achieve andmaintain self-sufficiency in cereal production, were"caught short" of fertilizer, especially phosphates, dur-A CIANO staff member gestures to emphasize a point in his discussion of wheat breeding problems.around the world visit the CIANO station each year.Many visitors from11

ing the fall 1972 wheat planting season. The CIMMYTwheat staff contends that higher priorities and agreater allocation of funds must be made for fertilizerplant construction if the developing countries are tomeet food production needs.MEXICOThe Resident CIMMYT Program Conductedin Collaboration with the National Programof MexicoCIMMYT, like other international centers, cooperatesvery closely with the national program of the hostcountry. All of the materiai.s under development aremade available to the Instituto Nacional de InvestigacionesAgrfcolas (INIA) for use in Mexico. Sincemany readers may not be fully aware of this relationship,it seems appropriate to provide an explanation.CIMMYT has not released and will not relec.senamed commercial varieties. It only makes availablematerials at all stages of development to cooperatingnational programs. National programs use these materialsdirectly for further selection or to incorporatethem in their crossing programs. Any improved typesmay be named by the national programs and put intocommercial production. Mexico is no exception. Certainof the present commercial varieties of Mexicohave been developed in this way, but others haveemanated directly from the national program activities.Thus, Mexican varieties are truly Mexican.There is, however, a special relationship in Mexicobetween the national and international programs sincethe principal CIMMYT wheat nursery is grown on theCIANO station of the INIA system. This station,located in Sonora State in northwestern Mexico, isoperated by IN IA and receives direct assistance fromthe farmers of the region. Thus, all materials at allstages are directly available to CIANO and, hence, toINIA. One INIA scientist is employed as a liaison plantbreeder between the two programs. IN IA also operatesseveral stations throughout the wheat growing areas ofMexico and, in this way, widespread testing is donewithin .the national program. IN IA also conducts adynamic national breeding program involving manycrosses for many crops, including bread wheat, durumwheat and barley, and INIA makes these materialsavailable to CIMMYT. This relationship, as for othercooperating national programs, greatly ".sists the developmentof new germ plasm in CIMMYT materials.Thus, the Mexican National Progrgramin Mexico.THE BREAD WHEAT PROGRAMIn the past year nu rsery development was good atall three locations --CIANO, Toluca, and EI Batan.Leaf rust developed early at CIANO and susceptiblevarieties were under heavy selection pressure. Leaf rustinfection reduced Inia 66 yields about one ton/ha.Stem rust infection was at a sufficiently high level topermit effective selection. At Toluca, stripe rustbegan early and essentially destroyed Siete Cerrosproduction. Septaria tritici was also much heavier thanlast year and it is now possible to select for resistanceto prevalent strains of this disease.In the past year 14 advanced lines were consideredto have superior yields, disease resistance and agronomiccharacteristics. These are presented in Table W1.The yield of the highest yielding check is shownbelow that of each genotype. Generally, yields ofthese outstanding lines were equal to or superior tothe highest yielding check variety. In a few cases, lineswere chosen primarily for outstanding disease resistanceor other characteristics. The line 12300 x LR64 ­8156/Nor67 appears particularly promising.The average yield and disease reactions for theCIMMYT Elite No. 1 and CIMMYT Elite No.2 yieldtests grown at 12 and 17 locations in different countries,respectively, are given in Tables W2 and W3. It isevident that the Bluebird series of varieties continue toshow good yields and relatively low coefficients ofinfection. Moreover, the outstanding performance ingrain yield and disease resistance of several other linesin these tests indicate they should be considered aspotential candidates for varietal release in several nationalprograms.Table W4 presents data for Mexican varieties grownin thp. International Spring Wheat Yield Nursery for sixconsecutive seasons from 1964·65 to 1969-70 plusaverage coefficients of infection for stem rust, leafrust and stripe rust. As expected, there has been agradual erosion of resistance in those varieties grownwidely on a commercial scale, resulting in a selectionpressure for new virulent strains of the rusts. (Onemust ignore the 1965 results represented only by afew reporting locations where diseases were very prevalent).Among the varieties under study, Roque 66,Jaral 66 and Tobari 66 have shown a continuing highlevel of resistance. Azteca 67, which is a sister strain ofCiano 67, also has generally maintained better resistancethan Ciano 67.These data give strong evidence of the effects ofselection pressure of widely grown commercial varietiessuch as Siete Cerros, Lerma Rojo 64A and Penjamo 62on the rust pathogens.The International Bread Wheat Screening Nursery(IBWSN) is grown in cooperating national programsworldwide. It consists of the best lines and varietieswhich entered yield tests in Mexico each year. Thenumber varies from year to year, depending on theselection pressure in the nurseries. The results of theThird IBWSN (Series AI grown in 1969-70 are nowavailable. Certain cross combinations have providedmany sister strains showing acceptable disease resistanceand high yields. C! osses appearing most often aspromising disease resistance are shown in Table W5.With the exception of four crosses, the varietyCiano 69 appears as a parent in all of the outstandingnew crosses. Twenty-nine crosses had only one linewith a reaction of less than 10S to all three rusts and,hence, were omitted from Table W5. With these linesincluded, the frequency of parental appearance in thecrosses with five or more resistant lines is: Ciano 6785 lines; Bluebird, 39; (nia, 34; Tobari 66, 28; Sonor~64, 14; Corre Caminos, 14; Chris, 14; Son 64-KI. Rend.,10; Lerma Rojo 64, 10; Tezanos Pinto Precoz, 8;Penjamo 62, 6; Calidad. 6; and Noroeste 66, 5.We may further define this list with regard toparental composition. Ciano 67 is one of the parents ofthe Bluebird series and appears 124 times. Inia 66 is asister of Noroeste 66. Hence, collectively the Son 64 x12

TABLE Wl. Characteristics of superior bread wheat lines in yield tests at CIANO, Sonora, Mexico (1971-72),Rust reactionsGrain Alveogram Sedimen· LoafYield weight PKI. Proteintation vol P. gram. P. re·Genotype and pedigree kg/ha kg/hi min 0/0 PIG W cc cc tritiei eondita HeightYeeora "s" 7 344 81.3 t20 12.7 5.8 380 51 ... 0 lOS E' 223584·26Y·2M·l Y·OM·302M 8203 Cj ..Bb . Inia 66 7479 81.8 120 11.8 5.0 299 55 650 TR 20MR E' 226591·1T·7M·OM·55Y·OM8302 CoeChanate Tt 2 = Cno·Pj62xCno-7C 829126665·22Y·300M·301 Y·2M· 7911 7C81.2 38 8.8 3.9 163 25 680 TA 10MS E 2501Y·,'i00M·OY12300 x LR64·8156/Nor67 8156 80.2 120 9.7 6.2 307 61 6~0 TR TR E.30842·31 R·2M·2Y·OM 7459 7CCno . Inia66 x Bb 6355 82.2 120 11.7 3.1 513 69 845 TRMR 10MR E228339·17Y·l M·lY·OM7049 CjChanate # 1 = Cno·Pj62xCno·7C 8224 81.9 53 9.3 3.3 169 31 675 TS 10MR E 126665·22Y·300M·301Y·l M·500Y·OM8276 CjKal • Bb 7854 81.3 120 10.4 6.3 262 39 655 0 5MR E 326703·30M·l Y·l M·3Y·OM7912 7CKal . Bb 7797 82.9 120 11.5 5.1 330 49 755 TR 5MS E 326702·30M·l Y·l M·500Y·OM8276 7CInia66 • RL4220 x 7C 7359 82.6 120 11.2 4.6 335 51 780 0 10MS E' 235038·7Y·l M·OY7843 7CInia66·Bb/lnia66-Cno x Cal 6308 83.2 93 9.8 7.7 221 35 740 10MR 20MS E'234178·64Y·7M·OM·(6.50)·M5876 7CSon64·K I. Rend x Nor67/ Azt67 8061 81.8 120 11.9 7.6 499 43 810 10MR 5MR E'229187·3R·l M·1T·OR7373 TiInia "s" . Napo63 x Cno 6863 81.9 120 10.0 5.6 386 44 71025483-8M·4T·2M·3A·OM 7311 CjCno "s" • Jar66 6905 82.8 115 10.9 5.3 376 49 755 TR TR25339·14M·l S·2R·3R-oM6696 Yr7C . On x Inia66 • B. Man 7958 81.5 111 11.9 8.3 321 39 650 TR 20MS E'I28424·8Y·l M·1Y·OM7912 7C.. Highest yielding check variety in the same experiment and yield (kg/hal....& 10 PK = Pelshenke value.to).

LR 64 cross appears 39 times.Tobari 66, from thecross Tzpp x Son 64, is related to Calidad, from thecross Tzpp.son64/LR64-Tzpp x AnE3. Therefore,Tzpp x Son 64 appea~s 31 times in the parentage.Sonora 64 is present in Ciano 67 (= Pi62 - Chris "s" xSon64), in the Bluebirds, in Inia 66, in Tobari 66, inCorre Caminos, in Son 64-KI. Rend., in Calidad and inNoroeste 66. It is involved in the parentage of 234 ofthese lines. Chris is present in Ciano 67 and, hence, inthe Bluebirds. So, it is involved in 138 of the lines.Sonora 64 - Klein Rendidor is represented by t~eBluebirds and is present in 49 lines. Lerma Rojo 64 ispresent in Inia 66, Calidad, and Noroeste 66, so itappears in 45 lines. Tzpp appears in Tobari 66 and Ca­Iidad, or 41 lines. Penjamo 62 appears in the Bluebirdseries and is present in 45 lines. The relationships ofthese varieties is shown schematically in Fig. Wl.Some 27 additional varieties appear in the parentage ofcrosses giving rise to one to four resistant lines.It appears from this relationship that the outstandingCIMMYT materials are narrow-based genetically. To adegree this is true, but steps have been taken using aTABLE W2. Average yield and reaction to rusts of the bread wheat genotypes in the CIMMYT Elite SelectionYield Trial # 1 n969-70)."Genotypes and pedigreeYieldkg/haCoefficient of infectionStem rust hStripe rust hBb # 4 = Cajeme 7123584-26Y-2M-3Y-2M·OYInia 6619008-83M-1 OOY-l OOM-l OOY-l OOCBb # 3 = Saric 7023584-26Y·2M-2Y·OMInia"s"·Nap063 = Tanor! 7122402-6M·4Y-l M·l Y·OMBb # 2 = Yecora 7023584-26Y-2M-l Y·OMCno"s"·lnia"s"223959-13T-l M·5Y-OMBb # 1 = Nuri 7023584-15Y-6M-OYPenjamo 727078-1 R-6M-l R-l MBluebird # 723584-18M-l0Y-3M-3YKI. Rend. x 80n64 x Inia"s" x Cno"s"24970-29M-3Y-2M-OYN066"s" x Cno"s"24941·23M·5Y-2M-OY23584 x Cno"s"26592-1T-17M-OYTob 66 x Cno"s"24908-30M-3Y-3M-OYTob x Cno"s"25000·6M-2Y-OMBluebird # 523584·:nY-2M-2Y-OMSonora 648469-2Y·6C-4C-2Y·l CTob-Cno"s"25000·68M-2Y·OYSon-KI. Rend. Cno"s" x LR642-Son6427130-57M-OYTob-Cno"s"25000·13M-3Y-2M-OYTobari 6619021·4M-3Y·l 02M·l 00Y-l0l C7 Cerros8156-1 M-2R-4MCiano 6719957·18M-lY-3M-9YTob-cno"s"25000-26M-1 Y-OY23584-Cho"s" .26572-6Y·3M·OYCno"s"?lnia"s"223959-52T·l M-3Y-OM49884890475947354718464046294584456745604526447944094397437643084284422242214219420041914138401340113.511.62.07.08.23.614.625.24.00.483.80.166.45.14.824.80.42.00.162.035.65.11.10.40.49.420.410.511.316.117.215.121.07.513.720.414.62.112.07.528.49.113.115.610.524.828.110.224.815.7" Countries and number of locations where test was grown: l'l. S. A. (4 locations). Pakistan (1), U. A. R. (1), Tunisia(1), South Africa (1), Morocco (1), Ecuador (1). Mexico (2).). Average values from 5 locations only: North Dakota, Egypt, Tunisia, South Africa and Mexico.14

TABLE W3. Average yield and reaction to rusts of the bread wheat genotypes in the CIMMYT Elite SelectionTrial # 2 (1970-71).aGenotype and pedigreeYecora "s" (R)23584-26Y-2M-l Y-OMYecora "s" (R)23584-26Y-2 M-lY-OMBluebird # 4 Reselec.23584-26Y-2M-3Y-l M-OYYecora "s"23584-26Y-2M-1Y-OM-89YInia-Cal x Inia"s"-CCCno"s"-Inia25717-11Y-3M-1Y-OMLA64-Son64 2 x Tob27180-26M-4Y-3M-OYCaIlCno"s" x LA64 2 -Son6427169-48M-1Y-l M-OYBluebird # 4A (A)23584-26Y-2M-3Y-2M-OY-300M7 Cerros8156-1 M-2R-4MInia 6619008-83M-l00Y-l00M-l00YSaric 7023584-26Y-2M-2Y-OYKal-Bb26902-30M-l Y-l M-OYBluebird (R)23584-1 02M-l03Y-1 OOM-OYCC-Inia x Cno"s"-Son6428084-1Y-4M-OYPenjamo 627078-1 A-6M-l R-l MCpo-Cno(Son64 x Tzpp-Y54/Cno)25820-16Y·l M-l Y-OYRobin # 126787-300Y-300M-302Y-301 M-OYBb -Inia26591-lT-7M-OYTobari 6619021-4M-3Y-102M-IOOY-l 01 CInia-Bb26478-32Y-9M-1Y-5M-OYCno 2 Son64-KI. Aend.26529-3T-7M-4Y-4M-OYCno"s"-Son6426529-3T-7M-4Y-4M-OYCno"s"-Son6423582-50Y-3M-OYJar-Napo-Sharbati?8048-20Y-2Y-OYBb·Cno.26592-lT-16M-1Y-1 M-OYYieldCoefficient of infectionkg/ha Stem rust lJ Stripe rust c4238 1.8 7.04200 0.8 12.04178 0.4 3.54174 0.2 12.54140 0.2 25.04123 0.8 0.44100 0.1 2.74045 0 10.04026 0.1 5.04024 3.6 15.03990 0.8 0.23978 0.2 5.03947 0 39.53931 0.2 5.03929 0.8 10.03873 21.6 4.03865 6.8 03864 0.2 0.23824 0.2 03742 0.2 0.23680 2.9 2.53626 0.2 0.43581 0.4..2.03581 0.4 2.03572 0.2 0.23310 0.2 2.0" Countries and number of locations where test was grown: U.S.A. (4 locations), U.S.S.R. (1), Morocco (2), Tunisia (2),.. Average values from 2 locations: U.S.A. and Iran.,. Average values from 2 locations: Iran and Tunisia.FIG. W1. Relationships of principal varieties appearingin the parentage of superior lines of the Third InternationalBread Wheat Screening Nursery.system of top -crosses and double crosses to greatlydiversify and expand the varieties contributing to thegene P.ool. The new materials which have not yetreached the yield testing stage reflect this input.Nevertheless, it remains to be seen whether the newcombinations can compete in yield with the materialscurrently in the-yield nurseries.The plant breeder dealing with improved varietiesmust recognize the superior germ plasm built up in aprogram and realize that new genes for yield, diseaseresistance and other characteristics must be added tothe "hard core" base of improved germ plasm. Thisaccounts for the very few times that a single cross of animproved variety x a native cultivar produces usable,'high-yielding, disease-resistant and agronomically acceptablevarieties. In other words, trying to improve land15

...u:::.s:...c:o t"­O>tOMLOOlqo.ri":cio.rioiN..,.NMNLl')OM..-Lt')C"")""':"":u:i"":NC'"i..-(;'\1 ..... (\1('\1('1)"'::::I"q--O')MO '0aOu;"":LtiMui :~C\I .............. M'0') '..;r-...,.:C'i :C'iai._-:1'-I/)OM·c.OO-.:t....:...... ('\,1 ...:Ol.­.-:M..-MCDNN'Ii;f(O·MNC'i....:cxicx:iC'iu;.- ..... ('\1races is a losing battle. Land races must be usedindirectly to improve the gene pool, but generallythey will not directly produce superior commercialvarieties.NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURALRESEARCH, CEREALS DEPARTMENT..';:a>. ȧ......s:.~ạ.~...~c:a u)(..~-o...::l...........-=I/)(00>I/)(00>ot"­O>(0-I/)(00>C!CX!C!C\!"':II1CX!C\!C\!N(J)NCOO-c.o'll::tC"')- __ ..... ('\IM .....NI/)I/)CXl 0 I/)oicoiC'ic:ricir-:MI/)lt)MI/)""(oCXlCXl __r-:c:riC'iC'iciM .......... ..,.LI')CX!C\!~C!~t-:1/)"" CXlNI/) MM--M""'''''' v ('f') to : ~ : M co "",'('\I CX) 0") N .........:~~~~ui .('\1 '~~~~~uiNaO('l') M......... ...........O..-c.or-LI')MLt')r-~cio.rioiC'i0>:~~~~. N N N.:"!..,.N~M~c.o~NM~..... "",m~_vc.oo.................... ..... .......... ...-Most of Mexico's wheat production is from irrigatedareas using fertilizers. Although eight percent of thewheat acreage is sown under rainfed conditions, theYield per unit of area is so low that it contributes onlytwo percent of total production.The important wheat growing areas in Mexico are:i 1) the Northwest, comprising the State and Territory ofBaja California, Sonora and Sinaloa; (2) the states ofChihuahua and Coahuila; (3) a central region formed bythe states of Guanajuato, Michoacan and Jalisco; and(4) small rainfed areas in the states of Oaxaca, Chiapas,Nuevo Leon, Michoacan and Chihuahua.According to data in Table W6, the cultivated areafor the past two years has decreased considerablybecause the price of wheat has remained constant for thepast 14 years while production costs have increased.Meanwhile, prices for other crops, such as safflower andcotton, have increased, resulting in higher incomes perhectare. Thus, other crops have tended to displacewheat in the irrigated areas.In 1972 the decrease in average yield was partly dueto reduced tillering because of temperatures higher thannormal in the early stages of plant development.Another factor contributing to lower yields was thesevere leaf rust attack on the widely sown varietyInia F66.For these reasons, total production has decreasednotably since 1969. Meanwhile, wheat consumptionhas steadily increased, requ iring importation of wheat tomeet national demands in 1971 and 1972 for the firstsince 1956.For 1973, the Companla Nacional de SubsistenciasPopulares will improve somewhat the support price ofwheat, which is now US$64 per ton for the Northwestand US$73.04 for the northern and central areas ofMexico.New varieties are generally released every three tofour years; in general, these varieties are superior to theones they replace in yield, disease resistance and quality.Three new varieties were named and designated forrelease in 1972. They are: Roque F63 (= Ciano"s" xEI Gaucho - Sonora 64, 11 23586 - 21 M - IT . 3M . 1R);Mochis F73 (=Son64 - KI. Rend x Bb"s", 26502 - 8Y ­9M - IT - 1M - 5S - OM); and Toluca F73 (=Inia"s" ­Napo x Ciano, 28036 - 111M - 1R - 2M -IT - my1).The yield, disease resistance and quality performance ofthese new varieties and several other promising lines isshown in Tables W7 and W8.Contributed by Rodolfo Moreno Galvez, Cereals Department,National I nstitute of AgriCUltural Research, Ministry of Agricultureand Livestock, Mexico.PATHOLOGYRustsWorldwide, stem rust (Puccinia graminis tritici), leafrust (P. recondita) and stripe rust (P. striiformis) are themost important diseases of wheat. They often limitboth grain yield and grain quality.In any successful breeding program, there must be acontinuous effort to search for and to incorporate newsources of resistance into the gene pool through proper16

TABLE W5. Spring wheat crosses with two or more lines in the Third International Bread Wheat ScreeningNursery (Series A) and entries with reaction below lOS to the three rusts at all locations (1969-701.Genotype ilnd crossesNumberof linesEntries resistant to 3 rustsCno "s" x Son 64 - 1

tABLE W7. Agronomic characteristics of new wheat varieties and promising lines sown at Mochis, Sinaloaand Roque, Guanajuato (1971-72).Yield, kg/haStem Leaf Stripe Maturity HeightVariety or line and pedigree Mochis Roque rust rust rust days cmROQUE F73Cno"s" x EI Gau-Son64 5388 7704 TrR 20MR TrMR 120 851123586-21 M-H-3M-l RMOCHIS F73Son64-KI.Rend x Bb"s" 6496 5824 TrR 10MR 20MS 127 751126502-8Y-9M-H-l M-5S-0MTOLUCA F73Inia"s"-Nap063 x Cno F67 6004 7166 TrR lOR TrR 128 901128036-111 M-l R-2M-H-OMBb"s" x Son64 2 6165 6704 TrR TrR 0 136 751127345-22M-l T-3M-2S-0MNad.63-LR64A x Bb"s" 6260 6333 TrR TrR 10MR 130 901130756-3S·1 M-H-OR12300-LR64A x 8156/lnia F68 6475 7361 10MS lOR 20S 128 1001130842-5S-3M-2T-ORYecora F70 5075 6555 TrR 80S 20S 128 80TABLE W8. Bread-making characteristics of new wheat varieties and promising lines harvested at Roque,Guanajuato (1971-72).TestVariety or line and pedigreeweightkg/hiPKminROQUE F73Cno"s" x EI Gau-Son64 77.6 +1201123586-21 M-H-3M-l RMOCHIS F73Son64-KI-Rend x Bb"s" 82.8 611126502-8Y-9M-H-l M-5S·0MTOLUCA F73Inia"s"-Nap063 x Cno F67 81.5 1201128036-111 M-l R-2M-H-OMBb"s" x TzPP-Son64 2 82.8 521127345-22M-1T-3M-2S-0MNad63-LR64A x Bb"s" 83.3 981130756-3S-1 M·l T-OR12300-LR64A x 8156/lnia F68 84.0 1201139842-5S-3M·2T-ORYecora F70 83.5 91Potam S70 82.9 80--......,-------_._----_._._---Flour Alveogram Mixing Loafyield Protein time vol0/0 % W PIG min cc65 12.1 318 4.1 3.00 97558 9.9 372 5.0 3.40 100567 12.0 364 3.9 5.15 +102565 10.2 296 3.5 3.30 86061 12.2 301 5.0 3.15 88567 8.4 306 6.2 3.30 80561 9.1 308 5.8 5.00 89063 8.1 122 1.4 4.00 625It appears that no single gene provides very effectiveprotection. Table W9 also indicates that the varietiesCiano 67, Inia 66, Tobari 66, Hopps and Lerma Rojo64A almost certainly carry genes for adult-plant resistancesince a high percentage of rust isolates attack themin the seedling stage. Interestingly, Cocorit 71 is highlyresistant to all the isolates, while Jori 69 has becomesusceptible to certain isolates in the seedling stage.Although no susceptible reaction was seen in the field(1971-72), one isolate from the 1971-72 collections hasproduced susceptibility on adult Jori 69 in the greenhouse.A genetic search in the adult stage involving varietiesCiano 67, Lerma Rojo 64A, Yaqui 50 and Hopps hasdemonstrated that complex gene action is responsiblefor providing resistance. The resistance of Ciano 67and Lerma Rojo 64A was different from Hopps andYaqui 50. There are indications that some of the genesin Yaqui 50 are identical to those in Hopps. The geneticcomplexity of the variety Hopps and its mode ofsegregation indicates that this variety carries a generaltype of resistance.A separate genetic study involving the varietiesSonora 64, Inia 66, Norteno 67 and Noroeste 66tested against races 12 and 113 of P. graminis triticirevealed that the latter three varieties carry two dominantand one recessive gene for resistance in the seedlingstage. Two of the three genes were linked and alsopresent in Sonora 64. In addition to these genes for.edling resistance, Inia 66, Noroeste 66 and Norteno 67all carried adult-plant resistance of the postseedlingtype.A similar study was conducted with some of theadvanced durum lines. Durums, as a class, are veryresistant in Mexico, but they are not resistant whenmoved abroad. The study involving durum lines Crane"S" (11 - 23055· 56M - 3Y - 1M - 3Y· 1M - OY), Booby"S" (11 - 21203 - 5Y - lY - 2Y . 4M - 2Y • 100M), andAnhinga "S" (11 - 22234 . 9M . 2Y) suggests thatthe resistance to races 12 and 113 in the seedling stagedepends on only two dominant genes and that thesegenes are common to all three varieties. Cocorit 71 isalso highly resistant to these races, but observationssuggest that the resistance is based on three genes. The18

---TABLE W9. Reaction of certain varieties withgenes for specific resistance to 350 isolates of Pucciniagraminis tritici collected from CIANO, Sonora,Mexico.Variety or lineLine M rSr 8)Line C (Sr 9c)Lee (Sr 11)Line G (Sr 7a)Line 0 (Sr 7b)Line F (Sr 10)Line S (Sr 13)Rendwn (Sr 17)Line P (Sr 9a)Pitic 62Penjamo 62Ciano 67Inia 66LR 64ATobari 66Yecora 70Saric 70Cajeme 71Tanori 71Jori 69Cocorit 71EraFletcherHoppsIsolates virulenton seedlings0/093.981.392.276.695.510.326.712.096.995.796.892.852.154.813.822.48.614.043.416.5o2.62.692.2Adult plantreaction inthe field90S50S50S60S60STS40MSTR80S90S50STMRTMR10MRTRTRTRTRTRTRTRTRTRTRabove findings show the need to strengthen stem rustresistance in durums. Based on three years of experience,the following durum lines should be used assources of adult-plant resistance to Puecinia graministritiei: CI-7196 (Russia), PI-182669 (Syria), PI-2190044(Cyprus), CI-6828 (Tunisia), PI-191235 (Spain). PI­166445 (Turkey), PI-182671 (Lebanon). PI-223163(Israel), PI-190933 (Spain), PI·191931 (Portugal) andPI-157951 (Italy).A characterization of stem rust on Tritieale wasattempted by collecting spores of stem rust fromtriticale, wheat and rye, and inoculating them separatelyon seedlings of these hosts. Eleven of the 19isolates from triticale produced a susceptible reaction onsome lines of triticale and certain varieties of wheatand rye. The other eight isolates produced a resistantreaction on both triticale and rye. whereas in wheat thevarietal reactions involved resistance as well as susceptibility.The behavior of three races of Pueeinia graministritiei collected from wheat and inoculated on lines oftriticale and varieties of wheat and rye was similar tothat encountered using isolates from triticale. Incontrast, the isolates from rye differed in their virulencepattern from the races of Pueeinia graminis tritiei andPueeinia graminis isolates from triticale on all threehosts. Nine of 10 isolates from rye did not produce asusceptible reaction on any of the varieties of wheat andtriticale but did produce a differential reaction on rye.The remaining isolate from rye acted like Pueeiniagraminis seea/is when inoculated on varieties of rye. butlike Pueeinia graminis tritiei when inoculated on thewheat varieties. and was capable of producing a suscepti·ble reaction on the triticale lines as well. According tothese results. probably the pathogen mostly responsiblefor stem rust of triticale belongs to Pueeinia graministritiei rather than Pueeinia graminis seea/is. However,the results indicate the existence of genetic recombinantsof the fungi derived from the forms Pueeiniagraminis tritici and Pueeinia graminis seea/is which havethe capacity to attack triticale. wheat and rye.Results from a separate parallel study indicate thatPueeinia reeandita tritiei is the pathogen responsible forleaf rust on triticale rather than Pueeinia reconditaseea/is.Leaf rust of wheat. caused by Pueeinia reconditatritiei, is very prevalent in the northern wheat belt ofMexico. There is a wide range of varia~ility in virulencegenes. In 1971·72, there was a shift of virulence. and forthe first time the Bluebirds (Yecora 70. Cajeme 71 andSaric 70) became susceptible to a new strain of leafrust, namely, race 77. There is no lack of resistance tothis pathogen in the bread wheat program, but an exactknowledge of the genetic variability comparable towhat is known for stem rust resistance is not available.The variety Tobari 66 has adult-plant resistance againstleaf rust in addition to seedling resistance.Like leaf rust, stripe rust, caused by Pueeiniastriiformis, has expanded its virulence range in theValley of Toluca. For the first time, the Minnesotavariety Era and the line Meng-8156 became susceptibleto a new type of this fungus. It is not yet knownwhether the same race was responsible for virulence onboth varieties or whether two different races wereinvolved.Stripe rust variability in regard to physiological racesdoes not appear to be as great as for leaf rust and stemrust.Results are available for lines entered in the InternationalSpring Wheat Rust Nurseries grown in 1968.1969 and 1970. Data for the better lines submittedfrom CIMMYT together with check varieties are shownin Tables W10. W11 and W12.In the 1968 data (Table W10). all the lines show alow coefficient of infection for stem rust, leaf rust andstripe rust, although as expected. susceptibility ofvarying levels was shown at certain locations. Much ofthe resistance was derived from Tezanos Pinto Precozand AndesE (dwarf). In the 1969 data (Table W11).genotypes are shown ha'tling a low coefficient ofinfection for stripe rust. which is increasing in importancemany countries. In the 1970data (Table W12).lines with a low coefficient for all these rusts are againpresented. The coefficient for both stem rust and leafrust is low as well as the highest recorded individualrating in all cases. For stripe rust. the coefficient is lowbut high susceptibility was recorded at one or two locations.Septaria ResearchResults from the Sixth International Bread WheatScreening Nursery grown at Toluca in 1972 are reportedin Table W13 for lines showing good combine

TABLE W10. CIMMYT varieties and advanced lines showing a high level of resistance to Puccinia graministritici," Puccinia reconidta " and Puccinia striiformis.'· (Data from the International Spring Wheat Rust Nursery,1968.)Pucr.inia 9raminis trifiei Puccinia recondita Puccinia striiformisAvera~e Average Averagelines or varieties coefficient Highest coefficient Highest coefficient Highestand pedillree~ of infection ratinll of infection rating of infection ratingSon64 )l TZOD-VS418888-1 03M~1 OOV-l OOM-l OOV-l 01 C-l V 2.4 25S 1.6 30S 45 20MSSonfi4 )l Tzpp-Nai6018889-3M-2V-2M-l V-l C-2V 4.2 70MR-MS 0.4 5MS 4.0 20SSon"/I· x Anfi4A11-18918-70M-7V-3M-2V-l C 3.0 15MS 10 20S 4.6 30MSTzpp-Sonfi4A19021-4M-3V-l02M-l V 2.4 40MR-MS 3.0 40MS 5.2 30MR-MSPi62-115~.52fi x 80n641995'j-12M-3t-5R-l R 16 5MS 0.4 5MS 9.1 60STzpp-An\:11-19025-5M-l R-3C-l 04T-l00C 4.4 70MS-S 1.4 20MS 6.2 30MS-SLRfi4A .x T7pp-An E11-19005-6M-5V-3M-l V-1 C 31 70MR-S 5.2 65S 5.1 40MS-MRHuaRojoo/My54 x Nl0-B8834-8V·2C-1V-1 01 C 2.5 20S 3.9 50S 7.0 20STzpp-Son64A19021-4M-3V·l00M-2c S.9 60S 2.4 30S 7.6 20SLR64 2 -Son6411-19865-58M-l OOV-1 04c 2.5 25S 4.2 65S 9.6 40STobari 1'\6 (check) 2.7 40MS 1.4 30MR 7.3 50SCiano fi7 r~hf!~kl 6.9 40S 3.8 40S 14.0 60MS-SInia 61'\ (check) 2.8 23S 120 65S 25.0 70SLerma Rojo 64A (check) 12.0 80S R.3 fi5S 19.0 80SMentana (check) 50.0 10JS 36.0 100S 11.0 50S" Grown in ?1 locations (11 countries) in North America and South America; 10 locations (5 countries) in Africa:location in Asia: 2 locations (2 countries) in the Middle East; and 1 location in Australia.I, Grown in 16 location (8 countries) in North and South America; 2 locations (2 countries) in Europe; 8 locations(4 countries) in Africa: 1 location in Asia; 1 lor.llt;on in the Middle East; and 1 location in Australia." Grown in 4 locations (2 countries) in South America: 1 location in Europe; 1 location in the Middle East; 3 locations(3 countries in Asia); 3 locations (2 countries in Africa).and Turkey. In certain lines there are very differentreactions at the two locations, which may indicate adifference in physiological forms of Septoria at Tolucaand Patzcuaro. It is also evident that the general level ofreadings is higher at Patzcuaro than at Toluca, possiblydue to a difference in the time of reading or to thevirtual absence of any other disease to interfere with theSeptoria reaction at Patzcuaro.Certain genotypes also have shown a high degree ofresistance to this disease in several other countries, asshown in Table W14 with data from InternationalSeptoria Nursery No.2. Although the disease incidencewas rather low in the South American countries, theresults from the United States, Mexico, Tunisia andEthiopia allow a good classification of genotypes resistantunder different environmental conditions, andassumedly also resistarit to different physiological racesof the fungus.In the past year, the second Regional Disease andInsect Screening Nursery was grown under widelydiffering environmental conditions in many countries.Data were collected by Dr. E. E. Saari for resistance toSeptoria among the entries from a wide variety ofsources and based on several Septoria-infected nurseries.Of the 2,400 entries in this nursery, 310 varieties andlines had good resistance to Septoria tritici. Thesevarieties are listed in Table W74, in the Appendix.With this wide assortment of varieties or crosses fromwhich to choose, the national programs in countrieswhere Septoria tritiei is a threat should immediatelybegin to incorporate many of these materials into theircrossing programs. CIMMYT believes that very acceptablelevels of resistance against this disease can be obtainedfor most environmental conditions in a limitedtime,BREAD WHEAT INDUSTRIAL QUALITYThe CIMMYT Wheat Quality Laboratory is equippedto evaluate quality of bread wheat and within the pasteight months evaluation of durum wheat has been20

TABLE W11. CIMMYT varieties and advanced lineswith a high level of resistance to Puccinio strijformis(data from the International Spring Wheat RustNursery, Stripe Rust Section, 1969).Puccinia striiformisAverageGenotype and pedigreecoefficientof infectionHighestratingSon 64 )( Tzop - Nai60 2.5 15MS18889-13M-3Y-7M-1 Y(Frocor x My54 - Bage) Frocor 2 0.8 30RP9916-9t-l b-2t-l b(Pi62 - St464) Tehuacan 2 1.5 30RD19329-28M-ll Y(Pi· B.Yaqui) Tehuacan 2 1.3· lOSD14571-3R-12T-2R-l R[Frocor/Kt48 x B.Tendre - 5H)4777 2 x Lerma . Frocor 2.5 25SP9897-8t-2b-1t-l b(YK54 x Nl0 . B/B.YaQui) Tehuacan' 2.2 lOSD144H7B-5M-9YKt - Fn x My48/Frocor 3.3 30MS1111996-4R-5M-lrTzoo - Son64 6.1 50MS20877-4C-l R-8MHuaRojo·INy54 x N10 - B 3.7 25S8834-8Y-2C-l Y-1 01 CCiano"s"(check) 9.7 40S19957-18M-1 Y-3M-7Y-2M-l YInia66(check) 20.0 70S19008-83:vt-l OOY-1 00M-1 OOY-1 OOCBarleta Benvenuto(check) 64.0 100Sinitiated. The Laboratory is designed to evaluate bothlarge and small samples, enabling breeders to give qualityappropriate consideration early in the breeding programwhen only small samples are available.When early generation quality screening is used alongwith agronomic and pathological selection, a higherpercentage of the lines have desirable quality in theadvanced generations.The wheat quality evaluation of lines starts with theF3 individual selections (seed from F2 selected plants).First, the material is selected for grain type and all linesof bread wheat with good grain type are then evaluatedfor gluten strength by the Pelshenke test. This test hasproven to be a very satisfactory screening method forseparating strong-gluten and weak-gluten types andconsiderable advancement has been made in improvingquality since the inception of its use.During the 1971-72 season at CIANO, 19,000 individualplants were screened for seed type. Only thosewith plump, clean grain were evaluated with thePelshenke test. Only lines with acceptable glutenstrength in corresponding identificable grain type (hardor soft wheat types) were replanted at Toluca.From the Toluca summer harvest, 13,518 individualplants in the F3 and F4 were screened for glutenstrength. From these, 3,733 lines were classified ashaving weak gluten, 4,100 were intermediate and5,685 had strong gluten. This tremendous variability ingluten strength results from the wide variation in germplasm (parental types) that is constantly being incorporatedinto the crossing program.Detailed quality characteristics of all varieties includedin the parental crossing block is determinedeach season to aid planning of new crosses. Thisclassification of parents in the crossing block is veryimportant in an international program since it permitsthe orderly crossing and selection of lines suitable fordiffering country needs.In evaluating the advanced material, including therows cut in bulks of the F4, F5 and F6 lines, thehigh-yielding materials from replicated yield tests andmost of the lines in the crossing block, the samples arefirst checked for grain type and test weight. Lineswith good grain and high test weight are selected formore complete quality evaluation. All breeding lineswith a test weight of less than 80 kg/ha are discarded.In the last two years, most of the lines selected for goodyield have test weights well above the establishedTABLE W12. CIMMYT varieties and advanced lines showing a high level of resistance to Puccinio groministritici," Puccinio recondita hand Puccinia striiformis ,. (data from fhe International Spring Wheat RustNursery, Stripe Rust Section, 1970).Puccinia graminis tritici Puccinia recondita Puccinia striiformisAverage Average AverageLines or varieties coefficient Highest coefficcient Highest coefficient HiQhestand pedi~rees of infection rating of infection ratin~ of infection ratingSon64 x_ Tzop . Y54 0.3 TrMR 0.2 TrMR 1.3 20MR18888-103M~100Y·1 OOM.100Y·101 ro-1 YHuaRoj0 2/My54x N10 I'l 2.0 lOS 1.7 5S 5.8 40S8834-8Y-2C·1Y-101 CSon64A x Tzoo - NaiRO 1.5 5S 1.4 5MS 8.3 70S18889-13M-3V-7M-1YTzpp . Son64A 1.5 10MS 0.4 TrS 9.4 80S11-19021-4M-3Y-1 02M-2CTobari 66 (check) 1.9 5S 0.2 TrMS 6.4 50SVII-V163Ciano"s" (check) 5.4 30MR 2.0 5MS 11.5 70S19957·18M-l Y-3M-7Y-2M-1 YInia 66 (check) 1.8 SVs 3.0 10MS 13.3 80SLerma Rojo 64 (check) 10.4 30S 0.4 TrS 15.5 80MSIIC-V35" Grown in 7 locations (7 c:ountries) in South America; 2 locations (Mexico) in North America; 1 location (Kenya)in Africa.,. Grown in 2 locations (Mexico) in North America; 1 location [Kenya) in Africa.Grown in 4 locations (;1 countries) in North America: 5 locations (2 countries) in South America: 1 location (England)in Europe; and 1 location (Kenya) in Africa.21

TABLE W13. Advanced lines in small multiplication plots showing a high level of resistance to Puc·dnia striiformis and Septoria tritid as compared with Mexican commercial varieties (data from the SixthInternational Bread Wheat Screening Nursery grown at the summer nurseries in Toluca, Mexico State, andP6tzcuaro, Michoacan State. 1972»'Reaction to SeptorlaReaction totrltlel (scale 0-9)P. striiformlsVarieties or lines and pedigrees Toluca Toluca PatzcuaroInia 66 30MS SMR 7Azteca 67 TR 4MR 6Tobari ElEl SMR SMR 67 Cerros 90S 6S SCajeme 71 TR 6S 4Potam 70 10MS 8S 8Lerma Rojo 64 30MR·MS 4MS 8Yecora 70 SMR 8S 7Tanorl 7' 60MS 6S 8Nuri 70 SMR 6MS 8Vicam 71 20MS 8S 8Saric 7n TrR SMR SPitic 62 SR 4MS 4Cocorit 71 TR 6MS 3MSPenjamo 62 30MS SMR 3MSJori 69 TR 3R 3MSSonora 64 60MS 7S 8Inia"s"·Np63/LR64 2·Son64 )( CC TR SR 632S65-28M·1y-oMBluebird # 4 TR 3MR 423SM-26Y·2M·3Y·2M·OY·300M-oYBluebird :It 4A ",," TR 3MR 4235M-26Y·2M·3Y·1 M-oy·(1·2Y)-OYBluebird # 4A "s" TR 2R 423S84·26Y·2M·3Y·1 M-oY·1 04y-oMCd 1 10MR SR !i27105-21 M·1Y-6M-oy12300 x LR64-8156/Nor67 SR 3VR 2**30842·S8R·1M-4y-oMCno "s"·Galio TR :lMR 627829-19Y·1 M-4y-oMCno "s"·Galio TR 3R 627829-19Y·2M·6Y·OMCha # 1 TR 4MR 726665-22Y·300M·301Y·1 M·SOOy-oMCno·lnia (KI. Rend·Son64 x Inia/Cno) SMR 4MR S3S2S5-SY·SM-oyCC·lnia"s" x Cal TR 4MR 730883-3SM·3Y·1 M-oY(KI. Pet·Raf x Pj62/Cno) Bb seg yellow 2VR 630623·18M·1 Y·2M-oyBb • Cha TR 4MR 634330·S00Y·SOOB-oySr· TR2S6 10MR liMR 6CM 4041·1y-oMPato ~B) (Jar·Np/LR64 x Tzpp·AnJ,;) ,nMR 4MR 7CM 1020·1SM·3y-oMCal· Pj 62 TR TR S..CM 1079-4M·1Y·OMCno "s"·Jar x Bb TR 4A 6CM 1308-19M·1y-oMFn·Md x K117A/Cofn 2 (Son64·KI.Rend./Cno"s" x LR64 2 .8on64) TR 4R 6CM 2182·6M·1y-oMTac·Bb/Tob"s"·81S6 x Cno"s" TR SMR 4CM 2230·20M·1Y·OMPl/lnia·Cno x Cal 0 4VR 7II 34148-S1Y·1 M·3y-oMYSO.: • Kaf3 SMR SMR 6II 3S188-D·16Y·1 M·1y-oMTob x cc·Pato SMR 4MR 627369·1 R-4M·OYInla"s"·Np63 x Cal 2 TR 2A 6306S6-SM·1Y·1 M·1y-oMInia"s"·Np63 x Cal 2 TR 2R 3306S6-1SM·1 Y·1 M-oy80n64 x 8K.:·An./St464·Bza) Gallo TR 4MR 330723-31·1 Y·1 M·2y-oMTob x CC·Pato TR 3R 627369·1 R-4M-oyBonanza (Dekalb) TR 3MR 8Pato TA 3R 422

TABLE W13.(continued)Varieties or lines and pedigreesReaction toP. atrl/form/aTolucaReaction to Septorl.trltlcl (scale G-9)TolucaP6tzcuaroLR.Nl0 H ... An'ECaUdadPato(B} (Jar-Np/LR64 x Tzpp-AnF.)CM 1020-13M-1Y.oMYr • N066CM 4027·1Y-4M.oyCC-lnla/TolrCfn x BbCM 4265-16Y·l0M·OYTzppl-An x Cno"s"·No66CM 4839-11Y-4M.oyJi . Yr"s"CM 4985-21Y·1M.oyPI"s" x Cno-No66CM 5030-32Y·1M.oyTob' • 7CCM S207·C-3Y-4M.oyTob • SriCM S211·B-7Y·1M.oyTob-8156 x BbIYrCM S363-G-1Y·SM.oYTob-81S6 x CC-lniaIYrCM 5367-E·SY·1 M.oyBIrCno x Suwon-BbCM SS67-A-1Y-4M.oYBIrCno/Cno"s"·No66 x Pi62CM 5620-D-3Y-1 M.oyCal-Bb x Tob-SrCM S775-J-6Y·1 M.oyTob-Cno"s" x Tob-8156/Cal x BIrCnoCM 5816-D-4Y·2M.oyTzpp • TorCM 867-9M·IY-SM.oYPatolB} (Jar-Np/LR64 x Tzpp-Ant:JCM 1020-1SM-3Y·2M.oyCal· SrCM 10a9-2SM-7Y-2M.oYCal· TorCM 1097·38M-1Y-4M.oyCoo"s" x Nad-Chris"s"/Son64-KI.Rend x BbCM 1221-25-M-1Y-3M.oYTob'-Np x Inla"s"-NpCM 1299-12M·2Y·1 M.oy(Fn-Nd x KI.17A/Cfn') Son64·Kd.Rend/Cno"s·· x LR64 ' -Son64CM 2182·SM·1Y·2M.oyPato-7C/CC-81S6 x Cno"s"CM 2264-7M·1Y·1M.oy(Inia"s"/Son64 x Tzpp-YS4) Czho3.6G·1Y-3M.oyVcm-Cno"s" x Ca1!Nor-7C35078-18Y-IM-lY-2M.oY[(KI.Pet-Raf x Pj62/Cno)Nor] Inia-eno x Cal34841-S9Y·~M-1 Y-3M-oyKal-Ska x Tob/lnla-eno x CalII 34925-SY-2M-4Y·1M.oy(Cno x Son64-KI.Rend/Son6S)Cno"s"-lnla"s"236764-2Y-2M-IY-3M-OYUn x Cno"s"-No = KF f -81no pedigree(KI.Pet-Raf x Pj62/Cno}Bb30623-18M·1Y-2M-1Y-4M.oyInia"s"·Np63 x Cal'30656-SM-l Y'1 M-1 Y·1 M-oyInla"s"·Np63 x Cal'30656-SM-1Y·IM-1Y·3M·OYCal-CC x Tob30745-S9M-1 Y-1M-1 Y·3M-oyAz67 x Nad·LR64/Bb320SJ-7M·2Y·2M.lY·3M.oyPtm • Bb 232427-«M·lY·3M·lY·l M-oYY50 t : . Kal';3S188-SM(F. )-39y.oM·24M-OYY50t; . Kar'3S188-SM(F 1)·31 Y-oM-17M-OYY50 t : • Kal"3S188-SM(F.)-31Y.oM-8M.oySRTRoTRTRSRSR20MSSRTRSRlORSR10MSlORSRSRSRSRSMRSRSR10MRSRSR10MR10MR40MSJOMRSMR20MRTRSRlOMRlOR40MS6M5-MRJOMRJOMRSMR4RSMR3MR3R3R4MRSMRSMRSMRSMRSR4RSMR4MRSR4RSMR4RSMRSMR4RSMR4R~SR4MRSRSMRSMRSMRSMR3R4R4MR3RSMR3RSMR4R677667667S6,.7S677S766S77787866SSAsterisks lnldicate outstanding agronomic characteristics.23

minImum. This reflects the effectiveness of strongselection pressure on grain type in early generations.Quality evaluation in the advanced material includes:milling quality. flour protein. ash determination. andmixogram. alveogram, sedimentation and baking tests.After all materials have been evaluated. the linesoutstanding for quality are incorporated into a specialsection of the crossing block. This assures that theselines will be crossed with materials with good agronomiccharacteristics during the next generation (TableW15).Considering the different types of quality requiredin different countries, the best material is selectedaccording to its agronomic characteristics. reaction todiseases and yield. These lines are distributed tonational programs around the world by CIMMYTthrough the International Spring Wheat Screening Nursery.When the seed is distributed. information onquality evaluation already obtained in Mexico is alsoincluded.TABLE W14. Varieties and lines of wheat showing a high level of resistance to Septoria tritici in eightcountries (data from the International Se!)toria Nursery #2. 1971-72).Genotypes and originUSA Mexico GuatemalaLaborColombia Ecuador8ta.Argentina TunisiaOregon Plitzcuaro Ovalle Tibaitata Catalina Pergamino MateurEthiopiaHolettaTzpp - An E(Mexico)LR x Nl0.B/An•.: (Mexico)# 1959 (Portugal)K4527 (Ethiopia)Crespo 63 (Colombia)K45:19 (Ethiopia)CI8155 - Nar59 2 (Ethiopia)K4500 (Ethiopia)1501Fr-Kad x GbF (Ethiopia)K4496 (Ethiopia)K4497 (Ethiopia)Kenya Governor (Kenya)Cedar (Kenya)Pato (Argentina)J925-67 (Brazil)C26 (Brazil)C331/64 (Brazil)C3328/65 (Brazil)C3312/65 (Brazil)8·2 (Brazil)8-12 (Brazil)Girua-Purple Straw (Brazil)Hiraki 82 (Brazil)S-ll (Brazil)Trintani 2 • Rulofen (Brazil)Czhno - Kenya Farmer (Brazil)Tzpp . An E(Brazil)Toropi (Mutant) (Brazil)Pel A506-62 (Brazil)Pel A506·64 (Brazil)Tob . BMan x Bb (Mexico)Buck Atlantico (Argentina)Buck Manantial (Argentina)Gaboto (Argentina)Tezanos Pinto Precoz (Arg.)Rafael MAG (Argentina)Fletcher (USA)Toropi (Brazil)Piamontes (INTA) (Argentina)IA820 = lassul (Brazil)Pato • Ciano (MeXico)Tob - CC x Pato (Mexico)Andes 56 (Colombia)Tob66 - Calidad (Mexico)Mara (Italy)20"402530305025304020303540203040505040405060403050504040605050406050303060505060504060505021,10"4 401 103 203 103 203 201 203 203 204 106 254 201 302 202 302 201 101 10? 101 101 104 201 o1 203 203 301 101 52 101 301 202 30o 101 301 602 101 101 201 204 202 10o3211"1o1o21o21111o1o3o1o1o 11o1o11111211o1o 1oo30o1020101515201010153020201015101015151520552020101010152010151020202020201015101010520o o10"5"21131112433313313TR21111o3o111TAoTATA0\o TATR:12113"54233333334334342'l2333222·3545533·4352·32·33-42·343-44-5644·32-350"5020304030402030404040405050202010202025303030303030303030153025205030303030407070406030u Disease rating based on percentage.b Disease rating based on 0-9 scale.NUTRITIONAL IMPROVEMENTIN BREAD WHEATSThe nutritive value of bread wheats has been extensivelystudied in many laboratories, showing relativelylow contents of protein and lysine in the grain.To identify possible genes for high protein contentand high lysine content in wheat genotypes. analyticalscreening has been performed in some materials selectedfrom the breeding program. Up to now, the lysinevariability occurring in CIMMYT wheat materials, unfortunately,has been very small.24

TABLE W15. Bread wheat lines with outstanding industrial quality selected for the Sixth InternationalSpring Wheat Screening Nursery and for the CIMMYT Crossing Block (1971.72).Test Alveogram 5edimen· Mixing LoafGrain we~ht PK Protein tation Mixo· time volCross and pedigree type kg I min 0/0 PIG W cc gram min ccCC . Inia"s" x Cal 2 82.2 >120 11.6 3.1 240 50 7 4.35 91030883-35M·3Y·l M·OY[KI.Pet . Raf x Pj62/Cno)Bb 2 82.5 >120 11.2 5.1 336 56 6 4.00 95030623·18M·1Y·2M·OY50n64 • Pj62 2 81.8 100 10.9 4.5 406 41. 6 3.52 85521011-4P·2PInia x Tob"s" . Napo/Cno. 510B3 2 79.4 >120 11.6 3.7 316 44 7 4.32 990CM5646-H-1Y-OMCno"s" x Nad63-Chris" s "/50n64·KI.Rend x Bb 2 81.5 >120 12.1 4.0 514 58 7 5.32 880CMI221-57M·3Y·OMCno"s" - 8156B x CC . Inia 2 82.8 >120 12.4 4.5 401 54 6 3.17 925CMI768·62M·1Y·OMCno"s" . 8156B x CC . Inia 2 82.8 70 12.6 3.8 357 51 4 2.20 880CM 1768-40M·l Y-OMInia - Bb x RR68 2B 82.8 >120 11.5 2.5 282· 45 5 3.07 9301134179·1Y-l M·7Y·OMBb . CaUdad 2 82.9 >120 10.7 3.4 271 53 5 2.55 89030877-62M·3Y·l M-2Y·OMTob - CC x Pato 2 80.3 >120 11.0 4.5 249 39 7 4.00 90027369-1 R·4M-OYPato[B)[Jar·NP/LR64 x Tzpp. An.J421 2B 81.0 118 11.9 3.1 243 64 7 5.00 950CM1020·13M-1Y·OMBui - Gte 80.3 115 12.3 2.8 321 44 4 2.52 940CMI142-23M-5Y·OM 12.5 3.7 340 37 5 2.30 850Gold MedalLines from the screening nursery that include highyieldinglines and varieties were evaluated for proteinand lysine content. The protein content ranged from9.0 percent to 16.0 percent with an average of 12.6percent, and was without exception negatively correlatedwith grain yield. The lysine in protein ranged from2.3 percent to 3.4 percent, indicating very little variabilityamong lines and offering little possibility ofimproving the level of this essential amino acid byselection in currently available materials. Proteinvariability was again observed to be negatively correlatedwith the lysine content in the grain protein. Nevertheless,scientists at the University of Nebraska havereported finding several lines of wheat from thu WorldCollection which combine high protein content andhigh lysine content. As sources of high protein contentthey reported NB-542437, SD-69103, C. I. 7337 andC. I. 6225. The wheat designated as P. I. 176217(Nap Hal) had both a high protein level and a highlysine content.Within the past two years several samples withgenetic potential for high protein content, includingFrondosa and the promising Nap Hal varieties. havebeen crossed to high-yielding CIMMYT lines and varietiesin an attempt to improve the nutritional qualityof the protein in the gene pool of the wheat breedingprogram. In addition, the line St. 464 x Agropyronelongatum has been widely used in the CIMMYTcrossing program to transfer its high·protein and high·lysine characteristics into better genotypes. One of themost promising segregates from this effort, calledBuitre, carries the improved protein of the Agropyronparent. However, this line requires further improvementfor grain yield and fertility.THE WINTER WHEAT-SPRINGWHEAT CROSSING PROGRAMThere are few places in the world where wheat isgrown commercially in which field temperatures andand photoperiodism are such that without the aid ofartificial vernalization, winter and spring wheat varietiescan be brought into flower at the same time. Consequently,this has restricted crossing between these twotypes. Most of the crossing between these two groups ofwheats has been done in greenhouses, which has limitedboth the diversity of parents and the number of crosses.In the early 1960's the late Dr. Joseph A. Rupert--while posted in central Chile where both winter andspring wheats can be made to flower simultanouslyunder field conditions without vernalization--becameinterested in developing an aggressive crossing programto bring together and exploit many of the desirablegenes that have been largely "isolated from one anotherby the winter habit mechanism". A small breedingprogram to achieve this objective was initiated in Chile.In 1968 when Dr. Rupert was transferred to theU. S. A., this program was supported by a RockefellerFoundation grant at the University of California, Davis.The project was expanded and transferred to OregonState University in the fall of 1971 to be tied moredirectly to the Rockefeller Foundation-supported Turkey-OregonState-CIMMYT programs. The primarypurpose of this breeding program is to develop winterwheat or semiwinter wheat varieties well adapted to theAnatolian Plateau, the Iranian Plateau and the highlandsof Afghanistan, where the Mexican-type spring wheatsare damaged by low winter temperatures. After thedeath of Dr. Rupert, Dr. M. M. Kohli assumed responsi·bility for CIMMYT's role in the cooperative effort atOregon State University.Two nursery sites were used in the 1971-72 cropseason. One of these was at the Hyslop Farm nearCorvallis, and the second was at the North Willamette25

Research Station near Portland. Crop growth conditionswere very satisfactory throughout the season.. Bothwinter and spring types survived well. Excessiveprecipitation throughout the early part of the seasonencouraged the development of Septaria tritici atCorvallis in particular. This provided ideal conditionsfor selection. With the cessation of rains and risingtemperatures, Septaria development was arrested.During the spring season stripe rust developed welland again provided a good opportunity for screeningagainst this disease. Leaf and stem rust were essentiallySeveral entries from the second International SeptoriaNursery showed a marked tolerance for Septaria. Theseare listed in Table W16.In addition to those listed, Riebesel 47/51 from theNetherlands and several lines of Triticum spelta werealso resistant.The CAR·line collection was submitted in totality tothe U. S. National Repository at Fort Collins and toBeltsville in the U. S. A. It was suggested that it beentered as the Dr. Joseph A. Rupert collection.The value of materials from this program wasdemonstrated in several nurseries throughout the worldin the past season. Excellent genetic spring-typematerials with enhanced drought resistance and goodagronomic type were observed in several countries.CIMMYT has decided to carry this work forward,insofar as making spring-winter crosses, at its TolucaStation during the winter season. The crossing programfor improving the spring types will be an integral part ofthe spring wheat improvement program. Double andtop crosses will also be made at CIANO. The winterimprovement program will continue to be integratedwith the winter program of Oregon State University andthe Turkey centre for winter wheat work: No materialsbeyond F1 will be grown in Mexico.CIMMYT feels that a dynamic program in thisfield will result in many beneficial gene transfers fromthe winter to spring varieties and that disease resistance,in particular, can be transferred from the spring to thewinter varieties.TABLE W16. Entries in the International SeptoriaNunery II showing good level of resistance toSeptoria tritici (Corvallis, Oregon, 1971-72).Variety or lineLR·Tzpp x An~, = Anza "s"# 1959K4496 L. AzK4497 L 14 8.PatoTzppRafaela MAGNariiio 59OriginMexicoPortugalEthiopiaEthiopiaArgentinaArgentinaArgentinaColombiaSeptoriareactionScale: 0-9Resistance to stripe rust was present in a wide rangeof materials, both in the winter varieties and in thespring varieties. Certain winter types, such as Hyslop,Sel. 101 and Druchamp, combine well in crosses andhave good agronomic type, drought resistance, winterhardiness and good soft wheat industrial quality characteristics.These were crossed intensively with othertypes. Certain other winter wheat lines have excellentcombining ability: Weique - Red Mace; Jade· Jubilee xGabo; and Suwon 92 - Roedel. These are particularlynotable for the outstanding head type which theytransfer.After selections were made among these variouspopulations, collections, and segregating materials, theselections were distributed to countries consideredsuitable. These included the Crossing Block (bothspring and winter types), segregating materials from F1to Fa, CAR lines from Dr. Rupert's Chilean collection,and observation lines and sets comprising 36 promisinghigh-yielding fixed lines. Various portions of thismaterial were sent to 19 countries.2622232333HYBRID WHEAT RESEARCHThe hybrid wheat research program was suspended atthe end of the 1971-72 crop season. This decisionwas made even though considerable progress had beenachieved toward developing a usable commercial hybrid.The decision was largely made because of the difficultiesof producing and utilizing a commercial hybrid indeveloping nations.Research indicated that suitable fertility restorerlines could be developed that were capable of restoringfertility to male-sterile lines over a wide range ofecological conditions. Numerous experiments alsoindicated that hybrid vigor between certain lines frequentlyincreased yields from 15 to 25 percent abovethe highest yielding parent. Despite these promisingaspects of hybrid wheat research, serious economicobstacles are anticipated in producing and utilizingcommercial hybrid seed, especially in developing nations.The small amount of pollen produced by wheatand its vulnerability to high temperatures and dryingduring dissemination makes F1 hybrid seed productionan economically hazardous commercial undertaking(because of low percentage of seed set), and certainlywill result in high seed prices for farmers. Moreover, inthe developing nations only a very small percentage ofthe farmers could afford to purchase new seed everyyear, and distribution problems would be formidableeven if the crop were economically feasible. Weighingthese factors, CI MMYT decided to utilize the fundsformerly used in the hybrid program to develop newtypes of genetic stocks that will be help increase yieldand disease resistance in the bread wheat and durumwheat programs and in the triticale program. Theleader of the hybrid wheat program was assigned todevelop the barley breeding program.The best restorer lines and many male sterile linesfrom the hybrid wheat program have been labeled andstored at low temperatures where their viability can bemaintained for many years and can be used in anyfuture work by CIMMYT's staff or its collaborators.Several effective fertility restorer lines ("R" lines)with good agronomic characteristics merit mention.Among these are: (1) Primeepi - YaQui54 x H22.67A

(two sister lines); and (2) Wn - Lerma Roj0642 x IniaF67 (three sister lines).More than 100 male-sterile lines (androsterile "A"lines), phenotypically similar to their correspondingmaintainer lines ("B" lines). were developed from awide background of commercial varieties and breedinglines. The seed of these lines has also been stored atlow temperature.Indirect Benefit from the Hybrid WheatResearch ProgramBecause the dwarfing genes from Norin 10, whichhas been used widely in the Mexican breeding programsince 1956, are recessive, they were difficult to handlein hybrid programs. Consequently, a search was madefor other sources of dwarfing that would be useful inhybrid breeding programs, as well as in conventionalvarietal development. Two other sources of dwarfinghave been isolated. The first is from a Rhodesianwheat designated A948-AI and the second is from across of Tom Thumb x Sonora 64. In the latter cross.there are apparently two dwarfing genes (excluding theNorin genes) that render the plants too short forpractical use. Nevertheless, certain combinations ofof Tordo and Topo which are being used currently bythe conventional bread wheat breeding program.In addition, the following promising dwarf genotypeswere selected last summer at EI Batan: S948-AI·Santa Elena5 (= H567.71-85-0B); S948·AI - Ciano"s"2 x Ciano F673 (= H570.71-3Y-OB); Tom Thumb ­Sonora 64 x Ciano "s"/Ciano F673 (= H296.70A-3B-1Y­OB); and S948-AI - Ciano "s"2 x Ciano F672 (2 sisterlines, H310.70A-3B-1Y-OB and H310.70A-3B·2Y-OB).These genotypes, under the conditions at CIANO,attain 50 cm height and posses acceptable grain quality.Some of them will be multiplied in the 1972-73 cropseason.Other interesting agronomic types of plants havebeen isolated from the hybrid wheat program. Amongthe most promising for future use in the conventionalbread and durum breeding programs are:1. Several lines of bread and durum wheats witherect leaves. These are currently under more detailedstudy by the physiology-agronomy section of CIMMYT.where search is underway for lines with erect leaveswhich may reduce tiller mortality from competitio~caused by shading.2. Many promising branched-spike forms of bothdurum and bread wheats.The transfer of the branching characteristics presentin Triticum turgidum to commercial bread wheats(T. aestivum) and to durums (T. durum) has beendifficult to do. The branching trait is multigenic andrecessive; when T. turgidum is crossed to durum the F1generation shows no ramification, while F2 segregantswith different degrees of branching are found. Homozygoustypes Can be recovered in this type of cross.In crossing to bread wheats, no homozygous typeshave been obtained. Also, there is a high degree ofsterility in the florets and poor development of thegrain in the segregating populations.Despite these problems, some improvement has beenachieved in the last few years in obtaining ramifieddurums and bread wheats. The genotypes listed inTable W17 have a stable type of branching andacceptable grain quality.The branched durum wheats listed in the tabledeveloped maximum ramification similar to that shownin Fig. W2; Fig. W3 corresponds to the intermediatebranching found in the bread wheats.These materials will be placed in preliminary yieldtests during 1972-73. This type of wheat has potentialfor high yield since many of the spikes produce morethan 200 grains. Nevertheless, additional field andlaboratory tests will be necessary to determine itspossibilities for commercial production.DURUMIMPROVEMENTPROGRAMUnlike the common wheats, durums are generallyused in making special products, for exalJlple, pastas,crochers and couscous. They are, however, also used formaking bread in certain countries. Pastas, such asmacaroni, sphagetti and others, are the principal prepara·tions in many countries. In North African countriesthe grain is used primarily for couscous, a productwhich resembles fluffy, broken cooked rice. In India,semolina is utilized in desserts and other local prepara·tions. Some durum is used for chapatis in the durumgrowing areas.Durum wheats are particularly important in theeconomy of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Italy, Turkey,Syria, Transcaucasian USSR, Iraq, India, Argentina,Canada and the United States. The heaviest con·sumption of pasta products probably occurs in southernTABLE W17. Bread wheat and durum wheat genotypes posse,sing a stable type of branching and goodagronomic characteristics (1971-72).GenotypeTypePedigreeOriginBatan, 1972Rad #3 "S"(Rad #2 "S"jNach-Tc60 x Nach)Rad #3 "S"(Rad #2 "S"jNach-Tc60 x Nach)H844.66·M. Reo x Cno 2 -ChrisH844.66-M. Reo x Cno 2 -ChrisH844.66-M. Reo x Cno 2·ChrisH844.66-M. Reo x Cno 2 -ChrisM. Reo . Noroeste 66 2M. Reo . Noroeste 66 2M. Reo· Noroeste 66 2M. Reo· Noroeste 66 2M. Reo . Noroeste 66 2M. Reo . Noroeste 66 2M. Reo - Noroeste 66 2M. Reo· No 66 x Co.Ca . Tob 66 2M. Reo - No 66 x Co.Ca . Tob 66 2(H844.66 . M. Reo) (Cno 2 - ChrispDurumDurumBreadBreadBreadBreadBreadBreadBreadBreadBreadBreadBreadBreadBreadBreadH193.70-4Y·2B·1Y·OBH193.7Q-5Y-4B·OBH135.7Q-12Y·103B·1 Y·OBH135.7Q-12Y-103B-2Y-QBH135.70-6Y·1 B-1Y·OBH135.70·6Y-1 B-2Y-QBH155.7Q-2Y-10B-4Y·OBH155.7Q-2Y·5B-3Y-QBH155.70·2Y·5B-4Y-OBH155.70·2Y-5B·5Y·OBH15S.70·2Y-SB-7Y-OBH155.70-2Y·7B-2Y-OBH1S5.70·2Y-9B-2Y-QBH393.70A·2B·2Y·OBH393.70A-11 B-3Y-QBH378.71·2Y-oBE-493E-496PH·115PH·116E-244E-245E-271E·315E·316E-317E-319£·322E·331E·193£·213E·9527

Europe and western North Africa. The Europeanmarkets absorb most of the durum wheat in internationaltrade. Traditionally, the North African countries,as well as Argentina and North America, supply muchof the needs. In Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco,durum is still the wheat species grown most extensively.'However, the recent introduction of high-yielding dwarfvarieties of bread wheat have made some inroads on thedurum acreage. These countries, through increasedproduction, are nearing self-sufficiency in wheat andsoon they will be able to resume substantial exports tothe countries of the European Economic Community.Thus, it becomes increasingly important in their case todevelop improved durum varieties with high yieldpotential, good disease resistance and good industrialqual ity so they can again become important exporters.The export of durum wheat can become an importantsource of foreign exchange for Morocco, Algeria andTunisia. Other countries of the eastern Mediterraneanregion, especially Turkey and Syria, could also profitfrom expanded production and trade in durum wheat.When the CIMMYT durum program was expandedfour years ago, the main objectives were to developmaterials with (1) high yield and good yield stability,(2) a broad spectrum of disease and insect resistanceand (3) good industrial quality. Since then superiordwarf lines have been developed. The best of these newvarieties and lines yield similar to the dwarf breadWheats, even though these lines do not have fullyacceptable quality. Although resistant to the rusts inMexico, durum lines are generally susceptible to theprevalent races of stem rust and stripe rust in NorthFIG. W3. Intermediate branching obtained in crosseswith bread wheats.Africa. Better Septaria and Giberella resistance is alsorequired.Table W18 presents the average yields of severalsuperior durum lines and the yield of the highestyielding bread or durum wheat check in the correspondingyield test for 1970-71 and 1971-72 at OlANO.Yields for 1971-72 are lower than for the previousseason. Much of the difference can be attributed to thegenerally higher temperatures during the season, leadingto a shorter growing period.The results of the Second International Durum YieldNursery (IDYN) presented in Table W19 indicate thegood yield level and acceptable yield stability of thenew Mexican durum varieties, Cocorit 71 and Jori 69,as well as several newer lines. The IDYN, although nowon y three years old, is already proving a valuable toolfor improving durum wheat worldwide.New Durum VarietiesFIG. W2. Maximum branching obtained in crosses withdurum wheats.In Mexico, Cocorit 71, from the cross RAE-Tc 4 xStw63/AA "s" (= Raspa del AguilaE - Tehuacan4 xStewart 63/Aninga, D-27617-18M-6Y-OMl, was namedand released by INIA and put into commercial productionduring 1972. This variety has very high yieldpotential and appears to be widely adapted to bothirrigated and rainfed conditions in many countrieswhere diseases are not limiting. In areas of high rainfallin North Africa, it still needs a higher degree ofresistance to stem rust, Septaria, scab and mildew in28

TABLE W18. Yi.lds (kg/ha) and rank in respective yield tests (in parentheses) of best-yielding lines ofdurum wheats and of best bread wheat checks in two years of testing at CIANO, Sonora, Mexico.1970-1971 1971-1972Genotype and pedigree Line Check Line CheckCrane "s" 9956 (1) 7 Cerros 8862 7115 (7) Cajeme 71 6501D-23055-33M-1 R-3M·OY·67Y·OM•21563 x Gr "s" 8998 (5) 6746 (4) Cocorit 71 6501Cajeme 71 9149D-31543-12M-5Y-GMJo "s" x Cr"s" 8982(1) 7 Cerros 8466 7396 (3) Cojeme 71 6501Cocorit "s"D-27591-5M-3Y-1 M8899 (4) 7 Cerros 9019 6678 (12) Cajeme 71 6501D-27617-18M-3Y-GMGil "S"/BY E 2-Tc x ZB-W 8659 (2) 7 Cerros 8899 7526 (1) Cajeme 71 6501D·25624-7M·2Y-1 M-3Y·1 M21563 x AA "s" 8529 (2) Cajeme 71 8654 6818 (3) Cocorit 71 6501D-27547-1M-1Y-4M-1Y-GMCocorit "s" 8341 (8) 7 Cerros 8466 6433 (14) Cajeme 71 6501D·27617-17M-3Y-4MCocorit "s" 8263 (15) Cajeme 71 8701 6563 (7) Cocorit 71 6704D-27617-17M·6Y-1 M-3Y-GMGil "S"/BY E 2.Tc x ZB·W 8076 (6) 7 Cerros 8899 6735 (9) Cajeme 71 6501D·25624-7M·2Y-1 M-5Y·1 MJo Us" x Cr "s" 8049 (6) 7 Cerros 8867 7396 (3) Cajeme 71 6501D-27591-5M-2Y·1 MGaviota "s" 7841 (13) 7 Cerros 8930 6725 (4) Cocorit 71 6704D-31725-3M-8Y-OM21563 x AA "s" 7747 (6) Cajeme 71 8555 7224 (1) Cocorit 71 6501D-27625-5M-2Y-2M·2Y·OMAA "s" (CPE 3 -Gz x Tc 3 /BY E 2.Tc) 7549(15) 7 Cerros 8930 6933 (1) Cocorit 71 6704D·31733-3M-4Y·OM21563 x AA "s" 7497 (12) Cajeme 71 8555 7157 (2) Cocorit 71 6501D-27625-5M-2Y-2M-1Y·OMJo Us" x Cr "s" 7195 (7) 7 Cerros 8466 6735 (10) Cajeme 71 6501D-27591-5M-2Y-2M·OY21563 x AA "s" 7138 (11) Cajeme 71 8654 6652 (5) Cocorlt 71 6501D-27547-4M·8Y·3M·1 V·OMTABLE W19. Results of the Second International Durum Yield Nursery, 1970-1971 (average values fromthe number of locations indicated in parentheses),Disease reactionTestYield weight Height Stem leaf SeptariaVariety or cross Origin kg/ha kg/hI em rust rust scale 0·9(25) (18) (25) (9) (10) (6)Cocorit 71 Mexico 4291 79.89 83.79 10.71 u 21.71· 5Anhinga "s" Mexico 4015 81.35 100.56 10.80 19.40 4Crane "s" (B) Mexico 3920 78.45 104.52 32.33 15.40 6BYF;·Tace x Tc40 BYf;2·Tc x STW63/AA"s" Mexico 3917 78.26 77.60 24.70 19.74 4Jori C·69 Mexico 3871 80.18 79.27 13.76 13.40 666W·5tOl 3856 80.30 77.29 18.10 24.40 6Brant "s" Mexico 3835 78.51 75.98 24.26 18.10 6Crane "s" (A) Mexico 3808 79.85 77.38 14.95 25.60 6Gerondo VZ.466 Italy 3802 79.93 87.46 24.10 2.80 4local Check 3786 80.13 109.67 26.64 20.52 4B.Bal x By,/·Tc D.Buck x TME·Tc/lak Mexico 3785 77.29 82.45 31.15 2.85 4Inia· 66 Mexico 3758 79.79 87.56 0.04 1.42 6T.dic.V.Vernum x Grulla "s" Mexico 3690 80:03 80.43 16.53 21.30 7Garza "s" 3578 79.01 77.96 17.76 17.71 4Capeiti Italy 3578 80.97 105.49 35.95 26.36 261·130 x Leeds USA 3564 80.17 84.98 7.55 22.40 2My54-Nl0B x T.Gl/Tc60 Lak·Bell 116 E·Tc60 Iran 3528 80.05 85.01 23.21 29.00 5Gab-125 Italy 3489 78.93 104.24 24.41 21.96 3Tehuacan 60 Mexico 3322 81.18 115.70 15.28 27.00 3leeds USA 3306 81.40 121.16 14.58 22.20 2Wells USA 3246 79.35 125.31 14.88 21.40 264W 5102·948 3219 76.85 70.56 16.76 19.40 7Oviachic C·65 Mexico 3212 77.98 76.80 29.44 21.60 6Hercules Canada 3119 80.33 120.15 15.62 23.00 4S·9 India 3009 77.96 68.60 33.42 17.88 4• Values represent coefficients of infection.The 2nd IDYN was sent to: 6 countries (11 localities) in North America: 5 countries (6 localities in Europe): 7 coun·tries (10 localities) in Africa: 7 countries (11 localities in the Near East: and 3 countries (5 localities) in Asia.29

order to produce stable yields. In quality it is inferior toJori 69, having a tendency to produce mottled oryellow·belly grains.In Tunisia, two durum lines originating from theCfMMYT program were officially released. Amal 72was derived from a line. known as Brant "S" (0-24102­4R-4M-OY), and Maghrebi 72 from the line Gil "S"/Br180·Lk x Gz-61-130 (D-26842-21Y-3M·OY). Both ofthese lines have considerable promise for production inmoderate·rainfall regions of Tunisia. Cocorit 71 is alsounder consideration for release in Tunisia and Algeria.Oivenifying the Ourum Germ PlasmTo increase the genetic diversity of the breedingmaterials, the crossing program has been intensified. Asparental materials, to intercross with the most out· ~standing breeding lines, CIMMYT is using durum varietiesfrom the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)collection, new durum varieties received from collaborat~ing countries, and promising materials, principally landvarieties, observed by CIMMYT scientists travelling inother countries and later supplied by national programs.Such materials are crossed to the best CIMMYT dwarftypes available and segregating populations are thendistributed to some 50 locations throughout the world.Under this system, segregates are selected under a widearray of climatic and disease conditions. Many of theseselections are recirculated to the CIMMYT program inthe regular interchange of materials; others are reincorporatedinto the crossing program. Some of thebest may be incorporated in the international nurseriesfor more widespread testing. Hence, adapatationbecames apparent and the more widely adapted typesmay eventually become varieties in different countries.This is an excellent method of developing and ensuringyield stability.Oi... ResistanceThe various diseases of self-pollinated cereal cropsare the principal hazard to production stability. Durumwheats are no exception.In the CIMMYT breeding program, dwarf durumlines are .put under strong selection pressure for resistanceto stem rust and leaf rust at CIANO in northwesternMexico and to stem rust, stripe rust and scab atToluca in the Central Plateau. Only those linesshowing acceptable resistance to prevalent races of thepathogens are selected. In Mexico, durum wheatproduction is relatively unimportant and the area sownto durums is small. Thus, the disease race spectrum isrelatively narrow because of a lack of strong selectionpressure on the pathogen which normally would pro·duce races capable of attacking durum cultivars. Incontrast, countries in the Mediterranean region havegrown durums for centuries and the fungi have developeddiverse virulent strains which, represent a muchdifferent gene pool for pathogenicity than in Mexico.Although a few durum lines from the CIMMYT programhave fair resistance, it is apparent that greater resistancemust be provided, particularly for both stem rust andstripe rust.Septaria is a major disease of the high·rainfallcoastal areas of the Mediterranean region and the durumarea of Argentina. In both regions, scab (Giberellazeae) and mildew (Erysiphe graminis) are also important.In the 1971 summer season at Toluca, Septaria becameestablished in the wheat nursery from natural sources ofinoculum. This increased in the past season andselection is now possible for local races of Septoriatritici. In addition, severe scab develops and selectionpressure is high at Toluca for both of these diseases.Mildew is not normally present and screening for thisdisease cannot be done successfully in Mexico.With the aforementioned selection pressures, it hasbeen possible to identify varieties, originating mainlyfrom Argentina, Italy and the United States, whichcarry a good level of resistance to most of thesepathogens. Presently, the resistance sources are beingrapidly integrated into the CIMMYT durum germplasm. In Table W20, Septaria scores from fourcountries are shown for varieties included in the thirdInternational Durum Yield Nursery (IDYN). In the pastyear the world collection of durums has also beenscreened under field conditions in four countries.Durum QualityDuri.lg the initial stages of the durum breedingprogram, emphasis was on increasing yield, broadeningdisease resistance and improving agronomic type. Noequipment was available for conducting quality evalua·TABLE W20. Durum vari.tles and lines possesling lome resistance to Septoria Ipp. in various countries(Third International Durum YI.ld Nursery, 1971-72).Reaction to Septorla (scale 0-9)Stem LoafGenotypes Origin Argentina Portugal Morocco Algeria rust rustI. Varieties resistant at 3 locations (reactions of 5 or less)61-130 x Leeds (USA) 5 1 3 6 4.2- 30.9-D-6647 (USA) 5 2 5 7 1.8 32.4Inrat (Tunisia) 5 2 5 7 16.8 33.9Oullafen (Chile) 5 3 5 8 16.8 36.4Cocorlt 71 (Mexico) 5 2 4 9 14.4 27.4Parana 66/270 (Argentina) 5 2 7 4 1.6 0.51II.Varieties resistant at 2 locationsGerardo (Italy) 3 3 6 7 26.7 13.1Capeltl (Italy) 5 2 7 8 13.0 38.5T.Dlcc. Vernum/Gtt "s" (Mexico) 6 2 2 8 40.0 32.9Jorl C 69 (Mexico) 8 4 5 7 18.4 33.9Cocorlt "s" (Mexico) 8 2 4 8 12.7 22.8Gs "s"·D.Buck x T.Me-Tc/Lk (Mexico) 9 2 7 4 24.3 24.3Local Check 2 4 5 9- Average coefficient of Infection calculated from Intormation of other locations where rusts were reported.30

....;'tions for durum wheat and pasta products until May1972. Therefore, quality evaluation was initiated as aregular procedure on the 1971-72 crop.Preliminary quality screening was performed on earlygeneration lines. The early materials are screened forgrain type, protein content and yellow pigment contentof semolina.Advanced lines are evaluated for grain type, hectoliterweight, semolina yield, moisture, protein content, macaroniprocessing, and brightness and cooking characteristicsof the product.When the durum quality evaluations were initiatedthis year, it was found that most durum lines in theCIMMYT program had poor quality characteristics.Therefore, all the crossing block material has beenevaluated in the laboratory. Breeders can now selectand utilize suitable progenitors with the desirablequality characteristics in their current crosses.TRITICALEThe CIMMYT triticale program is currently financedunder special project grants from the Canadian InternationalDevelopment Research Centre and the CanadianDevelopment Agency. The program is organized as acooperative research effort between CIMMYT and thePlant Science Department of the University of Manitoba,Canada.Although triticales have been known since the NineteenthCentury, the first concentrated improvementeffort in North America began in 1957 at the Universityof Manitoba. CIMMYT's interest dates from collaborativework with that institution under RockefellerFoundation assistance. CIMMYT's research effort wasgreatly expanded in 1968 and again under the financialarrangements referred to above in 1971.Basically, triticale had three major defects whenCI MMYT began its research--it was partially sterile, itwas too tall for heavy applications of fertilizer and itsseed was shrunken. The first two problems have beenessentially solved and notable improvements have beenmade in the third.Yield ImprovementThere has been a remarkable increase in the generalyield level of the triticales dating from the incorporationof fertility from the Armadillo strain and dwarfing ofthe plant height. These improvements have now reacheda point where the yields are approaching those of thesuperior bread and durum wheats. One of the problemsin comparing the yields of the two crops (wheat andtriticalesl is the changing disease and environmentalinteractions on the wheat check varieties.During the 1971-72 season at .CIANO, the durumvariety Cocorit 71 was the top yielder in all triticaleexperiments--about one ton above the triticale long-termcheck (6457 versus 5363 kg/hal. The two bread wheatcheck varieties, Inia 66 and Siete Cerros, were damagedby leaf rust. As a consequence, Yecora 70 hasreplaced Inia as a new bread wheat check for next year.At Toluca, scab caused by Gibere/la zeae depressedthe yields of the durum check varieties Cocorit 71 andJori 69, and stripe rust caused very serious damage toSiete Cerros. The better triticale strains outyieldedInia, which remained the highest yielding wheat check inthe triticale tests at Toluca. Tables W21 and W22compare yields of triticale strains in several tests withdurum and bread wheat checks at CIANO and Toluca,respectively.TABLE W21. Summary of yield performance (kg/hal of check varieties and top triticales in replicatedyield tests grown at CIANO (Y71-721, Sonora, Mexico.AverageVarieties II III IV V VI VII Total 7 testsInia 66 (Bread) 3370 4362 4116 4187 4675 4466 4133 29309 4187Siete Cerros (Bread) 5029 4875 5129 4779 4841 4812 5237 34702 4957Bread Wheats Average 4199 4618 4622 4483 4958 4639 4985 32005 4572Jori 69 (Durtlm) 5466 5937 6404 5866 6604 6320 6300 42892 6128Cocorit 71 (Durum) 6395 6479 6458 5966 6687 6633 6583 45201 6457Durum Wheat Average 5930 6208 6431 5916 6645 6476 6441 44049 6292Armadillo 105 "s" 5591 5625 5779 4800 5279 5083 5383 37540 5363Top triticale 5354 5466 5712 5154 5508 5237 5250 37681 5388Average of top 5 triticales ineach test 5451 5314 5572 5050 5355 5144 4770 5237TABLE W22. Summary of yield perfomance of triticale strnins and of check bread wheat and durumvarieties grown in six replicated yield tests at Toluca, and in two tests at EI Catan, Mexico (summer19721.Experiments at Toluca (MV-72), kg/haExps. at EI Batan(BV-72), kg/haVariety II III IV V XX XX Average XX XX AverageIllia 66 (Bill/) 4479 4366 4820 4729 4324 4757 5212 4669 5027 5694 53607 Cerros (BW) 991 741 687 737 1108 941 1104 901 4506 4756 4631Jori 69 (D) 116fl 13R3 1700 1237 1545 2012 2116 1594 1236 2041 1638Cocorit 71 (D) 2112 2254 2550 2608 2754 3000 2625 2557 4423 4430 4426,6,rmndillo 105 ,(075 4500 4408 4325 4570 4116 3504 4214 6076 7073 6574Average of top 5triticales 4612 4450 4046 4008 5009 4906 4842 4553 6332 7174 675331

Disease ResistanceGenes for resistance to several of the major pathogensare present in the most promising CIMMYT triticalestrains. In addition to the rust resistance reportedelsewhere, three important leaf and root-rotting diseasesattack bread and durum wheats in the EI Batan and"Toluca nurseries_ Septoria tritici, which is particularlydestructive of leaf tissue, generally affects triticale muchless than wheat. This view is reinforced by observationsmade in Tunisia, Algeria and Brazil. Again at Toluca,scab (Giberella zeae) is less of a problem on triticalesthan on durum varieties. Root rots and head blightdiseases have been prevalent at EI Batan in the past threeseasons and the most common isolate from diseasedplants was Coshliobolus sativus. Although it cannot beattributed positively to resistance, many triticale linesare essentially free of infection.Lodging ResistanceConsiderable emphasis is being placed on incorporatingbetter resistance to lodging. Two main approacheshave been used. Dwarfness from the Mexican bread anddurum varieties can be easily transferred to the triticalebackground, but it appears that certain linkage groupscausing low fertility are associated with the dwarfinggenes just as in the early work on dwarf wheats. This isparticularly true as one approaches the three-gene dwarfcondition. However, in the strain known as Cinnamon,the yield and fertility characteristics of Armadillo havebeen combined with a gene for dwarfing derived fromInia 66.In the second approach, strong, heavy straw is beingused to increase lodging resistance. In the Beaver strainsused for this purpose, sterility does not appear to beassociated with lodging resistance. But, improvement inlodging resistance with this approach is obtained insmall increments.Dr. F. Zillinsky, head of the CI MMYT· triticale program, inspects a new short triticale strain.32

Improved Grain DevelopmentThree approaches are being made to ,improve seedtype and select suitable gene combinations for furthercrossing work: (1:) Visual selection of plants forsuperior seed developmf'ilt. (2) By mutation usingirradiation and chem ic,i1 means. Th is program iscarried on in cooperation with Dr. Gustaffson ofSva!of, Sweden. (3) Using the gravity table separatorto screen populations for heavy, dense kernels.During the past year considerable progress in improvingseed type by the first method has been made. Some6,000 lines, comprising more than a half million plants,were examined in the Navojoa, Sonora, nursery andsuperior seed types were selected. These were againgrown in the Toluca nursery and proved to haveinht

Thus, as a crop it has a relatively narrow genetic basewhich limits its adaptation to different latitudes, elevations,temperature extremes, day lengths and otherfactors. In essence, it is dependent on the limitedvariations currently present within its component genomesoBy widening the germ plasm base and recombiningthese genes, triticales will achieve the ability to adaptbroadly. This process is being hastened by the CIMMYTcollaborative network of cooperative testing with widespreadnational programs. Selection for adapatation inmany locations and reincorporation of these adaptedtypes into the crossing programs is extremely advantageous.Triticale lines developed early in the program appearedto have a specific narrow adaptation. In Mexico, forexample, triticales were better adapted to the severedisease conditions of Toluca and EI Batan than many ofthe wheat varieties. But, because of excessive heightthey were not adapted to the high-production areas ofnorthwestern Mexico.From this early development, tremendous changeshave taken place. The major detriments to triticale as acrop mentioned earlier (infertility, lodging and poor seeddevelopment) are either solved or nearing solution,making decisive differences in its possibility for pr9duction.The continuous integration of new germ plasmis changing its adaptive potential very rapidly. There arenow triticale varieties which compete closely with wheatcheck varieties in many locations. Others are generallyadapted to rather broad regions and still others, ofcourse, are ill-adapted in most locations. However,improvement has been rapid and consistent. The relativeperformance of the varieties entered in the first threeInternational Triticale Yield Nursery (ITYN) trialsillustrates this advance (Table W23).In the first and second years of the ITYN, 16varieties including checks were grown; in the third, therewere 25. Weighted percentages of locations in whichtriticale varieties ranked among the five top yielders inthe test, including the wheat checks, consistently ad-TABLE W23. Relative yield rank of triticale genotypes in the First, Second and 'rhird International TriticaleYield Nursery.GenotypeArmadillo 102Armadillo 104Armadillo 105Armadillo 107Armadillo 108Armadillo 109Armadillo 111Armadillo 112Armadillo 113Armadillo 114Armadillo 116Armadillo 117Armadillo 130Armadillo 132Armadillo 133Armadillo 136Armadillo 147Armadillo 157Armadillo 211Armadillo 1524PM -4PM -13PPV -8PPV -13PPV - 21T-909Badger 118Badger 119Badger 121Badger 122Badger 123Bronco PN90Bruin 34Bruin 46RosnerUM70- HN470Pitic 62 (Bread wheat)Inia 66 (Bread wheat)Tobari 66 (Bread wheat]Albatross (Durum wheat)Jori 69 (Durum wheat)Local variety (Wheat)1st ITYN, 1969-70 (38 locations' 21d ITYN, 1970-71 (17 locations) 3rd ITYN, 1971-72 (26 locations)No. of times No. of times No. of times No. of times No. of times No. of timesentry among entry outyielded entry among entry outyielded entry among entry outyieldedtop 5 hi~hest check top 5 highest check top 5 highest check44133...174" Albatross tested only at 35 sites and local variety at 34 sites.h Local variety tested at 16 locations.o' Pitic 62. Tobari 66 and Jori 69 in 25 tests.34

vanced from 11.3 percent in 1969-70, to 13.8 percentin 1970-71, and to 16.3 percent in 1971-72. A similaradvance was made in the percentage of triticale varietiesx locations in which the triticale varieties outyieldedthe highest check. It increased from less than onepercent to nearly six percent in 1971-72. Table W23shows that certain strains are widely adapted as indicatedby the comparatively large number of locations inwhich they showed a high yield performance, while forothers adaptation was narrow, and some were not in thetop group at any location.In data not presented, it appears that Armadillo 133,Armadillo 136 and Rosner were able to perform wellunder relatively cool and delayed maturity conditions.The line PPV21 seemed well adapted in all SouthAmerican nurseries.Based on these analyses, it should be possible torecombine the lines currently showing wide adaptabilitythrough new crosses and thereby further increase theadaptation of this crop.Nutritional ImprovementIn recent years there has been a growing awareness ofthe need to improve the nutritional value of cerealgrains. In triticale as a crop it appears that highprotein content is readily attainable.Even though both chemical analyses and feedingtrials (using different test animals and humans) haveindicated that triticale protein has a slightly highernutritional value than wheat protein, a higher lysinecontent must be achieved since lysine is still the limitingessential amino acid in triticale as it is in other cerealgrains.Chemical screening for protein and lysine contenthas been routinely performed during the past year onmany advanced generation lines that have favorableagronomic characteristics. Similar tests were alsoconducted on the best lines entering the preliminaryyield test and increase plots.The protein content of 2,381 lines studied during1972 ranged from 10.9 percent to 19.1 percent with anaverage of 13.4 percent. The earl iest triticales evaluatedin our program were generally higher in protein content,ranging from 11.0 percent to 21.0 percent, but theseusually had severely shriveled kernels. With intensiveselection for plumper kernels and higher grain yields,the grain type has improved but the protein content hasgone down, approaching that generally found in wheat.Lysine in the protein ranged from 2.6 percent to3.9 percent with an average of 3.4 percent. However,despite the well-known inverse relationship betweenprotein content and lysine content in the protein, sometriticale strains possess both high protein content andhigh lysine content in the protein.The screening method used in evaluating proteinquality of seed from individual plants is the DBC(dye binding capacity) methods. Using this screeningmethod for basic amino acids (lysine) will permitCIMMYT to search for improved protein quality inmany segregates, regardless of grain type.Early nutritional evaluation of triticale using themeadow vole as a test animal at Michigan StateUniversity established a wide range of protein efficiencyratios (PER) among different triticalp. lines. This widevariability indicated that the low PER values might bedue to a high content of tox ic compounds, such asresorcinols, in some Iines. Chemical analysis has shownthat the resorcinol content of triticale compared to itsparental species (wheat and rye) is intermediate or closerto that usually present in wheat, which has not showndeleterious effects in wheat diets. Resorcinol values inCIMMYT triticale strains (over two years) ranged from0.05 percent to 0.13 percent. Some of the triticale lineswith the highest content of resorcinols were fed to volesand no correlation with the PER was observed. Among550 triticale samples fed to voles in the CIMMYTAnimal Nutrition Laboratory, we have not found asingle toxic line.The vole PER values obtained at CIMMYT arevariable, but most of them are similar to those obtainedwith casein (2.4 to 3.2). Even though toxicity orpresence of antimetabol ic factors has been reportedwith some triticale strains, th is possibil ity probably hasbeen overestimated.Primary Hexaploid TriticalesThe low rate of recovery of haploid plants fromembryo-cultured primary hexaploid triticale crossescoupled with the high mortality resulting from colchicinetreatment has been a continuing handicap tobroadening the genetic base of triticale. Up to 1971, arelatively few new primary hexaploids representingonly a few crosses were available to the program. A fewadditional new types introduced later from the Universitoof Manitoba augmented this number. Thus, much ofthe introduced variation has resulted indirectly fromcrossing hexaploid triticales x wheats and hexaploidtriticales x ryes as well as from crossing hexaploidtriticales with triticales.During 1969-70 and 1970-71 the triticales underyield test at Navojoa, Sonora, showed a narrow range ingrain yields. Such results strongly indicate the lack ofgenetic variability among the genotypes. Accordingly, itwas mandatory that a concentrated effort be applied tothe production of new primary triticales.The techniques used, combined with new methodsof handling transplanted plant and methods of colchicinetreatment, has resulted in a 500 percent increase inthe number of primary hexaploid triticales produced inthe past year. The success achieved includes:Number of crosses attempted 191Number of crosses from which embryosdeveloped 150Number of embryos excised on nutrient media 1994Number of haploid plants grown 193Number of crosses represented with haploids 72Number of new hexaploid triticale (to date) 30This relatively high production of new hexaploids willundoubtedly increase the adaptability and the potentialfor better agronomic characteristics, higher grain yieldand better grain type.One of the problems in embryo work at CIMMYT isthat crosses are made at CIANO in late March and earlyApril. Thus, embryo transfers coincide with thebeginning of the hot months and it is difficult to assuresurvival under these adverse conditions until the chromosomescan be doubled. In addition, because manycrosses are made at the same time, facilities areoverextended. To overcome this problem, the excisedembryos are transplanted to nutrient agar and held at2° C for up to 15 days. There appears to be nodetrimental effect and the cold shock may help breakthe dormancy of certain crosses. This methods allowsfor an orderly processing of embryos and their transferto EI Batan. Another modification involves dipping35

Dr. Zillinsky explains how new crosses are effected inthe triticale program during an in-house program reviewby CIMMYT staff.plants in a 100 ppm solution of indole acetic acid forone minute before transplanting to peat pots. This hasresulted in better root development and less damage tothe root apices.The earlier method of doubling chromosomes wasCUnibersome and consisted of cutting the tillers, fittinga wax paper around the tiller and sealing the base withpetroleum jelly. With this method, the colchicineoften leaked down to the root and killed the plant.A new method is now employed using capillarytubes drawn to a fine tip. The tip is inserted in thehollow of the stem and held in place with a wire loop.This system works well and the danger of colchicineentering the root is greatly reduced. Three or moretillers may be treated simultaneously, if desired.Possible Uses of TriticaleTriticale will probably be used both for humanconsumption and for animal feed. In the food-deficitcountries, with which CIMMYT is primarily concerned,it will undoubtedly be used largely as food. In thedeveloped nations, the grain will large'ly be converted toanimal proteins, except for small quantities which maybe used for special foods or industrial purposes.Triticale will probably be used in foods such aschapatis, tortillas, breads, pasta products, breakfastcereals and pancake flours. It may also eventually beused in the industl'ial preraration of enzymes, malts andin the brewing and malting industry.Early reports from various laborntories in the developednations indicated that it was impossible to makesatisfactory bread from tr-iticalc flour. These samereports, however, indicated that acceptable bread couldbe made by mixing wheat and triticale flours in thecorrect proportions. During the past year Lorenz et al.at Colorado State University and Tsen at Kansas StateUniversity reported that it is possible to produce breadof acceptable qual,ity with 100 percent triticale flour.During 1972 preliminary baking studies were madeon several advanced hexaploid tr-iticnlc lines at theCIMMYT Wheat Quality Laboratory. The waill of36these triticales was produced under irrigation in SOl1orarluring the 1971-72 crop season. The samples weretempered at 14.5 percent moisture for 24 hours andmilled in a Brabender Quadrumat Senior MilLThe hectoliter weight of the tritjcale samples rangedfrom 65.6 kg to 70.2 kg compared to a hectoliterweight of 83.7 kg for the In,ia wheat control. Theflour yields of the triticale lines ranged from 51.7percent to 59 percent compared with 83.7 percent forInia. The low flour yields of the triticale lines resultedalmost entirely from their low test weights.More than half of the triticales studied had higherprotein content than the wheat control. All triticalesamples had extremely weak mixing properties. ~onsiderablevariation was observed in sedimentation valueand the lines with the higher values produced the bestloaves.The baking tests followed the AACC method employingtwo fermentation times, 125 and 65 minutes. Ingeneral, both loaf volume and internal loaf characteristicsimproved with the shorter fermentation time andsome made acceptable bread.Tortilla- and Chapati-Making CharacteristicsThe same triticale flours that were used in the breadbaking tests were used to make tortillas. ThE' resultswere qu ite satisfactory. Torti lias made from wheatflour and tr,iticale flour were very similar in generalcharacteristics. There were no particular problems inmaking tortillas.Triticale meal (ata) was used to make chapatis. Thequality characteristics of the tdticale and wheat chapatiswere simil'ar except that the color was darker in thechapatis.ClimatePHYSIOLOGY AND AGRONOMYThe crop season of 1971-72 at CIANO was almostI-ainless, with March temperatures noticeably higherthan average (Table W24). Also, exeeptionnlly hotweather was recorded in the first week of April, withfour successive daily maxima above 37°C (see Fig. W4).Compared to 1970-71, solar rad iation levels were qu itesimilar but temperatures from January to April averagedalmost 2° C higher. Seeded from late November toearly December and grown under optimal conditions ofnitrogen and water, the variety Yecora yielded 10percent less in 1971-72 (6.9 tons/hal than in 1970·71(7.7 tons/hal over several trials. Probably this yieldreduction was rel'ated to the higher temperatures in1971-72 when flowering and maturity were hAstenedseveral days.Wheat PhysiologyStudies as outlined in last Yl1ar's annual repol t havecorHinut"'d at CIANO. Table W25 reports some of theresults of detailed genotype comparisons. The set ofgenotypes was chos(~n to illustrate ~lehetic pwgressover the last 10 years. Gabo, Neillari 60 ,Jnd Napo 63rerl-esent important tall tultival-s of the 1950's ande

TABLE W24. Climatic conditions during crop season at CIANO, Sonora, Mexico (27°20' N, 109°54' W,40 m above sea level).Mean air temperature Mean solar radiation Total rainfall°C cal/cm 2 /day mmMonth 70-71 71-72 12-yr avg 70-71 71-72 70-71 71-72 12-yr avgNovember 20.2 19.4 20.5 346 346 0 3 6.6December 16.5 15.5 16.4 269 284 6 4 19.5January 13.7 15.2 15.0 331 297 0 6 15.9February 14.6 16.4 15.8 409 405 0 0 7.3March 18.0 19.9 17.7 535 523 0 0 2.2April 19.7 21.6 21.1 602 602 0 0 0.4May 24.0" 23.8'1 ?-4.6 596" 622" 0 0 0aFirst half of May only... ..;-:: -... IIB'" Ill:....~•~Ill:;::~'"2i..~...~=-Ill:Ill:10'"100FIG. W4. Weekly means of daily maximum andminimum temperature and daily total solar radiationfor the 1971-72 crop season at CIANO, Ciudad Obregon,Sonora, Mexico. The axis also shows the main stagesof development of the variety Vecora 70 seeded onNovember 25, 1971.Vecora 70). Grain yield/m2 has increased approximately25 percent in the 85-90 cm group compared to the140 em group. Relating this to total dry matterproduction and to harvest index (grain dry weight/totaldry matter), we see no clear change in the former but aprogressive increase in the latter from 0.33-0.34 to0.40-0.44. Thus, increase in grain yield is entirely dueto a more efficient distribution of dry matter, and thismost likely bears a direct physiological relation to thereduction in stature. The following two genotypes inTable W25 are even shorter. Grain yield has notincreased further, however, and this may indicate we areapproaching a limit of progress in this direction.Table W25 also includes some representative currentvarieties from other countries: Hira (India), Robin(Australia), Era (USA) and Kloka (Germany). OnlyHira, a triple-dwarf variety closely related to the newMexican varieties, yielded well. The low yield of theAustralian varieties (Robin and Gabo) is probably alsopartly a stature-related phenomenon, while the twoMAYo'" ~varieties from higher latitudes (Era and Kloka), althoughshorter, suffered because of their delayed date ofanthesis under the shorter days of Mexico (see alsoFig. W4). The last two columns of Table W25 showthe key numerical components of yield, grain numberand grain size, respectively. There is no good relationshipbetween either of these parameters and grainyield for the genotypes chosen.Time-of-seeding studies continued in an effort tounderstand climatic control of yield potential. Fig. W5shows yield ~s ~ function of date of anthesis. Thevarious crops had the same yield potential at anthesis interms of grains/m2, except for the earliest seeding datewhere this was approximately 10 percent lower. Notethe response of grain yield to change in anthesis dateand, hence, major change in the temperature andradiation environment of the postanthesis grain-fill ingperiod (see Fig. W5). The tendency of grain yield todecrease with anthesis occuring early February wasentirely due to the decline in grain size, a well-known6000 50:;• -;;....400 40~ ~A.!!EAA ~ • cIll:i30 '" Ill:, W'I'HT... .... '1tAIN ..Ill:'"co ~• 200 20C'":lCIll:i:jOIl•°JAN10FEBl MARl APRIDATE OF 50 % ANTHESISFIG. W5. Change in grain dry weight and waight pergrain with date of anthesis. Results from four hi~h.yielding varieties (Hira, Vecora 70, LR·N 10BxA E(ww 15), and Cajeme 71) seeded at 4 dates (Nov 5,Nov 25, Dec 16, Jan 6); results of Hira from last dateand WW 15 from last two dates excluded because ofstem rust damage; trial B II, CIANO, 1971·72.10037

TABLE W25. Important growth and yield parameters at harvest for some of the bread wheat genotypesstudied intensively.---------_. --------Mg perGenotypeHeightemDate of 50°10anthesisGrain yield(dry) g/m 2 Totaldry matterHarvestindexGrain numberxl0 3 /m 2 grain(dry)Gabo 140 Feb 24 479 1402 0.34 13.0 36.7Nainari 60 140 Feb 28 501 1489 0.33 13.5 37.3Napa 63 140 Feb 18 484 1424 0.34 13.9 34.8Pitic 62 120 Feb 27 552 1440 0.38 16.9 32.7Penjamo 62 110 Feb 22 567 1 513 0.37 15.9 35.7Inia 66 110 Feb 16 511 1324 0.38 13.8 37.17 Cerros 66 105 Feb 29 586 1492 0.39 16.9 34.7Vecora 70 90 Feb 21 627 1430 0.44 15.3 40.0Cajeme 71 HO Feb 29 560 1386 0.40 13.6 41.2Vicam 71 85 Feb 28 602 1 490 0.40 19.3 31.3Bluebird # 6" 85 Feb 18 629 1433 0.44 17.0 37.1Bbxlnia h 85 Feb 21 610 1383 0.44 16.1 38.0Tordo e 70 Feb 27 511 1 272 0.40 14.4 35.6Olesen 55 Feb 19 560 1 279 0.44 17.8 31.5Hira 85 Feb 12 591 1 320 0.45 16.3 36.4Robin 130 Feb 28 474 1389 0.34 12.8 37.0Fra 110 Mar 21 378 1 415 0.27 13".2 28.6Kloka 115 Mar 5 435 1396 0.31 13.8 31.5SE of mean 1A 1\1 0.01 0.6 0.7Seeding density: 100 kg/ha in 20·cm rows with 200 kg/ha Nand 80 kg/haP 20 S: seeded November 24-25. 1971. at CIANO. Sonora. MExico." Cno "S" x Son64 -KI Rend/8156B. II 23584-?h 265591.1T.7M-OVc Nai 60 x n·Son64/LR64·Son64. H244·1 V·6B.physiological effect of higher temperatures. The increasein solar radiation occurring during the period wasinsufficient to compensate for this concurrent temperatureincrease.One specific aspect of plant morphology which maybe important if yield potential is to be further increasedis leaf angle. Theoretical computer simulations ofwheat crop photosynthesis suggest advantages for erectleaves when both leaf area indices are high and sunangles are high (low latitudes and/or summer growingseason). In addition, the current Mexican wheatvarieties, when grown under high water and nitrogen,tend to be floppy or nonerect in leaf habit. Someerect-leaf lines selected from the bread and durum wheatprograms wine studied. Despite minimal selectionon other desirable plant characteristics, several erectdurum lines were as high yielding as Cocorit 71. Amuch wider range of selections will be tested in thenext season, with special emphasis on their performancein narrower rows and at higher population densities.A major alternative approach to the physiology ofyield improvement is the study of yield-limiting factorsoperating when one of the best-yielding new varieties(Yecora 70) is grown free of disease and under optimalsoil conditions (Fig. W6). Manipulations of the cropenvironment were similar to those reported last year.Fig. W7 summarizes results from shading treatments forthe two seasons. Both these shading and additionalthinning experiments strongly support the idea thatearly crop growth (in the first six weeks or up to the endof tillering) is not related to grain yield under theconditions represented by Fig. W6. The substantialtiller death due to light competition in the crop afternine weeks (Fig. W6) partly explains the insensitivity toearly growth. Solar radiation levels and crop growthbecome particularly important in the second half of thecrop cycle and not only during grain filling. Theresults in 1971·72 of treatments involving C02 fertillza-tion, which presumably increases crop photosynthesis,support this conclusion regarding the periods whencarbohydrate supply is important. In all these experiments,manipulation of crop carbohydrate supply in theso-called late vegetative·anthesis stage affected grains/m2whereas manipulation during grain filling affected grainsize.Considering only the postanthesis or grain·fillingperiod, the size of the sink or demand for carbohydrate(as represented by the number of grains per m2) wasvaried largely by thinning and crowding treatments1400N, E1200II:...::IE'"::>z 1000>-00:z: 800'" ...:NE 600 ,~:z:>-400 .Ẇ• >-II: 200QElIltr\l.IICIILEAf UU INDEX, ...0.....I ,_.,..1 ,_,." ," \ '. I \I & .. , \,1/''/ t/' ,/• ISHOOT NUIII8U /' ,""'. 0"""'-0../ ~/Q',//',60 80blll"lSDAYS FROM SEEOING"4Iurit,>

about Fig. W8, sink size (grains/m2) was a potentialyield-limiting factor in 1971-72, but not to the extentobserved in 1970-71. Grain removal treatments appl iedto individual ears in the crop support this conclusion.The important question of whether yield is morelimited in the postanthesis period by photosynthate8001971-1972,...----.--.. •50GRAIN DRY WEIGHT00.... E600....... .QzN0 .....E.... ~E8Q 40 a:0'~ a:....... .......WI- ......... 'NEIGHT PER GRAnt 0-:I:400.......30~ .......19........ I-:I:w C>........'".. "=>-a: Thinnin9~::;C>200[.dl"'~~---Auu'lltlona:C>0~w20 '"This wheat shading experiment by the CIMMYT physiologysection is one of several experiments designed toevaluate the components of wheat yield.010000 20000GRAINS PER m 1 30000FIG. W8. Response of final grain size and final graindry weight to changes in postanthesis sink size asindicated by grains/m2; trials B XIII, B XXXIU,CIANO, 1971-72.ẹ.0u.;-..'"~l.o.J>-:z100908070a:~ 601500LATE-VEGEUnVEANTHESIS'RAitH FILLING20 40 60 80PERCENT SHADING (28 day periad)FIG. W7. Summary of the effects of shading on yield ofthe variety Yecora 70 grown under optimal conditions.Treatments involved a single continuous exposure forapproximately one month to shades of various intensities'during one of the four stages of development ofthe crop referred to; trials A XIII (1971-72) and BXIII (71-72) at C1ANO.(Fig. W8). The results were clearly different from thosepresented for the previous season --grain size declined ata greater rate as grains/m2 increased. Hence, grain yieldreached a maximum (720 g/mL ) not far above that ofthe yield of control crops and well below the 1000g/m 2 recorded in 1970-7". Despite certain reservationssupply (source) than by sink size in the ,crop wasexamined in the several key genotypes as well as in thevariety Yecora. Treatments, applied at anthesis, involvedcrop shading and thinning, and also leaf, grainand floret removal for shoots in undisturbed crops.Full interpretation of the results obtained is complexand must await further experiments. However, it hasbeen possible to identify varietal differences in thesensitivity of grain size to apparent changes in the ratioof source to sink. For example, in the varietiesYecora and Olesen, individual grain weight increasedmore than 30 percent as a result of practically eliminatingpostanthesis light competition by removing all butone row of each plot at anthesis. At the other extreme,the response of the variety Kloka was less than 10percent. Siete Cerros, Sonora, Cajeme and the lineLR-N 1OB x An3 E were also relatively insensitive tosource manipulation, whereas Cocorit and Tobari seemedmoderately sensitive.In summary, although no unequivocal guidelines forachieving further increases in yield potential have as yetemerged from the above physiology program, someuseful points are evident. These presently relatespecifically to the genotypeS and experimental environmentstudied. There seems to be little relationshipbetween early growth or vigour and grain yield; similarly,there is no relationship between tillering and yield.Other things being equal, there is no good relationshipbetween length of the vegetative (pre-anthesis) periodand yield potential at anthesis as measured, for example,by grain number/m2. But yield potential appears to bedetermined by factors governing tiller survival, inparticular, light levels in the last one-third of thevegetative phase; during this period erect leaves may beadvantageous. Grain size depends on postanthesis39

events; other things equal, anthesis dates later thanabout February 15 will lead to smaller grains andlower yields because the detrimental effect of higherpostanthesis air temperatures more than compensatesthe advantage of rising solar radiation levels.All the above physiological studies were carriedout with an optimal water supply. In addition, in thelast season there was a preliminary experiment ondrol.lght simulation, testing the feasibility of identifyingdrought·resistant genotypes at CIANO (Table W26).It is interesting to find a statistically significant changein ranking of several of the genotypes as the intensity ofthe terminal postanthesis drought increased. Alsoyield stability under such conditions was not clearlyrelated to maturity of the genotype. Such studies willbe expanded next season.TABLE W26. Effect of simulated postanthesis drought on groin yield of nine genotypes (trial B XII,CIANO, Sonora).GraIn yield (ton/hal-- --------._-Date antheslsGenotype No stressSown Oec 9No stressSown Dec 9Slight stress"Sown Nov 22Mod stress"Sown Dec 9Severe stre88Sown Dec 21--_.--------------.. -~.',----_._-.._------------Barley·Porvenlr Feb 224.83 4.34 3.31 2.68Of. 100 90 68 56Sonora 64 Feb 24 5.52 5.20 4.24 3.26% 100 94 77 59Ciano 67 Feb 25 5.78 5.18 4.42 3.78Of. 100 !lO 711 65Vecora 70 Mar 1 6.37 5.46 4.24 3.25% tOO AR R7 51Cocorlt 71 Mar 2 7.09 5.20 3.83 2.38Of. 100 73 54 34Pltlc 62 Mar 4 5.12 4.16 3.17 2.2201 0 100 81 62 43Gabo Mar 4 4.40 4.02 3.69 2.75% 100 92 84 63Nalnerl 60 Mar 5 4.68 4.03 3.24 2.74% 100 86 69 59Tel Arm" Mar 6 3.74 3.52 2.48 1.76·'0 100 94 66 47LSD between genotypes at different levels of drought =0.58 tlha.Seeded at tOO kg/ha In 30·cm rows with 100 kg/ha Nand 80 kg/ha P.. O~." Last waterIng: full flooding for 3 hours on Feb. 10. 1972.I. X.308.27V.2M.1V.302B.ON.10tB (triticale).Whaat AgronomyCIMIYIYT's wheat agronomy studies in Mexico seekto determine guidelines for managing the newvarieties and promising lines being produced by thebreeding program and in particular, to see whetherexisting recommendations should be changed as planttype, etc., change. At present, investigations areconducted under irrigated conditions at CIANO butthere were no irrigation studies.Results of the time·of·sowing trial with variousgenotypes (Fig. W5) confirm the results reported lastyear. Early November planting is best for the largegenotypes, such as the variety Cajeme 71 and theline LR·N10B x An3E (WW 15). Early (Sonora 64and Hira) and midseason (Yecora 70) types did some·what better at a late-November planting even though, incontrast to the previous season, there was no frostdamage to earlier plantings. Stem rust reduced yield~of still later plantings (December 16 and January 6) ofsusceptible genotypes (Hira and WW 15).Another nitrogen fertilizer study was conducteddespite the difficulty of obtaining land of low soil Nstatus and despite the limited transferability of theresults of such experiments. However, this experiment,which included some old varieties as well as recent ones,did provide a useful resume of the yield progressduring the last two decades (Table W27).Lodging resistance of the newer genotypes hasmeant higher yields at higher optimal soil N levels.Additional improvements in yield potential, apart fromlodging resistance with varieties such as Yecora 70(see earlier discussion), are also evident at high soilN levels. At low soil N levels there appear to be nodifferences between genotypes in the yield and, therefore,in the efficiency with which they use limitingsupplies of soil N.TABLE W27. Summary of steps Involved in themalor pathway for yield Improvement at CIANOover the last 20 years showing the Interactionbetween N level and genotype under dlseas..fr..conditions.Soil N Variety Lodlling Yield. t/halow Yaqui 50 0 2low Nalnarl 60 0 2low Yecora 70 a 2high Yaqui 50 severe 4high Nalnarl 60 moderate 4.5high Nalnarl 60 0" 5.5hIgh Yecora 70 0 6.7" Lodging prevented by having crop grow throuRh mesh...40

An extensive seeding density spacing trial was conducted.Four bread wheat and four durum varietieswere tested at all combinations of '40, 100 and 250kg/ha seed and 15, 30 and 45 cm row spacing; extremevalues were used to amplify variety x treatment interactions.Varieties were chosen for differences intillering, maturity and, for one durum variety (6WW­5101). for leaf erectness. Overall trial mean yields forthe three seeding densities were, respectively, 6.000,6.13 and 6.03 tons/ha (LSD = 0.10 ton/ha); for thethree spacings there were, respectively, 6.05, 6.20 and5.90 tons/ha (LSD = 0.14 ton/hal. Variety x treatmentinteractions were small; durums were slightly moresensitive than bread wheats to changes in spacing. Aslight, but significantly greater, positive response toincreased seeding density did appear to be associatedwith the lower tillering varieties (Sonora 64 and SieteCerros) and the erect durum variety.The depth-of-cultivation trial of last season wasrepeated, but failed to show the previously reportedadvantage of deep chiseling (to 40 cm) during landpreparation.WHEAT TRAINING AND VISITORSDuring 1972, approximately 740 visitors saw theplots at Ciudad Obregon or visited CIMMYT wheatnurseries at Toluca and EI Batan. There were 9short-term visitor-trainees, 12 senior scientists, 3 postdoctoralfellows and 39 in-service trainees in variousphases of the wheat program activities. Training hasemphasized the in-service and postdoctoral fellowships,and CIMMYT now provides opportunities for a limitednumber of visitor-trainees and senior scientists to workin the program.In-Service TrainingIn-service training provides a means of developingyoung scientists for national research and productionprograms. In 1972, four courses were offered: wheatproduction, wheat breeding, wheat pathology and cerealchemistry.The three principal aims of the program are:1. To provide leadership for accelerated researchand production programs. Trai.,ees are treated as teammembers; they are shown the value of enthusiasm,hard work and sound judgment, all designed to developconfidence and an ability to lead others.2. To broaden the outlook of the young scientist.While in Mexico, the trainee can see all types ofagriculture, ranging from the traditional to the fullymodern, progressive agricu lture practiced in the irrigatedareas of the Northwest. The latter represents thelatest techniques in production and marketing. Hediscusses with colleagues from many countries theirproblems, methods of agriculture and different philosophies.He learns that he is not alone in the world but amember of a very large fraternity. He observes andlearns how the different disciplines and factors ofagricultural development are interrelated and how adjustmentsin one affect the others.3. To broaden and develop his technical knowledgeand abilities. The trainee scientist is given some formallectures, but most of h is time is devoted to field workalongside CIMMYT scientists in the various programs.When he has completed thf' course and passed throughtwo crop seasons, he will know the morphology anddevelopment of the wheat plant, and has been exposedto genetics, plant pathology, plant nutrition, responseto environment and cultural practices, a'nd the utilizationof the product and marketing procedures. Hewill have learned to identify in the field, and know howto prevent or minimize the losses from, the commonpathological and physiological diseases of wheat andinsect pests. He will have knowledge of how toestablish the objectives, select a suitable design, manage,analyse and interpret field experiments leading to thedevelopment of a package of practices or recommend"ationsfor local conditions.These aspects are part of the training of all ins~rvicescientists. Beyond this, specialized coursesprepare the scientist for activities in a particular fieldas a member of a research team.In wheat breeding, the trainee gains experiencein the operation of a breeding program designed todevelop new improved varieties. He learns to identifyand describe desirable agronomic, morphological, physiological,insect and disease resistance and marketingcharacteristics of wheat. He gains experience in workingout breeding objectives, learns how to organize abreeding program, prepare seed for the nursery, layout the land, manage a breeding nursery and keeprecords. He learns how to identify better parentmaterial, various crossing methods and how to makeselections in segregating populations. He also learnshow varieties and lines are tested and evaluated, howto maintain purity and multiply seed, and how todetermine and describe grain quality.In the wheat production course, the scientist receivesmore training in production methods and experimentaltechniques. He receives field participant training ingrowing and operating production demonstrations, weedcontrol, depth of seeding experiments, fertility andspacing experiments, and others designed to acquainthim with how a package of production practices isdeveloped to suit a particular situation. He becomesacquainted with methods of approaching farmers togain their acceptance of new techniques and how toorganize and conduct production training courses inhis own country.The wheat pathology scientist has additional trainingin identifying diseases and biotypes of diseases in thefield, greenhouse and laboratory. He learns how tocreate artificial epidemics of the more common diseases.He also works alongside his breeder colleaguesduring selection in the field.Cereal chemistry scientists learn how to perform andinterpret laboratory tests for evaluating wheat quality,both from the nutritional and industrial use standpoint.He is also taught how to organize and manage a wheatquality laboratory and train supporting technicians.In all in-service training, the scientist learns byactually doing rather than through lectures alone. Alloperations are performed by the scientist.Other Categories of TrainingThis heading includes the short-term visiting scientist,the senior scientist and the postdoctoral fellow. Theorientation of individual programs depends on thescientist's previous experience, his technical knowledgeand other criteria. Enthusiasm for research and productionand the development of team spirit are emphasized.Invariabily, they work as integral parts of the. CI MMYTteam. In many cases, they are or will be team leaders intheir own country and this new experience broadens41

Dr. Borlaug gives a seminar in the wheat plots for young scientists from developing nations in the training program.their appreciation of the possibilities of expandingprograms, even with Iimited personnel. CI MMYT hopesthat each will re-enter his field with renewed enthusiasm.In the past year, CIMMYT has increased the numberof visitor-trainees who come for several weeks to twomonths of practical experience in the wheat program.These may be scientists coming for a short periodduring harvest or scientists who are studying for or haverecently completed a Ph.D. In the latter case, thescientist comes to CIMMYT before returning to hishome country. These scientists already have enoughtechnical background but gain much by seeing aprogram in action and selecting materials useful in theirhome programs.In the postdoctoral program, a certain number ofscientists are accepted whose field of work is related toCIMMYT activities.- They are, of course, assumed to befully capable of independent research. The postdoctoralfellows are accepted to develop new staff for CIMMYTand for other international organ izations.Such appointees generally serve for two years. Threemember of the present resident staff were formerlypostdoctoral fellows.In-service trainees layout their own experimentalplots in the wheat production training program.42

Dr. M. Quinones discusses plant breeding problems ofdurum wheat with a group of trainees in the CIANOnursery.BARLEYErisyphe graminis is a common disease of barley.During the current year a barley program wasinitiated at CIMMYT. The program focuses on improvingthis crop as a natural complement to the wheatprogram. There are many areas adjacent to deserts orwith a short frost-free period in the higher mountainregions of the Himalayas, Andes and other mountainchains where wheat does not successfully compete withbarley production. In many of these areas barley hasbecome a main food staple for human consumption.in still other areas, such as in South Kore~, barley isgrown as an alternate crop in rotation with rice.Present wheat varieties have a maturity period whichextends into the time when paddy is transplanted.Hence, the shorter maturity period of barley has made itthe favoured crop.Considering these factors, CI MMYT decided to developnaked varieties which could be used directly asfood. In addition, the recent discovery of the "hiproly"barley provided an opportunity to use this high-lysinetype to improve the nutritional value of the crop.In the past, most barley improvement has been donewith hulled types. Hence, in developing highly nutritional,disease-free, high-yielding naked types, manyhulled types will arise which may have direct use asanimal feeds. The growing needs for animal protein inmany countries can be reinforced by producing betterfeed varieties. This will be the second emphasis .of theprogram. l'Jo attempt will be made to breed for maltingtypes for brewing.During the initial stages of the program, effort hasbeen on bringing together superior germ plasm frommany countries. CI MMYT thanks the many scientistsnucleus for its improvement program.More than 4,000 lines were received and these havebeen grown for observation in the past year. Noteswere taken on different characteristics and many wereselected on the basis of agronomic type, disease re-Rhyncosporim scald of barley is common in mostbarley-producing re!lions of the world.43

~~otethe sterility in the high-lysine "h i proly" barley being used in the CIMMYT crossing program.44

sistance, and some were selected for nutritional possibilities.This preliminary screening resulted in theselection of 187 lines and varieties. These constitute acrossing block now being grown at CIANO. A total of117 F 1 single crosses and 127 top and double crosseswere produced in the current season and these also havebeen sown. In addition, 100 F2 bulk populations and25 F2 top and double cross populations were selectedfrom crosses made in the past two seasons. Segregatinglines from crosses received from other countries whichare now in F3 to F6 have been incorporated into theprogram.Many additional varieties and lines have continued tocome in which will be observed in future cycles andrepresent very valuable add itions to the germ plasmbase. Such characteristics as usable shQrt dwarf materials,resistance to a wide spectrum of diseases andother desirable traits are present within the material,but in a very dispersed background. CIMMYT intendsNutritional ImprovementIn barley, as for maize, mutant recessive genes havebeen identified which favorably modify the amino acidbalance of the protein and produce improved nutritionalquality.The high-protein and high·lysine barley mutant,Hiproly (CI.3947l, was identified by Hagberg, Karlsonand Munck in Sweden in 1969 while screening theBarley World Collection. This mutant gene (Iys) increasesthe lysine content of the protein about 30 percent.Recently, another mutant, No. 1508, obtained from thevariety Bomi, was found to increase the lysine in theprotein by about 45 percent (Munck 1972). Toft-Vieufin 1972 reported a third high-lysine barley, CI. 7115,with about 15 percent more lysine in the protein thannormal barley controls. These mutants maintain arather constant lysine content at different crude proteinlevels after various treatments of nitrogen fertilization.Munck and his group in Sweden and the Ris group inDenmark have kindly provided CIMMYT with seed ofthese superior-quality barleys. Therefore, CIMMYT'srecently initiated barley breeding program has begun toincorporate materials of high protein quality. Theselines have been crossed to varieties with acceptableagronomic type to incorporate the high-quality-proteincharacter. The segregating materials from the crossesare being evaluated, using the dye-binding capacity(DBC) screening method to assess quality. The selectedplants that were replanted will continue to be evaluatedduring the next segregating cycle.The protein content of 80 lines included in thecrossing block ranged from 12.8 percent to 18.3 percentwith an average of 16.4 percent. The Iys'ine content inthe protein of the best materials was about 3.9 percent.In the segregating generations, 800 individual plantstested showed a very wide variability in the protein andlysine content of the grain.NATIONAL PROGRAMSThe following section covers the progress in wheat,triticale and barley improvement in national programswhere CIMMYT is involved.These reports were prepared either by the nationalprogram coordinator of the country involved or jointlyby the national program coordinator and a CIMMYTresident scientist.These national programs reports are grouped bycontinents: Asia, Africa and South America.This physiological spotting of barley leaves is oftenconfused with leaf diseases.INDIAto bring together as qu ick Iy as possible the necessaryarray of genes to produce superior varieties throughsingle, top and double crosses.As stated earlier, the program is in its initial stagesand sufficient material is not yet available for syste·matic distribution to cooperating national barley programs.Next year early segregating materials should bemade available for selection in other countries.For the fifth successive year, wheat productionincreased to a new record level. The official estimate ofthe 1972 harvest was 26.45 million metric tons. Thisrepresents a 12.2 percent increase over last year'srecord of 23.247 million tons. The estimated totalacreage rose to 19.162 mill ion hectares, 6.6 percentabove the previous year. The average yield continuedto improve and is now 1,382 kg/ha. Fig. W9 shows thearea, production, yield and imports for 1960 to 1972.In general moisture at sowing was favorable in mostwheat areas, except Peninsular India. Dry conditionscontinued there and in the central rainfed area until latein the crop season when rains in sections of central Indiaproduced a substantial recovery. In northern India,45

35 1400i l:! ... " 30/ 1300iiI~ /:II ,jIc25 /",,;,' 1200... '" /'" c/&i c:0:"/:0:...... 20 I 1100I .-./ '"'",!./ a;;;! II ~:II 15 Arto I· 10003!ic'"'z......... ,Production /"v fiS! .../ --..../" .J'"t; 10 900.. '" ..."'\ I \ ,,... \ I \ ,'" ..............'"'"/ \ / 'v'........-......z: 5 I \ Yl,ld I ......,- 800c... c'"" X I"'".' ....,/a..............,,. ArM C",ort wh.oh1960 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 • 70 71 72YEA R 5FIG. W9. Cultivated area, production and yield ofwheat in India, 1960-72.growing conditions were excellent up to grain filling.Then hot weather (4_5° C above normal) and a con·current rapid development of leaf rust undoubtedlyreduced the potential yield. This was aggravated by theadverse effects of late sowing in some areas which hasbeen increasing in recent years due to late paddyharvest. Rice has become a major complementarysummer crop in the normal wheat regions. This trendtoward later sowing should not be continued if wheatproduction is to remain high. Early maturing, highyieldingrice varieties are needed to reverse this trend.The significance of the Wheat Revolution can beappreciated because of the severe drought which occurredduring the 1972 summer in much of the rice andsorghum areas. The increased wheat production providedan additional 5.1 million tons of wheat which,added to existing stocks of food grains, provided astockpile of more than 9.0 million tons after the wheatharvest. Considering the shortage of food grains in theinternational market and the partial failure of themonsoon, the increase in wheat production undoubtedly700reduced the suffering that such a drought would havecaused in the past.Wheat now accounts for about 25 percent of totalgrain production in India. Approximately half thepresent acreage is irrigated and high-yielding varietiesoccupy about 59 percent of this area. With morefertilizer and a"continuing spread of the high-yieldingdwarf varieties, there is still a tremendous potential forincreasing production in both irrigated and rainfed areas.The Ludhiana district of Punjab averaged 3.3 tons/haon 92,000 hectares this year. The average yield of thenational demonstrations throughout the wheat productionareas exceeded 3.0 tons/ha and the top yield inAII·lndia Crop Competition ~as 7.6 tons/ha. Researchhas also shown that applications of 40 kg N/ha with 30kg P205/ha give an average yield increase of 60 percent.These figures indicate the great potential when consideringaverage national yield of 1.38 tons/ha. Theseprojections ignore the other needs of levelling, drainage,irrigation and other factors which are still to beaccomplished on a large scale. Production approaching50 million tons is quite possible on somewhat less thanpresent wheat acreage.As in the past, the All-India Coordinated WheatImprovement Program held its annual meeting inAugust to review the trials conducted in the past seasonand to plan the program activities for the coming year.The need to identify a rust resistant variety superior toor equal to Kalyansona was a major topic of discussion.The late attack of leaf rust in large areas of the Northwestand Northeast emphasized the need to furtherdiversity the varieties.Breeding ResearchBreeding lines are evaluated in a coordinated systemof yield nurseries. The country was divided into fivemajor e1imatic zones and the trials are designed tosample the conditions existing within the zone. Thesezones are: Northwest Plains, Northeast Plains, NorthernHills, Central and Peninsular. Irrigated. rainfed andhigh· and medium-fertility trials are grown. Thesein'e1ude lines and varieties wnich are suitable for therespective zones.On a national basis, 41 trial combinations wereconducted in which 490 varieties Wfie evaluated underdifferent arrays of environment, fertility and watersupply. This was in addition to numerous station trialsconducted on newer breeding lines. The trials areTABLE W28. Varieties recommended for release in India in 1971-72.Variety andpedigreeArea for releaseHS 1097-17E 5165 (CJ60) x E4717 (S x Mt xMq x Rw")NI 5439RFPM·80 x NP710:Meghdoot (HI 7483)HI 6·23-HY23 x NP404BREAD WHEATSDURUM WHEATSNorthern Hills, higher elevations.Peninsular, rainfed.Central India, rainfed.46

arranged in a continuous flow pattern and successfulvarieties advance to higher level trials each year. Bothbread ar,d durum varieties are included where applicable.Last year the three varieties shown in Table W28were considered superior to those presently grown incertain regions and recommended for release to theCentral Varietal Release Committee. Table W28 alsoindicates the areas where these varieties are suited.HS 1097-17, wh ich has been under test for severalyears, has consistently yielded higher at elevationsabove 5000 feet. NI 5439 has shown consistently highyield performance in Peninsular India. Its chief defect isleaf rust susceptibility. Meghdoot, a durum variety,outyields the presently widely grown NP 404 whichentered into its parentage.Several other varieties appeared sufficiently promisingto be seriously considered. These varieties shown inTable W29 were submitted for District Level Trials.These are conducted on farm fields under ExtensionService personnel. The data from coordinated programtrials and district trials will be used to determine therelative merit of these varieties at the next annualmeeting.The coordinated project cooperates with severalinternational, regional and national programs. Last year15 different yield trials and screening nurseries weregrown, including those from CIMMYT. Table W30shows some of the most promising Iines selected fromCIMMYT's Fifth International Bread Wheat ScreeningNursery. These are presently in the national yield trials.All selected lines are amber grained and have 2- or 3-genedwarf stature.TABLE W29. Most promising bread wheat and durum wheat lines being tested extensively for futurerelease lIndia, 1971-72).Genotype and pedigreeUP-310K1. Pet.-Raf (LR-Son 64):1W6-377W6. 143-USA 225 x PV 18HD-1925Son 64 A-LR 64 AHD-1949E 5557 (Pi "s")-NP 852HD-1982E 5557-HD 845HD-1999Son 64-M y 54 E x Son 64-P 4150 E,HB-102-101NP 846-8 227MACS-9T, durum-T, polonicum (41 x 15)HD-4502Pi "s"-By' x Tc-(Z-B-W)Area and conditionsBREAD WHEATSNorthwestern Plains Zone, high fertility, irrigatedrSI'lI11~l(Same)Northeast Plains Zone, high fertility, irrigated(Sam!;!)Northern Hills, lower elevation, high fertility, irrigatedDURUM WHEATSpp.ninsular, rainfedPeninsular, hi9h fertility, irrigatedAgronomy and Physiology ResearchThe small-scale manufacture of threshers is common inmany Villages of North India.Three trials which have given consistent results overthe past years were grown under the project. They are:rate, time and method of N application, P205 rates andN rates under rainfed culture_ Other trials which willcontinue for one or two additional years deal primarilywith new varieties being developed, including thethree-gene dwal f type in order to identify any changesin agronomic practice needed to produce maximumreturns. Other interests include the maximization ofwheat yields when wheat is sown late. The purpose ofthis research is to identify varieties and practices whichcan be used with late sowing to accommodate rotationswith other late-maturing crops. This does not mitigatethe need to continue searching for high-yielding, earlymaturing varieties of all summer crops which wouldpermit maximum flexibility and yield in multiplecropping systems.Another area is the fenllll'i tequirltment for wheatsown after maize or rice crops. This reflects the widespreadand growing interest in double and triple crop-47

TABLE W30. Wheat genotypes from the Fifth International Bread Wheat Screening Nursery showinggcod yield potential in India (1971.72).IBWSNEntry3744466364103107112114122123233251257258268270271273279287304318319336GenotypeInia 66·BbBb-lnia66NP 876·PJ 62 x Cno "s"·PJ 62Cno "s"·GalloCno "s"·GalloTob "s"·Napo 63 x Cno·Son 64/Col-Ska(Cno·Chris x On/Gallo) (Cno·S 64 x Cno·lnia)Bb·GalloCno "s"·GalloHD 832·BbHD 832·Bb(LS·3.1·Pi62 x Inia/CC-Inia) GalloInla "s"·On x Inia-BbCno "s"·No 66 x CC·lnia 66Cno "s"·No 66 x CC-Inia 66Inia 66-RL 4220 x 7 CerrosTob "s"·Napn x Cnn-!=;nn 64/Cal·Ska(Cal·Bb) [(K!. Pet.·Raf x PJ 62/Cno) (NP 876·Bb)]Bb·Gallo/Cno·Son 64 x Bb(Son 64 2 x Tzpp·Y 54/An 64 A) BbPJ 62·Cal(Napo 63 2·Tob "s" x Inia "s"/Cno) (KI. Pet.­Raf-/Son 64 x Tzpp-Y 54)Cno "s"-GalloCno "s" BbSka-OnPedigree26478·32Y·9M·1Y-2M·OY26591-1 T-7M-OY-301 M·OM27983-21Y·l M·OY27829·19Y·2M·3Y·OM27829-19Y·2M·6Y·OM35058-26Y-OM35106·64Y·OM30810-1M-5Y-OM27S29·19Y·2M·l Y·OM27047·51 M·2Y-2M·1Y-OM27047·51 M·2Y-2M-4Y·OMCM·1186-500M-OYCM·1R07-7M-OY34167·91Y·6M·OY34167-9!W·2M·OY35038·7Y-1 M·OY35058·26Y·3M·OY35063-23Y·l M·OY35129·18Y-1M·OY34630·9Y·l M·OY30403·19M·2Y·l M·OY32550-4M-l Y-1 M·OY27829-19Y-3M-5Y-1 M·OY27845·5Y-3M-4Y-3M·OYExp.LV-V-1363-1 Y·l M-OYping. Rice, for example, as previously indicated, isbecoming increasingly important as a rotational cropwith wheat in northern India and, thus, has createdseveral agronomic questions about the present varietyand fertilizer use.Physiology studies involving the yield components(light penetration, and dry matter production anddistribution) and their relative contributions to yieldare being pursued under both irrigated and rainfedculture. Varieties are also being studied for comparativephotosynthetic activity and sink size.Plant Pathology ResearchThe wheat disease survey, with its associated trapnurseries, was continued. Stem rust and yellow rustswere of minor importance except for a very isolatedpocket of late·sown local (desi) varieties in northwesternUttar Pradesh. Here stem rust was severe. Thisis a reminder of the potential hazards presented by thisorganism when susceptible varieties are used and climaticconditions are conducive to its development.The yellow rust race capable of attacking Kalyansonawas only rarely found outside a small area in the Punjabfoothills where a few fields of this variety weredamaged. Again, as for stem rust, a hazard does existand the disease must be monitored.The most serious wheat disease problem of the pastyears has been leaf rust. A race capable of attackingKalyansona and NP 884 survived in the northerninoculum reservoir. This race was established early andbuilt up rapidly in the entire Northern Plains wheat belt.Fig. W10·11 indicates the average degree of leafrust development on a zonal basis. Kalyansona,although attacked at moderately severe levels, is notnearly as susceptible as the check durum variety, which~.!..>-.....lI:W> wen.....en:::;)lI:10080604020100501Tr0I 15DECI 15 I 15 I 15JAN FEB MARDATE15 I 15APR MAYFig. W10·11. Average leaf rust development in theNorthwestern Plains and Northeastern Plains of India,1971·72.48

at one time was the principal durum variety ofPeninsular India. This disease, coupled with hot, dryweather, reduced yields some and this was especiallytrue for late-sown fields following the rice crop.Kalyansona, with its resistance to loose smut, buntand powdery mildew, exerts a strong influence on theincidence of these diseases. In North India, loose smutis no longer a major disease and powdery mildewremains insignificant. The importance of resistancegenes in Kalyansona is very appreciable, considering thearea sown to this variety.The pathology program also does extensive testingand screening of breeding lines for resistance. CIMMYTlines are included. Those from the Fifth IBWSN whichshowed resistance to the three rusts are presented inTable W31.QualityThe wheat germ plasm collection of the IndianAgricultural Research Institute will be screened forbasic quality characters. The milling and bakingindustry, which is developing rapidly, requires varietieswith acceptable bread·making qualities. Several va·rieties, such as Sharbati Sonora, UP301 and Hira,satisfy these requirements. Varieties suitable for bothbread and chapati making need to be identified.The protein level of most varieties increases withhigher applications of N. In most' varieties lysinecontent is inversely associated with protein content butsome varieties are reported to maintain their lysinepercentage as the protein percentage increases. Thecereal chemists are interested in identifying such va·rieties in the interest of nutrition.TABLE W31. Wheat genotypes from the Fifth International Bread Wheat Screening Nursery resistantto the three rusts in both winter and summer nurseries (India, 1971-72).IBWSNEntry13535884868789102104124161185202. 203217225236257263268269271275276311330GenotypeTanori 7112300 x LA 64·8156/Nor 67(Inla "s" x Napo 63 (Inla 64·Tzpp x Y54)Bb-IniaBb·lniaBb·lniaBb·lniaCno·No x GteCno "s"·No 66/C 273 x NP 875·E 853WrenAhome F 71T7PPPatoBuitreTob "s" x 8156Inla "s"·Napo 63 [Son 64·KI. Rend/Cno x LR64 9·80n 64)Cno "s"·No 66 x CC-IniaCC·8156 x Cno "s"/Ska-CalInia 66·AL 4220 x 7 CerrasNor·Pl/Nor67 x Cno-Son 64(Cal·Bb) [KI. Pet·Rat x PJ 62/Cno) [NP 876·Bb)Kal 2 [Fr-Th x Sk·Kt/Nar "s"·Fr')Cno "s"·No 66/C 273 x NP 875·E 853Cno·Son 64 x Bb(Nar 59·101y/PJ 62·Gb x Tzpp·Knott No.2) CalPedigree25717·11Y·3M·1Y·OM30842·58A·l M-4Y·OM28844·8A·3M·3Y·OM26591·1T·7M·OY·55Y·OM26591·1T·7M·OY·113Y·OM26591·1T·7M·OY·115Y·OM26591·1T·7M-OY·208Y-OM34134-20Y·OM34273·63Y-OM28875·300Y·20M·2Y-OM19957·18M·l Y·2M-l Y·6M21974-4R·4M·2R·OY·OP(·OY)28867·300Y·300M·OY22944·3Y-5M·OYCM811-68M·OY34167·81 Y·91 Y-6M-OY35019-1Y·1M-OY35038·7Y·l M·OY35052·28Y-l M-OY35063-23Y-1 M·OY35173·15Y·2M·OY35273-10Y-4M-OY30505·7.1·7Y-l M·OY30409·44A·l M·3Y·l M·OYPAKISTANSeverdl factors interacted to adversely affect wheatproduction during the 1971·72 crop season. Thesefactors included the disturbance caused by the De·cember war in the subcontinent, a shortage of canalwater, below·normal winter rainfall, above·normal tem·peratures and a shortage of phosphorous fertilizer.The wheat area for the 1971-72 crop cycle was5.9 million hectares, 1.3 percent less than for the1970·71 season. Most of the reduction in area occurredin the Punjab and Sind provinces. These reductionswere partly offset by an increased wheat area in theNorthwest Frontier Province.Temperatures were above normal at sowing andduring the first few weeks of seedling development.Seedling development was poor during the early stages,especially in the rainfed areas of the Northwest FrontierProvince and in northern Punjab, but it recoveredgreatly following a series of rains during January andFebruary. In the principal wheat producing areas of thePunjab and Sind, however, less than one·half inch ofof precipitation fell throughout the season.Despite the reduced acreage and adverse climaticeffects, preliminary estimates indicate a national produc·tion of 7.1 million metric tons (Fig. W121. substantiallyabove the 6.5 million tons of the previous year.Increased fertilizer use was responsible for most ofthe production increase. During the 1971·72 wheatseason, 181,587 metric tons of nutrients were appliedcompared with 146,497 tons during the previous season.Nevertheless, the total tonnage of fertilizer applied doesnot tell the whole story on fertilizer needs andutilization. Several hundred fertilizer experiments havebeen made throughout the wheat growing areas duringthe past nine years. The results indicate that the propernitrogen·phosphorus ratio is about 2: 1, or 1: 1 in a fewlocations in the Northwest Frontier Province. Theapplication ratio of N to P205 in 1970·71 was 7: 1; itdeteriorated to 8: 1 in 1971·72. Repeatedly soil49

13001200 ~..-;;coụ.J:~ 6V1100=-Z~ .~ a.~. AItEAEe~ ~if...0 .. S I 1000 !!.... 5 ~'ROOUCTlON..... 1/ U,"\.. ,.' I YlEtOz.: ..---.--- ,,'oC 4 ' .....,"'''' I 900 ~~....oC .. ,A.... coI >-G:~ 0-_-

TABLE W32.New promising lines in the Pakistani breeding programs.Variety and pedigree Developed at Important characteristicsDirk-TJ 558 x My 64-Son 64PK 1345-5T-3T-6T-OT36896-Cj 54 x Y 54/5657PK116-3T-H-OTCno "s" x Son 64-KI Rend/8156 Bb "s"1123584-303M-OY-lla-1436114B-3!:i .l

65,000 to 70,000 tons from the U.S.S. R., World FoodProgram and other sources. This marks a very majorincrease of imports over the 50,000 to 60,000 tonsthat have been fairly constant over the past few years.The import measures considerably alleviated the starvationwhich would otherwise have been widespreadduring 1971-72.Fertilizer imports are expected to be increased dur(ng1972-73 and sold by a fertilizer corporation throughprivate retailers. A urea plant at Majar-i-Sharif isexpected to be constructed with Russian participation in1973 with a rated capacity of 70,000 tons per year.There is a small phosphate deposit in the country, butit is inaccessible and will be expensive to exploit. Thus,imports of phosphatic fertilizers must be continued forsome years if the value of urea applicacion is to beeffective.Consideration is being given to setting up a sem i­autonomous research institute which would coordinateand establish priorities in agricultural research. Sucha move wou Id have the great advantage of closerplanning of the research and would provide mobility forresearch personnel. The extension service is still somewhatembryonic but, nonetheless, a considerable advancein the introduction of superior varieties is evident.Afghanistan continues to have a large area undertenant agriculture. A variety of systems are used. Oneof the more common is a two-thirds crop share to theowner and a one-th ird share to the tenant with theowner supplying seed, fertilizer and water. In anothersystem, labour is paid about one-eighth of the crop atharvest. Kuchis (nomadic people) are often hired forharvesting operations and receive about one-tenth of thecrop they cut. In still other cases, farm labour isemployed on a cash basis. In the Helmand ValleyProject, the land is Government owned and Kuch is arebeing settled on tracts.The research personnel are growing very creditableplots at many of the stations, often under veryadverse conditions. The variety E 1-314 is being grownDr. G. Anderson {Ieftl. associate director of theCIMMYT wheat program, checks wheat plots in Pakistan.under widespread increase and two varieties (17778 andEphrat) are considered particularly promising. Theseare likely to be released for farmer cultivation.The research and extension programs are beingassisted, as for several years, by the United StatesAgency for International Development. In the pastyear, additional help in wheat research has been providedby a scientist assigned by the Government ofIndia.IRANWheat production in Iran reached 4.25 million tonsin 1971-72, compared to 3.8 million tons in 1970-71and a five-year average of 4.0 million tons. Much ofthis production increase is attributed to favourablerainfall, in contrast with the drought of last year. Inaddition, disease incidence was low in the highly productiveareas of the Caspian Coast. Yellow rust andstem rust are normally prevalent and often serious inthis region, but during the current crop year rusts weremore destructive in certain areas of western Iran.Iran is nearly self-sufficient in its wheat needs.However, because most of the wheat lands are rainfed,annual production varies with the available rainfall.Over the past five years, an average of about 300,000tons were imported each year. It is anticipated thatdemands will steadily increase. Based on an annualconsumption of 150 kilograms of wheat per personand a 2.5 percent population increase, it is expectedthat requirements will be 1.75 million tons above thepresent level by 1980 (Table W33).This increasing need was sensed some years ago andresearch was intensified. Furthermore, an ImpactProgram aimed at augmenting production was initiatedin 1968. Under this plan, selected farmers receiveTABLE W33. Projected wheat requirements for1975 nnd 1980 for Iran.Wheat Seedconsumption requ irementsYe:olrPopulation (millions (millionsmillions of tons) of tons}1970 29.0 4.35 OS1975 32fl 49-:'> 0.51980 37.8 5.56 0.5seeds of improved varieties, a fertilizer subsidy, a smallcash loan for operations, and are assisted with a packageof agronomic practices. Both the research efforts andthe Impact Program have concentrated on the irrigatedlands or on those with regular and adequate rainfall.Plans are now underway to expand research and productionto areas of lower rainfall, which are largely winterwheat tracts. In such areas the emphasis will be onvarietal imporvement, mechanization, cultural practices'and crop rotations. Yields and resulting production canbe greatly increased over immense areas through meanssuch as the use of seed drills, water management, weedcontrol and judicious use of moderate levels of fertilizers.In this area of about 2.5 to 3.0 millionhectares, yields could be doubled.As mentioned, the Impact Program was initiated in1968. In 1971-72 there were 250,000 hectares underthis plan. The semidwarf varieties lnia 66, Tobari 66and Penjamo 62 occupied 120,000 hectares. Bezostaya52

from the USSR and the locally improved varietiesRoshan and Ommid, which are adapted to the colderwinter conditions of the Iranian Plateau, covered130,000 hectares. Among the spring types, Inia 66 hasbeen particularly successful. In the Grogan areasoutheast of the Caspian Sea, yields up to 6 tons perhectare have been common from this variety. Althoughthese yields are very encouraging, yield tests have shownthat some of the more recent dwarf varieties surpassInia 66 (Table W34).enenoN0_oooooc 0TABLE W34. Yield and resistance to mildew ofrecently introduced varieties in the Gorgan areaof Iran, 1971-72.VarietyPotam 70Jaral 66Chenab 70Mexico 120Cajeme 71Nuri 70Yieldt/ha5.234.954.754.734.643.08% of Iniaas check13612912412312180Mildewresistance(0-9 scale)357537en occooM o-ooooc 0enII)N 0Q,ococoIn the Impact Program area of 250,000 hectares, it isreasonable to assume that production increased at leastone ton per hectare this past year. Next year the areawill increase to 350,000 hectares. Thus far, 46,000 tonsof improved seeds and 88,000 tons of fertilizers havebeen distributed. It is estimated that a similar area willbe sown to improved varieties through farmer-to-farmerseed sales, but, because of inadequate fertilizer use,yields will not equal those under the Program. Qverall,it is felt that next year an additional 500,000 tons canbe produced.ResearchIran has an active and dynamic breeding programwith activities at several stations throughout the wheatregions. Scientists are selecting and testing many crossesand lines to develop superior replacements for presentvarieties. In Table W35, several promising new linesare listed and their yields are compared with standardchecks at different locations. These lines combinesuch characters as greater winter hardiness or superiordisease resistance with yields equal to or better thanthe present varieties. Presently, they are in the advanced"on farm" trials and under multiplication for possiblerelease.In Table W36, data are presented for disease reactionsof three lines in several countries.In the past few years, utilization of high-yielding,disease-resistance germ plasm of both exotic and Iranianorigin has been emphasized. Breeding of both winterand spring wheats has been integrated into the sameprogram and it has now been decided to separate thetwo portions into more distinct groups since the twohave somewhat differing objectives and materials.Approximately 60 to 65 percent of Iran's wheat areais sown to winter and semiwinter wheat varieties. In thecolder areas the dwarf Mexican spring wheats have beenunsuitable. Thus, for these areas, local wheats, with an'intrinsically lower production capacity (but greaterwinter hardiness). are grown on most of the acreage.Such local wheats are considered adapted to a widerange of sowing dates and more marginal conditions ofmoisture and fertility. It is necessary to exploitmore fully exotic winter wheats for crossing with localc:.,g.5tilc:o:I:Cu.!!~>;. ātilII:E"lJIIuc:c>"lJaIIEotil­oIIuc:a Ẹȯ't:IIQ,tilQ)Q)~Cl'6Q)Co"C C«ItilQ)c::::io""o-oII)MII)ṈcoMcoMoi& M--MoiNMC«IoS:tiloa:co"Cc«IoS:Q)"0oS:en53

E ....(1)'".... :J(f)'"(f)oN(f)o(1)0. ....... :J-'"ci)'"(f)oo N(f)oNo(f)~(f)~'ocọ..E ....(1)'".... :J(f)'"o(f)ooThis is the summer nursery at Kelardasht, Iran.vanetles. This should result in greater winter hardinessand in additional resistance to such important diseases asmildew and those produced by Helminthosporium andSeptoria.Considerable information had been gathered onwinter hardiness, disease resistance and plant type onsome collections over past years. During the currentyear, 40 of the best local types were selected forinclusion in the crossing block. The program has alsoreceived the first regional crossing block from Turkey,selections from the International Winter Wheat PreliminaryNursery and materials from different coldregions of the world. Using these new materials willprovide a much wider germ plasm base in the breedingprogram.TURKEYIn the past two years, record wheat crops have beengrown in Turkey. In 1971 the official estimate was13.5 million tons and in 1972 it was 11.5 million tonsrepresenting an average yield of 1,500 and 1,300 kg/ha:respectively. "Normal" production is about 10 milliontons. Undoubtedly, new varieties, improved cultivationpractices and greater fertilizer use contributed to theseexcellent crops. However, most wheat scientists attributethe increased production to favorable weatherconditions.Turkey sows about 8.5 million hectares of wheateach year. This represents a doubling of the acreagesince the early 1950's. Additionally, there are approximately2.5 million hectares of barley. Since a fallowwheatrotation is most common, some additional8.0 million hectares lie fallow each season. Fallowand wheat together occupy 70 percent of the totalcultivated area, making wheat the dominant agriculturalproduct and the economic indicator for Turkey.There are two distinct wheat production areas. Inthe Central Anatolian Plateau rainfall is limited (lessthan 400 mml, winters are moderately cold and becausethere is little irrigation, winter wheats are grown undera wheat-fallow sequence. Along the coast, adequaterainfall, mild temperatures and, in some areas, theavailability of irrigation allow growing fall-sown springhabit wheats. In this coastal area Mexican wheats havemade a distinct contribution to total production.-I...aIIIIgaIIIIo>­w.=:'::Ea:: N-0'"c Cli('I]~mC>Q)'­c-o-10.'- Q)~-:;; tia.. (1):)-I'"Ṇ...0> (1):)-I'"CJjo~III(f)ol/')(f)oNcr..o

Bread wheats account for 40 to 50 percent of thetotal area and durum and compactum wheats occupy30 to 40 percent and 20 to 30 percent, respectively.Bread wheats are becoming increasingly popular.Yields have remained about 1 ton/ha but this varieswidely with climatic fluctuations. Although productionhas doubled since the 1950's, this is mostly due toexpanded acreage. From 1961 to 1971, Turkey imported4.781 million tons of wheat. This was necessitatedby the more than 2.5 percent populationgrowth and a very high annual (250 kg) per capita use.These factors made it essential that yields per hectare beraised if needs were to be met and, especially, ifgrazing lands now used for wheat were to be releasedfor animal production.In 1969 the Government of Turkey requested theassistance of the Rockefeller Foundation for intensifyingits wheat research, aiming to increase vields asrapidly as possible. The Wheat Research and TrainingProject, which was subsequently formed, emphasizeddevelopment of a multidiscipline, all-Turkey researchsystem to produce varieties and develop cultural practicesto increase yields. This is coupled with a dynamicextension program to carry information to farmers.A comprehensive coordinated program has evolved.The wheat project has responsibility for breeding highyielding,disease-resistant varieties of good quality. Itmust develop a suitable set of cultural practices toenhance and stabilize yields. It is also responsible fortraining extension personnel in these practices.The wheat production project is headed by theChief of the Field Crops Section in the Directorate ofAgriculture, who also has the mandate for extensionprograms. Following the successful Mexican wheatintroduction program of 1967-69, an intensive 25-provinceextension effort was initiated for winter wheat onthe Central Plateau. Through demonstrations andadaptive research on farmers' field, it is expected that1.0 million hectares will be grown under improvedvarieties and techniques in 1973. A target has been setto extend this area to 4.0 million by 1977. To reachthis objective, an intensive training program was initiatedin 1972.Seed for the production program is supplied by theState Farm General Directorate. The state farms,collectively, have the capabil ity of raising 120,000 tonswith private farms can raise this figure rapidly. Unfortunately,seed sales have dropped due to difficultiesin getting credit to the farmers.The entire wheat production program--research, productionand seed production--is coordinated by theMinistry of Agriculture through the General Directorate.In addition to the Rockefeller Foundation, the Ministryis assisted by personnel of the United States Agency forInternational Development, CIMMYT, Oregon StateUniversity' and the Food and Agriculture Organization ofthe United Nations.Varietal ImprovementAs mentioned earlier, there are two distinct wheatregions. In the coastal areas where spring habit wheatsare grown, Mexican wheats have become predominantsince 1968, but some local bread and durum wheats andItalian wheats are also grown. In the palteau region, theprincipal wheat varieties include 220/39, 111/33 (T.compactum), 1593/51, 093/44, Akbasak 073/44 (T.durum) and Kunduru 1149 (T. durum). All of thesevarieties are tall and susceptible to the three rustsexcept 111/33 which has resistance to stripe rust. Thevariety 220/39 has very weak straw but good druughtresistance and excellent quality. By comparsion, 1593/51 and 093/44 are higher yielding but of lower quality.Variety 111/33 is drought tolerant. The two durumvarieties are similar in yield, but 073/44 is better inquality. Both are marginal in winter hardiness.Bezostaya, introduced from the USSR is increasingrapidly because under good management it outyields theTurkish wheats. Given poor conditions of low moistureand fertility, it is inferior. Its red grain and lower flouryield are disadvantages. Another introduced variety,Wanser (USA). occupies a limited area. Its susceptibilityto rusts and its lower yield than Bezostaya willlimit its spread.Three new varieties have been released from Eskesehir:(1) Yektay 406, selected from the Italianvariety San Moreno; it has fair straw strenght andgood yield but is somewhat lacking in winter hardil1ess.(2) Variety 4/11 from the cross Mentana x Yerli isrecommended for low rainfall areas. Its yield is onlyfair and shattering is a problem. (3) Bolal, selectedfrom the Nebraska cross Cheyenne x Kenya-Mentana,is recommended for the entire Plateau. It shows goodyield and winter hardiness with fair straw strength, butis susceptible to all three rusts.In the spring wheat area Penjamo 62 predominates,occupying 90 percent of the Mexican wheat acreage,which in turn is 50 to 60 percent of the spring wheatarea. This older variety retains good yield, strawstrength, Septoria tolerance and rust resistance. LermaRojo, because of Septoria susceptibility, has almostdisappeared. Super X, Siete Cerros and Nadadores arestill grown, but susceptibility to stripe rust and Septoriamakes them of only regional value. Italian varieties arespreading slowly because of greater Septorie toleranceand later maturity. The Government is considering theItalian varieties Mara, Conte Marzotto, Libellula andCampodoro for multiplication and/or importation. Susceptibilityto stem rust and stripe rust coupled with poorgrain and bread quality will likely hinder their spread.Spring Wheat BreedingThe main station at Izmir has developed an extensivebreeding and selection program. Factors of paramountimportance are grain yield, straw strength, Septoriatolerance and resistance to the rusts and to powderymildew. Suitable varieties should also mature in lateMayor early June from early seeding. They should havea prolonged vegetative stage to avoid late frosts atheading and a short reprOductive cycle to avoid thedessication of early summer. Pitic 62 and severalItalian varieties have this characteristic, but all are rustsusceptible.The Izmir Centre is screening many introductionsfrom Mexico, Lebanon, Chile, Algeria and other countriesfor reaction to Septaria and stem rust. In addition,approximately 1,200 crosses were made in 1972. Thespring wheat materials are commonly grown at sixcentres, including Izmir, Adapzari, Samsun,· Adana,Antalya and Diyarbakir. Thus lines adapted to aparticular location can be selected and those withwide adaptation can be identified for multiplication orfurther crossing.Izmir and one or two other stations grow preliminaryyield trials. Advanced yield trials are distributed fromthese stations for testing at other centres, which areencouraged to enter their own selected materials. Someof the outstanding lines are shown in Table W37.55

TABLE W37. Yield and disease information for outstanding bread wheat varieties and lines from theTurkish breeding programs in 1971-72.YieldGenotype and pedigreet/ha% of bestcheckDiseasecode IINuri 7nInia"s" - Nap,063Gallo - Jar"s .Cnolls" - IniRu~nEI Gau - Pi62/Son64 x SKE·An ENapo - Tob"s" x SX28071-7Y-3Y-OMTob66 - Cno"s"25000-4M-l Y-1 M-l Y-OMTob 66 - Cno"s"25000·6M·2Y-OMBb - Inia x Cal"27237-68M-1Y-OMCiqueiiah2106·6-2-0YPotam 70Cajeme 71Yecora 70Bb . Nor 67"27100·60M·1Y·OMCiqueiia"s"h21406-6-2-300Y-OMCno . Inia"s"25329·6M:300Y·301 M-OYChanateh26265-22Y-300Y·301 Y·3M-OY-52Y·OSChanate26265-22Y-300M·301Y-2M-502Y-OSChanate26265-22Y·300Y·301 Y·2M·501 Y·OSRobin26787·300Y·300M-302Y·2M·500Y·OSRobin26787·300Y·300M·302Y·2M·OY-500Y·OSRobin26787-300Y·300M-302Y-3M-OYRobin26787·300Y-300M-302Y·l M-OYRobin"26787·300Y·300M·302Y-OMSon64 r(WF51/Md x N-Kl17Aj 6134 - Dirk]1Cll /1·0SCno"s" . r.allo27e29·13Y·3M·OYPato (B)5.405.055.044.614.563.884.604.384.744.574.684.344.154.135.875.255.165.064.845.00Ii Rn5.49/1.95'i.15

TABLE W38. Yield of outsta~ding durum wheatvarieties and lines from the Turkish breeding programin 1971-72.Genotype and pfldigrf!f!AI "~" - .AA"s"27575-6M·5Y·2M-oyAI"s"/LD357 x Te!:! . Gl127588·1 OM·1Y·2M·OYCit"s"27617·18M·3Y·OMGs • M"s"27664-9M-4Y·OMChap/GV2~: • Te x TAC •.; . Tc 225665-6M·2V·l M·OYGll/BR1S0 . Lak x 62-220·61·13026842·21V·3M·OVAI"s"/LD357~:.Tc x (;1127588·1 M-l Y-4M·OVLD357E • Te' x AA"s"27534·1 M·l V·l M·OYAI"s"/LD357~: . TM~: x ZB - W27572·20M·3Y·l M·OYLD357~: . Tr." x AA"s"27534·12M·1V·l M·OVLD357~: . Tc' x AA"s"27534·3M·l Y·2M·OVGIl x 60·115- RI. 360126833·12Y·l M·2V·2M·OYCocorit 71Jori ';9" Check variety was Penjamo 62.Vip,ld% of bestt/ha r.heek"5.26 1274.51 1094.62 1124.54 1104.73 1154.30 1064.26 1054.11 1024.06 1014.52 1004.73 1044.69 1044.57 974.52 96Southeast, (b) good winter hardiness, (c) responsivenessto fertilizer and improved tillage and (d) resistance tostripe rust, stem rust, loose smut and bunt.Many introductions have been made from world·wide sources. In the present year, 2,500 and 500 breadand durum wheat crosses were made at Ankara andEskesehir, respectively. About 60 percent involvedspring x winter crosses using Mexican and Chileanspring wheats. Plant type, disease resistance andearliness are being sought from the spring sources.The remaining crosses are winter x winter, employingTurkish wheats with various introductions. Top anddouble crosses are being used, too.An extensive yield testing program has been initiated,using many lines. The Central Plateau tests arecoordinated by the Ankara Station, those in the South·east, by Diyarbakir Station, and so on. The best linesfrom these tests will be grown by the National VarietyTrial. This Institute has final authority on release.They test the varieties submitted for three years, andthen a decision is made to release or to discard them.Since the new breeding approach is just underway,it will require two to three years for materials to enterthese tests. The one exception is some of the earlymaterial developed by the late Dr. J. A. Rupert'sspring-winter program which is now entering advancedtrials. Lines currently in test are those developed in theearlier program. Some appear to outperform thecommercial varieties, but all are generally tall and some·what lacking in disease resistance. Results are shown inTable W39. Lines emanating from the cross M6402appear promising if winter hardiness and stripe rustresistance are adequate.In Thrace, Bezostaya and Etoile de Choisy per·formed well. Bezostaya, introduced in 1968, covers anestimated 60 percent of the wheat area and is expectedto cover 80 percent in 1972·73. Etoile de Choisy hasequal or greater yield but is a week later in maturity. Itis now being grown for multiplication prior to release.In southeastern Turkey, Pitie 62 and Penjamo 62were superior in yield to Bezostaya in 1971·72, po·ssibly due to the effect of hot dry winds on the late·ma·turing Bezostaya. Some lines under test are promising,but further tests are indicated. Cocorit 71 durum isbeing multiplied for release. Most of this area continuesto be sown to local types because of a currently weakextension service. Plans have been formulated toremedy this shortcoming.TABLE W39. Yields of outstanding lines of winterwheat in Turkey (1971-72).Vield% of bestCross and pedigree t/ha checkRto·Pn x Pi 62M6406·6-1 A·l 01A-I MJA 3.75 113Ky Sel 2657/Fr x KAD·CBM6402·1·8A-l OA-1 A-OA 3.68 111Ky Sel 2657/Fr x KAD·CBM6402-1-6A·l01A·l A·OA 3.59 108Ky Sel 2657/Fr x KAD·CBM6402·5·9A·5A·l A·OA 3.38 102Ky Sel 2657/Fr x KAD·CBM6402·7-34A·l A·l A·OA 3.83 115Ky Sel 2657/Fr x KAD-CBM6402·4·21 A·3A-l A-OA 3.70 111Fr.Tmq x Tx580 - 405/908 - FnM6405·2·1A-101A-l A-OA 3.45 104(Bowie·Qnh x FL "S"/093/44) N 604478·4/11 P246-10 4.00 120(Bowie·Qnh x FL "S"/093/44) N 604478·4/11 P24fi.10 3.53 106093/44 (Fn x K 58-N/Tmp)P206·40 3.88 117093/44 (Fn x K 58-NjTmp)P206-11 3.51 105FL "S" (Fn x K58·N/Tmp)P211·6 ::I.7~ 114Mql·Oro x Oro-Tmq117 :l.llO 10869·167 3.69 107(Cj 54·36896 x Gb 56 2 /Valta) Mxp 65PK2372·4A·l1 A·OA 3.38 113Three new nurseries have been started in the pasttwo years. In 1970-71 a regional yield trial comprisingthe best lines from Ankara and Eskesehir was grown ateight locations on the West and Central Plateau. Thiswas repeated in the current year and the best linesfrom the trial, together with new lines from thesestations and four from Ankara University, will begrown in 1972·73. The selected lines will advance tothe National Trials the following year.Two new international regional trials were initiatedfor the coming year: the International Winter WheatScreening Nursery and the International Winter DurumScreening Nursery. These nurseries have the objectiveof exchanging and disseminating materials and obtainingagronomic and disease evaluations from several coun·tries. Included are all the advanced lines of the Turkeyprogram and introduced lines showing good adaptation.Nurseries were seeded at 14 locations in Turkey andone each in Algeria, Mexico, Iran, Roumania andHungary. In succeeding years, both materials and57

The search continues for adapted varieties of winter wheat for the Central Plateau of Turkey.locations will be expanded. F2 populations have beendistributed to three countries and introductions weremade from several winter wheat countries. The latterwill be evaluated and "fed" into the breeding system towiden the germ plasm base of the Turkish program andother collaborating country programs.Pathology ResearchThe diseases found in Turkey in 1972 include:stripe rust, leaf rust, stem rust, common bunt, dwarfbunt, loose smut, powdery mildew, Septaria, He/minthasporium,flag smut, Cercosporel/a, "take all" diseaseand snow mold. In the winter wheat area, stripe rust isthe most important disease and under favourable conditionsit can inflict severe losses. Stem rust, commonbunt and loose smut are also important. In the springwheat region, stripe rust and Septaria are most importantand the cause of greatest loss. Loose smut iscominon and powdery mildew can cause serious damagein the Marmara-Black Seas coastal regions.Due to the favourable environment for crop developmentin the spring of 1972, diseases were held in check.Late in the season, stem rust in the Aegean region andleaf rust in the eastern region reduced some yields.The disease surveillance program undertaken in 1971,which includes trap nurseries, disease surveys andrace and virulence identification for the rusts, wascontinued this year. The trap nursery comprised 60varieties of wheat and barley. It was sown at 40 locations.During the past year the disease survey wasconducted jointly by the Research Centre and thePlant Protection Directorate. About 6,000 fields wereobserved throughout Turkey. Records were made ofdisease incidence and samples were collected for identification.Race identification of stripe rust suggeststhat four races were prevalent. Hence, the viru lence isnarrow. At Izmir, an isolate of stripe rust was foundwhich was virulent on Bezostaya. This was the firstoccurrence in the country and may have a serious effecton Bezostaya production for the future. Five racesWinter wheat varieties are tested for resistance to rustin greenhouses.58

of stem rust were identified. This collaboration betvlJeenthe two aforementioned groups has greatly assisted thebreeding and production program since there is a realshortage of trained pathologists in Turkey. The programwill be enlarged to allow testing for bunt resistance andfoot rots. Septaria research will also be intensified.Artificial rust epidemics are now created routinelyin the breeding nurseries. Methods for creating Septariaepidemics at Izmir are being studied. Ouantities ofSeptaria-infected wheat straw were collected and storedfor spreading on the nursery site and inoculum is beingproduced in the laboratory for spray appl ications.Screening for resistance to the various diseases wasemphasized in the last season.Because the prevalent diseases of Turkey are also ofmajor importance in the Afro-Asian countries theRegional Trap Nursery Program (RTN) was conti~ued.Distribution was made to 86 centres in 30 countriesthrough ALAD and FAO. This nursery is greatlyassisting in disease monitoring and is expected to giveadvance warning of potential production hazards. Dr.R. W. Stubbs of the Netherlands tested the seedling andadult-plant response of the RTN varieties to selectedisolates of stripe rust. Dr. M. Boskovic of Yugoslaviaperformed a similar test for leaf rust. All scientists ofthe region are deeply indebted to them. Screening thesevarieties to isolates of stem rust is being conducted atAnkara. These data, coupled with nursery reports fromthe different countries, map the virulence distribution ofrusts in the region.timely rains. With good rains, yields range between1.5 and 2.0 tons per hectare. Without good rains,yields may be less than one ton per hectare.Soil management experiments were conducted bythe Eskesehir Experiment Station from 1932 to 1950and soil management systems were also studied atAnkara. Important results were obtained but many areoutdated due to changed equipment and techniques.In these experiments little fertilizer was used, improvedvarieties were not available and deep-furrow drills hadnot been produced. These trials indicated that earlyplowing in the spring was superior to late plowing andthat this should be followed by a secondary tillageto maintain moisture in the upper profile. Theseresults are still valid.The study of tillage methods was renewed in 1969 bythe Oregon State University-USA ID team in cooperationwith Turkish research organizations. The trials wererevised and extended in 1970 under the Wheat Project.The objectives were to test equipment and tillagesystems wh ich had been successfully used in other partsof the world, and to measure moisture conservationin the soil profile under the different systems. Asecond objective was to determine the maximum yieldbased on expected moisture supply. These data, coupledTillage ResearchTraditional soil management practices in Turkey fallinto two categories--annual wheat and fallow-wheatrotations. Annual cropping is practiced in the coastalregions while the fallow-wheat system is followed inthe transition zone (400 to 600 mm rainfall) and theplateau (400 mm or less rainfall) with some overlappingin the coastal-transitional. Annual cropping will likelybe extended in the transitional zone with better soilmanagement.In the coastal regions, yields increased dramaticallywith the advent of Mexican wheats in 1967-68. Most ofthis increase has been due to better varieties, increaseduse of fertilizer, better planting dates and the use ofgrain drills. . Although there is some improved soilmanagement, large areas have poor seedbed preparation,resulting in reduced stands and lowered yields. Theyield reductions probably average one ton per hectare.Agronomic research to increase yields has been concentratedon the Central Plateau. Traditional culturalpractices generally involve Mayor June moldboardplowing of land lying uncultivated from the last harvest.This land is generally under heavy grazing during thefallow period and produces much of the livestock feed.After plowing, the land is left bare until seedbedpreparation, using a double disc in midsummer or latesummer. Where other implements are lacking, a secondplowing may be done. In either case the resultingseedbed is often cloddy, attributable to a 40 to 60percent clay fraction, and is dry to a depth of 25 to 40cm. Therefore, it is customary to wait for October rainsto do a presowing cultivation. If the rain is light or late,germination may be much delayed. Then seedlings enterthe winter in the 2- to 4-leaf stage with shallow rootsand no tillers, making the seedlings vulnerable towinter killing. Such weak plants, if they survive thewinter, must make their growth in the spring and earlysummer. They are very dependent on sufficient andCheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) is a common weedon the Central Plateau of Turkey. This weed willbecome more serious under good tillage practices.59

with soil testing. could then be used to determine Nneeds so that fertilization can be done according toexpected moisture. In all experiments. detailed physicaland chemical soil analyses were made by Dr. SefikYesilosoy of the Soil and Fertilizer Research Institute.These research studies aim to establish a fallowsystem which conserves maximum moisture sufficientlyclose to the surface to allow September sowing with adeep-furrow drill. This would result in well-establishedplants independent of rainfall. When such conditionswere achieved in the 1969-71 experiments. yields of3.5 to 4.0 tons per hectare were recorded.In the above experiments. the following resultswere obtained:1. Fall tillage by chiseling 25 to 30 cm deep orsubsoiling 50 cm deep did not excell no tillage in thefall.2. Moldboard plowing and sweep plowing weresimilar except where cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum)was present. in which case the moldboard was better.3. Sweep plow plus harrow and sweep plow plusrodweeder were superior to rodweeder alone.4. In treatments where surface moisture was insufficientfor early emergence but a good seedbed waspresent. the first significant rain germinated seed. Thisresult shows that a good seedbed with little moistureat the surface but adequate moisture at 20 cm is superiorto the traditional cloddy seedbed where moisture is30 to 40 cm below the surface.The offset disc was used for the first time in 1971.Both the moldboard and offset disc gave an extra 0.3 to0.6 tons per hectare above the sweep plow alone.However. when the sweep plow-harrow combinationwas used for secondary tillage and for summer weedcontrol. the results were superior. For summer weedcontrol and maintenance of the soil mulch. the sweepplow-harrow combination appears best. Thus. a combinationof moldboard plow, sweep and spike tooth dragharrow. used properly. are the only tillage implementsrequired for good soil management in most of theCentral Plateau.Level of conserved moisture seems to be wellcorrelated with yields. Based on this relationship, itshould be possible. after a few years. to base Napplications on the amount of water available in theprofile during the spring before cropping.Agronomic Research2200«.... %!i!200018001600EFFECT OF DATE AND RATE OF SEEDING ON YIELD. AVERAGE OF SEVERALVARIETIES GROWN ON TWO LOCATION IN TIlE CENTRAL PLATEAU OFTUR~EY IN 1971-191290 KG/HA 120 KGItfAFIG. W13. Effect of date and rate of seeding on yield.Average of several varieties grown at two locations inthe Central Plateau of Turkey in 1971-72.35000-'---RATE OF SEEOlNGALTINOVA STATE FARM3000 UZOITAYA2500et::s:: 2000-~:00:0 20 40 60 80QKG NI HA~UJ>-1950 POLATlI STATE FARMIOU.120/S.'OLALIn addition to soil management, other criteria mustbe established if benefits from additional moistureconservation are to be maximized. Information such asbest sowing date. seeding rate. fertilizer rates andmethod of application, and other cultural practicesare requisites to assembling a package of practices tofit the production system. In the fall of 1971 aseries of agronomic trials were undertaken for thispurpose.These tests were:Sowing Dates x Seeding Rates x Varieties. Fig. W13shows that sowing date was considerably more importantthan seeding rate. At Ankara the early date ofseeding gave 530 kg/ha more yield than the lateseeding and 300 kg/ha more than the second date. AtAltinova the corresponding figures were 950 and 420,respectively. The 60 kg/ha seeding rate was inferior tothe other rates. Bezostaya and Wanser gave betterresponse to early seed ing than 1593/51, and 220/93and Bezostaya responded less to increased seeding rate15001000io20 40 60KG. NI HA220/,.80eUostAnFIG. W14. Effect of nitrogen rates on yields of wheatvarieties at two locations in the central plateau otTurkey. 1971-72.60

than the others.Nitrogen Rates x Varieties. The average yield shownin Fig. W14 indicates that 40 kg N/ha generally gaveessentially maximum yields. The local tall variety gaveless response to N than the other two varieties andlodged at rates of 60 kg and above. At Polatli novarieties responded and yields were generally low.Moisture from the preceding fallow provided sufficientN for a 1.5 to 2.0 ton per hectare yield.Time and Rate of N Application. In these experimentsno response to N beyond 40 kg/ha was observed.Split applications were slightly better than applying allN before sowing. This may be because of leaching dueto a long wet spring. Average yields are shown in Fig.W15.Drill Type x Fertilizer Placement x Rates of DAP.The data were inconclusive although ther.e appeared tobe some depressing effects of DAP application onemergence and seedling vigour.Since the Wheat Project was initiated in 1970, theagronomic research phase has had excellent cooperationfrom the Soil and Fertilizer Research Institute, theOregon State University-USAI D group, the State FarmsGeneral Directorate and the General Directorate ofAgriculture. The Wheat Project has farms and researchstations. The Crops Section of the General Directorateand the aSU-USAID group use the information generatedin adaptive trials on private farmers' land incooperation with local extension personnel. The adaptivetrials are also used in training for extension, and aspersonnel are developed, emphasis is given to establ ishingwidespread farm demonstrations in the provinces. TheSoil and Fertilizer Research Institute conducts soilanalyses and moisture determinations for both thedetailed and adaptive trials. The state farms provideland, necessary labour and housing facilities for staff inthe field.In the region from Morocco to Pak istan, about 35million hectares of wheat and barley are grown annuallyunder rainfed conditions. Generally, the region receivesless than 500 mm of annual precipitation and uses afallow-crops cycle. Since moisture is the most limitingfactor, higher yields will be largely dependent onimproved efficiency of water use. In developed countrieswater efficiency use is about 50 percent higherthan in countries of the Middle East. This is reflectedin 60 to 80 percent higher yields. With application of.adequate technology, immediate success could be ach ieved.In some regions modifications can be madereadily while in others a new package of practices will be..EFFECT OF RATE ANO TlijlNG OF NITROGEN APPLICATION ON WHEAT YIELOSAVERAGES FROMA'LOCATIONS IN THE CENTRAL PLATEAU OF TURKEY IN 1971-1972....... ,........ .-I~ '~.....~.--.... r-r--~r- ,--.------:~'"!~....rf.,i;,)1/1\ ~o 41 .. 1.l· •• 5,1.t•fI:I ..10 to'Q- IIH 'Ie.• ».. ttl 40 60III 1(1 ;0 ltlSUIl1ll9~~OilE m:1II~'~I ~OiJUtla( fc;;":;.L--;;'I""!.~i7,~~""'~~7'~lt",,,:;.;.:;.;,,~.FIG. W15. Effect of rate and timing of nitrogenapplication nn wheat yields averages from 4 locationsin the central plateau on wheat yields (averages from4 locations in the central plateau of Turkey in 1971­1972).This shows the realtionship of plant developmentand root formation to planting date under drylandconditions in Turkey. Planting dates are shown;the photograph was made December 24, 1971.required. The major successes thus far in the developingcountries have been made in areas under irrigation orwith adequate rainfall. Increased yields in low rainfallareas will come from improved varieties, suitable culturaltechniques and judicious fertilizer use.QualityA well-equipped cereal quality laboratory has beenestablished at Ankara to serve the breeding program.The Pelshenke test and other tests are being used forearly generation material with bread-making for advancedlines. It is planned to extend the Pelshenke tests toall breeding centres and technicians are being trainedin its operation. Plans also include tests for macaroniquality.TrainingThere is still a shortage of well-trained scientists inall disciplines of the research program. To date 17Turkish scientists have received training at CIMMYTunder FAa, Rockefeller Foundation and USAID support,and four more are slated for 1973. Five Turkishscientists have been supported for master of sciencedegree training abroad and have returned, and threemore are on course for an M. S. degree in theUnited States. It is planned to send seven more to theUnited States in 1973. By 1975 their return shouldgreatly improve the manpower situation.In Turkey, a series of in-service training programshave been conducted by the Project. The Ministry ofAgriculture has undertaken a preservice training program,whereby new graduates are stationed for oneyear at one of the Research Institutes. Following thisyear's service in which the project plays an importantrole, the young scientists are reassigned to extension,research and other organizations.The Project has participated in a training programorganized by the Agriculture Extension Service withassistance of the aSU-USAI D team. Through USAI D61

support, seven complete sets of tillage equipment(including tractors, tillage implements and vehiculartransport) were imported for tillage demonstrationsand adaptive trials on the Central Plateau. In the pastyear the extension staff 'has been trained throughclassroom and field work in the use of the equipmentand implementation of the program. Equipment hasbeen received, assembled by the trainees and the fieldprogram will begin in the spring of 1973.In still another training activity, scientists from thebranch stations have been temporarily transferred tothe Ankara and Izmir Stations during crossing andselection. This has allowed them to work alongsidethe more experienced scientists and enabled them toget new ideas and approaches. Also, short courseshave been given to scientists involved in the diseasesurvey. This is followed by successive visits of theAnkara pathologi~tsto operations in the field.The Turkey program is characterized by an intenseteam spirit and interdisciplinary cooperation is verygreat.LEBANONThe Arid Lands Agricultural Development Program(ALAD) of the Ford Foundation has assisted forseveral years in developing agricultural programs inMiddle East countries. The headquarters of the organizationis in Beirut. For the past several years, Dr. G.Kingma, a wheat breeder, has been assigned to assistthe Lebanese Wheat Improvement Program. He hasalso acted as regional coordinator of wheat improvementwork for the last two years on an international scale.Trials supplied by CIMMYT were dispatched in cooperationwith Dr. A. Hafiz of FAO to several countries.These included the International Bread Wheat ScreeningNursery, International Durum Wheat Screening Nursery,International Spring Wheat Yield Nursery, InternationalDurum Yield Nursery, International Triticale YieldNursery and the International Septoria ObservationNursery. In addition, the Regional Disease and InsectScreening Nursery, Regional Trap Nursery, PreliminaryObservation Nursery and Regional Wheat Yield Trial,which comprise materials originating in the region,were distributed from Beirut to countries from India toMorocco~ The work has entailed several internationaltrips.In the past year the ALAD group hosted a RegionalWheat Workshop attended by wheat scientists spanningthe countries from India to Morocco and from EasternAfrica. The workshop's theme was the diseases andagronom ic practices of vital interest to the wholeregion. Reports from all scientists ind icated the valueplaced on such work sessions.In Lebanon the major wheat area lies in the centralBekka Valley. This valley is characterized by a rapidchange in rainfall, from a high level in the south torapidly diminishing precipitation northward toward theSyrian plain. Rainfall in the present year was aboveaverage early in the season but later rainfed cropssuffered damage from drought. Siete Cerros (Mex ipak)remains the principal variety in the higher rainfalland irrigated areas. Stripe rust was widespread butbecause of its late appearance, damage was limited.The better genotypes from the CIMMYT materialinclude Iines from these crosses: PV 18A-Cno 67;CC-Inia "S" x Cno·Chris; CC-Inia "S" x Cal; Bb-Nor 67;Bb-Nar 59; On·Bb and Cno "S"-Gallo. In yield testsSiete Cerros performed better than all other entries.Yecora "S" (R) and Cocorit 71 were also high yielding.These materials were grown under severe droughtduring the maturation period at the Tel Amara Station.The results received from 22 locations for theRegional Wheat Variety Trial are presented in TableW40.TABLE W40. Average yields of the 10 leadingwheat varieties nnd lines in the Regional WheatYield Trial grown during 1971-72 at 22 locations.Entryno.Variety or line33 My54 E-LR x H490"/LR64 x Tzpp-Y5435 [(Md-N/N x Th-Kl17A) Ind 38] Indus 667 Chenab 7034 HD832-0N x 1

TABLE W41. Average yields of the 10 leadingvarieties or lines from the First Preliminary ObservationNursery grown during 1971-72 at 10 locations.EntryYieldno. Variety or line and pedigree kg/ha121 Son-Tzpp x Napo 63/Napo-Tob x 7C 4.735563-500Y75 Mexipak 69 4.684 Kalyansona x FA0215-1-2 4.5JIT45-3L6 Inia 66-Bb 4.526478-7Y-8M-2Y-2M-OY99 Nor 67-7C 4.530367-1 M-2Y161 [(Md-N/N x Th-Kl17A) Indus 38] Indus 66 4.4PK1115-2K-3F50 Super X 4.355 Kal x Son64 4.3.HT16-3L182 Tanori 71 4.2163 Roque "S"/G36896-Gb54 x Gb56 4.2susceptible to Septaria but entries 55, 84 and 6 showedsome tolerance.In the PON, several durum and barley varietieswere also included. Among the durums, Cocorit 1'1,Ganso and Crane "S" showed superiority. Among thebarley varieties, WW Cilia, WW Wing, WI 2197, Giza120 and Svalof-Hellas were rated superior.The Regional Disease and Insect Screening Nursery(RDISN) was grown for the second time in 1971-72and, together with the Regional Trap Nursery, isproviding good information on the epidemiology andphysiologic race specialization throughout the region.In addition, it is assisting in the spread of germ plasm.The RDISN is still undergoing some growing painsand several errors still creep in for parental origin. Thisappears to have resulted mostly from misclassificationin certain contributing programs but there were alsosome errors in putting up seed. Steps are being takento remedy these shortcomings.This regional activity is considered to be of greatimportance in building up linkages between the nationalprograms of the Eastern Hemisphere. Following thesame pattern, a similar development is now taking placein Latin America and a truly global exchange ofinformation will become possible.Some lodging occurred due to high winds in the SidiKacem area. Temperatures during the season wereaverage, although somewhat higher than normal in theApril dry period, and light frosts occurred in theMarrakesh area in the winter months. Otherwise, it wasa very successful year for wheat production.Reports of fields yielding 3.5 to 4.0 tons per hectarewere common. There was some delay in harvesting dueto continued damp, cool nights which prevented mechanicalharvesting in the mornings. The prices set forwheat and barley were the same as in the previous year-­durum wheat, 47 dirhams/q (US$105.80 per metricton); bread wheat, 43 dirhams (US$93.00 per ton);and 'barley, 27 dirhams (US$58.50 per tonI. Theseremunerative prices encouraged fertilizer use.Official figures for the 1971-72 cycle are not yetavailable but estimates indicate that the total productionof bread wheat will be approximately 650,000tons, which surpasses the previous high of 636,000tons in 1969-70. For durum wheat, estimates indicatethat total production will be below the record 1.975million tons recorded for 1968. It is believed that wheatimports will rise from 350,000 to 500,000 tons duringthe 1972 season.Breeding ResearchExperimental material was sown at seven mainstations throughout Morocco. These include SidiKacem (SK), Merchouch (MCHl. Fes, MalTakesh (MenacaSta) (MKMl. Station Cotonniere Beni Mellal(SCBM), Sidi Allal Tazi (SAT) and Ellouizia. These,together with winter wheat testing centres at Targist,Meknes and Boulemann, represent the major wheatareas. Table W42 shows materials planted.TABLE W42. Number of experimental genotypessown in Morocco in the 1971-72 wheat season.Homozy- Hetero-Species gous zygous TotalsTriticum aestivum 4,416 5.330 9.746Triticum durum 892 263 1,155 10,901Triticale 155 155Hordeum vulgare 297 297 11,353MOROCCOThe Cereal Improvement Project of the MoroccanMinistry of Agriculture is provided technical assistancefrom CIMMYT, USAID and the Near East Foundation.Three CIMMYT scientists were employed during thecrop period. Recently, Francis Bidinger resigned tobegin studies toward the Ph.D., beginning in the fall of1972. Administrative support to expatriate personnelis provided by USAJO and the project is implementedthrough a committee of the Moroccan Ministry.Weather conditions in the 1971-72 season were veryfavourable for wheat development. Total rainfall forthe season was about normal and well distributed fromNovember to March. During the first three weeks ofApril, dry weather stressed the crop some, but rains inlate April and early May were adequate to bring thecrop along nicely to maturity. These late rains, however,also contributed to late disease development.Sowing was completed between December 15 andDecember 31, the most desirable time, and germinationand early growth were good up to heading in Aprilwhen the dry period started. Late rains favoured thedevelopment of leaf rust, especially on the variety BT­908 which suffered yield losses from this disease andlodging. Maturity was hastened in the late period ofgrowth by h igher-than-normal temperatures.In general, there were no serious epiphytotics of anyof the major diseases, only isolated attacks of leaf rustand stem rust. Mildew was relatively severe at Rabatand Sidi Kacem, and barley was most affected. A lowlevel of stripe rust (Puccinia striifarmis) developed atSidi Kacem, Merchouch and Menaca stations. Leaffiring was fairly common but not serious. TheSeptaria attack was lighter than in previous years,making it difficult to select for resistance at any of thestations. Hessian fly infestation was fairly heavy onearly sown materials and sawfly was most severe on thelate-sown varieties. A survey of the Hessian fly in-63

festations .made by Dr. R. L. Gallun of the USDAindicated that this pest probably exists in differentracial forms than those in the United States.Many wheat breeding lines have now been testedfor two or more years. Most of these lines have goodSeptaria tolerance and yield above BT 908, the principallocal commercial variety. In several cases, experimentallines outyielded Siete Cerros, which in ayear with little disease (like 1971-72) is one of thehighest yielding varieties. In Tables W43, W44, W45,W4S, W47 and W48, the higher yielding materials arerecorded. It should be noted that among the 'commercialMexican varieties, Potam 70, Cajeme 71, Tanori71 and Siete Cerros have shown good results overmost locations. However, care must be taken to avoidsowing those which have no tolerance to Septariablotch under conditions where this disease is normallypresent. Some of the newer durums also showedpromise when cultivated in areas where Septaria is oflow incidence while at other locations they appear to beoutyielded by the more resistant bread wheats. Amongthe barleys, several gave yields above the check variety,but absolute yields are considerably below those ofwheat. Triticale yields are still somewhat low, butthey approach yields of the standard bread wheat checkvariety. The promising nutritional properties of thisnew species makes it of continuing interest to theMoroccan Program.Action was taken this year to officially recommendthe growing of Siete Cerros in southern Morocco(Marrakech, Souss Valley, etc.). Potam 70, Cajeme 71and several lines selected in the Moroccan Programwere included in the National Yield Trials and putunder preliminary increase.In the segregating F4 through FS generations, 195rows were harvested in bulk. All of these lines havedemonstrated good tolerance to Septaria over threeyears, and they have been distributed to collaboratorsin other countries for testing under a wide range ofdisease and environmental hazards.TABLE W43. Yields {kg/hal and yield rank lin parenihesesl of wheat genotypes with some resistanceto Septaria tested for several years in Morocco (results of 1971-72).SeptoriaDryland locationsIrrigated locationsreaction Aver· Aver- GrandGenotypes and pedigree scale 0-9" Sk Fes Mch age MKM SCBM age AverageLR64"S"-Hua rojo 3 3838 5566 4956 4783 5520 4614 5067 4896= HD1675 + S331"S" (7) (2) (2) (1) (5) (2) (3) (1)Cno"S" - Inia 2 8 3799 4939 4897 4545 6254 4249 5251 482723959-52T-l M-3Y·OM (8) (6) (4) (4) (1) (5) (2) (2)Son64-Y50E x Gto/lnia"S" 8 3709 4943 4827 4493 5687 4847 5267 480223528-7M-1T-1 M-8-0M (10) (5) (7) (6) (4) (n (n (3)Ska/Tzpp-Son64 x Np63 4139 4060 4609 4269 6012 3889 4950 454130455-12M-OMch • (1) [ 14) (4) (12) (3) (11) (41 (4)Son64-LR64 = HD1799 5 4110 5220 4709 4680 4616 3684 4150CHECK VARIETY POTAMI> (3) (4) (8) (2) (18) (15) (6)4467(5)Cno"S"-Galio 5 4478 3907 4944 4443 410027829-19Y-l M-4Y-OM (2) (12) (6) (7) (714357(6)NpxTzpp·Son64/8156 (R) 5 4237 4476 5289 4667 3350 433828071-TM-3Y-l M·OY (5) (3) (3) (3) (:>1) (7)Cno • Na66 9 3476 4760 4726 4321 5383 2q72 4177 426326111-6M-7Y-3M·OY (14) (3) (1) (10) (7) (24) (5) (8)CHECK VARIETY SIETECERROS ~; CAJEME 71 I>Cal "8" 6 4055 4403 4402 4287 4825 348822429-11 M-1Y-1 M·OY (7) (3) (6) (11) ( 12) (19)4234(9)Cno - Son64/Cno-lnia 8 4005 4251 4837 4364 4687 3333 422230506-301 M·O Mch (8) (8) (3) (9) (16) (21) (10)CHECK VARIETY YECORA 701>No66-Bh"S" 3515 4572 4599 4229 4412 3543 3977 412826481 22Y-1 M-3Y·OM (11) (6) (5) (13) (20) (17) (7) (11)CHECK VARIETY INIA 66"Cal·Cno"S" 4 4237 4593 4716 4515 2716 406527052-26M-2Y-2M-3Y-2M-OY-300M (6) (2) (13) (5) (24) (12)Bb I! (R) Resel 5 4255 3866 4556 4226 4387 3163 3775 404523584-26Y-2M-3Y-1 M·OY (5) (1) (8) (14) (6) (17) (81 (13)CHECK VARIETY NURI 70"Bb4A (B) 4635 3768 4731 4378 3129 3226 3177 389723584-26Y-2M-3Y-1 M·OY (2) (3) (4) (Ii) (20) [ 161 (q) (14)Cno"S" • Gallo 5 3993 3409 4989 4130 3295 2965 3130 373027829-19Y-2M-OY (10) (8) (3) (15) (19) (20) ( 10) (15)CHECK VARIETIES TOBARI66 [1 BT9081>" Results of 1970-71.II Yield position of check varieties.64

TABLE W44. Yields (kg/hal and rank (in parenthe3es) of wheat varieties and lines ...teet If' Moroccofor two or more years !results of 1971-72).Dryland locationsIrrigated locationsSeptoriareaction Aver- Aver- GrandVariety or line scale 0-9" Sk Fes Mch age MKM SCBM age AveragePotam 7 3945 4833 4984 4589 4996 3068 4011 4365(4) (1) (1) (1 ) (2) (7) (5) (1 )Cajeme 71 4 4221 4548 4615 4462 4211 3638 3356 4246(1) (2) (2) (2) (6) (4) (8) (2)Slete Cerros 9 3968 3944 4165 4022 5015 4113 4~23 4241[3) (5) (6) (5) (1) (1 ) (1) (3)Yecora 70 9 4048 4387 4595 4343 4448 3378 4041 4171(2) (3) (4) (3) (4) (5) (4) (4)Inla fl6 7 3673 4219 4611 4168 4118 3791 4133 4082(6) (4) (3) (4) (8) (2) (2) (5)Nllrl 70 5 3746 3724 3959 3810 4842 3256 4108 3905[5) (6) (7) (6) (3) (6) (3) (6)Tobarl 7 2979 3277 4363 3539 4193 3700 3806 3702(8) (8) (5) (7) [7) (3) [6) (7)BT ~OR 3 3199 3446 3428 3358 4386 2604 3635 3412(7) (7) (8) (8) (5) (8) (71 (8):I Results of 1970-71.TABLE W45. Highest yielding lines (kg/ha) and yieding rank II (in parentheses) from the Bread WheatCrossing Block grown in 5 or 6 locations (Morocco, 1971-72).Dryland locationsIrrigated locationsSeptariaCross or variety reaction II Aver· Aver- Grandand pedigree scale 0-9 Meknes Mch Fes Sk age MKM SCBM age average12300xLR64A-8156/Nor67 5 4555 4999 3830 4461 5332 4097 4715 455930842-31 R-2M-2Y-oM (4) (1) (12) (6) (1 ) (1) (1)Cal/Cno"s"xLR64 2 -Son64 4 4035 4244 4719 4355 4337 4688 3564 4626 443027169-48M-1Y-1 M-oy (7) (9) (6) (10) (3) (3) (2) (2)Cno-lnlaxCal 5 3595 3772 5510 5415 4346 5599 3439 4519 440427224-53M,1 Y-3M-oY (12) (12) (1) [6) (4) (5) (4) (3)NpxTzpp-Son64/8156 (RI 3 3648 3644 4568 4612 4115 5866 3306 4586 427028071-7M-3Y-OM (11) (15) [7) (4) (2) (8) (3) (5)Cal-Cno"s"xCno-S'Jn64 3 4888 4777 5279 4981 4399 1857 3128 423928567-15Y.-4M-1Y-OM [2) (4) (2) (9) • (12) (11) (6)BbxCno-Son64 5 4577 4452 4532 4444 4501 4177 3?44 3710 423528146-10Y-4M-1 V-OM [31 [8) (8) (8) (11) (9) (8) (7)Jar"s" 6 3439 4750 4266 4497 4235 6043 2408 4226 423018889-6T-8T-4T-2T-1T-OY (15) (5) [ 11) (7) (1) (11) (5) (8)Inia"lI" Np=Ptm"s' 4 4008 4875 3812 4f166 4337 3617 419522403-6M-4Y·1 M·1Y-OM-OY [8) (3) (141 (2) (2) [9)Cno-Inla 7 2208 4963 4257 4390 3955 5021 416825717·11Y·3M·1Y-OM (16) (2) (12) (9) (7) (11)Np63xTzpp-Son64/8156 [R) 5 4155 4466 5057 3688 4341 3955 3519 3737 413728071·7M·3Y-3M-OY (6) (7) (3) (131 ( 131 (4) (7) (12)Nor67xlnia"s"-Np63 6 4350 4008 4337 4577 4315 4132 3386 3759 412830229-8R·1 M-1Y-OM (5) (11 ) (9) (5) (12) (6) (6) (13)[ (Son64xTzpp-Nai/Np)(LR64xTzpp·Ane)]Cno 2 3497 3692 4319 4666 4044 4399 411524313-12R-3M-1 (13) (13) (10) (2) (9) (14)LR64 2 -Son64xCC/No66" s" 8 3492 4599 492~ 4017 4257 4488 2835 3661 405727944-7Y-l M-4Y·OM (14) (6) (4) [ 11) (8) [ 10) (9) (Hi)Potam 9 3666 4088 4826 34!l',) 4018 54?1 4298(10) (10) (5) (14) ('\1 (4)Slete Cerros 9 5701 3648 3919 4781 4512 3732 3333 3532 4185(1) (14) (13) (1) (71 [ 10) (10)BT908 6 3755 1435 3724 3377 3072 ?444 835 1639 2595(9)II All materials showed some resistance to Septaria in 1970-71.65

TABLE W46. Highest yielding (kg/ha) bread wheatgenotypes and yield rank (in parentheses) fromseveral international trials grown in Morocco(1971-72).Variety or crossDrylandSidi KacemI.rrigatedMenacaAverage8TH INTERNATIONAL SPRING WHEAT YIELD NURSERYTanori 71 4384 (3) 8161 [4] 6273111.Iaral "s" 4250 (6) 8272 (3) 6261 (2)LR 64-Nl0B x AN';,..= Mexicani "s" 4106(7) 8400 (2) 6253 (3)Hazera 2152 3878 (8) 8033 (5) 5956 (4)Kalyansona 3258 (9) 8416 (1) 5837 (5)Potam 70 47?3 [1) 6616 (8) 5670 (6)Mexico # 170 (Pi"s") 4567 [2) 6683 (7) 5625 (7)Hira 4367 (5) 6811 (6) 5589 (8)Era 4381 (4] 5772 (9) 5077 (9)BT 908 ?658BT 2306 46553RD REGIONAL WHEAT YIIELD TRIALMy 54 1 .;-LR/H 490" (LR64 x Tzpp-Y 54)MdN-K 117 A x Indus38/8FifiHD 832-01:.-3 M x KalMexipak fiSZorawar 71MexicaniCajeme 71UP 301BT 9084675 [114135 (5)4214 (4)3481 (7)4250 (3)3603 (6]3436 [H)4607 (2)260H [9], H 490 Tacuari [Argentina).7994 (6)8288 (3)H166 [4)8700 (1]7666 (7)H305 [?)8122 (5)5800 (8)6611 [9)6335 [116211 (2)fi190 (3)6091 (4)5958 (5)5954 (6)5779 (7)5204 (8)4610 [9)Dr. A. Acosta and Moroccan technician evaluate wheatplots at Merchouche, Morocco.TABLE W47. Highest yielding durum genotypes (kg/ha) ond yield rank (in parentheses) from the ThirdInternational Durum Yield Nursery grown in Morocco (1971-72).Dryland locations Irrigated GrandVariety or cross Dorriet Sidi Kacem AI/erage Menaca" averageCisn8 " s " 4868 (2) 3653 (2) 4260 (2) 7866 (11 5462 [1)Cocorit 71 4654 (4) 3478 [5] 4066 (5) 7788 (21 5~06 (2)Brant "s' 4952 (1) 3484 (4) 4218 (4) 7416 (3) 5284 (3)Cajeme 71 (Taestivum) 4211 (8) 4850 (1) 4530 (1) 6511 (12) 5190 (4)Crane "s" A 4332 (7) 3467 (6) 3899 (6) 7383 (4) SOfiO ["ICrane "s" B 4843 (3) 3600(31 4221 (3) 6177 (131 4873 (6)Jo " s - Cr "5" 4468 (5) 287::> (1 4 ) 3670 (8) 6700 (10) 4680 (7)06647 3886 (10) 2931 (12) :34U8 (9) 7161 [6) 41159 (8)T Jir.or:r;urn (Verl1um) - Gil " s " 3604 (13) 2845 (16) 1??4 (14) 71fifi [51 4605 (9)80 2777 (local check) 3100 (17) 2'183 (17) 2941 [17) 2955 (23) 2946 (21)II Experiment after alfalfa plus 100 kg Nlha with 5 irrigations and 214.4 mm of rainfall.About 2,500 crosses were made in the program torecombine the desirable characters present in differentsou rce materials.The Moroccan Research Program has moved aheadaggressively and has demonstrated the value of closeinternational collaboration. Considerable material whichhas excellent potential has been built up, and severalsuperior lines are available for immediate use. Thereis still a great need for developing more young Moroccanscientists to staff this dynamic program.Fertilizer ResearchFertilizer researchon wheat was done as part of theactivities of the Fertilizer and Management ResearchSection (La Station des Ameliorations Culturales) ofthe Moroccan Ministry of Agriculture. The 1971-72program dealt specifically with N application ratessince the previous two years of study showed noresponse to K and only limited response to P205,Unlike many countries, in Morocco P205 has beenappl ied on a wide scale for many years and th isundoubtedly accounts for the low response.For N on cereals, farmers have relied considerablyon legumes in the rotation. With short-strawed, responsivevarieties, Nappiication has become more importantin its contribution to yield. Thus, legumes66

TABLE W48. Highest yielding (kg/ha) durum, barley and triticale.. genotypes from several internationaltrials grown at three locations in Morocco (1971-72).Variety or crossDryland locationsIrrigatedGrandSk Mch Average Menaca averageCajeme 71CaUdadVictor!Crane "s"Cocorit 71Cr"s"(T pol.Cisne "s"Cajeme 71 (T. aestivum)Victor ! (T. aestivum)Cocorit 71Cisne ",,"Masa 177Y·OMCrane "s"BT-90'CI (T. RAstivum)BadgerBadgerArmadilloJori 69 (T. durum)Wl-2197Svalof KristinaW.W. CiliaSvalof HellasGizl1 1?nSvalof MariRabat 071 (local)(T. aestivum)(T. aestivum)(T. aestivum)185309xT poIE·Tc2/GII"s")ELITE DURUM YIELD TRIAL #14078 4236 41573388 3900 36443453 3136 32953313 2722 30183145 2818 29823516 2308 29122601 3105 2853ELITE DURUM YIELD TRIAL #23866 4291 40793807 3213 35103445 3319 33822928 3384 31563576 2571 30743501 2460 2981INTERNATIONAL TRITICALE YIELD NURSERY38743774347834043345REGIONAL BARLEY YIELD TRIAL2507 3620 30642361 3700 30312540 3158 28492567 3112 28401732 3587 2660504" 4466965 2245 1605a Severebird damage.could provide N for a 20 to 25 q/ha crop. whereas withthe new varieties with yield potentials of 40 to 50 q/ha,additional nitrogen will be required. With the presenthigh support price of wheat (US$96.60 for bread wheatand US$105.60 for durum). only a very modest yieldincrease is rerjuired to pay for the N used.Two types of experiments were conducted. In theNorth, where higher rainfall and leaching can occur,the experiments consisted of higher rates in splitapplications. Response levels varied with the precedingcrop. Hence. in some places response was limited to40 kg/ha; whereas in other areas there was response upto 120 kg/ha.In the central zone. 40 to 80 kg/ha were used. Afterlegumes the lower rate appears adequate. In addition,in this zone N applications must be fit to wateravailability.As always in rainfed production, the water factor ishighly variable. However. the farmer knows the previouscrop. his management practice, variety used, soil depthand something about the differences of his land incomparison to zonal rainfall as a whole. Thus. hemust use this knowledge in modifying the regionalrecommendation. The country has been divided intoseveral zones based on rainfall, soil type, soil depth.average soil fertility and climatic factors. Of thesefactors, information on soils is not well documented.Table W49 shows the effect of a previous crop onyield response to N fertilization at several locations.Where a crop follows a legume, the yield increaseresulting from N application is much less than when anonlegume was the previous crop. While this is nqtunexpected, sometimes little value is obtained with Nrates above 40 kg/ha. and there is virtually no yieldincrease from rates above 80 kg/ha on legume land.When wheat follows sugar beets. considerable residualN is present in the soils. On fallow land results arequite similar. Following a nonlegume crop, however.response often continues up to 120 kg/ha and to 80kg/ha in all cases. The rotations indicated in Table W49are common Morocco. Probably, rotations of wheatwith annual legumes. such as in South Australia. wouldbe beneficial in areas of low rainfall where wheatfollows wheat.Available moisture in the various zones is importantnot only in amount but also in timing if N applicationis to be effective. Adequate spring moisture. eitheras rain or soil reserve. is critical. Plant growth israpid and the yield base is being established. In TableW50 a comparison of yields with the same variety atKhourigba (an area of shallow soils) in 1970 and 1971shows the critical role of spring moisture. In 1971there was a positive response to nitrogen up to 120kg/ha. whereas in 1970 there was little response toincreasing levels of N beyond 40 kg/ha. At Sidi-eI·Aydiin 1970, two replicates were irrigated and two wereleft dry. Yields from 120 kg/ha of N with irrigationwere double those at the same N level without irrigation.At Sidi Kacem an early dry period with high temperatureshastened Tobari 66 heading. resulting in67

TABLE W49. The yield effect of the previous crop on response to applied nitrogen for two bread wheatvarieties grown at different locations (Morocco, 1971-72).Nitrogen used, kg/ha% yieldincreaseVariety Location Previous crop Control 40 80 120 at 120 NTobari Ras Tebouda, 1970 Green manure 45.0" 53.3 53.0 50.8 12.9Tobar; Sidi Kacem. 1970 Sugar beets 28.3 35.6 37.8 39.8 40.5BT·908 Sidi Kacem. 1971 Sugar beets 40.3 48.8 51.6 53.2 32.0Tobari Had B'khati, 1972 Broadbeans 23.2 27.7 29.7 32.2 38.8BT·908 Merchouch, 1971 Broadbeans 25.9 35.8 35.7 37.8 45.9Tobari Moulay Idriss, 1971 Peas ::19.6 36.0 43.5 44.5 50.3BT·908 JeJrri. 1972 Peas 24.9 29.7 32.9 33.7 35.3BT·908 Douiet, .1972 Vetch and oats 31.2 36.4 42.0 43.7 40.1Bl·908 Ras Tebouda, 1971 Fallow 35.0 43.8 46.0 50.9 45.4Tobari Qued Zem, 1972 Fallow 34.4 38.8 42.5 43.7 27.0Tobari Berrechid. 1972 Fallow 31.6 35.8 37.5 43.7 38.3Tobari Ben Ahmed, 1970 Fallow 22.7 26.8 26.8 25.8 12.7Tobari Khemisset, 1972 (Oulad) Wheat 17.6 26.6 34.5 36.6 108.0Tobari BI Gara. 1971 Wheat 9.4 15.9 24.5 28.4 202.1Tobari Khouribga Wheat 13.0 16.8 25.0 32.6 150.8Tobari Ras Tebouda, 1972 SunflowerIsaftlower 15.6 25.3 38.3 39.5 153.2Tobari Arba Aounate, 1972 Irrigated corn 6.2 12.6 20.0 33.9 441.8• Yields expressed as quintals per hectare.TABLE W50. The yield eHect of available moisture on response to applied nitrogen for two bread wheatvarieties grown in diHerent locations (Morocco, 1970-71).RainfallNitrogen used. kg/haVariety Location Total. mm Distribution Check 40 80 120Tobari 66 Khouribga. 1970 483 82 mm after February 1 17.0" 21.9 21.9 23.4Tobari 66 Khouribga. 1971 ~70 334 mm after February 1 13.0 16.8 25.0 32.6Tobari 66 Sidi.el.AVdi. 1970 361 297 mm prior to February 9.9 17.0 17.2 22.5nonirripatedTobari 66 Sidi·el·Aydi. 1970 361 Plus two supplemental 17.0 33.4 36.7 42.6~ irrigllten irrigations in springTobari 66 Sidi Kacem, 1971 533 Dry oeriod during 31.0 38.9 44.8 45.5February and early MarchBT·908 Sidi Kacem, 1971 533 (same as above) 40.3 47.8 51.6 53.2Tobari 66 Moulay Idriss. 1970 599 462 mm prior to February 16.5 19.5 23.1 26.1Tobari 66 Moulay Idriss, 1971 655 304 mm prior to February 29.6 36.0 43.5 44.5n Yields expressed as quintals per hectare.pinched heads and low yield. BT908. a later·maturingvariety, was not forced, and it benefited from rainswhich fell during late March.Excessive winter rainfall has a similar adverse effectin lowering yields and N response. Lack of soilaeration and denitrification adversely affects the plants.Thus, at Moulay Idriss in 1970 when rains were excessiveduring the winter, yields and N response were muchlower than in 1971 when much less rain fell during thewinter months.The effect of variety on N response reflects thegenetic capacity of different varieties to convert varyingamounts of N to grain. This is affected by inherentyield capacity, disease resistance and adaptability. TableW51 shows that Potam 70 responded to 160 kg/ha Napplications at both Meknes and Merchouch. whereasBT908, the tall local variety, responded only to 40kg/ha at Meknes and to 120 kg/ha at Merchouch.An even more striking difference is shown betweenthe tall durum variety (BD2777) and the dwarf durum(Cocorit 71). For both low and high applications. the68dwarf variety shows superiority. The effect of varietaladaptation is shown by the yield responses of Tobari66 during two contrasting years at the same locations.Thus, the recommended N application also depends onthe variety used.The effect of disease on response can be veryimportant. The response of three varieties shown inTable W52 illustrates this effect in a year of heavySeptoria attack (1971) at the Merchouch station. Tiller·ing was quite normal since Septoria normally developslater than this stage, but yields were quite differentiallyaffected. Thus, any character of the variety whichaffects the conversion of N to grain will determine theN recommendation.Should all N be applied at seeding or shouldapplications be split? In general, the experiments inMorocco show little advantage for the split application.Only under conditions of high moisture immediatelyfollowing planting or on sandy soil is some benefitachieved. Data in Table W53 indicate that even in yearsot excess moisture, little leaching occurs in heavier

TABLE W5,1. Th. ef~ed of variety on r..pon.e to applied nitrogen a. related to yield of dlffenftt, varietie.grown in two trial .Ites (Morocco, 1971-72).Nitrogen used, kg/heVariety Location and conditions Control 40 80 120 180YIELD CAPACITY OF OLD AND NEW VARIETIESBT·9OS Natlonel A~rlcultural 25.2" 43.1 45.3 46.3 44.2SChool, Me nesPotam 70 (same) 27.5 42.7 46.0 53.7 57.8BD·2777 (same) 22.1 29.4 31.1 33.6 26.3Cocorit 71 (same) 23.6 38.3 43.4 46.5 48.7BT·908 Merchouch Experimental 15.1 28.6 38.6 48.6 SO.9StationPotam 70 (same) 19.5 30.7 44.3 56.5 61.4B0-2772 (same) 15.8 23.4 32.3 38.7 38.7Cocorlt 71 (same) 16.6 30.1 38.7 47.2 51.3VARIETAL ADAPTATIONTobari 66 Ras Tebouda. 1970. 46.0 53.3 53.3 SO.8Warm, dry spring with119 mm of rain afterMarch 1Tobari 66 Ras Tebouda, 1971. 26.6 35.1 33.6 36.9Cold. wet spring with337 mm of rain afterMarch 1BT-90S (same) 35.0 43.8 46.0 SO.9• Yields expressed as quintals per hectare.TABLE W52. The eHect of a heavy Septoria infectionon response to applied nitrogen as relatedto several agronomic traits of 3 wheat varieties(Merchouch Experiment Station, Morocco, 1971).Nitrogen rate. kg/haTrials Control 40 80 120 160Til/erlng resf,0nse(tillers/m )BT-908 228 249 330 327 352Tobarl 66 258 319 365 389 397Jori 69 226 258 297 312 329Yield response(q/ha)BT-908 30.9 40.4 46.5 48.6 49.3Tobarl 66 22.6 31.0 37.6 43.3 41.7Jori 69 22.5 26.9 28.8 30.5 29.6Head fertility(gm/10 heads)BT-908 23.8 22.9 22.1 24.3 22.3Tobari 66 15.7 16.1 16.0 17.4 17.0Jori 69 17.9 16.4 16.5 16.0 15.4soils, such as those of Moulay Idriss, when all N isapplied at planting. In the sandy soils, benefits of splitapplication are quite apparent. There is generally asmall benefit which seems real because of its regularity,but the advantage is offset by extra loss at Secondapplication and the danger that weather or otherwork will prevent the se~ond application on tim'e.Unless topdressing is applied in the early stage ofgrowth, it will increase grain yield little.Based on this research, N application recommendationshave been developed for the major regions ofMorocco (see Table W54).As for breeding research, there is a very urgent needby the Government of MoroccQ to rapidly train manymore young scientists to continue the soil fertility andagronomic work in order to stay abreast of new 'Varieties,to further characterize the fertility needs and tocontinue to modify the practices recommended tofarmers for maximum yields.TABLE W53. The effect of Sl)lit al)plication on the response of applied nitrogen as related to yield (q/haJof two whent vnrietie5 9rown under different rainfall conditions in Morocco, 1971-72.Nitrogen (kg/ha) applied at planting + tillerlngVariety Location 20 + 00 20 + 20 40 + 00 40 + 20 60+00INTERMEDIATE RAINFALL ZONETobarr 66 Settat 1971 17.8 a 21.5 b 20.7 b 24.7c 25.0cTobari 66 Sidi Rahal 1971 24.9 a 31.5 bc 29.8 b 35.0c 31.4 beTobari 6.6 Arba Aounate 1972 10.4 a 14.0 ab 12.6 a 20.0b 17.0 bHIGH RAINFALL ZONE 40 + 00 40 + 20 60 + 00 40 + 40 80+00Tobari 66 Moulay Idriss 1971 36.0 a 41.7 b 40.8 ba 42.4 b 43.5bTobari 66 Moulay Idriss 1970 19.5 a 21.0 b 21.4 b 23.6 be 23.1 beBT·908 Temara 1972 [sandy soil) 23.0 a 23.9 a 33.3 bc 28.1 ab 37.7cValues with the same letters have no significant differences at the 5% level.69

TABLE W54. Nitrogen recommendations for the Mexican and Italian wheat varieties in the principal rainfedareas of Morocco (1971·72).ZoneRotation I"Nitrogen. kg/haRotation II"PrerifSais PlainGharb PlainR:omani PlateauPhosphate PlateauChaouiaDoukkalaAbda60-8080-10040-6040-604040-60604080-120100-1208080608080-10060SiAgle or split applicationSingle or split applicationSingle application at seedingSingle application at seedingSingle application at seedingSingle application at seedingSingle or split applicationSingle application at seeding~ Rotation I: Wheat following sugar beets. green manure. legume (edible or forage) and fallow.~ Rotation II: Wheat following winter cereal (grain or forage) oil seed crop or spring cereal.ALGERIAA Cereal Research and Production Project wasestablished during the summer of 1971 as a collaborativeprogram of the Algerian Ministry of Agriculture andCIMMYT with the CIMMYT program sponsored by theFord Foundation. Other cooperating agencies includedFAO and the French Central Economic Agency ofCooperation (CCCE) which direct extension demonstrations,fertilizer distribution and pilot studies, respectively.The breeding program is connected directly tothe National Institute of Agricultural Research forAlgeria (I N RAA). The Institute operates seven stationsthroughout the cereal sectors of northern Algeria. TheCIMMYT production research in 1971 was divided intoan eastern and western region. This will be changed inthe 1972-73 season to three regions (eastern, centraland western), centred at Constantine, Algiers and Oran,respective Iy.In the 1969 season Algeria imported seed to plant5,100 hectares during the 1969-70 crop cycle. tn thefollowing year seed supplies were sufficient for 148,000hectares, and in 1971-72, based on the success of Inia66, Siete Cerros and Tobari, Algeria grew 320,000hectares of these improved varieties, including theimproved Italian variety, Strampelli. For 1972-73,600,000 hectares are projected which will also include86,000 hectares of Jori 69 (a Mexican durum) and3,000 hectares of the Italian durums, Capeiti andMontanari.Very favourable climatic conditions were experiencedduring the 1971·72 crop year.Proper distribution of the rlifferent varieties, wideavailability of fertilizers and strong government supportled to a propitiOus production of grain. Rainfall wasabove the long-term average in all locations. In general,rainfall was highly beneficial, but excess rain in someregions produced cool, cloudy, wet conditions whichhindered weed control and Nappiication as a topdressing. Flooding losses were also encountered in lowareas.Weather conditions enhanced the development ofSeptoria tritici, but losses were restricted to the coastal,higher-rainfall belt. Stem rust was general along thecoast and in the Setif region of the High Plateau.Thus, susceptible local bread and durum varieties andItalian wheats were heavily infected, and when infectionwas early in late-maturing varieties, losses were considerable.Leaf rust and stripe rust appeared but caused littledamage.The Mexican varieties Inia 66, Tobari 66, and to alesser extent, Siete Cerros, were resistant to all threerust species. Soltane, Zaafrane and Utique, new varietiesfrom Tunisia, were also resistant. Jori 69 and Cocorit70 showed a moderate level of stem rust.Insects were of minor importance. Cutworms andHessian fly were responsible for isolated damage butthe overall effect on yield was negligible. Bird damage,widespread in North Africa, damaged some of theearlier-maturing crops.Fertilizer applications ranged from 55 kg/ha of Nwith 45 kg/ha of P205 to 90 kg/ha of N with 90 kg/haof P205 in low- and high-rainfall areas, respectively.Application was a split dose of N. Much of the 320,000A modern seed processing plant at Sidi-bel-Abbes,Algeria.70

hectares sown to Improved varieties received the recommendedrates. In certain areas, lack of equipmentand wet weather interfered with the top-dress applicationsand some 200,000 hectares programmed foraerial applications could not be covered. The resultinguneven hand application reduced overall yield.In total, the Government supplied sufficient phosphateto provide 45 kg/ha for more than 2 millionhectares of the commercial crop. Sufficient N wasdistributed for a 20 kg/ha application to the entirecrop.Herbicides were used on less than one-half of thearea sown to improved varieties. A shortage ofchemicals and equipment plus poor weather wereresponsible. A very large aerial application prpgram wassimilarly hampered. Where satisfactory applications ofherbicides were made, good weed control doubledyields, indicating the tremendous loss caused by weeds.Wild oats, ryegrass and Phalaris sp. are common weedsthroughout the area and the chemicals applied areineffective against them. Ozalis, found in orchards andvineyards, is also common in wheat fields.Final production figures have not been tabulated,but estimates indicate a record production. Resultsfrom over half the area sown to improved varietiesindicate a 15 to 18 q/ha yield for the Mexicanvarieties compared with a 10 q/ha yield for the local anddurum wheats of the same area. In one area whereStrampelli was grown, a 17 q/ha yield was recorded.In addition to the yield reduction due to thefactors noted above, lack of combines at maturitycaused great harvesting losses. The early maturing,high-yielding varieties were left standing in the fieldswhile barley and other crops were still being harvested.Delays of two to four weeks resulted in wind shatteringand sprouting in the field. This situation contributedto an ol/era II loss of about 10 to 15 percent. Inwell-managed fields with good fertilizer applicationand weed control, yields were 4 to 6 tons perhectare.Production ResearchVariety demonstrations were sown at 16 locations,10 in the western region and 6 in the central andeastern regions. In general, these demonstrationsincluded 18 varieties in two replications. Fertilizersand chemical weed control were applied at recommendedrates, and farmers supplied the seeding andharvesting equipment. In some locations, less than 18varieties were sown but, in total, combinations of 24varieties were used. The data is summarized inTable W55.Siete Cerros gave the highest average yield eventhough damaged by Septaria at some locations. AtAnnaba, near the coast, this variety suffered about a30 percent yield reduction compared with Strampelli,a tolerant variety.Seeding was delayed by wet weather, which may haveaccounted for some loss in the late-maturing types.Among the Italian varieties, Strampelli gave the highestyield, equalling Siete Cerros on the high plateau. Bothvarieties performed best in that area. Italian varietiesperformed well on the high plateau but yielded low inother areas, and all of them lacked stem rust resistance.Strampelli exhibited a lower intensity of stem rust thanthe other Italian varieties. Strampelli is very susceptibleto sawfly damage in areas where Siete Cerros showedconsiderable tolerance. Sawfly is prevalent in the highplateau.The three Tunisian varieties (Soltane, Zaafrane andUtique) and Mexico 1601 (Calidad "S") performed well.Among these, Soltane appears best adapted, particularly~>n the plateau, and because of its resistance to SeptariaIt should be grown in ·the high-rainfall areas as well.Utique and Mexico 1601, which are resistant to Septaria,performed best in the high-rainfall coastal areas, botthey are too early maturing for the plateau. Fletchershows outstanding disease resistance, but it must beseeded early. Inia 66 and Tobari 66 were not outstanding.Both varieties showed low tillering capacityTABLE WSS. Yield, maximum disease and insect ratings and other agronoVlic characters of wheat varietiesgrown in 13 farm demonstrations throughout Algeria (1971-72).No. of Yield % yield Septoria Stem Saw Lodg- Shatter-Variety and migin locations q/ha of Inia" reactionl' rust'l fly" ing" ing"Siete Cerros (Mexico) 12 32.3 117 9 R 2 5 0Zaafrane (Tu.,isia 7 26.3 116 7 R 10 10 2Soltane (Tunisia) 13 30.2 113 7 R 5 2 0Mexico 1601 [Mexico) 3 46.3 112 5 R 5Strampelli (Italy) 13 29.7 111 3 S 25 5 0Utique (Tunisia) 11 26.1 108 5 R 5 10 5Tobari 66 (Mexico) 12 27.8 106 8 R 5 2 0Generoso (Italy) 9 22.1 106 3 5 10 0 5Fletcher (U.S.A.) 3 29.7 103 2 R 5 0 0Capeiti (D) (Italy) 5 29.9 103 S L SInia 66 (Mexico) 13 26.7" 100 9 R 10 5 0Imat 69 (D) (Tunisia) 13 25.6 96 8 T-R 10 50 0Moh. Ben Bachir (Algeria) 9 23.6 96 S 10 SJori 69 (0) (Mexico) 8 23.5 93 9 R 3 0 0Sparta [Italy) 12 25.9 90 3 VHS 5 5 10Mahon Demais (Algeria) 9 21.4 87 S 5 S 10Padre Gemelli (Italy) 11 20.8 85 3 VHS 10 0 5Libellula (D) (Italy) 11 23.0 84 2 VHS 5 0 2Qup.d Zenati 368 (0) (Algeria) 11 21.6 84 9 S 95 0Montanari (D) (Italy) 3 26.0 79 S SSplendeur (France) 13 14.4 54 2 VHS 5 0 0a % of yield of Inia 66 in same experiments." Average yield of Inia 66 in all locations.,. Based on a 0-to-9 scale.01 L = light attack: R = resistant: S = susceptible:., Figures express percent damage.VHS very highly susceptible.71

TABLE W56. Yield of four varieties at two seedingdates and two locations on the high plateaus (Algeria,1971-72).Inia 66StrampelliSiete CerrosMahon Demais toL.S.D.5%Setif South, q/ha" Significantly higher than check./> Local check.Setif North, q/haNov. Dec. Nov. Dec.25 20 Ave. 25 19 Ave.21.623.523.918.024.126.124.116.422.9"24.8"24.0"17.23.5224.4 23.626.9 29.528.8 28.923.9 21.124.028.2"28.9 1122.55.64No significant difference was observed between yieldsfrom different dates of seeding and there was littledate·variety interaction, although varietal differencesare evident. The cool spring and good rainfall wereprobably responsible for the lack of response to seedingdate.Four fertilizer trials were grown in the eastern region.One of these was abandoned because of cutwormdamage. Two locations showed a significant N response.In these locations, wheat following sugar beets reosponded up to 44 kg/ha, and wheat following vetchresponded up to 132 kg/ha (see Table W57).The third trial at Setif was grown after summerfallow and no significant response was observed.These experiments also involved application rates.The application for each rate was split. Thus, data inTable W57 are based on 12 plots each.Breeding Researchand neither is well adapted to the high plateau. Tobariperformed best in the high-rainfall region and until seedsupplies of Soltane and Utique are available in sufficientquantities, it is the most suitable variety for thesecoastal areas. •Among the durum varieties, INRAT 69, Capeiti andJori 69 show the greatest potential. Jori is bestadapted in the 400 to 500 mm intermediate rainfallbelt below 800 meters altitude. Capeiti can be grownin the high-rainfall region but has weak straw. INRAT69 does well in both regions. Cocorit 71 and other newhigh-yielding durum lines appear to be decidedly superiorin yield to any of the varieties tested and will beincluded in next year's demonstrations.Three trials for date of seeding were grown ineastern Algeria. One was abandoned as a result ofcutworm damage. The data from the other two plantednear Setif are in Table W56.The cool and prolonged season provided optimumconditions for selection in breeding populations. Twodistinct zones must be considered in breeding: (a) thecoastal plain, characterized by a mild climate, no frost,high rainfall and high disease intensity and (b) the highplateau to the south at 600 to 1,200 meters altitudewith freezing temperatures, late frosts, snow, hot desertwinds ("sirocco") and variable rainfall of 250 to 650mm.For bread wheats, the prolonged rainfall during the1972 season favoured medium- to late-maturing va·rieties. As shown in Table W58, Siete Cerros andStrampelli were the highest yielders in the productionplots. Siete Cerros has good general resistance to therusts, is immune to loose smut, but is highly susceptibleto Septaria. Strampelli has good resistance to Septaria,but it is suceptible to stem rust and leaf rust. Data fromthe two previous years also showed these two varietiestops in yield despite lower rainfall. The best varietiesselected from the Seventh ISWYN Trial are listed inTable W59. The yield averages are from three locations.The Indian variety Chhoti Lerma regularly yields wellin the absence of stripe rust. Toquifen, Victor 1 andPenjamo 62 sh.ow a good tolerance to Septaria andadaptation to North Africa. The poor grain quality ofVictor 1, however, precludes its use in commercialproduction.The nurseries at Algiers and Annaba provided goodscreening. Septaria tritici developed in mid-March,increased rapidly and developed to a heavy infectionlevel. Lines which showed good tolerance are listed inTable W60. Selection was based on a combination ofTABLE W57. Summary of yield response to various nitrogen applications at two locations in Algeria(1971-721.Location Previous crop oNitrogen, kg/ha44 88Yip.ld Percentincrease increasefrom 0 N to from 0 N to132 132 kg/ha N 132 kg/ha NGuelna Sugar beet 36'.1Annaba Vetch (seed) 23.5L.S.D. at Guelna = 4.79 q/ha; L.S.D. at Annaba44.137.76.82 q/ha.45.043.546.4 10.3 2851.4 27.9 115Yields expressed in qUintals/hectare.72

TAILE W58. Top-yielding bread wheat varietiesfrom dlHerent national yield trial. In Algeria (1971­72).HIQhellt %yield ofYield FlorenceVariety or cross Location q/ha Aurora"Strampelli Guelma 70.2 166.8Slete Cerros Guelma 65.2 177.6Un . Sk x S.Past/Mara Algiers 60.8 125.9Chenab 70 Algiers 59.8 142.1Un Sk x S.Past/Cno • Inla Algiers 59.6 123.4Mexlpak 69 Guelma 58.5 184.8CC • Inla"s" (143) Algiers 57.8 136.1CaUdad "s" (Mex. 160) Algiers 55.4 144.8Wt\;.Nar59/Son64·Tzppx Y54 Algiers 53.4 1.50.9Cno"s" . Inia"s"2 Algiers 53.1 171.0Inia"s" • Napo63 (136) Algiers 52.7 124.1B21 x KE 3.2 (French) Algiers 52.5 130.6Inla 66 Algiers 50.3 133.2Tobari 66 Algiers 44.3 142.6II % of yield of Florence Aurore in comparable trials.TABLE W59. Yield average of the 10 highest yieldingvarieties and lines from the Seventh InternationalSpring Wheat Yield Nursery grown in Algiers,EI-Kroub and Sidi-Bel-Abbes, Algeria, (1971-72).GenotypesChhotl LermaToqulfenVictor 1Pllnjllmo 62Chenab 70UP·301Tanorl 71Sonora 64 - Klein Rend.Pltlc 62CaUdadYield. q/ha50.449.548.448.34ft.'48.148.147.947.446.7early (April 5) and late (June 10) ratings. Resistantlines maintained bright yellow straw, whereas thesusceptible varieties turned a dull gray. Siete Cerroswas heavily damaged. Lines starred in Table W60maintained good leaf tissue and had limited Septorialesions.TABLE W60. Wheat varieties and line. with the be.t Septaria resistance ob.erved in Algier., 1971-1972(data from several local and international nurseries).Genotype and pedigreeOriginSeptoriR ratingScale 0 . 9Apr. 5 Jun. 10(My54·Nl0 x YSO·K Line) [(T/Chln 166 x L·N)M2·MEl FrA35J8.12p·5p·5P·1DH49Q.An64AII-MJ·191-1 P-l P·lOOfn (Com·N x Mt·Men) (Kt/Bg·Fn x G4)Pato (B)21974.4R·2R-QYOn·Bb/Cno·7Cerros x Tob·B.Man3431 0-8m·l y-QmCC·Tob'24027·13t·lm-l y-QmJar·Napo63/LR64 x TzPP·AnE21823.10y·2m-4y·lmBYE'·TC x Tac,.:·TC2(BYP·TC/Z·B x B)D-31539·3LSuper XTob x KI.Pet·AafI1·23438-5M·1Y·3M·l Y·OM·OMbMex 1601 = Utlque (BT 2349)Napo63 x TzPP-Son64/8156(R)28071·7m·3y·3m·OY·OMbKt/Bg·Fn/uxB2aVI·l 5·22t.tt·lb·l b·OMbFn·K58/N x (Er·KAD x Gbj2II·14239-5t·1b-tt-DMbMexlcano 1481Inia·Cno x Cal27220-44M·OY·48M-QY.( 1·3Y)Cno"s'·Gallo27829·19Y·2M·l Y-OMTob66-CC x Pato27369-1 R-4M·OYN066-Cno"s" x Jar6627343.2A·3M·3TEraPj62·Ca30403-19M·2Y-l M·OY(TzPPWt\: x Nap063) (lnla"s"/564 x TzPP·Y54)29791·11 R.4M·1Y-l M·OY(Nar59-101Y/PJ62·Gb x TzPP·Kno#2)Cal30409·44A·l M·3Y·l M-QYn Very small reslstant·type pustule not spreading on leaf (tolerance!.PON·30PON·38PON.44PON·115PON·183PON·192PON·193PON·207PON-175POT·7142POT·7191POT-7310POT-7345POT·7346POT·75205th IBWSN·285th IBW5N·1145th IBWSN·1475th IBWSN·1515th IBWSN·2115th IBWSN·2875th IBWSN·3285th IBWSN·330_.. - -----._-3 63·5 3·54 8-1 73 73 74 86 78 98 7"6 84 54 58 64 53 74 82 434 52 4-2 5"3 673

Improvement in durums is urgently required forAlgeria' and all of North Africa. Local varieties arewell adapted but tall, susceptible to the rusts andcannot be heavily fertilized: In Algeria, of the 2.25million hectares devoted to cereals, 1.5 million aresown to durums and only 0.75 million are sown tobread wheats.The introduced improved dwarf durum varieties aredeficient in disease resistance and grain quality. Thebest-yielding lines of the Third International OurumYield Nursery are in Table W61. The yield averages arebased on three testing locations. The Crane "sibs"have good yields but insufficient disease resistance.The Argentine variety Parana 66/270, a cross of a tallArgentine variety and a dwarf Mexican durum, showsgood promise due to high yield and a generally highlevel of disease resistance. It also has short straw andtillers well. A second line, T. dicoccum vernum xGil "S", has good yield potential and stem rustresistance, but it is susceptible to Septoria and leaf rust.Cocorit 71 is well adapted, has some tolerance toSeptoria, and is superior in rust resistance to Jori 69.INRAT 69 yields well, has Septaria resistance and isvery resistant to scab (Giberella zeael, but is losing itsresistance to stem and leaf rust. Jori 69 yields good butis susceptible to all major North African diseases.Although it will be grown commercially in the comingyear, Jori 69 will have to be replaced in the near futureas better varieties become available and are multiplied.Other promising selections include a T. polonicum xl:B dwarf selected locally which seems adapted to theSetif region, but because of its wide cross derivationcontinues to segregate. An Anhinga "S" line selectedfrom an earlier IOYN and Mandos (a French variety) areTABLE W61. Average yield and disease reaction of the best varieties and lines in the Third InternationalDurum Yield Nursery grown at three locations (Algeria, 1971-72).SETIF ALGIERS GUELMA Septaria (scale 0-9)Yield Stripe Leaf Stem FusariumGenotype q/ha rust rust rust April 15 June 10 culmorumCrane "s" (B) 49.3 80S 80S 7 9 ST.dicc.ver·GII"s" 48.1 R 1008 6. 8 SParana 66/270 47.6 R R 4 4 MSCocorit 71 47.4 20MR 80S 408 7 7 SCisne "s" 45.2 60S 60MS·S 10MR 4 8 SJo "s"·Cr "s" 44.2 40S 60MS 5 9 SCrane "s" A 43.7 80S 80S A q SCapeiti 43.6 80S 80S 3 l3 R?Inrat 69 43.1 20S 80MS 4 7 RQuilafen 41.8 80S 1008 5 7 R?Jari e6g (check) 35.9 60S 80S Tr 6 9 SCajeme 71 (check) 50.3 R R 4 8among the better adapted, Mandos in the coastal plain.The outstanding leaf rust-resistant and Septaria'resistant lines listed in Table W62 were selected fromthe Third IDSN at Algiers. Heavy attacks of bothdiseases killed susceptible varieties and caused extensivegrain shrivelling. Stem rust infection was low andscreening for this disease was not possible. Hopefully,resistance will be found in some of these lines so theymay be used for replacing present commercial types.TUNISIAThe 1971-72 season was above average for plantdevelopment, Sowings were done under favourablemoisture conditions after good soil preparation andweed control. Rains were adequate, but not excessive,during the growing season and the spring was in·terspersed with sunny periods which lowered the diseaseintensity on the crop. Hot winds (Sirocco), whichsometimes cause premature ripening, did not appearalthough a slight reduction in grain filling (reflected inlow test weight) occurred in localized areas due todrought stress near maturity. Some of the tall varietieslodged and there was some hail damage in isolated areas.The wheat project of the Tunisian government isaided by CIMMYT personnel with financial assistancefrom the Ford Foundation and USAID. Project effortshave been concentrated in the better rainfall areas in theNorth with most emphasis on bread wheat production.Some attention has been given outside these regions,and there also has been a notable spread of technologyoutward from demonstration areas.In the northern wheat region, the new technologyhas been adopted on 150,000 of the total 750,000hectares (60 percent durum, 40 percent bread). 1m·proved varieties were sown on 65,000 to 70,000hectares. As a result of fertilizer demonstrations, amuch larger area has received fertilizer and herbicides.About 18,400 tons of N were applied this seasoncompared to 13,200 tons and 9,400 tons, respectively,in the previous two years. Assuming that 50 percentwas applied to wheat, this means that about 150,000hectares received N. Herbicides, ma inly 2,4-0, wereapplied on the same amount of land, whereas in1970-71 only 70,000 hectares were treated.Government estimates show an anticipated pro·duction of 570,000 tons of durum wheat and 240,000tons of bread wheat. This represents a productionincrease of 25 to 28 percent for durum wheats and 15percent for bread wheats. Part of this increment maybe attributed to the use of improved varieties, but evenmore to the new technology and favourable weather.The financial incentives were retained. Prices fordurum wheat were held at 5.1 dinars and 4.5 dinars forbread wheat per quintal (US$107.50 per metric ton andUS$95.00 per ton, respectively). Certain input importtaxes were reduced; most notable was an import taxreduction on N from 14.4 to 8.0 percent.74

Diseases, Pests and WeedsThis was a relatively disease-free year. Septaria wasrarely damaging and the three rusts developed so latethat little damage occurred. Ophiabalus was present andalso powdery mildew; neither were important.Heteradera avenae, the root cyst nematode, occurredin local areas of the Northwest. Certain fields werebadly damaged, particularly where wheat followedwheat. Frit fly, Hessian fly and cereal leaf beetleappeared sporadically. Sawfly was present, particularlyin western Tunisia and in drier sites in the South.Weeds continued to be a serious problem and werethe greatest cause of yield reduction. However, theyear was better than many previous years becauseOctober rains germinated weeds which were then destroyedin the succeeding cultivation. The rapid cropgrowth allowed the wheat plants to compete favourably.The increased herbicide use referred to above alsoreduced the weed problem.Fertilizer StudiesThis year's experimentation was the fourth for theTunisian project. Experiments were purposely concen·trated in the 300 to 700 mm rainfall areas.The experiments combined demonstrations, researchand training, all on farmers' field under rainfed culture.Farmers assisted with land preparation, field days andharvesting. Thirty-seven experiments and numerousdrill-strip fertilizer tests were grown. The experimentscomprised rates x dates of N application, N forms, ratesand dates of NPK application, varieties x N, imdcomparisons of two P205 rates in demonstration strips.Eighty-four percent of the trials were successfullyharvested with meaningful data. This year Inrat 69 andJori 69 durums were tested for N response. Imat 69has good tolerance to Septaria, but Jori 69 can only begrown successfully in low-rainfall areas.Yield data for all N experiments are in Table W63.The average yield over all locations and all experimentswas 37.1 q/ha. This is a 33.7 percent increase in yieldwith N use. The largest single increase for N was 26.8q/ha by INIA under a 133 kg/ha N application.Most fertilizer trials showed N response, particularlywith short·strawed varieties. There was le1:s response bythe weaker-strawed durum varieties, but Inrat 69 wasable to respond up to a yield level of 40 q/ha. On thebasis of the tests as a whole, the optimum N rate fordwarf varieties appears to be 90 kg/ha in the 500 mmrainfall areas and 67 kg/ha for the 400 to 500 mm range.At rainfall levels below this, not more than 45 kg/haTABLE W62. Durum wheat varieties and lines from the Third International Durum Screening Nursey mostresistant to leaf rust and to Septaria in Algiers (1971-72).IDSNentryGenotype and pedigreeLeaf rustSeptaria rating(scale 0-9) •Apr. 15 Jun. 100110880120450680690137014101420146015901880189021902230230024302520254Flamingo "s"Flamingo "s"Jo "s"(LD-357).:_Tc 2 /GII"s")D-27588-5M-3Y·l M-500YD-21563-AA"s"D-27625-5M-2Y-2M·l V-OMD-21563-Jo"s"D-31538-14M-3Y-OMD-21563-Jo"s"D-31538-14M-6Y-OM(LD-357,.;-Tc 2 ) Jo"s"D-27534-3M-2Y-1 MJo"s"(LD-357)-; x Tc~/GII"s")D-27572-20M-3Y-l MJo"s"(LD-357).; x Tc 2 /GII"s")D-27572-20M-3Y-3MJo"s"(LD-357)-; x TG~ x GII"s")D-27588-5M.3Y-3MD-Buck(BYJ.;2-Tc)(LD-357 ,.;-Tc 2 /GII"s")D-27649-0M-38Y-l MPlc"s"-Jo"s"D-31679-4M-1Y.l M-OYPlc"s"·Jo"s"D-31679-9M-l Y-2M-OYStw63-GII"s" x AD-119-1W-2YD-31759_1 M-2Y-l M-OYCr"s"-Gs"s"D-28980-28Y-13M-5Y-l M-OYMasa-177Y-l M-OYJo"s"/LD_357)-;-Tc 2 -GI I' ,s"D-27588-5M-3Y_3M-l Y-1 M-OYD-21563-AA"s "D-27625-5M-2Y-2M-l Y-1 M-OYGs"s"-Cr"s"D-27676.6M-l Y-l M-2Y-l M-OY20Mr·M~40MS"20MA10MATrAu10MA"20MA"10MA"20MA"20MA20A"TrR"TrA"20MA-MS"20MA40MSTrA20A10A"-4 85 74-51 85 74 7s 7·85 94 7·86 84 87 84 6-76 84 7-85 7·86 7-83 6·75 67 9" Also reported resistant to all 3 rusts at New Delhi, India.75

TABLE W63. Comparison of experiments involving rqies, sources and timing of application of nitrogen for various wheat varieties under differentrainfall conditions 'Tunisia. 1971-721.~ Treatment associated with MAXIMUM YIELD P . Idercant YleExperimental Rate (kg/hal Average Yield of increase ofType mean and source Date of yield control maximumexperiment Variety q/ha of N application q/ha q/ha over controlI. Average annual rainfall greater than 500 mmForms of N Penjamo 24.9 90 NH.NO" Average of 4 dates 35.6 14.5 145Seeding/RON Penjamo 17.0 133 NH.NO" tillering 24.0 18.6 29RON Inia 66 37.8 133 NH.NO" Tillering 54.0 27.9 96RON Inrat 69 41.0 133 NH.NO" .Jointing 47.2 33.7 40Seeding/RON lltique 22.0 133 NH.NO. 1 tillering 32.1 11.7 174RON Inrat 69 18.0 133 NH.NO" Seeding 23.6 15.5 52NPK Inia 66 39.3 100 NH.NO" Seeding 51.5 23.6 118VarietiesSeeding/x Nitrogen 6 varieties 27.1 133 NH.NO: 1 tillering 42.5 30.1 41VarietiesSeeding/)C Nitroqen 6 varieties 42.4 100 NH.NO" tillering 59.2 45.0 32Average for areas with morethan 500 mm annual rainfall 29.9 120 41.1 24.5 68II.Average annual rainfall less than 500 mmForms of N Inia 28.5 90 CO(NH 2 l 2 Average of 4 dates 36.4 21.4 70Forms of 1\1 Inia 44.1 90 CO(NH 2 h Average of 4 dates 48.1 40.0 20RON Inrat 69 32.1 67 NH.NO" Seeding 35.8 34.6 3Seeding/RON Inia 44.8 90 NH.NO" tillering 52.6 40.3 31RON IniR 48.3 67 NH.NO" Seeding 52.2 44.6 17RON Jori 47.9 22 NH.NO, Jointing 53.8 48.9 10RO/\\SieteCarros 45.7 67 NH.NO" Jointing 54.5 36.6 49RON Inia 35.1 90 NH.NO" Tillering 42.9 34.8 23RON Inia 43.7 45 NH.NO" Seeding 46.5 42.6 9RON Inrat 69 32.2 0 34.9 34.9 ..."RON Inia 42.4 90 NH.NO" Tillering 50.1 40.3 24RON Inia 51.8 90 NH.NO" Tillering 59.3 47.2 26RON Inrat 69 30.3 90 NH.NO" Seeding 36.4 27.0 35RON Inia 66 38.9 67 NH.NO" Seeding 43.9 32.7 34RON Inia 66 40.5 67 NH.NO" Tillering 51.8 35.0 48RON Jori 43.4 90 NH.NO: 1 Jointing 4R.5 41.4 17RON Inrat 69 39.7 90 NH.NO" Tillering 43.9 35.4 24RON Inrat 69 40.1 90 NH.NO" Jointing 48.9 33.2 47RON lorat 69 38.6 0 ... 44.4 44.4Seeding/RON Inrat 69 37.8 90 NH.NO" tillerinq 44.6 30.2 48NPK Inia 66 27.9 100 NH 4 NO" Seeding 36.5 18.9 93NPK Inia 66 48.3 0 52.4 52.4Average for areas with lessthan 500 mm annual rainfall 40.1 67 46.2 37.1 25Averages overall experiments 37.1 83 44.8 33.5 33.7" No nitrogen response due to high residual soil nitrogen and lodging of durum wheats.

Dr. Torrey Lyons (right), CIMMYT staff member located in Tunisia, explains his work to visitors.should be applied. For durums and tall bread wheats,these recommendations should be 1/2 to 2/3 of thoseabove. Similarly, when wheat follows row crnosor a winter fallow, about half the rate is sufficient. Forwheat after cereal or weedy fallow, a 20 percent increasein N use is advised. The guideliness should be modifiedfor particular local conditions.Date of Nappiication was less important than rateused if the total quantity was in place during thetillering stage. There were no significant responses toP205 and K20 when applied with N. In the demonstrationstrips on farms, only 3 of 15 locations showedresponse to P205. This lack of response undoubtedlyresulted from, a long history of P205 fertilizer use.Results of the use of different N forms indicate thaturea, which is cheapest, can be used for the presowingapplication if worked into the soil well. Ammonium,because of its lower volatilization, should have preferencefor top-dressing.A benefit-cost ratio was calculated for N applications,using the average yield increase for the 31 tests:A benefit-cost ratio of 5.3 to 1 is very encouragingconsidering the range of environments under which thetests were conducted. Fig. W16 shows that N use hasdoubled since 1968-69 and that the Government ismaking provision for 22,400 tons in 1972-73.These large increases in N use may be attributedmainly to its increased use on wheat. It is obviousthat research on technology of fertil izer value has paidvery large dividends in furthering N utilization.Date of Planting StudiesDate of planting studies were conducted at six sitesand data were valid from five. Three dates of seedingof six varieties in large, three-replicate plots were used.15(J) 10zo.....u..oBenefit-CostValue of yield increase (dinars per halCost of N~1.3 q x 4.5gQ.jinars/q0.115/kg N x 83estlmaled50.850 5.3: 19.545(Bread wheat sells at 4.5 dinar/q. NH4N03 applied onthe field costs 3.8 dinars/q or 0.115 dinars per kg. 1dinar = US$2.12.)FIG. W16. Nitrogenous and phosphoric fertilizers Sflldin Tunisia from 1961-62. (Source: Division de laProduccion Vegetale et de la Conjonture Ministere deI'Agriculture).77

The three dates were mid-November, mid-Decemberand, where possible, early January, but because of rainsthis seeding date extended to early February. Penjamo62 showed good results, but tended to lower yieldat the January date. Florence Aurore, Ariana, Bedriand lorat gave best results for the earliest sowing andpoor results for the latest.Septaria was most severe on the earl iest planting anddecreased in intensity with delayed plantings. In thecolder, higher plateau area of Le-Kef, early seeding isdesirable. This is difficult, however, because of therainfall pattern and soil structure.Weed Control ResearchWeed infestation tends to be high as a result ofinadequate tillage, particularly in the presowing period.Under such conditions, herbicide application is oftenrequired. Wild oats and Latium rigidum (rye grass)were about equally harmful in the past season. Ryegrass appears to induce lodging in the infested wheat.Phalaris truncata and P. canariensis (canary grasses) canalso be damaging, but on a smaller scale. Herbicidecontrol of grassy species is still not satisfactory (TableW64). Most broad-leaved species are controlled with2,4-D, but several wheat varieties appear to sufferdamage and more resistant types may be needed.In the past season, three types of experiments wereconducted: (1) wild oat control at six sites with datafrom three, (2) evaluation of broad-leaved herbicides atseven sites with data from six and (3) a study of 2,4-Dtoxicity at three sites with data from all. In evaluatingdifferent herbicides, untreated strips on either side ofthe test were used as control plots for rating whichweeds had been controlled by the various herbicides.The favourable rainfall pattern prevented moisturestress at all sites so that the effect of weed infestation onmoisture removal was minimal. Thus, a reasonablemeasure of phytotoxicity was possible. Yield results forthe wild oat control trials are in Table W65 and resultsfor the broadleaf weeds are in Table W66.Among the chemicals tested on wild oats, Dicuranand Dosanex performed similarly. Both gave faircontrol of wild oats and rye grass and good control ofmost of the important broad/eaf weeds. Phytotnxicitywas a problem with both herbicides. Suffix gave bettercontrol of wild oats but controlled no other weedspecies. Therefore, a second weedicide will often berequired which increases costs. In addition, suffix isapplied late, after wild oat damage may already haveoccurred. In general, it appears that none of the threechemicals (Dicuran, Dosanex and Suffix) are fullysatisfactory and all are relatively expensive.For broadleaf weed control, 2,4-D, MCPA, Buctril,Bronate and Tribunil were applied. Each showedseveral advantages, and also showed disadvantages.Among these, Tribunil may be better than the otherssince yields were higher. It showed low toxicity towheat and gave partial control of rye grass but not ofwild oats nor of certain broad-leaved weeds. MCPA,Buctril and Bronate can be safely used somewhatearlier than 2,4-D, but the latter two show somephytotoxic effects. Among these, the tests show thatMCPA has some advantage over 2,4-D and is generallyless phytotoxic. However, it is somewhat more expensivethan 2,4-D, which is now widely used in Tunisia.The experiments on 2,4-D phytotoxicity were conductedwith four varieties chosen to represent differentsensitivities based on ear distortion observed in 1970-71:Zaafrane and Soltane, high; Inia 66 moderate; and Jori69, low damage. The herbicide was applied at theTABLE W64. Average percent control of weed species in seven herbicide trials (Tunisia, 1971-72),Herbicides and development of wheat when applied2.4-d MCPA Buctril Buctril Bronate Tribunil Dosanex DicuranWeed species 6" 6 3 4112 41/2 3 3 3Avena sterilis 14 4 2 8 7 13 69v l • 67Lolium .rigidum 13 16 24 ::>4 20 46v 87 68Phalaris truncata 0 a 0 a 0 0 0 5Fumaria parviflora 77 93 26 25 92 78v 71 43vFumaria agraria 51 BIl 16 27 89 78v 77 23vPapaver rhoeas 99 95 68 90 96 99 89 92Raphanus raphanistrum 100 100 93 96 99 100 100 72Vicia hirsutum 100 95 59 59 97 36v 65v 56Vicia sativa 100 100 11 91 a 35 20Medicaqo hispida 95 95 43 43 73v 53v 90 78Polyqonum flviculaire 100 90 45v 46v 98 67v 100 100Euphorbia helioscopia 100 98 40 9R 100 3fi 51v 27Bupleurum lancifolium 100 100 fiS 87 87 48 100 100Galium aparine 0 100Sonchus asper 95 95 30 60v 30v 15v 34v 63vChrysanthemum coronarium 91 80 56v 89 99 80 90 91Calendula arvensis 100 50v 100 100Convolvulvus arvensis 94 93 12 7 44'1 23 0 17vConvolvulvus tricolor 100 100Lamium amplexicaule 50 0 100Veronica hederaefolia 7? 89 41v 56 91 90 77 86linaria reflexa RO 54 43v 63v 99 97 74Anagallis arvensis 70 97 10 0 54v 100 100RumAx .~p 12 47 87 98 90 100 100 95Torilis nodosa 95 100 43 80 96 82Ridolfia segetum 100 100 80 97 100 99 100Cirr.illm arvensis fi7\1 70 6 0 24 15 23" Number of leaves." Variable data.78

3-, 4 1/2- and 6-leaf stages, at jointing, and at the. bootand flowering stages.At the 3-leaf stage, the onion leaf reaction wascommon in all varieties and severe ear distortiondeveloped in all but Jori 69. At the 4 1/2-leaf stage theonion leaf symptom was minor but severe ear distortionagain occurred in each variety except Jori 69. At the6-leaf stage Jori 69 was again free of symptoms whileear distortion was light in Inia 66 but severe inZaafrane and 50ltane. In later treatments, developmentwas normal except for some sterility which resulted inupright ears in the plots.The highest average yield of all varieties resultedfrom treatment at the jointing stage. At this stage noear distortion was observed in the bread wheats. Thelate-tillering habit of 50ltane and Zaafrane may providean extended period of sensitivity, thus accounting forgreater damage at the 6-leaf stage. Although Jori 69did not show symptoms, the greatest yield was alsoobtained with jointing-stage application. Fig. 17 showsthese relationships.Caution must be employed when using 2,4-D inexperimental plots as well as in commercial fields.Ratatian af Annual Farage legumes with WheatA new research area was introduced into the TunisianTABLE W65. Wheat yields let/ hal with various herbicide treatments to control wild oats (Tunisia, 1971-72).Sites and varietiesHerbicide and amount Beja Oiled ZlIrl:1I1" Teboursoukof active inl:1redientper hectare Plant development Sonalika Inrat Inia Inrat IniaDicuran, 1.6 kg 1 leaf 41.7 16.0 22.2 ::14.8 33.4Dicuran. 1.6 leg Pretillering 42.3 15.7 22.6Dicuran. 2.4 kg Pretillering 37.6 16.5 24.3 26.2 40.0Dicuran, 2.4 kg Full tillering 39.5 16.7 24.6 24.7 38.3Dosanex, 3.2 kg Pretillering 41.1 17.3 22.6 24.1 27.5Tribunil. 1.95 kg Pretillering 26.5 39.8Dicuran. 1.6 kg +igran, 0.8 kg Pretillering 31.7 18.5 19.2Igran, 0.8 kg Pretillering 39.8 16.4 22.0Buctril, 0.41 kg Pretillering 23.1 32.5Ruffix, 1.5 kg Full tillering 41.5 17.1 25.0 25.3 36.8Suffix, 1.5 kg Early jointing 40.9 18.0 22.1 28.8 35.5Suffix, 1.5 kg +2, 4-0, 0.55 kg Early jointing 17.5 22.9Dicuran, 2.4 kg Early jointing 37.8 14.5 20.0 27.4 35.6Control. not treated 39.8 16.3 23.7 23.7 33.2Coefficient of variation, % 10.9 8.5 8.9 11.4 12.1L.S.D. at 10% 5.2 1.7 2.5 NS 7.3L.S.D. at 5% NS NS 3.0 NS 9.0II At Oued Zarga a hail storm reduced harvested yield of Inia 30% to 45% and that of Inrat 50% to 65%.TABLE W66. Wheat yields (q/ha) with various herbicide treatments to control broadleaf weeds at six trialsites (Tunisia; 1971-72).Herbicide and amountof active ingredientper hectarePlant developmentSt.CyprienSit e sQuedIf'!Srlnja Rmel Gaafour KribBendoubaAverage2, 4·0, 0.55 kgMCPA, 0.55 kgMCPA, 0.55 kgBuctril. 0.41 kgBuctril. 0.41 kgBronate, 0.41 kg +0.41Tribunil, 1.95 kgDosanex 3.2 kgDicuran. 2.4 kgControl. not treatedExtra treatmentsExtra treatmentsCoefficient of variation. 0 / 0L.S.D. at 10%L.S.D. at 5%Early jointing 34.5Full tillering 29.9Early jointing 32.7Pretillering 33.0Full tillering 36.0Full tillering 34.0Pretillering 36.7Pretillering 35.7Pretillering 29.034.09.03.13.634.6 40.5 33.9 44.837.0 40.5 26.8 47.041.0 41.7 32.8 47.336.6 37.9 32.0 45.440.2 37.8 30.6 49.237.8 37.6 30.0 47.939.9 42.4 35.7 49.539.1 42.6 30.9 47.342.6 38.2 33.7 49.737.8 40.9 31.2 45.733.1" 46.91.43.1" 47.6 d11.3 6.9 12.4 6.9NS 3.3 NS NS3.534.7 37.135.4 36.136.2 38.634.1 36.533.2 37.836.2 37.237.9 40.337.5 37.135.4 37.837.9 37.95.62.73.0Extra treatments: (a) Dicuran, 1.6 kg + Igran, 0.8 kg at pretillering; lb) 'gran, 0.8 kg at pretillerlng; Ie) Tribunil. 1.95kg at 2 1/2 leaves: (d) Buctril, 0.41 kg

42r--------------- 'HI' 66UIa::;'!UUI:I:403836"' en...Jorci...J 32UI>-30-.-- --- -,~---, ,/' " ,, ,,, '-..,,'IAAFIUH( ORSOL TA KEDr. Torrey Lyons (Ieftl and Dr. R. A. Fischer,CIMMYT agronomist/physiologist, compare a checkplot with a plot treated for control of wild oats.program this year to investigate the feasibility ofgrowing wheat in rotation with annual forage legumesin a manner similar to that successfully used in southernAustralia. In addition to the financial and environmentalconsiderations, advantages include: the supplyof N from the legume for the following wheat crop,improvement in physical properties of the soil, greaterweed control from competition in the forage year, andcontrol of soil-borne disease by breaking the cycle.In 1971-72 a preliminary study was made on: (a)variety and plant growth performance, (b) whethersuitable native rhizobia are present, (c) what levels ofphosphate are needed to get optimum N accumulation,(d) the number of cycles needed to produce sufficientseed supplies in the soil for self-regeneration and (e)time required to build up sufficient N in the soil tosupport the following wheat crop. A series of demonstrationsand experiments will run for two to four yearsbefore results are fully available.Four subexperiments were placed at three sites,including a small rotation, a five-variety performancetest sown with and without inoculation, a fertilizerexperiment with four rates of P205 plus trace elements,a management test for weed and insect control, and agrazing study. Each site covered one hectare.At 15 sites, demonstrations of half-hectare blocksof wheat-medic rotations have been initiated. In thesecond year it is proposed that the wheat stubble halfbe sown to medic by two separate methods. Themedic half will be split so that one-half of it will besown to wheat at several N levels and the other portionallowed to reseed and grown as medic.At all sites medic stands were good. The varietyJemalog (Medicago truncatula) and Harbinger (M. littaralis)were the best adapted. Paragosa Gama Medic (M.paragasa) was adapted on gray-brown, heavy-texturedsoils. Variety Clare of Trifolium subterraneum showedpoor growth.Suitable native rhizobia for Jemalog and Harbingeroccur in the soil in all locations where native medicsare present. Both produced high yields of pods andseeds. In the early stage of the work, emphasis is onmaximizing seed production in order to have plenty ofreserve seed in the soil. About 1 to 1.5 tons of drymatter per hectare were obtained..28 +------'----+----+-----+---""1--3I,o!4 1/26I,o!JOinlingboot1'01STAGES OF PLANT DEVELOPMENTIlowtnnqFIG. W17. Yields of three wheat varieties sprayed atdifferent stages of growth with 2, 4-0 (0.55 kg/hal forweed control (horizontal lines represent yields ofnonsprayed checks including weeded and nonweededtreatment). Tunisia, 1971-1972.Bread WheatsBREEDING RESEARCHIn the first phase of CIMMYT involvement in theTunisian program, exotic high-yielding varieties such asInia 66, Tobari 66 and Penjamo 62 were introduced forcommercial production on an expanded scale. Breedingwork was increased and the variety Soltane was releasedin the current season. Its yields appear very promising(see Table W67).Where Septaria is normally of low intensity, the newMexican varieties Cajeme 71 and Yecora 70 showsuperior yields {see Table W68). The Mateur areashowed a high level of Septaria while the other stationswere relatively low in incidence. Under such conditions,Soltane exhibits its superiority over the newer Mexicanvarieties.Although this year was relatively light from adisease standpoint as indicated previously, selection fora high level of resistance is mandatory in the breedingprogram. Diseases which are most important must takeprecedence over those which are likely to cause lessreduction in production.In the current year, 12 microtrials were grown inaddition to CIMMYT's ISWYN and ESYT No.1 andNo.2, and the RWYT supplied from Beirut. Theadvanced yield trials were grown in four locations andthe preliminary yield tests at one location. The superiorperformingselections are in Table W69. All of theseoutstanding lines will be again placed in yield trialsand preliminary multiplication in 1972-73. The bestof these will also be used in demonstrations as apreliminary step to varietal release.Table W69 shows that all lines except HD 1799,CC-Inia "s"-Napo and Potam have acceptable SeptoriDtolerance. In the cross Napo·Tobari "s" x 8156 (Rl.Septaria resistance was outstanding. Several nurserieswere also grown for disease and insect screening. Among80

TABLE W67. Yield of standard wheat varietiesfrom 24 trial sites (Tunisia, 1971-72).VarietiesSoltaneZaafraneTobariAriana 66Florence AuroreInia 66Average yieldq/ha41.6540.9n40.7937.0427.4239.62% of Inia1051031029369100TABLE W68. Yield of some Bluebird lines of wheatat three experimental stations (Tunisia, 1971-72).Avera3eSeptariayiel % of reactionGenotypes q/ha control scale 0·9BEJASTATIONYecora 70 57.03 116Cajeme 71 56.64 115Saric 70 49.91 101Inia (contro)1 49.17 100ARIANA STATIONYecora 70 43.74 117Cajeme 71 46.73 125Soltane (control) 37.22 100MATEUR STATIONYecora 70 41.80 85 7-8Cajeme 71 47.98 97 7Soltane (control) 49.23 100 4·5TABLE W69. Yields and disease reactions of outstandingnew wheat lines in several trials (Tunisia,1971-72).AverageSeptariayield % of reactionGenotypes and pedi!!ress q/ha control scale 0·9CC-Inia 52.45 121 Tab 623528·7m·l t-l m·8y·OmCC·lnia 47.20 1241nia 623528·7m·l t·l m·7y·OmCal· Nt· 67 45.35 120 Tob 527053·7m·2tu·2mbKI.Pet.Raf.8156' 4R.48 107 Tab 427997-4Y·l00m-300YHO 1799 47.88 105 Tab 6·7Napo·Tob"S" x 8156 (R) 48.70 107 Tob 328071·7m·3y-7m·OyCno·N066 41.90 111 Inia 525111-6m·7y-3m.OyNo 66··Cno"S" 49.31 1121nia 525361-5m·3y·OmSon 64 x Tzpp·Y54/CC 49.32 1121nia 522346·39m-l v·2m·l tPV18A·Cno 46.65 1091nia 527893·3y·4m.l y·OmS948A l·Cno"S"2 42.02 981nia 3·4H·160·60a·6y-2m·4y·OmCC·lnia x Inia"S"·Napo 45.03 1191nia 6.7Potam 53.93 1271nia 7Inia (average of 21 trials) 39.62 100 7these the IBWSN and RDISN have proven very usefulsources of new germ plasm.About 350 crosses have been made in the breadwheats in the current year. Yield, quality and resistanceto Septoria and the rusts were central to the formulationof these crosses. The F2 and segregating generationswere grown at Beja. Good Septoria readings werepossible. Many F4 and FS lines were bulked for yieldtests. Selection from crosses shown in Table W70 werethe most promising, combining Septoria resistance withgood yield possibilities.. TABLE W70. Promising wheat genotypes in theTunisian wheat improvement program (Tunisia,1971-72).GenotypesCno"s"2·Tob66 x KI.Pet.Raf - 8156(Rj2Bluebird· Nar"s"Gallo x Cno, . PjJar"s" . Cno"s"CC . Inia"s" x Nar59 . OnCC . Inia"s" x On - Nar"s"Cno"s" . On x CalDurum WheatsTwo durum varieties (Imat 69 and Bedrj) released in1970 have produced grain yields up to 30 to 50 percentmore than the older commercial varieties. Hopefully,40,000 hectares will be sown to these varieties in the1972·73 season. Both of these varieties, however, arefairly tall and lodge with heavy N applications. Tocomplement these, the varietal release committee thisyear released Amal 72 and Maghrebi 72, two semidwarfdurums. Although both show moderate Septoria andmildew tolerance, they are both susceptible to stemrust and leaf rust.Among the 214 lines and varieties tested, those inTable W71 were superior. Unfortunately, they aremostly sus·~eptible to the rusts, Septoria and mildew.The higher·yielding varieties, such as Cocorit and Brant,show excessive grain mottling or yellow belly and arenot favoured because of their inferior quality.In general, Tunisia and other North African countriesneed high-yielding shorter durums with acceptabledisease and quality characteristics. The release of Amal72 and Maghrebi 72 is a temporary measure until betterlines are developed.Varietal TestingCross number30648308573090330906309733097631060Sixteen trails, consisting of 15 to 20 varieties, weregrown on representative dry land sites. Fifteen gavegood data. Comparative performance is shown in TableW72. Lodging reduced yields of Florence Aurore,Bedri 69, Inrat 69 and Roussia. In these on-farm trials,the two Septaria·resistant varieties (Soltane72 andZaafrane) showed good performance, even in the abosence of Septoria. Saric 70 and Cajeme 71 alsoproduced good yields consistently. Fletcher and Erawere included in trials in the coldest areas where theyperformed well in relation to Inia 66, which is handi·capped by restricted tillering under these conditions.Cocorit produced the highest yields among the durums.81

TABLE W71. Ylieds and disease readions of varieties and lines of durum wheats (Tunisia, 1971-721.Disease reactionsAvera3eylel % of Mildew Septoria Stem LeafVarieties or lines q/ha Inrat 69 (0-9) (0-91 rust rustMaghrebi 72 48.23 142 9MS MR 60S 60SCocnrlt 71 47.99 141 9S S 80S 50SRD. 1917= Brant"S" 47.09 139 98 MS 80S 30SBD. 1941 = Coeorit "S" 45.43 134 9S MS 60S 50SAmal 72 ~ Brant "S" 44.87 132 9MS MS 60S 60Sfnrat 1;9 34.00 100 9MR MR 40MR 30SDMx69.159.4A.7A = UM6301·By'.:xTc·II·22252 52.41 139 8S MS 20MS 40MSDMx69.200.1 A.33A = 11?8953 51.78 137 9S MS 20S 30STM.:·Tc'XZB.w/B.Ball x By.:'-Tc = 1128929 48.09 127 9MS MR 40MS 50MSBB-Mahm981 x Kenya33-EC/BD 1419 44.05 117 9MR MS 50S 60SDMx.69.200.1 A.41 A = 1128953 43.97 116 9MS MS 20MS 30MSD67.45.12A.llA= BDf419/pl·Bell 116xTc 2 43.67 116 6MR MS 50S 40STdur·Sph x Mogh Karak (TM.:-Tc 2 x ZB-W)2= 1128957 43.57 115 9MR MS 10MR 5MRD67.51.4A.2A= Mllhm BO 1588 -Inrat 69 42.90 113 9MS MR 10R 10MRInrat 69 (control) 37.80 100 9MR MA 10MR 30STABLE W72.. Average yield, grain test weight andplant height of wheat al1d barley varieties from 16farm demonstrations in northern Tunisia (1971-72),YieldPlantNo. of Test wgt height,Variety Incationll q/ha % Inla kg/hi cmAriana 66 15 35.7 100.9 79.5 113.0FlorenceAurorf! 15 27.3 77.0 79.5 130.0Soltane 7? 15 38.0 107.3 78.8 94.6Zaafrane 15 36.9 104.2 78.5 94.5Utlque 15 34.4 97.1 79.9 90.6Inia 66 15 35.4 100.0 79.6 94.8Tobari 66 15 37.3 105.2 79.4 94.4Penjamo 62 15 37.7 106.6 77.3 97.5Sarle 70 15 39.1 110.4 77.6 74.8Cajeme 71" 15 39.8 112.4 78.1 77.1ErR 5 37.1 109.0 79.1 102.4Fletchp.r 4 30.4 106.0 79.4 97.5Jori 69 1~ 33.9 96.6 79.4 81.9Cocorit 70 1? 38.4 106.5 77.3 68.5Bedri 69 15 30.7 86.8 79.2 96.7Inrat 69 15 31.3 88.5 78.4 110.6Roussi"'. 3 20.9 49.8 77.0 115.3Orge Martin(barley) 8 34.5 114.7 103.7" Released in Tunisia as Vaga 72.These trials serve to measure varietal adaptabilityand to acquaint farmers with their performance. Theyare very useful for both purposes.Barley was tested at the drier sites and performedwell. This crop should continue to be included intrials in these areas.EXTENSION DEMONSTRATIONSA series of varietal x fertilizer demonstrations wereconducted at two levels of N. without any fertilizationand with only P205. Of 38 demonstrations, resultswere obtained from 29. Some of these demonstrationswere grown with bread wheat varieties, some withdurums and others with barley. Marked increaseswere observed for the bread wheats with N addition·­about 45 percent for 90 kg/ha. For the durums, theincrease was about 25 percent for 40 kg/ha with littleincrease at 90 kg/ha. Yield advances were correspond·ingly reduced in the lower rainfall areas.Twenty·nine variety demonstrations were grown,including the varieties Florence Aurore, Utique, Inia 66,Soltane and Tobari 66 as one comparison, and Inrat69 with Mahmoudi as the durum comparison. Twenty·four of these demonstrations were harvested. Eachvariety had two levels of N (0 and 90 kg/hal withadequate phosphorous in the higher rainfall areas ando and 67 kg/ha of N in the drier areas (less than500 mm).Marked yield increases were recorded for the im·proved varieties over those obtained with the FlorenceAurore and Mahmoudi checks at the higher N level. Thedemonstrations have been very successful, revealingthe value of recommendations from project research.ECUADORWheat is a crop of only secondary importance in theoverall economy of Ecuador. The area sown to wheatfluctuated widely, depending upon the prices for potatoesand malting barley. Currently, only about 100,000hectares are grown, and virtually all of the wheat"isconfined to elevations above 3,300 meters. The mostserious disease problems are stripe rust, stem rust andSeptoria.The Santa Catalina Experiment Station of the InstitutoNacional de Investigaciones Agro·Pecuarias (IN lAP)is an ideal location for evaluating wheats' resistance toPuccinia striiformis (stripe rust) and Septoria tritici.Within the past year arrangements have been workedout between INIAP and CIMMYT to intensify work onstripe rust.One step taken is to send part of the CIMMYT F1single crosses to Ecuador for planting at the same timeas an adjacent to the INIAP F1 crosses. At floweringtime CIMMYT will send one staff member to Ecuadorto help make double crosses between the F1 INlAP andF1 CI MMYT single crosses.The progeny from such crosses should combine thehigh stripe rust tolerance and good Septoria triticitolerance of the Ecuadorian lines with the higher yieldpotential and better stem rust resistance of CIMMYT'slines.82

BRAZILBrazilian wheat production has increased spectacularlyin recent years, especially during 1970 and 1971.This renewed interest in wheat production partly stemsindirectly from the rapid expansion of soybean area.Wheat is grown increasingly as the winter crop in asoybean-wheat double cropping rotation.Wheat area is now about 2.3 million hectares and isincreasing. Cultivation has also been intensified. Therehas been a rapid growth in both fertilizer (especiallyphosphate) and lime application on land in the soybeanwheatrotation during the past three years. The 1971wheat harvest reached a record 2 million metric tons.There was hope that the 1972 output would reach 2.5million tons. These goals were, however, unachievable.Unfavourable weather during the 1972 season, includingwidespread late frosts, plus an extremely seve~e epidemicof Septaria spp. reduced the anticipated productionto less than one million tons.The losses and disappointments of the past seasonindicate clearly the need for increasing yield stabilityin Brazilian wheat production, if output is to be bothenhanced and stabilized. Better control of diseases isthe most important factor contributing toward increasedyield stability that can be manipulated by plantbreeders. Have breeders given this aspect of varietalimprovement sufficient emphasis on a worldwide basis?CIMMYT and its predecessor Mexican organizationhave for many years, and especially during the pastthree years, cooperated informally with Brazilian wheatresearch programs. CIMMYT has supplied geneticmaterials, including F2 segregating populations, theInternational Bread Wheat Screening Nursery, and theInternational Spring Wheat Yield Nursery.In the past three years CIMMYT also has assisted byproviding practical training for 12 young Brazilianwheat scientists in breeding, agronomy, plant pathologyand cereal technology. These young scientists nowform a valuable part of the research teams attemptingto cope with the many problems that must be overcomein order to increase and stabilize wheat production inBrazil.A CIMMYT staff member spent most of November1972 visiting the principal wheat production areas andwheat research stations in Brazil to study the scope andmagnitude ot the production problems. The primaryobjective was to determine how the CIMMYT researcheffort might be modified to better assist Brazil insolving its complex production problems.The visit of the CIMMYT staff member coincidedby chance with the height of the most devastatingSeptaria epidemic in Brazil since 1963. The potential1972 wheat harvest was reduced an estimated 40percent by Septaria. Widespread late frosts accountedfor another 20 percent reduction in production.The Severity and Magnitude of the Septoria Problemin Brazil and on an International BasisThe Septaria epidemic of 1972 included both Septariatritici and Septaria nodarum. The latter predominatedat the height of the epidemic and probablycontributed to much of the damage. Many fields werekilled outright, while all of those in the heavier rainfallareas were severp.ly damaged. The 1972 Septaria epidemicin Brazil indicates clearly that this disease--whenecological conditions are favorable--can be as destructiveas a stem rust epidemic at its worst. The currentcommercial Brazilian varieties are, by world standards,considered to be among the most resistant to Septariadiseases. Yet, they were ineffective in controlling thedisease under the conditions that prevailed in 1972.The winter rainfall in much of the area wherewheat is grown in Brazil is near the upper limitconsidered suitable for wheat production. During 1972,however, precipitation was double the long-time average.Moreover, there was essentially a low cloud cover overthe entire area from planting to harvest, which providedoptimum conditions for disease development. .One might question the commercial feasibility ofgrowing wheat in such high-rainfall areas, yet, thereappears to be few alternative choices. Most of the landon which wheat is grown as a winter crop is sown tosoybeans in the summer. The area sown to soybeanshas been expanding rapidly and within the past fouryears Brazil has become the world's third largest soybeanproducer. Much of the soybean area receives1,000 to 1,500 mm of rainfall. Its rolling topographyis vulnerable to erosion if left without cover duringwinter. Since there are frosts during the winter, thecover crop must be frost resistant. Hence, wheat hasbeen the best choice, considering both agronomic andand economic factors.Among the most important and difficult challengesconfronting the Brazilian wheat scientists during thenext decade is the development of high-yielding, diseaseresistantvarieties wh ich wil ~ provide adequate protectionagainst losses from the three rusts, scab and Septariain an environment that highly favors epidemics of thesediseases.Achieving this objective will require breeding varietieswith both a broader and higher level of diseaseresistance--against the wide array of pathogens--than iscurrently available in commercial varieties anywhere inthe world. Moreover, the improved disease resrstancemust be attained while maintaining or improving theresistance of present commercial wheat varieties toboth extreme soil acidity and aluminum toxicity.Within the past six years CIMMYT scientists haveobserved equally destructive, but generally more localized,'epidemics of Septaria in Argentina, Morocco,Tunisia, Algeria, Turkey and Guatemala. There haY,ea1so been reports of similar outbreaks from Ethiopiaand Kenya. The magnitude and widespread distributionof these epidemics indicated the need for establishingan agressive worldwide cooperative research programto "tame" this disease.CIMMYT, with the assistance of ALAD, in 1971initiated an International Septoria Observation Nursery(ISEPTON). This nursery has been sent to collaboratorsin all countries where Septaria is an important problem.The nursery includes all varieties and lines reportedtolerant to Septaria throughout the world. Diseasereactions will be recorded. Such data should helpbreeding programs develop varieties with better resistance.The preliminary data, after two years of testing,indicate that although no single line or variety has beenfound that is highly resistant to Septaria under severeepidemic conditions, several lines have been identifiedwith useful levels of tolerance.The best of the lines, based on their reactions indiverse geographical areas of the world, have beenwidely crossed into the CIMMYT gene pool within thepast two years and segregating populations from thesecrosses have been distributed for selection under epidemicconditions where this disease is a serious problem.Two locations have been identified in Mexico where,with proper inoculation techniques, epidemics of Septariacan be developed for identifying lines with usefultolerance to the disease.83

Hopefully, by identifying lines with tolerance toSeptoria in different areas of the world, intercrossingthese types and growing the segregates under conditionswhere epidemics occur with a certain regularity, genesfor resistance can be pyramided to provide betterresistance than that present in commercial wheat varieties.There is only very limited basic information availableon the variation ii1 pathogenicity of the Septoria pathogens.Moreover, virtually nothing is known about thestability of resistance, "longevity" of resistance, ortolerance in varieties under commercial production.Despite the limitations imposed by the lack of basicinformation on the variability· in the pathogen, muchprogress can be made to improve varietal diseaseresistance to Septoria by the aforementioned cooperativeworldwide approach.Extreme Soil Acidity and Aluminum ToxicityMuch of Brazil's wheat is grown in high-rainfallareas where the soils are intensively leached. Thesesoils are extremely acid (pH = 4.3 to 4.5) and havehigh concentrations of soluble aluminum. They are alsoextremely low in available phosphate.The majority of the Brazilian commercial wheatvarieties are tolerant or resistant to extreme soil acidityand aluminum toxicity. Among the best are: Cincuentenario,Cotipora, C48, Horta, Lagoa Vermelha, Toropi,and many lines and varieties from Instituto Agronomicodo SuI (ic IAS-20), Pelotas, Passo Fundo and "S" lines.Few foreign wheats, however, have any usable levelof resistance to these very severe soil conditions.Among the few introduced varieties with good resistanceare: Amazonas from Ecuador, Benvenuto Inca, Benve·nuto Pampa and Klein Lucero, all three from Argentina,and Cajeme 71 from Mexico.Before CIMMYT's wheat gene pool can be veryuseful to Brazil, it must be modified to incorporategreater frequency of genes for resistance to soil acidityand aluminum toxicity. Since there are no soils inMexico to screen the breeding material for tolerance toextreme soil acidity and high levels of soluble aluminum,artificial methods are being introduced.Laboratory methods developed by Dr. D. P. Moore atOregon State University involving exposure of roots ofyoung seedlings to different levels of buffered solutionsof soluble aluminum will be employed. All progenitorsa-nd all Iines entering the yield tests and screeningnursery will be tested this way. It is believed that byemploying such a screening technique, followed bychecking the reaction of the same materials under fieldconditions in Brazil over several years, that the CIMMYTgene pool can be modified to provide a high proportionof segregates. with resistance to alum inum toxicity.Developing Triticales for BrazilVery little research has been done on triticales inBrazil. A few lines were grown at Passo Fundo, R.G.S.,during 1972. Under the severe Septoria epidemic, thetriticale lines showed considerable more resistance tothis disease than the best wheat lines and varieties.There is also some fragmentary evidence that sometriticales may be resistant to aluminum toxicity.On the basis of these very preliminary but positiveobservations, more detailed research appears to beindicated to explore the feasibility of using triticales asan alternative food grain crop in areas of high aluminumtoxicity and high Septoria hazard.84ARGENTINAIn 1972 5.6 million hectares were sown to wheat.Other winter cereals included: 2.3 million hectares ofrye, 1.2 million hectares of oats and 565,000 hectares ofbarley. Moisture conditions during the growing seasonwere very favorable across the cereal production area.Diseases were minimal throughout the country and hadlittle or no effect on yield. The most conspicuouswheat diseases were those caused by Septoria tritici andSeptoria nodorum on early plantings of some varieties,but they had little effect on yield. Local late infestationsof armyworms in western and southern BuenosAires threatened the crop, but they were controlled bytimely aerial application of insecticides.The greatest and only important yield reduction wascaused by several late widespread frosts during thefirst week of October when the plants were flowering orin early stages of grain development. The damage wasgreatest--sometimes resulting in a complete loss--in earlyplantings in the provinces of Chaco, Santa Fe and EntreRios. Individual florets or entire spikelets also weresterile on many heads in numerous fields in northernBuenos Aires. Despite this damage, yields thorughoutmost of the wheat producing areas of Argentina wereunusually high. Most farmers were unaware of thereduced yield potential caused by the sterility ofindividual florets, since despite this they harvestedexcellent crops.The 1972-73 wheat harvest is estimated at 8.5million metric tons, representing a national average yieldof 1,520 kg/ha based on planted area. This good wheatharvest was opportune for both Argentina and SouthAmerica, considering the poor wheat crops in theneighboring countries of Brazil, Paraguay and Chile.The INTA-CIMMYT CooperativeWheat Improvement ProgramCIMMYT has informally cooperated since 1963 withthe Instituto Nacional de Tecnologia Agropecuaria(INTA) in developing a national wheat research programinvolving breeding, agronomy, pathology and cerealtechnology.Varietal ImprovementThe first two new varieties developed by the CoordinatedNational Wheat Breeding Program of INTA, whichwas initiated in 1963, were named and approved forrelease by the Official Varietal Release Committeeduring 1972. These are: (1) Marcos Juarez INTA,derived from the cross Sonora 64 x Klein Rendidor(19975-68Y-1J-6Y-1J-4Y-1J-OB), and (2) Precoz ParanaINTA, derived from the cross Sonora 64A x Knott 2(18893-11 P-5P-1 P-1 B-OJ).The former variety was developed at the MarcosJuarez INTA Research Center and the latter at theParana INTA Research Center.These are the first two semidwarf wheat varietiesapproved for distribution in Argentina. Both varietiesare widely adapted, and when sown at the proper datethey can be grown successfully over a wide range of theArgentine wheat belt. During the three years theyhave been under test on experiment stations, they haveconsistently outyielded all of the commercial varieties,generally by 20 to 50 percent. Both varieties are 5 to 7days earlier in maturity than the extensively grownvarieties Klein Atlas and Buck Manantial.

Both varieties are resistant to lodging with high soilfertility. They respond much more favorably to theapplication of chemical fertilizer than do the currentcommercial varieties, and their superiority in grain yieldover the later varieties widens as the soil fertility levelincreases until soil moisture becomes the main factorlimiting yield.Both of the new varieties are relatively insensitive tochanges in length of day. Hence, they can be sownsuccessfully as late as mid-July--a month later than thewidely cultivated commercial varieties Klein Atlas andBuck Manantial--in northern Buenos Aires, Cordoba,Santa Fe and Entre Rios. In southern Buenos Aires theycan be sown successfu lIy as late as August 10. There isconsiderable evidence, based upon research by Pedro!\Iovello, that the ability of these varieties to yield wellfrom late plantings (when sown on properly fertilizedland where soil moisture has been conserved by goodfallow practices), may be one of their principal positiveattributes.Normally, most of the wheat crop in the principalwheat growing areas of Cordoba, Santa Fe and northernBuenos Aires is sown during the last 10 days of Mayand first half of June, when soil moisture is generallyadequate. The second half of June, July and the firsthalf of August are nearly always dry and cold. Springrains normally begin during the second half of August.Consequently, the present late-maturing commercialvarieties make much of their vegetative growth duringthe driest part of the winter when there is frequentlya shortage of moisture. If the early maturing newvarieties can be sown into moist soil in mid-July withsufficient stored subsoil moisture to support theirnormal development without drought stress until mid­August, they will tend to escape the drought becausethey will be in the seedling stage with minimumtranspiration demands during the driest part of thewinter. This does not imply that late-maturing varietiesfor early sowing are no longer needed, but ratherit indicates the potential value of more flexibile wheatproduction by introducing new, early maturing, highyieldingvarieties adapted to late plantings on goodfallows, or following summer crops of corn and soybeansin the better rainfall areas. To effectively exploitthe genetic yield potential of these varieties, they mustbe adequately fertilized at planting. At the same time,fertilizer application must be adjusted to the amountof stored soil moisture.Marcos Juarez INTA and Precoz Parana INTA represent,the first two varieties developed by the CoordinatedNational Wheat Breeding Program of INTA. Otherbetter varieties will soon follow. Currently, many verypromising lines and crosses are in various stages ofyield testing (Table W73).During the 1972 crop cycle, 248 advanced generationlines from the Cooperative National Breeding Programwere evaluated in yield tests in Marcos Juarez. Theselines represented the outstanding selections isolatedfrom several thousand crosses made in Argentina andMexico and selected under Argentina conditions. Thecrosses involved several hundred different parentalvarieties and lines. Despite the great diversity ofparental types employed, five varieties have contributeddisproportionately to the success of the lines reachingthe yield test stage of evaluation. These include theArgentine varieties Tezanos Pinto Precoz and KleinRendidor, and the Mexican varieties Sonora 64, Nainari60 and Ciano 66.Sonora 64 entered either directly or.indirectly intopedigrees in 240 of the 248 lines undergoing yieldtests, Tezanos Pinto Precoz in 184 of the 248, Ciano66 in 118 of the 248, and Klein Rendidor in 55 of theTABLE W73. Most promising bread wheat lines in the Argentine wheat breeding program (1971-72).CrossPedigreeSonora 64 x Jezanos Pinto Precoz-Nainari 60"Sonora 64 x 'rezanos Pinto Precoz-Nainari 60Jaral"S" - Nariiio 59Jaral"S" - Nariiio 59N081 . Tezanos Pinto PrecozK. Petiso·Rafaela x K. Rendidor·Mayo Sonora 64Cheg285-Gaboto x Jaral"S"Cheg285-Gaboto x Jaral"S"Cheg285-Gaboto x Jaral"S"(Sonora 64A x K. Rendidor) x BbJaral"S" x Purdl'e-Sonora 64Jaral"S" _ ChrisCiano· Jaral"S"Ciano' Jaral"S"Ciano' Jaral"S"Ciano· Jaral"S"Jaral"S" . CianoJaral"S" • CianoJaral"S" - CianoJaral"S" - CianoJaral"S" x Sonora 64-K. RendidorJaral"S" x Sonora 64-K. RendidorBb x Tezanos Pinto Precoz-Sonora 64 2Bb x Tezanos Pinto Precoz-Sonora 64 2Bb x Tezanos Pinto Precoz·Sonora 64 2II 18889-3M-l OOY-1 00C-2J·4B-OY.II lBBB9-101M-1R-3C-1T.2B·OJ.II 21872-9T-2B-31-2B.II 21872-9T-3B-l P-l B-OP.MJ60·4T.l B-3J-2B-OJ.HM 1130-3P·l B-3J.l B.H856·30J-2J-3B-l J-OB.H856-23J-l J-l B·OJ.H856.23J-2J·4B-l J-OB.II 26502-34B-2B-l00B-OJ.II 24217-10B-12J·2B-1J-1B-OJ.II 24441-1 J-4B-l J·l B.OJ.II 25007-3J-4 B-3J-l B·OJ.II 251 09-16J·6B-l J-7B·OJ.II 25109.11J·3B-2J-38-0J.II 25109-32J-l B-1J-4B-OJ.MJ-687-2J-l B-201J-204J·201B-OJ.MJ-687-2J.1B-201J-204J-204B·OJ.MJ-6B7-2J-1B-201J-204J·205J·OJ.MJ-687·2J·1B·201 J-202B-OJ.MJ·752-1 J·205J-203B-202B-O.l.MJ-752"-1 J-205J.203B-204B-OJ.II 27345'·-5J-203J-202J-OJ.II 27345'··5J-201J·207J·OJ.II 27345'··5J-202J·202J.OJ." A "sib" of the Mexican variety Jaral.h There are also many other excellent sister selections of this cross.,. There are also many other excellent sister selections of this cross.85

248. Two newer parental lines and varieties that arecurrently contributing outstandingly to the success ofthe lines under yield tests are: (1) Jaral "S", whichoccurs in the pedigree of 143 of the 248 lines under testand (2) Marcos Juarez INTA, which entered into 53of the 248 lines under yield test. These two lines arecurrently being employed widely as parents in newcrosses in both the INTA-Argentine and the CIMMYT­Mexican programs. Both varieties are good combiners.Both are relatively resistant to "forced ripening" (laying-off)or arrebatimento. Both carry a good level ofresistance to the rusts and a degree of tolerance toSeptaria and scab (Giberella). These two lines andseveral of their sisters are being used widely in thebreeding programs of Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco.The two recently named Tunisian varieties, Soltaneand Zaafrane, are sister selections from the same crossthat produced Marcos Juarez INTA.Durum Varietal ImprovementA few crosses were made by Alberto Chabrillon inMexico in 1961 between several of the dwarf Mexicandurum lines and several tall Argentine durum varieties,including Candeal Buck Balcarce and Candeal BuckTagenrog. These crosses were taken back to Paranawhere they were subsequently backcrossed twice to theArgentine parents.Although the number of lines selected from thismaterial was limited, several of the most promising oneshave been included in yield tests in both Argentina andin the International Durum Screening Program duringthe past year.One semidwarf line from the cross Buck Barcarce3 xBarrigon Yaqui Dwarf2 - Tehuacan, designated Parana66/270, has been outstanding in Argentina, Mexico,Tunisia and Algeria. It combines high grain yield withgood grain quality and is resistant to the three rustsand Septaria. Under Argentine conditions it hasconsistently outyielded the commercial durum varietiesby 30 to 50 percent when adequately fertilized.Inadequate facil ities in Argentina for evaluating themacaroni-making and cooking quality of the durumbreeding materials has delayed the release of thisvariety. Steps are now being taken by INTA toestablish. adequate facilities for evaluating durum quality.Provisions have been tentatively made by CIMMYT toobtain several hundred kilograms of Parana 66/270 seedfrom INTA to begin a seed increase program in Tunisiaand Algeria.During the past three years the INTA durum breedinqprogram has been greatly expanded. Currently, manyF2 segregating populations, the International DurumScreening Nursery and the International Durum YieldNursery are sent annually by CIMMYT. These materialsare being grown in the experimental stations at Balcarceand Barrows, both of which are located in the principaldurum producing area. Since many races of each of thethree rusts have evolved and persist on the commercialdurum varieties in Argentina, there is a great advantagefrom selecting rust-resistant lines in Argentina instead ofin a country such as Mexico. In Mexico, littlecommercial durum wheat is grown. Consequently, thespectrum of pathogenecity of the rust pathogens islimited. Selections of durum wheat lines made inArgentina are likely to be of value in North Africa andvice versa.Excellent progress is currently being made in breadand durum varietal improvement in both the public86(INTA) and the private sectors (Criadero Buck,C~iaderoKlein, DeKalb de Argentina, Northrup-King de Argentinaand Cargill). CIMMYT, at the suggestion ofINTA, has provided segregating populations of bothbread and durum wheats to the aforementioned privatebreeding programs. The combined magnitude and scopeof the public and private sectors breeding programsmakes the present Argentine varietal improvement effortone of the largest and most dynamic in the world. Itwill assure a continuous flow of new varieties to meetthe changing demands of the Argentine farmers. Moretrained scientists are needed, however, to improve theefficiency of these programs.A Breakthrough in Argentine Wheat ProductionOver the past 10 years a vast amount of agronomicresearch has been conducted on farms in order todevelop information for implementing an effectivepackage of improved cultural practices, for example,efficient conservation of moisture, proper fertilization,proper rates and dates of sowing, and effective controlof weeds and insects, in order to raise yields andproduction. Data available indicate that it is possibleto greatly increase both yields and production. Beforethe new technology can be put into action, howev.er, achange will be needed in government policy to assurethe farmer an adequate supply of reasonably pricedfertilizer and a reasonable- price for his grain. If suchpolicy is adopted, implemented and sustained, Argentinawheat production can be increased 50 percent withinthe next five years. The need for such action isself-evident since Argentina is the only important SouthAmerican wheat exporting nation. In all of the otherSouth American countries there is a widening gapbetween wheat consumption and wheat production.

APPENDIX TO THE WHEAT REPORTTABLE W74. Wheat genotypes with superior resistance to Septaria tritici selected from the Second RegionalDisease and Insect Nursery (entries showed a reaction of 5 or less (based on the 0-9 scale) in 1971-72).Variety or cross Origin Pedigree80n64 - KI.Rend.Pato - CianoTob66-Bomen x Tob"s"-Nap063Calidad ACarazinhoGabotoBuck Manantial(Ciano"s" - Y50) (TT-Son64 x Chris) x 1 CerrosKenya-Etoile de Choisy BNajahChrisSelkirkFlevinaHeines VIIManellaTadornaCleoFelixFlamingoOrcaOpalJufy I94601 **Svenno (A-11854)NS-314NS-118HarukihariDimitrowkaKI.Pet_Son64(Cj x 36896-Gb54/Gb56-11-53-526)KI.PetSon64 x KI.Pet-RafKI.Pet-Son64 x 8156(R)Cap-Desp/Y54A-Nl0-B-1C x Kt54B(Nar59-DRP x 8156­Pj62)Cap-Desp/Y54A-N10-B-1C x Kt54B(Nar59-DRP/Son64 xTzPP-Y54)My54 x N10_B/P4160-DRP-My54DRP(Fn-K58 x Nl0-B/Gb55) /Son64 x TzPP-Y54DRP(Fn-K58 x N10-B/Gb55) /Nai60(Yt54a' x N10-B/Kt54)Pj-Gb x TzPP-Knt # 2(Yt54a 2 x N10-B/Kt54)Pencreav-MendosPi62-11-53-526 x Son64/LR64A x TzPP-AnECtf x LR64 2 - Son64Cheyene-Ommid x Sk·Omd80n64 - KI.RendMB - SR(1819 x GII/K804-2E95)BzaKarniaja 1?ArezuJaafariPi62-Rq66"s" x (Pj"s"-Gb x TzPP-Knt #2)200H-Vlf x RSH2Pembina x 11-52-3293 x 11-53-388PT2 x RFOmmidKt54-Nl0B_21-1C x Kt54/Nar59-DRP etcK58-N2 x Hope 2 x Th 3 x Chynee 4 etcF89/63 RomaniaF.A x Th-MT/OMD908 x FNA 12K340-S x Mt-Gb/K340-FrTh-RL2265 x RD2/RL2105KharkofPawneePoncaShawneeParkerNB 68435NB 68513SenecaKnox 62ArthurA513A13-12-1-6-6-45532D6-1-16028A2_5-95612A1-1-1-1-2-4115124B3-5P-8-2ArgentinaMexicoMexicoMexicoBrazilArgentinaBrazilTunisiaIsraelU.S.A.CanadaSwedenGermanyGermanyEnglandSwedenYugoslaviaYugoslaviaJapanPolandIranIranIranIranIranIranIranIranIranIranIranIranArgentinaU.S.S.R.IranRhodesiaU.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A.19915-68y-lj-6y-2j-l 0ge28258-300Y-301 M31321-12e-Oy11-30608-100LMl121-1-49-126Ml122-1-49-132Ml123-1-49-135Ml169-1-49-164Mll10-1-49-161M1111-1-49-168M1115-1-49-110Ml116-1-49-111Ml119-1-49-114M1181-1-49-116M 1191-1-49-188M1381-1-49-2591-133019915-68Y-1 J-l B-1 OJLM12-14-5111-80411-48-2421-45-146991-46-225331-48-381-32-4381-32-1311RhodesiaKansasKansasKansasKansasKansasNebraskaNebraskaOhioIndianaIndianaIndianaIndianaIndianaIndianaIndiana1-45-213641-45-2420488

TABLE W74.(continued)Variety or crossOriginPedigreeSenecaA5132Blueboy(Luisit-E.de Ch. x Mara/Sl) Campodoro(Luisit-E.de Ch. x Mara/Sl) CampodoroLobeiroAmarelejoCI.7800 x Bza(KI. 33/BT x Y·E)Fr 3Md/ME-E/T )/ Elza 3S.211-K.324/Y.48 x Fr(RL.2265-Red x Y-ME2/S)Fr2Kt.54 x Fr-FnIYM~. G x BzaAxminster x ChanceliorBUlka x Chancellor 8Asosan x Chancellor 8Chul x ChancellorSSonora x Chancellor"Khapli x Chancellor"Michigan Amber x Chancellor 8Knox R?ArthurGormany,1956 MIWise Sel.0224/52 GermanyNormandie Argentina 1949Axminster CanadaHopeNorkaAs I i I"orwayAsosan Japan 1946PO KenyaNapo x TzPP-Son64/8156RNaoo63 x TzPP-Son64/8156RiF~~ 28 x 293)885KelJya 4983 A.I.D.3.A.Kenya 4471 E8E2CPI 293004(Illinois 1 . Chinesep x T.timopheevi/ldead 2Kenya 4970 L.l0.B.1.D.(K. 1016 P.2. x Idaho 1877NR.AH)PI.297024 (Kenya)Herbrard Sel/(Wis 245 x Sup51) x (Fr-Fn/Y)2.AFKN(17)-184 P2AIF x (Wis 245 x Sup51-(Fr-Fn/Y]?A)PI 29300 (U.K.)Kt-Fn x My48RomanyKenya 4970 L.l0.P.5.D.Kenya 4970 L.10A5.C.Kenya 4958 A.2.H.1.B.Kt48 x (M.Es.·S\Ip-Gb)/CI 12632Africa Mayo 48/(Wls 245 x (Fr-Fn/y)2.BCrespo 63Herbrard Sell(Wis 245 x Sup51) x (Fr-Fn/y)2.A150 x [Fr-KAD/Gbj2/14239Menco/(Wis 245 x Sup51) x (Fr-Fn/YJ2.AMenco x (Illinois 1 x ChineseP x T.timo x Idead 2Salamouni seafoam Pl06.19S Ec . 28lassul ?OK4539-L30E4K 4496 L. 5A. 2PI 297024 (K]K 4328 D. lA. 2K 4471 E. BE. 2CK 4970 L. 10A. 5CKenya Kanqa = Menco x (Wis 245-Sup51) x (Fr-Fn/YJ2A(Africa Mayo-Wis 245·Sup51-Frocor-Frontana·Yaqui)Hebrard Sel. x /Wis 245 x Sup51 x (Fr.Fn/YJ2ARomany x C.1. 8154 x Fr 2Romany x Gabo-Gamenya I.A.2.C.Romany l( Mfmtor I.B.2.A.Romanyl( Mentor I.B.8.B.Romany x Wis 245·Sup51 (Fr_Fn/Y)2ACI·5Line BI inA GU.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A.MexicoMexicoKenyaKenyaU.S.A.KenyaKenyaKenyaKenyaColombiaKenyaKenyaKenyaEcuadorBrazilKenyaKenyaKenyaKenyaKenyaKenyaKenyaAustraliaAustraliaOhioMichiganNorth CarolinaVl·l003-1 b-2t·l B11-12726·9n-1 e-1 e-1 e·1 EVI-89-2·2-22b·3T111-1 00-12n-l e-2E12079-8b-3t-l B11-13747-2n-5e-l e-l EVI-27-1 b-2t-3b·2T28017-7m-3y-Om28071-7m-3v-4m-OyIdaho 1877 NR.BJKenya 4328 D.I.A.2Kenya 4500 L.IAI.A. Sel.Kenya 4573 L.3.D.2Kenya 4135 H.3.D.5Kenya 4500 L.6A43t-1 b-1t-2bKenya 4496 L.5A2Kenya 4497 l.14.B.1.4527·14500-26078-16295-4A6296-76296-96297·2gene Sr5gene Sr7a89

TABLE W74. {continuedlVariety or crossOriginPedigreeLine 0Line FLine SLine ARenown SelectionLine AC .FestiguayGolden BallVernstelnE.541SambtaliaMida. MeM. ExchangeYansek BonzaSelection 1131KhapstelnRobinPugsley's 3-geneNo. 43ChrisSelkirkKenya FarmerPembinaVeranopolisEraWaldronYumaLeedsWellsLangdonLine ULine VHoppsIRN 63.22IRN 63.25LeeIRN 63.409W.R.T. x PembinaW.R.T. x Thatcher8704·20IRN 66.331IRN 68.119Line WLine XLine YGolden Sail DerivativeSarleta BenvenutoW 2691MarquisChinese SpringExcelsior·FavrltManellaJubilarDemar 4Yaktay 406BolalL1kafenGaliafenVictor IIINB 68435Dwarf BezostaiaNB 68510NB 68570NE 701134NE 701136NE 701137SlueboyNE 701139NE 701152NE 701154NE 701147NE 701124Jo-03045Jo-03021Jo-03057NlsuAtlas 66AustraliaAustraliaAustraliaAustraliaAustraliaU.S.A.CanadaKenyaU.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A.RumaniaRumaniaNetherlandsW. GermanyItalyTurkeyTurkeyChileChileItalyU.S.A.U.S.S.R.U.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A.FinlandFinlandFinlandFinlandU.S.A.gene Sr9bgene Sr10gene Sr14gene Sr17Srdlvdifferential in Indiagenes Sr6 and Sr9bgenes Sr7a Sr13 Sr14genes Sr9b and Sr11genes Sr6 Sr9b Sr11genes Sr6 plusgenes Sr6 plusgenes Sr7a Sr9b Sr10 Sr11 plusgenes Sr6 plusApropyron line, genes Sr5 andothersTranslocation line, genes Sr6 Sr7aSr8 and maybe Sr5indication of nonspecific resistanceSr5 Sr6 Sr8 Sr9b Sr17 plusWheat x Rye translocationWheat x RyeMexico 120 x with an unnamedAustralian hybridcomplex cross from Minnesotagene from Timopheevi not Sr Ttgene Sr LI derivedgene Sr12cross Little Club x Gabo 3Sut/4iOv/2!Tm/3/Mgl/Orox CharterWrr/2/At166/Cmn/3/LancerC.I. l2548/2/At166/Cmn/3 LancerSel.At166/Cmn/LancerAt166/Cmn/LancerAt166/Cmn/LancerAt166/Cmn/LancerWrr/2/At166/Cmn/3/LancerWrr/2/At166/Cmn/3/LancerWrr/2/At166/Cmn/3/LancerAt166/Cmn'Lancer...90

TABLE W74.(continued)Variety or crossOriginPedigreeProbstdorfer ExtremNB 68513 (C.I.15074)JyvaVakkaStarkeSackaClarionDaciaMaris NimrodRoussalkaC&l'IboDiplomatMoldovaN3-11-33NS·12-60SavsS fe-2ftK:J" x E. de Ch.Nar59 2 x 1088-Kt x(Fr-FnIY)Ec 588Kt/Bg·Fn/U x Bza Ec 432Horizon Bt 2322Athys BT 2323Parker Ci 13285Shawnee CI 14157Ottawa CI 12804Pawnee CI 11669RexMaison VilmorinArdentGerminal[(Fr-K58-N x N.,108)Gb55] (Son64 x TzPP2-An64)TzPP-100Y x 12300Scout 66 69N8FSSSturdy 69T x FSSBenhurBT2121 x BB·Mah981 [BT 2447)B2121/K17 x Kta-Y(BT 2443)82121/K17 x Kta-Y(BT 2445)TP 114/207-208Arthur 2 x 7CArthur 2 x 7CBenhur "S" x LR64-Arthur typeSpartaStrampelllL1bellula1148-35 x Nad63PolkAnlversarioBowiePembina' x Magnif enterrianoFronthach. PI 29701411-55-10(Pembina-II-52-329/11-53-388-111-58-411-55-10(Pembina-11·52-329/11-53-388-111-58-411-55-10(Pemblna-11-52·329/11-53-388-111·58-411-55-10(Pemblna-"·52-329/'1·53·388·,,'-58-411·55-10(Pembina-11·52·329/11-53-388-111·58-4WellsLeedsRanJaja 2Kaukaz4 • 11CampodoroLibellulaAuroraLucenaCapitole Vilmorin(Fee. 28 x 293)888-2220 - 39093/44T54-01-25-3·7 x Black Hawk/Melez 13Yaktoy (406)Marim p~FuroreTtoile de ChOisy 28MRrll80lalAtlas 66107Tevere220/3'1AustriaU.S.A.FinlandFinlandSwedenYugoslaviaNetherlandsRumaniaEnglandBulgariaW. GermanyW. GermanyRumaniaYugoslaviaYugoslaviaYugoslaviaU.S.A.U.S.A.CanadaU.S.A.ItalvU.S.A.ItalyRL 4219U.S.A. PI 29941911-53) U.S.A. 546-11-62-24x 11-53) U.S.A. 546-11·62-1x 11·53) U.S.A. 546-11-62-49x 11-53) U.S.A. 546-11-62-51x 11-53) U.S.A. 546-11-62·56U.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.S.R.ItalyItalyU.S.S.R.TurkeyItalyFranceItalyTurkeyU.S.A.Italy11·18979-1e-1801e-1 EVI-15-22t-21>-1 t·1 1>-1 t-l 811-21375-2M·3R-3C-2R21292-4M-1T-l M-1TT64·208T64-2-fT64·2-r-67129E1-3-6H-67129E5-70M-6646A5·17M .64-24·9-1 A-I01 A·l A91

MAIZEPage93 Breeding102 Quality-Protein Breeding112116118121123125126127129130132134135136Agronomy and PhysiologyInsect ControlMaize Educational ProgramGerm Plasm BankInternational Maize TrialsSorghumOutreach ActivitiesZaireEgyptPakistanColombiaNepalPhilippinesThailandInter-Asian Corn Improvement ProgramINTRODUCTIONMaize continues to be the world's third rankingfood crop, after wheat and rice.The world has regarded maize as a Latin Americanfood, because that is where it was found by Spanishexplorers almost 500 years ago. Yet there are fivecountries in Asia (I nd ia, Indonesia, The Philippines,Thailand and Turkey) individually producing betweenone million and seven million tons of maize annually.Another five countries in Africa (Egypt, Kenya, Malawi,Nigeria and South Africa) each produce over a milliontons of maize a year. And of course, maize continues tobe the principal food crop in most countries of Centraland South America.There are 51 countries in Asia, Africa, and LatinAmerica, each producing over 100,000 hectares ofmaize. Most of this maize is eaten directly by humans.Over half these countries had average maize yields in1971 of one metric ton per hectare or less, which isvery little different from the traditional yield of theentire world before the development of TwentiethCentury technology.If maize yields are now to be raised at a rateat least equal to population growth, each of these 51countries requires the capability to conduct appliedmaize research under local conditions· and to deliverthis local technology to farmers through a staff ofagricultural officers trained in maize production.It is the judgment of CIMMYT maize scientists thateveryone of these countries should double its maizeyields over the next 10 years if the necessary resourcesare applied and if the necessary staff is trained.92

CIMMYT maize staff have identified five key limitationswhich obstruct production in most maize-producingareas, especially in the tropics. These are:1. Plant height is generally too tall, which causessome plants to lodge (fall over) before harvest.2. Diseases and insects cause much damage in thetropics where the absence of a cold season permitscontinuous multiplication of pathogens and predators.Breeders must incorporate resistance to diseases andinsects genetically.3. Varieties must become more widely adapted toenable them to withstand greater variations in temperature,moisture, and day length.4. A better system of production management isneeded for each country. This means that recommendationsto farmers on time of seeding, plant population,fertilizer practices and weed control must be developedlocally to fit the farmers' conditions.5. More qualified personnel must be trained forthe national program. Competent persons are neededto test under local conditions the wide range ofgenetic materials now available from Mexico and elsewhere,and to demonstrate the improved practices tofarmers.CIMMYT is working on all five of these Iimitation~..,Protein quality is a very important aspect of theCIMMYT maize program, but questions of proteinquality (for example, the percentage of lysine in thetotal protein) do not limit production. Protein qualityis an additive element which CIMMYT is attempting tointroduce into all improved maize lines in its researchprogram.CIMMYT's breeding strategy for better maize forthe tropics is based upon several principles which aresubstantially different from those applied in advancedagricultural nations of the temperate zone.Historically, maize offered greater variability ofgerm plasm than any other cereal. In preh istoric timesthe plant moved from the hottest tropical seashores ofAmerica up to the coldest mountain tops.Wherever maize competed with weeds, the successfulplants became taller and later in maturity (longergrowing season). Wherever early man selected his seedcorn from the largest and best-looking ears, these seedstended to produce still taller and often later maturing'plants.By natural selection, also, each indigenuous variety ofmaize became resistant to local diseases and insects andcompeted well with weeds; but for the reasons stated,the plant was very tall, often late in maturity, and theyield was low.Today there is still ample variability in the maizeseed bank to enable breeders to change all thesecharacteristics; but the centuries of selection have madeeach variety location-specific (that is, adapted only toits local environment). It is difficult to combine thedesirable characteristics of two local varieties only 10miles apart when the elevation and temperatures aremarkedly different.In North America, corn breeders accepted this narrowadaptation, and developed varieties best suited to eachmicrocl imate.At CIMMYT, the opposite philosophy is followed,and the breeders are attempting to achieve maximumadaptability in the plant in order to combine all the besteconomic characteristics that are needed to make aplant (1) short in stature, (2) disease and insectresistant, (3) widely adapted to differences in temperatureand moisture, and (4) high yielding.In pursuing these goals, CIMMYT researchers andtheir collaborators evolved another strategy wh ich isnot widely used in maize research in the temperatezone. Each year CIMMYT sends its experimental maizematerials to more than 300 collaborating scientists inover 40 countries, and the materials are tested underwidely differing day lengths, temperatures, elevations,and moisture conditions. CIMMYT believes that in asingle year's trials under this system, the breeder obtainsinformation which would take him 50 or 100 years toobtain if he confined his research to a single researchstation in a single microclimate.Where this breeding strategy is leading and theprogress it produced in 1972 is related in this report.BREEDINGIn 1968 CIMMYT decided that major increases inyield could not be obtained in the tropics and subtropicsunless a way was found to shorten plant height toavoid lodging and permit higher plant populations. Aprogram of recurrent selection for plant height and theuse of the recessive brachytic-2 gene was initiated in apopulation called Tuxpeno Crema I. Reducing plantheight by recurrent selection was so successful thatCIMMYT has begun to apply this technique to all ofthe populations in its maize improvement program.Selection for Shorter PlantsRecurrent full-sib selection within bmad-based populationshas proven to be an effective and relativelyrapid means of reducing plant height. Drastic heightreduction has been achieved, and crosses of shortenedtypes with tall materials has resulted in intermediateheight F1 plants. Several such combinations have beenmade and look very promising for commercial use.Present height of the more advanc~d selection arecomparable to a brachytic-2 version of the samematerial.Many full-sib family rows are used to represent apopulation, and selection is done among and withinfamilies with the family performance as the principalcriterion of selection.The entire nursery is inoculated with pathogens ofstalk rots and ear rots, and insecticide is applied totwo meters of each row adjacent to the wide alleys(Fig. 1).3 m. olleyTREATED IuIN 1 T I RIEIA'rIEIDII I I I1III1, m. all.yu l NIT I RIEIAIT'EIDII I I I-I I I I ITREATED I3m.olle!FIG. 1. An outline of a procedure to include resistanceto insects as part of the selection criteria in the nursery.The insects and pathogens considered are: budworm(Spodoptera frugiperda); stem borer (Diatraea saccharalis);earworm (Heliothis zeal; leaf diseases (Helminthosporiumturcicum, H. maidis, Puccinia polysora, and93

Phy/lachora maidis); corn stunt; ear rots (Fusariumspp., and Oiplodia sPp.); and stal rots (Fusariumspp., Cephalosporium acffJmonium and Macrophominaphaseoli).Selection has been conducted under heavy naturalincidence. Forty percent of the plants in a givenprog~ny row are protected with granular insecticidesand the rest left unprotected (see photograph). Theleast damaged are visually identified to be progeniesused for the following cycle of selection. This simpleprocedure should permit a gradual accumulation ofgenes for resistance and/or tolerance. Studies are beingconducted to determine the best techniques for artificialinfestations in order to increase selection pressure forresistance.Reactions of newly produced progenies to pathogensare determined through artificial inoculations with leafrusts and blights, and ear and stalk rots. Techniques forinoculating large numbers of progenies and monitoringpathogenicity of inoculum have been' worked out (seephotograph).Developing Widely Adapted Disease- andInsect-Resistant Germ PlasmIn 1971, 1,000 S, lines from the World Compositewere tested in seven different environments. The '40best-performing 5, progeny across the seven locationswere selected. These were again planted in a crossingblock. Half sibs were made and evaluated in the sameenvironments, and a total of 134 families were selectedon yield performance, disease and insect resistanceand wide adaptation. It is expected that recycling ofthis population will produce a widely adapted diseaseandinsect-resistant germ plasm source.View of breeding plots showing the technique used toevaluate families for their reaction to insect attack.Two meters of each row next to the wide alley wereprotected with insecticide. The rest of the row wasunprotected. Missing plants were killed by the budworm.Technique used for artificial inoculation (If stalk-rotting pathogens in selected families. An electric drill is used to drilla cylinder in the first elongated internode. Infectious toothpicks are then introduced in the wound.

Two other populations are being improved in asimilar way. One involves a recombination of 36tropical materials (early, intermediate and late} whichpossess some tolerance or resistance to the insects andpathogens mentioned. This population is in its secondcycle of selection. Another population comprisinggerm plasm of Caribbean origin has a high degree ofre~istance to the budworm. This population, known asCogollero Resistant, is undergoing selection for greaterresistance to the budworm as well as other characteristics.It is a very promising population for those areaswhere Caribbean germ plasm is well adapted.Visual selection as near as possible to the time ofpollination is practiced, and the rows displaying averageor better performance for the trait under selection areidentified. Within-family selection is then practiced ineach selected row and about five plants per row arecrossed to other similarly selected plants in otherrows--each plant with a different row (Fig. 2}. Crossesare made, to the extent possible, with plants in theportion of the row not protected by insecticide.Selection is done every cycle, and there is no interveningmixing generation. In this full-sib systemprogenies are tested under several environments. Thetesting of progeny sets provides a systematic selectionunder widely varying environments; and those componentsof a population that do well under differentconditions are recombined. The goal is widely adaptedvarieties.About 40 composite populations are being used inthe program, most of them adapted to low elevationsand tropical conditions. In general, all carry reasonablelevels of resistance to H. maidis, P. polysora, Physoderrna,and the more common diseases prevalent in thelowlands of Mexico and Central America... •...•Families are planted in consecutive row numbers (randomlyarranged at previous harvest!.Lines and arrows indicate each selected family is crossed to5 other families.Approximately half of families are used in crosses.by crosses made only with alternate rows!.(IndicatedFIG. 2. A schematic diagram of a crossing patternamong selected families in full-sib continuous selection.Similar populations have been formed and are beingused for higher elevations and for more temperateconditions, involving germ plasm from the AndeanZone of South America, highlands of Mexico andCentral America, and Africa. In both the highlandand lowland materials, emphasis is also being given toearlier maturing types, since earliness seems to be areal need in most of the production areas in tropicaland subtropical areas of the world.A . system of simultaneous conversion to qualityprotem parallel to the population improvement programNORMALOPAQUE-2Mezcla AmarillaOpaque-2 donor source(Plant under isolation) ... (Plant as $! rows in isolation)1 ~j ~"Derive half sibs (H-S) S. "lie Select hard-endosperm opaque-21 f!1Jf!""t; ~:6~~~~~~;: ~~:~~a~~o~: ~~~hProgeny testJPlant resynthesis isolated1Progeny tes·t1O"

TABLE Ml. Grain yield (15% moisture) and agronomic performance for the 20 top-yielding entries andthe check in series BA (overage of 11 locations in Central America and Mexico, 1972).Days Helm Puce Corn Height. em Lodging (1-5)"Yield to Spp. Spp. stuntVariety kg/ha flower (1-5) (1-5) (1-5) Plant Ear Root StalkPoey T-27 5221 59 1.5 1.4 0.6 249 143 1.3 1.8H-5 5197 59 1.4 1.4 0.6 235 141 1.8 1.7Desarrural 5142 60 1.5 1.5 0.7 238 139 2.0 1.5X 306 5043 59 1.6 1.4 0.8 221 132 1.5 1.5X 352 5041 59 1.6 1.5 0.6 299 134 1.8 1.5H-l0l 5017 58 1.5 1.4 0.6 230 142 2.3 2.1Poey T·80 5001 57 1.5 1.3 0.7 234 143 2.2 1.9Desarrural H·l0l 4995 60 1.5 1.5 1.0 238 146 1.6 1.5X 304-8 4954 57 1.4 1.3 0.8 ~17 124 1.4 1.6H-3 4795 55 1.5 1.3 0.8 219 126 1.4 1.6X 306-A 4782 57 1.4 1.3 0.9 215 123 1.5 1.5ICA H-207 4750 59 1.7 1.4 0.8 241 145 1.5 1.8Compo BI. Cuyuta 4746 61 1.8 1.3 0.8 246 153 2.3 1.7X 101-A 4706 57 1.6 1.5 0.6 226 128 1.2 1.6X 304-A 4676 56 1.6 1.6 0.6 219 123 1.3 1.5Diacol H-253 4672 60 1.7 1.4 0.9 231 139 1.4 1.4(Tuxp.xEto BI.)PB II 4596 59 1.5 1.5 0.9 217 126 1.1 1.2H 354 4589 57 1.6 1.4 0.8 212 122 1.2 1.4Poey T·72 4586 60 1.5 1.4 0.8 232 134 1.3 1.7Tuxp. Sint. 4576 62 1.8 1.3 0.7 247 158 2.1 1.7H-507 (check) 4554 63 1.8 1.4 0.7 245 153 1.5 1.5" 1 = no lodging. 5 = totally lodged.11 PB = short plant type.The other uniform trial is the ME Series, consistingof experimental varieties being considered for release.Different locations than those for the BA series haddata available for this report. Tables 2, 3 and 4 show'the average performance across 4, 6 and 3 locations,respectively, for the materials included in this series.Another series of trials constitute a routine checkof the available high-quality-protein varieties in CentralAmerica. Only 10 entries were included in the trial.Table 5 shows the summary of performance at eightlocations. Yields at the reporting locations weregenerally low and were characterized by relativelyhigh percentages of rotten ears. .Central American countries are also actively assistingin the progeny evaluation of several materials underdevelopment at CIMMYT. At each location the betterprogenies are selected to be recombined at CIMMYTand the reoombinations are again progeny tested atseveral locations.Since one of the major efforts in the breedingwork is to reduce plant size, the brachytic-2 gene hasbeen' used to reduce plant height. To get at least apreliminary comparison of the genetic "dwarf" approachand the short-plant quantitative method, the bestbrachytic-2 varieties together with a short-plant counterpart,Tuxpeiio PB (planta baia), were included in a trial.A summary of results over 10 locations is presented inTable 6. The short-plant entry gave the top yield andwas only a few centimeters taller than the brachyticentries.TABLE M2. Grain yield (15 % moisture) and agronomic performance for the 20 top-yielding entries inseries ME (average of 4 locations in Central America, 1972).Days Helm Puce Corn Height. em Lodging (1-5)Yield to Spp. Spp. stuntVariety kg/ha flower (1-5) (1-5) (1-5) Plant Ear Root StalkDekalb Exp-4 7527 59 3.0 2.8 0.5 278 146 1.0 1.0Dekalb Exp-2 6958 61 4.0 2.3 1.5 288 177 1.0 1.0Poey T-53 6694 64 2.5 2.5 0.5 282 171 1.0 1.0Poey T-57 6667 63 2.3 2.8 0.8 271 152 1.0 1.0Poey T-51 6630 64 2.5 2.8 0.3 287 171 1.0 1.0Poey T·59 6383 61 2.5 2.8 0.8 273 142 1.0 1.0Poey T-55 6337 63 3.0 2.8 0.3 289 167 1.0 1.0Poey T-31 6211 62 4.3 2.5 1.0 268 147 1.0 1.0X 306 8 6200 60 2.5 2.5 1.5 255 134 1.0 1.0Exp. 70-71 Dl·39 5910 58 3.0 3.3 1.3 254 126 1.0 1.0H-507 (check) 5829 66 3.5 2.8 0.8 284 164 1.3 1.0(Tuxp.CR.lxEtoBL)PB 5698 60 3.3 2.5 0.3 248 125 1.0 1.0Poey T-93 5582 58 3.3 2.5 0.5 268 138 1.0 1.0V520C-Sel. 81a. 5531 61 3.8 2.5 0.3 249 122 1.0 1.0Poey T·91 5473 59 3.0 2.3 1.0 269 137 1.0 1.0Poey T·95 5435 58 2.8 2.3 1.0 260 138 1.0 1.0V520C-Sel. Ama. 5356 60 3.3 2.0 1.0 253 122 1.0 1.0Dent.Ama.SeI.PB 5171 63 3.0 2.8 0.8 255 141 1.0 1.0Na·2 5142 60 2.3 2.5 0.8 260 136 1.0 1.096

TABLE M3. Grain yield (15% moisture) and agronomic performance for the 20 top-yielding entries inseries ME (average of 6 locations in Central America and. Mexico.. 1972)..-Days Helm Puce Corn Height. em lodging (1-5)Yield to Spp. Spp. stuntVariety kg/ha flower (1-5) (1-5) (1-5) Plant Ear Root StalkPoey T-59 5037 59 1.7 1.3 1.0 275 161 1.3 2.3Poey T-53 4965 60 1.7 1.3 1.0 294 185 1.3 2.1Poey 1-31 4910 60 1.6 1.3 1.0 273 163 1.1 2.3X 306 8 4853 57 1.3 1.3 1.0 258 141 1.4 2.6E.S.H.E. B-2 4647 57 1.3 1.3 1.0 275 157 1.5 2.8Poey T-51 4615 61 2.0 1.7 1.1 279 172 1.3 2.6E.S.H.E. B-1 4559 55 1.4 1.3 1.1 270 156 1.4 2.8E.S.H.E. A-2 4551 58 1.5 1.7 1.0 273 166 1.8 2.61uxp. CR.I-PB 4387 58 1.7 1.3 1.0 243 128 1.3 2.0Dl-39 4262 56 1.4 1.3 1.0 255 139 1.4 2.3E.S.H.E. A-I 4157 58 1.5 1.3 1.0 254 149 1.8 3.2H-507 (check) 4069 61 1.5 1.5 1.1 278 162 1.4 2.8Poey T-95 4023 57 1.7 1.3 1.0 266 148 1'.6 2.8V520C Sel. BI. 3981 54 2.0 1.5 1.1 260 143 1'.5 2.6V520C Sel. Am. 3980 58 1.7 1.5 1.3 256 135 1.4 2.7Poey 1-57 3965 60 1.8 1.5 1.1 281 165 1.4 3.1Poey T-91 3946 57 1.6 1.5 1.1 270 151 1.6 2.9Mez. Ama. PB 3856 55 1.5 1.3 1.0 236 126 1.4 2.4Compo Car/be Bl 3803 57 1.6 1.3 1.1 250 140 1.5 2.7Poey T-93 3779 57 1.7 1.3 1.0 271 155 1.4 3.0TABLE M4. Grain yield (15 % moisture) and agronomic performance for the 20 top-yielding entries inseries ME (average of 3 locations in Central America, 1972).Days Helm Puce Corn Height, em lodging (1-5)Yield to Spp. Spp. stuntVariety kg/ha flower (1-5) (1-5) (1-5) Plant Ear Root StalkPoey T-31 6306 64 1.6 0.9 1.0 289 152 1.4 1.8X 306 B 5641 56 1.6 1.0 1.0 244 125 2.1 2.1E.S.H.E.B-2 5627 51 1.4 1.1 1.0 250 122 1.5 1.9E.S.H.E.B-l 5591 53 1.7 1.0 1.0 256 135 1.4 2.3H-507 (check) 5420 60 1.9 0.9 1.0 274 158 2.0 2.0Poey T-51 5220 60 1.7 1.1 1.0 263 151 1.4 2.0Tuxp. Cr. I Sel. Pb. 5001 57 1.6 1.3 1.0 230 112 1.5 1.4Tuxp. Pb. 4979 57 1.6 1.0 1.0 239 124 1.5 1.6V520C-S. Am. 4898 56 1.7 1.1 1.0 239 121 2.0 2.1V520C-S. BI. 4838 56 1.7 1.1 1.0 230 122 1.9 1.401-39 4794 54 1.6 1.0 1.0 236 121 1.4 1.5E.S.HE.A.-2 4761 57 1.7 1.0 1.0 245 128 1.8 2.5E.S.H .E.A.-l 4734 58 1.6 1.1 1.0 228 122 1.4 2.3Tuxp. Pb. 4640 51 1.7 1.1 1.0 197 100 1.1 1.1NA-2 4386 56 1.7 0.9 1.0 246 133 1.8 2.4Compo Pfister 4234 54 1.7 1.0 1.0 231 108 1.8 1.8Blan. Cris. Pb. 4218 54 1.7 1.0 1.0 213 107 1.4 1.5Dent. Am. S. Pb. 4152 58 1.7 1.0 1.0 242 119 1.6 1.9Cris. Am. S. Pb. 4132 57 1.6 1.0 1.0 243 123 1.8 2.1Mez. Am. Pb. 3971 54 1.7 1.1 1.0 213 109 1.6 2.0TABLE MS. Grain yield (15 % moisture) and agronomic performance for 10 opaque-2 varieties in seriesOP (average of 8 locations).Days Helm Puce Corn Height, em lodging (1-5)Yield to Spp. Spp. stuntVariety kg/ha flower (1-5) (1-5) (1-5) Plant Ear 'Root StalkICA H-208 3682 59 1.9 1.8 1.3 228 124 2.1 2.2CIMMYT 02 3496 60 1.7 1.8 1.5 230 129 1.7 2.0ICA H-251 3340 60 1.7 1.8 1.1 213 116 1.5 2.0Opaeo-2 3078 61 1.6 1.8 1.2 223 117 1.7 1.9Samaru Compo 1\ 2915 59 2.2 1.9 1.5 202 109 1.5 1.8Compo Opaco-2 2896 60 1.8 2.0 1.8 226 123 2.1 2.1Compo K 2778 60 2.0 1.8 2.1 224 119 2.2 2.2Thai Opaco-2 2658 59 1.9 2.0 1.6 205 109 1.9 2.3local variety 2561 54 1.8 1.8 0.9 226 128 1.9 2.2Guat. 02 Mejorado 1685 58 2.6 2.3 1.8 187 94 1.8 2.197

TABLE M6. Grain yield (15 % moisture) and agronomic performance for brachytic-2 and short plant selections(PB) (average of 10 locations in Central America, 1972).Days Helm Puce Corn Height, cm Lodging (1-5)Yield to Spp. Spp. stuntVariety kg/ha flower (1-5) (1-5) (1-5) Plant Ear Root StalkTuxp. PB 4326 61 2.0 1.5 1.0 206 110 1.2 1.4Tuxp. br, 4175 64 1.6 1.5 1.1 203 109 1.4 1.3Frances Largo br, 3929 61 1.8 1.4 1.2 216 119 1.4 1.7Poey E-2 3921 62 1.8 1.5 1.1 189 96 1.4 1.3Poey E-4 3896 61 1.8 1.5 1.1 184 92 1.1 1.3Enano br, Dent 3566 64 1.6 1.5 1.1 184 94 1.1 1.2Hojas Erectas br, 3505 64 1.5 1.7 0.9 194 99 1.2 1.2Guatemala br, 3409 65 1.5 1.5 1.3 187 98 1.0 1.2br, Cris. BI. 3304 62 1.7 1.6 1.0 182 95 1.1 1.3In pursuing the selection of shorter plants, a seriesof tests have been established involving progenies fromdifferent types of combinations of short-plant selectionswith other unrelated, short-plant selections, withintermediate-height types, and with tall types--bothrelated and unrelated. One series of this type wascalled CPBB. Forty-nine crosses of shortened versionsof Tuxpeiio and Eto Blanco with a range of materialswere tested at three locations (5 trials) in Mexico andat Farm Suwan in Thailand. Average results for the sixtrials are shown in Table 7.A similar set of intercrosses was developed foryellow-grain varieties (series CPBA) and the trial wasgrown at three locations in Mexico, in Guatemala andin Thailand. Results are shown in Table 8. Over the fivelocations, the average yield of the local checks rankedlowest. Results, however, are not directly comparable tothose from the white-variety trial because of differentcheck varieties and different sites.Another effort to gather information on the performanceof the populations under selection was todevelop a progeny trial of intercrosses of selectedGrain yield (15 % moisture) and agronomic performance for 2b top-yielding, entries and localTABLE M7.check, series CPBB (average of 5 trials in Mexico and 1 in Farm Suwan, Thailand, 1972).Days Helm Puce Corn Height. cm Lodging (1-5)Yield to Spp. Spp. stuntVariety kg/ha flower (1-5) (1-5) (1-5) Plant Ear Root Stalk(La Posta x Eto PB) 5356 61 1.6 1.0 1.0 253 136 1.5 1.9(Com. Gr. Durox Tuxp. PBI 5124 62 1.7 1.2 1.0 254 141 1.8 2.1(Tuxp. Cr. I-C262 1.4 1.0 1.062 1.5 1.3 1.0x Tuxp. PB)(Tuxp. Cr. I x Tuxp. PS)509850942552571421432.01.92.12.3(Tuxp. Turcic. x267 143 1.6 2.1(La Posta x Tuxp. PB)TuxpEfno PS5002498963611.51.61.01.31.01.02552281511171.61.42.21.9Tuxp. PS) 5013 63 1.3 1.2 1.0(Mix. 1 x Col. Gpo.1-C2 x Tuxp. PB) 4960 61 1.5 1.0 1.0 258 141 2.0 2.2Eto PB)(Tuxp. Cr. I·PB x4947 60 1.8 1.0 1.0 232 119 1.6 1.8(Mix. 1 x Col. Gpo.1 x Eto-C2)(Tuxp. PB) 4907 61 1.5 1.2 1.0 249 131 1.6 2.1(Eto BI. Am. BI. xTUXt PS) 4903 61 1.5 1.0 1.0 240 123 1.6 2.0(Sel. B. Caribe xTuxp. PB) 4900 60 1.7 1.4 1.0 240 127 1.5 1.9V520C x A6(A21 x Tuxp. PB) 4895 60 1.5 1.0 1.0 239 131 2.1 2.11-CO x luxp. PB)(Mix. 1 x Col. Gpo.4889 63 1.5 1.0 1.0 252 136 2.0 2.2(Comp. BI. Arne. xTU~. PB) 4863 61 1.6 1.0 1.0 246 136 1.8 2.0(Ant. po. 2 x Tuxp.)(Tuxp. PB) 4859 63 1.7 1.3 1.3 252 139 1.9 2.1(Comp. CA. BI. xEto PB) 4854 60 1.7 1.0 1.0 247 127 1.6 1.8(Ant. Gpo. 2 x Tuxp.Sel. BI.) (Eto) 4838 59 1.6 1.3 1.0 241 126 2.1 1.9(Tuxp. Costeno xTuxp. PB) 4815 61 1.6 1.2 1.0 250 139 1.7 2.2(Mix. 1 x Eto PB-C6)(TUX~. PB) 4806 60 1.8 1.3 1.0 230 123 1.4Local c eck 4418 60 1.7 1.0 1.0 240 133 1.71.72.698

TABLE MS. Grain yield (15"10 moisture) and .agronomic performance for 20 top-yielding entries and thecheck, series CPBA (average of 3 locations in Mexico, 1 in Guatemala, and 1 in 'rhailand, 1972).Days Helm Puce Corn Height, cm Lodging (1-5)Yield to Spp. Spp. stuntVariety kg/ha flower (1-5) (1-5) (1-5) Plant Ear Root Stalk(Tuxp. Am. F9-S. Dent.)(M. Am.) PB 6889 75 1.8 1.3 1.0 353 184 2.3 2.8(Eto BI. PB. Sel. Am.)(Mezama) PB 6651 77 1.9 1.3 1.3 346 177 2.1 2.6(Flint. Dent. Sel. Dent.)(Ant. x Ver. 181) 6636 79 1.9 1.1 1.3 358 193 2.5 2.5(Tuxp. Cr. I. PB. Sel.Am.) (Ant. x Ver. 181) 6458 75 1.6 1.0 1.0 331 182 1.8 2.7(Ant. Gpo. 2 x Ver. 181)(Mezama) PB 6384 73 \..7 1.0 1.0 321 170 2.2 2.6(Sint. 10 Lin.) (Ant. xVer. 181) 6378 74 1.7 1.0 1.0 332 184 2.8 3.3(Mez. Am. Cen. Am. xMezama) PB 6313 74 1.5 1.2 1.0 339 180 2.4 2.7(Flint. Dent. Sel. Crist.)(Ant. x Ver. 181) PB 6236 75 1.9 1.0 1.0 327 182 2.3 2.6(Mez. Am. Cen. Am.)(Ant. x Ver. 181) 6264 75 1.8 1.0 1.0 337 192 2.3 2.9(Nicarillo) (Ant. x Ver.181) 6206 75 1.6 1.0 1.0 340 186 2.6 3.2(Mez. Am. IACP) (Ant. xVer. 181) 6120 74 1.9 1.2 1.0 328 180 2.4 3.3(Maz. Am. IACP)(Mezama) PB 6076 73 1.8 1.2 1.0 327 182 2.8 2.7(V520C x A6) (A21)(Mazama) PB 6057 74 1.9 1.0 1.0 325 161 1.9 2.8(Cuba x Rep. Dom.)(M. Am.) PB 6012 71 1.5 0.9 0.8 319 170 2.3 2.8(Mez. Am. Dent.) (Ant.x Ver. 181) 5986 75 1.8 1.0 1.0 329 258 3.0 3.1(Tuxp. PB Sel. Am.)(M. Am.) PB 5982 71 1.4 1.1 0.8 305 163 2.6 2.3(V520C x A6) (Ant. xVer. 181) 5981 75 1.6 1.0 1.0 330 170 2.2 2.9(Cuba x Rep. Dom.) .(Ant. x Ver. 181) 5923 75 1.9 1.0 1.0 341 195 3.0 3.0(Ant. Gpo. 2 x Cubanos)(Mezama) PB 5889 74 1.9 1.1 1.3 325 167 2.6 2.6(Pbo. Cristalina x Maz.Am.) PB 5779 70 1.5 1.0 1.0 316 172 2.4 2.7Check 4992 77 2.1 1.2 1.0 340 181 2.3 3.0individual families from several populations. Such a setof progenies from white varieties was tested in theCFSB series in Guatemala, EI Salvador, and Poza Ricaand ObregQn in Mexico. The performance means forthe four locations are shown in Table 9. Yields werequite satisfactory, but the significant factors here arethe consistently shorterplants imd low lodging indices.An analogous series (CFSA) of intercrosses of selectedyellow-grain families was grown at the same fourlocations. Selection for shorter plant height has not yetproceeded quite as far with the yellow materials aswith the selected white families, but the same generaltendencies are apparent. Results over the four locationsare given in Table 10.To measure progress from selection for shorterplants, the original populations (Cycle 0) and severalcycles of selection were tested at three locations. Table11 shows the results. The reduction in plant and earheight and the increased resistance to lodging areobvious. Maturity (days to flower) shows a changetoward earliness in most cases. There has been someincrease in yield but the important point is that therehas not been any erosion of the yield potential throughcycles of selection. Shorter plants can be planted athigher plant densities using higher rates of fertilizationand this could contribute to further increased yieldsper area.To test this assumption, trials were sent to severalcountries where brachytic-2, short-plant and originalversions of a Tuxpeiio population would be comparedand evaluated for yield, lodging and other agronomiccharacteristics under high fertilization, Only resultsfrom EI Salvador have been received and they arepresented in Table 12. At the highest plant densitythe short-plant selection (Tuxpeiio PI. Baja) shows a reductionin plant height, less lodging, less barren plants,appears earlier and seems to yield about the same as:the original populations. Nevertheless, yield estimateswere based on complete recovery of produce from theplots. In commercial or large-scale plantings thesusceptibility of the original population to lodgingundoubtedly will cause harvest losses which would behigher than for the short-plant-selected population.Results are not yet available from all locationswhere trials of the short-plant selections were grown,but several observations appear to be pertinent:1. Major changes in the plant height of tropical maizehave been achieved.2. Shortened varieties tend to be somewhat earlierin maturity and much less subject to lodging.3. The shorter, earlier plants have not been accompaniedby any loss in yield potential.99

TABLE M9. Grain yield (15% moisture) and agronomic performance for 20 top-yielding entries and 2checks, series CFSB (av....ge of 4 locations, 1972).Days Helm Puce Corn Height, em Lodging (1-5)Yield to Spp. Spp. stuntVariety kg/ha flower (1-5) (1-5) (1-5) Plant Ear Root Stalk(Tuxp. PB-47 x Caribe-13) 5357 58 1.5 1.0 1.0 219 111 1.1 1.3Tuxp. Res. Turcicum 5139 60 1.8 1.0 1.0 239 124 1.1 1.3(Tuxp. PB. BI.-48) (Mix. 1x Col. Gpo. 1-39) 5110 59 1.5 1.0 1.0 223 111 1.1 1.2(V520CSel. BI.-24 xPfister-8) 5097 56 1.5 1.0 1.0 229 128 1.4 1.9(Tuxp. PB-12 x Carlbe·lI) 5040 58 1.0 1.0 1.0 229 112 1.4 1.0(Pfister PB x Tuxp. PB) 4926 59 1.5 1.0 1.0 225 114 1.2 1.5(La Posta x Tuxp. PB) 4868 61 1.8 1.0 1.0 242 132 1.3 1.41.0 231 109 1.0 1.11.0 220 114 1.2 1.4(Tuxp. PB-317 x Eto BI.-46)(Tuxp. PB-34 x Pfister·23)4866485361591.31.51.01.0(Mix. 1 x Col. Gpo. l-PB-6115113x Eto PB-23)(Eto BI. PB-23 x Pfister)4848479859581.31.51.01.01.01.02272241.41.01.31.3(Caribe BI.-13) (Mix. 1 xCol. Gpo. 1-6) 4794 60 1.8 1.0 1.0 221 113 1.2 1.2(Tuxp. PB-75) (Mix. 1 xCol. Gpo. 1-2) 4763 59 1.8 1.0 1.0 224 107 1.0 1.4(Tuxp. PB Am.-6 x EtoPB·44) 4716 58 2.0 1.0 1.0 216 107 1.0 1.3(Tuxp. PB-127 x Eto PB-86) 4731 54 1.3 0.8 0.8 196 96 0.9 1.11.0 227 119 1.5 1.81.3 221 111 1.2 1.4(Pflster-II x Tuxp. PB-54)(Tuxp. PB·146 x Pfister-B)4664466358611.82.01.01.3(Carlbe-II x Mix. 1 x Col.Gpo. 1-8) 4659 59 1.3 1.0 1.0 220 118 1.3 1.3(Ant. Gpo. 2-53) (Mix. 1 xCol. Gpo. 1) 4654 58 1.5 1.0 1.0 224 116 1.0 1.4(Tuxp. PB-30 x V520C-24) 4648 59 1.5 1.0 1.0 224 122 1.2 1.3Tuxp. PB (check) 4480 58 1.5 1.0 1.0 213 106 1.3 1.3Eto PB (check) 4107 59 1.0 1.0 1.0 223 112 1.2 1.3TABLE 10. Grain yield (15 % moisture) and agronomic performance for 20 top-yielding entries and 1check, series CFSA (average of 4 locations, 1972).Days Helm Puce Corn Height, em Lodging (1-5)Yield to Spp. Spp. stuntVariety kg/ha flower (1-5) (1-5) (1-5) Plant Ear Root Stalk(Ant. x Ver. 181) (V520C-5330 60 1.4 231 122 1.35257 58 1.4 242 125 1.3(V520C x Crist. Dent.-233) 5085 60 1.1 1.3 0.5 243 133 1.4 1.4(Slnt. 10 Lin. x Ver. 181) 5019 59 1.5 1.4 0.6 228 126 1.3 1.8109)(Nicarlllo x Mez. Am. PB)1.11.50.60.51.61.7(Ant. Gpo. 2 x Eto BI. Am.) 4936 58 1.5 1.5 0.8 224 108 2.1 1.2(Eto BI. Am.-12) (Ant. xVer. 181-168) 4889 58 1.5 1.5 0.5 228 113 1.3 1.6(Ant. x Ver. 181-62) (V520Cx A6-31) 4879 60 1.3 1.5 0.6 234 123 1.9 2.1(Mez. Am. PB-83 x Crist.Dent.) 4864 58 1.4 1.3 0.8 222 115 1.6 1.3(Ant. Gpo. 2 x Mez. Am.PB) 4836 57 1.5 1.5 0.6 222 105 1.0 1.5(Ant. x Rep. Dom.-52)(Ant. x Cuba) 4823 57 1.4 1.3 0.5 221 109 1.8 1.4(Mez. Am. C. Am. x Am.PB) 4814 58 1.6 1.4 0.5 232 117 1.4 1.6(Mez. Am. Dent. x Ver.181) 4803 59 1.5 1.5 0.5 237 134 1.6 1.6(Slnt. 10 Lin. x Am. PB) 4781 57 1.5 1.4 0.6 225 117 1.3 1.5(Mez. Am. PB-35) (Ant.x Rep. Dom.-52) 4733 57 1.5 1.1 0.5 230 109 1.5 1.5(Nlcarillo x Ver. 181) 4725 59 1.3 1.5 0.5 235 127 1.4 2.0(V520C.x A6 x Am.}-31(Ant. x Ver. 181)(Tuxp. PI. Am.-13 x Mez.4681 60 1.3 1.4 0.5 230 119 1.4 1.6Am.-53) 4671 59 1.4 1.5 0.5 228 114 1.3 1.4(Mez. Am. PB-25) (Ant.x Ver. 181) 4659 59 1.5 1.5 0.5 233 124 1.5 1.8(Crist. Dent.·233) (Ant. xVer. 181) 4657 60 1.4 1.4 0.8 243 132 1.8 1.5(Mez. Am. PB-90 x Crist.Dent.-110) 4644 58 1.0 1.3 0.6 231 110 1.0 1.3Check 4183 59 1.3 1.3 0.8 221 105 1.3 1.3100

TABLE 11. Average grain yield at 1S % moisture and agronomic performance of several full-sib selectedpopulQtions grown at Obregon, Poza Rica and Tlaltizapan, 1972.Height, cm Days StalkPopulation Selection to lodging Yieldcycl'e Plant Ear flower (1-5J kg/haTuxpeno Crema C 0 277 175 69 3.2 3739C10 212 112 64 1.6 4284Eto Blanco C 0 244 136 67 2.3 3003C 9 212 99 63 1.4 3308(Mix 1 x Col. Gpo. 1] x Eto C 0 267 157 67 2.4 3317C 7 213 102 63 1.8 3969Mezcla Amarilla C 0 239 130 64 2.4 3613C 5 219 116 62 1.4 3858Tuxpeno Crema I (2J Inv. Ver C 0 277 167 69 2.9 3164C 4 266 146 67 2.3 4034Ant. Gpo. 2 x Gpos. Dam. Rep. C' 0 234 124 61 2.8 3016C 4 198 99 60 2.6 33324. Crossing short-plant selections tend to give F1plants intermediate in height between the two parentmaterials. Plant height appears to behave in anessentially additive fashion.5. Intensified agronomic practices of plant densityand fertilizer levels appear to be indicated for theshorter materials.TABLE M 12. Yield (15% moistureJ and agronomicperformance for the original, short plant andbrachytic-2 versions of Tuxpeno, EI Salvador, 1972.6. How far height reduction can be carried is notyet known, but more than 30 percent has been removedin some materials without exhausting the genetic variability.Prospects appear very good for the continueddevelopment of agronomically more desirable tropicalmaize varieties.Adjacent plots of Tuxpei'io Crema I original (left) andcycle 7 of short-plant selection (right) illustrate thedrastic change that has occurred in plant morphologyin the selection process. Note difference in resistanceto lodging.PopulationPlant densities (x 1000 plantsJ/ha40 65 90 115Plant height, cmTuxpeno Original 304 312 302 310Tuxpeno PI. Baja 260 266 273 274Tuxpeno br2 218 202 218 215Local Variety 231 236 250 241Root lodging, %Tuxpeno Original 18 15 16 25Tuxpeno PI. Baja 27 19 6 7Tuxpeno br2 12 7 5 11Local Variety 3 2 1 2No. barren plantsTuxpeno Original 3 5 18 17Tuxpeno PI. Baja 3 5 9 14Tuxpeno br~ 3 17 24 33Local Variety 0 9 5 14Days to flowerTuxpeno Original 61 62 62 62Tuxpeno PI. Baja 57 58 58 57Tuxpeno brz 60 61 62 61Local Variety 44 45 45 45Grain yield (tons/ha, 15% moistureJTuxpeno Original 4.4 5.1 4.8 5.6Tuxpeiio PI. Baja 4.2 5.3 5.1 5.7Tuxpeno br2 2.7 3.2 4.0 4.4Local Variety 2.9 3.4 3.7 3.8101

QUALITY-PROTEIN BREEDINGAs progress is achieved with the agronomic traits inthe materials under selection, opaque-2 conversions aresimultaneously made in all improved populations asshown in Fig. 3. In addition to this routine conversionprocess, additional information has been developedwith respect to the several peculiarities of opaquemaize which have not all been desirable. The problemsof grain texture, appearance, ear rots and yield lossare well known and have constituted major obstructionsto the widespread production of this quality-proteinmaize.Intensive efforts have been made to resolve themajor objections to opaque-2 maize by developing notonly improved agronomic performance, but also modifyingthe opaque grain to a more normal appearance.In these attempts, a wide range of materials has beenassembled from allover the world to study in detail themany aspects of the opaque-2 gene in varying geneticbackgrounds. Material from tropical, temperate andhigh-altitude areas has been utilized.Several general observations result from studyingthis wide range of materials. First, the expression ofthe various undesirable characteristics associated withthe opaque-2 gene varies with the genetic backgroundinto which it is transferred. Yellow color tends to bediluted, but differentially. Lysine and tryptophanlevels are markedly increased in all cases, but vary inamount among different materials. Protein levels tendto diminish slightly with decreases ranging from 2.5percent to 34 percent, but with little or no decrease incertain cases. Protein and tryptophan levels in selectedmaterials are shown in Table 13. Kernel densitygenerally decreases markedlY, but in certain geneticbackgrounds the difference is negligible. The germ ofopaque-2 maize tends to contribute more to the totalkernel protein than the germ of normal maize. Thiscan be an important advantage for grain quality. Table14 shows a sample series of comparisons. In all thesecases, the variation in behavior provides the basis forimproving these characteristics.Three of the converted opaque-2 composites weresubjected to selection for yield improvement. Resultsof progeny selection are summarized in Table 15.TABLE M13. Effect of the opaque-2 gene on percent protein and percent tryptophan in protein in theendosperm of different varieties and composites (representative sample out of 72 materials analyzed).VarietyCountryof originProtein, 0/0 Tryptophan, %Normal O 2 Normal O 2Vijay India 10.75 9.13 0.50 0.74Composite A 2 India 10.63 8.00 0,46 0.98Kisan India 9.75 9.50 0.48 0.90Syn. 493 Pakistan 12.13 9.63 0.37 0.64Composite AC Mexico 9.63 8.69 0.35 0.70(USA x Caribbean Comp.) Mexico 10.00 8.25 0.40 0.70Rep. Dominicana Gpo. 8 Rep. Dominicana 9.13 7.63 0.33 0.97lowatigua Mexico 9.00 8.00 0.36 0.79Tuxpeno F. F. Mexico 10.50 8.50 0.32 0.96Puerto Rico Gpo. 6 Mexico 11.75 7.75 0.37 1.12SLP Gpo. 10 Mexico 10.19 7.75 0.33 0.92(Cupurico x FI. Camp.) Thailand 10.50 8.25 0.32 0.94Colombia Cateto C Colombia 9.25 7.13 0.34 0.90Perala Piracicaba Brazil 9.13 7.31 0.42 1.02B 16 (yellow) Nigeria 10.75 7.75 0.33 0.88Mex.5 Ghana 9.63 10.75 0.33 0.54Samaru Camp. I Nigeria 10.63 8.25 0.27 0.97Samaru Camp. III Nigeria 9.31 7.00 0.34 1.03(Tuxpeno x Ant. Gpo. 2) Mexico 10.50 7.06 0.30 0.91PD (MS) 6 - gr. amar. Mexico 12.00 8.69 0.37 0.97Yield trials for the selections were grown at Poza Rica,Tlaltizapan, and Obregon in Mexico and by CIAT inColombia for the lowland materials, and at Batan andToluca in Mexico and at La Selva in Colombia for thehighland materials.Modifying kernel texture of opaque-2 materials inorder to develop more normal-appearing grain hasreceived high priority. The occurrence of irregularityin texture within opaque-2 converted materials suggestedthe practicability of selecting for such characteristics.Certain genetic backgrounds appear to contain higherfrequencies of variation in kernel textures than others.These were chosen to allow recovery of as nearlynormal-appearing grain as possible. The selected materialswere successively intercrossed in a recurrentprocedure and each of the visually selected progenieswere analyzed in the laboratory to assure retention ofadequate levels of protein and tryptophan. Laboratory102analysis is essential to determine the level of tryptophanand lysine. As the recovery of normal-looking kernelsproceeds, visual discrimination quickly becomes impractical.At the same time that such normal-appearing kernelswere recovered, information became available on therelative chemical characteristics of these materials.Table 16 gives the analyses of a series of several kerneltexture categories varying from soft opaque to nearnormal appearance.Even more detailed data is available on the chemicalnature of the hard and soft fractions of the samematerials. The amino acids glutamic, proline, alanine,isoleucine, leucine and phenylalanine tend to show aconsistent increase in th.e hard-texture fractions. Proteinlevel also tended to be higher while lysine and tryptophantended to be somewhat lower (see Tables 17 and18).

TABLE M 14. Contribution of germ to the total kernel protein In different maize varieties and composites(representative sample out of 43 materials evaluated).VarietyCompo A 2J 1PBs(USA x Caribbean Composite)Rep. Dominicana Gpo.Oax. Gpo. 5Granada Gpo. 2Tamaulipas Gpo. 1(Cupurico x FI. Compuesto)CentralmexAmagacefioUPCA-Var. 1UPCA-Var. 2Blr, (yellow)Gs-3Diacol 153Samaru Composite ISamaru Composite IIICompo grano duroTuxp. x PD(MS)6)Sel. Amar.Counhyof originIndiaPakistanThailandMexicoMexicoMexicoMexicoMexicoThailandBrazilColombiaPhilippinesPhilippinesNigeriaGhanaGhanaNigeriaNigeriaMexicoMexicoContribution of germ ~to thetotal kernel protein, %NormalOpaque10.5 25.610.9 27.75.5 22.98.1 26.74.1 31513.3 30.795 3437.0 23.68.2 27.172 22.57.4 11.131 23.59.3 29.810.9 27.98.8 26.03.9 18.86.0 25.05.1 25.420.2 35.37.9 27.7Trials of selections for shorter plants were made in many countries around the tropics in 1972. The trial shown was at FarmSuwan, Thailand, in cooperation with that country and IACP (I nter-Asian Corn Program!. Differences in lodging resistanceare evident.103

TABLE M1S. Grain yield in kg/ha at 15% moisture of CIMMYT opaque-2 composites' progenies, 19728(average of three locatioalS).SetComposite K n(opaque-2)checkCIMMYTnopaque-2compositecheckTuxpeiio iIplanta baja(normal) Chalqueiio II Progeny Progenycheck O 2 compo range meanMean ofselectedprogeniesSelectiondifferential%Mean n 3197 3687Mean lJ4489 2271· 4693 35847122 4004·10854 74294076892913.820.4a Lowland tropical varieties.bHighland variety.Response of different maize germplasm to cold growing conditions is dramatically shown in this picture from Toluca,Mexico. The plots of local selections from the area (rightl are normal in appearance while materials originating in warmerareas (Ieftl are pale and stunted.104

TABU: M 16. Percent protein and percent tryptophan in protein of different categories of modified opaque-2kernels from different opaque-2 populations.Protein in different kernelTryptoehan in protein in differentcategories. ,0/. ernel categories. %No. Material 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 51. Composite K 8.79 8.29 7.75 7.59 7.47 0.65 0.68 0.75 0.79 0.882. PO (MS) 6-Gr. Amar. 11.07 10.50 10.25 10.44 9.94 0.87 0.79 0.85 0.85 0.93J. Composite Blanco Caribe 10.29 10.25 9.58 9.25 8.88 0.70 0.84 0.81 0.73 0.804. (Tuxpeiio x Ant. Gpo. 2)-#-# 9.99 9.84 9.65 9.08 0.79 0.79 0.82 0.855. CIMMYT O 2 Composite 9.36 8.56 9.07 8.69 8.05 0.55 0.72 0.71 0.77 0.876. Thai Opaque-2 Composite 8.58 8.50 8.43 8.82 7.86 0.82 0.80 0.83 0.82 0.937. (Ver. 181 x Ant. Gpo. 2) (Ven. 1) 9.04 8.72 9.06 8.90 8.71 0.63 0.63 0.70 0.74 0.758. Yellow hard endosperm Compo 7.82 7.16 7.36 7.88 7.33 0.92 1.00 0.94 0.91 0.989. Ant. Gpo. 2-#1-3-2-# 8.98 8.80 9.24 9.07 0.76 0.87 0.88 0.8410. (PO [MS] 6 x Eto) (Cuba llJ)-Pob.Crist. #1(A)-2-#1·# 9.08 9.34 8.87 9.80 8.53 0.73 0.79 0.88 0.86 0.83Category 1: more or less normalCategory 2: 75% translucent. 25% opaqueCategory 3: 50% 50%Category 4: 25% 75%Category 5: 0% 100%TABLE M17. Pro.tein, lysine and tryptophan content in whole endosperm and in hard and soft fractions ofthe endosperm of modified opaqe - 2 lines.Protein. % Tryptophan in protein. % Lysine in protein. %FractionFractionFractionWholeWholeWholeline endosp. Hard Soft endosp. Hard Soft endosp. Hard Soft1. (PO(MS)6xEto)(Cuba 11 J)·Pob.2.Crist. #1(A)·l·#-#(PO(MS)6xEto)(Cuba l1J)-Pob.9.88 9.99 7.69 0.70 0.63 0.83 2.67 2.22 2.88Crist.-# 1-#1-#-# 8.75 8.49 9.13 0.87 0.77 0.87 2.81 2.60 3.303. Pob. Crist.-#l-#-#-# 9.42 10.21 8.43 0.73 0.55 0.72 2.73 2.43 3.364. Tropical :>paque-2 Compo 163-6-1-#1)(PO(MS)6-#.#-#-# 10.92 11.57 11.25 0.76 0.63 0.85 2.87 2.98 3.65TABLE M18. Amino acid composition l%) of endosperm protein in hard and soft fractions of modifiedopaque-2 li",es.Amino acids in (1 ) (2) (3) (4)protein Soft Hard Soft Hard Soft Hard Soft HardLysine 2.88 2.22 3.30 2.60 3.36 2.43 3.65 2.98Histidine 3.06 3.75 3.41 3.78 3.38 3.52 3.70 3.61Arginine 3.94 3.81 4.46 4.12 4.09 3.95 5.15 4.24Aspartic acid 6.26 5.75 7.36 7.95 7.49 7.98 7.58 7.57Threonine 3.26 3.67 3.45 3.54 3.42 3.61 4.01 3.68Serine 3.83 4.52 4.04 4.29 3.84 4.32 4.58 4.39Glutamic acid 16.09 20.59 17.25 21.68 16.70 25.24 17.55 20.62Proline 9.29 10.61 8.97 10.39 9.05 10.98 9.79 10.37Glysine 3.77 3.72 3.92 3.99 3.81 3.70 4.62 3.90Alanine 5.20 6.40 5.54 6.74 5.20 7.14 5.88 6.42Cisteine 1.38 0.77 0.48 0.24, 1.42 1.11 0.84Valine 3.43 4.30 5.02 5.14 4.82 4.86 9.40 4.71Methionine 1.56 1.26 1.19 1.18 1.51 1.32 1.57 1.30Isoleucine 2.00 2.82 3.30 3.47 3.02 3.43 3.06 3.16Leucine 8.00 10.98 9.17 10.95 8.28 12.32 9.62 11.23Tryosine 2.60 2.77 1.91 3.05 2.24 3.41 2.85 2.59Phenylalanine 3.25 3.94 3.78 4.12 3.45 4.32 3.99 4.12Tryptophan 0.70 0.63 0.82 0.93 0.85 0.65 0.84 0.72(1): (PO(MS)6 x Eto) (Cuba llJ)-Pob. Crist. #1 (A)-l-#-#(2): (PO(MS)6 x Eto) (Cuba l1J)-Pob. Crist.-# 1-# 1·:Jt-#(3): Pob. Crist.-#l-#.#-#(4): (Tropical O~ Composite 163-6-1 =1)(PO(MSJ6Gr.Amar. :j::-#.#-#105

Two populations of the recovered hard modifiedkernels were compared with their normal and softopaque counterparts for the acid-soluble, zein andglutelin fractions of protein. Acid-soluble and glutelinfractions were higher in the opaque and modified·opaque types than in the normal grain, while zein waslower. The hard-kernel modified-opaque material appearedto be slightly higher in zein than the softopaque, but not markedly different. See Table 19.As selection is carried out for hard kernels, therelationship of, tryptophan to protein content mayalso become modified. Ranges in protein levels andtheir corresponding tryptophan values are shown inTABLE M19. Protein fractions in normal, opaque and modified opaque-2 samples of two populations.Protein fractions in cndosrerill. "nType Acid soluble Zein GlutelinsofPopulation sample Actual (j'n of Normal Actual o· of Normal Actual 0/ 0 of Normal1- (Ver. 181xAnt.Gpo2) Normal 270 100.0 42.3 100.0 19.8 100.0(Ven. n Opaque 39.7 147.0 24.2 57.2 31.3 158.1Modified 350 129.6 26.3 62.2 29.3 148.02. White Composite Normal 325 100.0 45.2 1000 19.0 100.0Opaque 35.0 107.7 25.4 562 31.4 1653Modified 33.5 103.1 26.7 59.1 28.5 150.0...On the left, Tuxpeno cycle 0 and the same population after 8 cycles of full-sib selection on the right.and ear height has been about 70 cm without any appreciable reduction in yield potential.Reduction in plant106

Table 20. Effects of this on the quality of the wholegrain can be appreciated by comparing the proteinlevels and tryptophan contents listed in Tables 20 and21.Tests weights of the recovered modified hard opaquekernels varied from one material to another, buttended to approach the test weights of normal grain.Precise data about the effect of this characteristic onTABLE M20. Range in protein and tryptophan values in hard endosperm opaque-2 populations undergoingselection and recombination.No. of Range in Mean Range in % Mean % FrequencyCycle of full-sib protein values % trypt. in trypt. in of accept.S. No. Population selection families in endosperm protein protein protein families, %(Ver.181 x Ant.Gpo.2) (Vent. 1) 3 390 5.12-11.88 8.48 0.51-0.96 0.70 58.94 375 6.12-10.63 8.06 0.56-1.23 0.84 82.92 Composite K (H-E) 3 205 6.56-12.50 9.19 0.51-0.80 0.65 55.14 182 5.44-10.81 8.14 0.71-1.10 0.87 87.93 White Hard EndospermOpaque-2 Compo 1 153 6.31-10.63 8.76 0.51-1.17 0.75 77.82 182 5.68-11.38 8.15 0.59-1.32 0.90 90.04 Yellow Hard EndospermOpaque-2 Composite 2 313 4.88- 9.94 7.54 0.56-1.11 0.83 69.7TABLE M21.S. No.2345Protein lysine and tryptophan in whole grain of opaques and modifieds in two populations.Trypt. in Lysine inMaterial Phenotype Protein, % protein, % protein, %Composite K(H-E)C 3 Opaque 9.63 1.05 4.51Modified 10.38 1.02 4.27(Ver.181xAnt.Gpo.2) Opaque 9.88 0.97 4.71(Ven. 1)(H-E) Modified 9.69 0.97 4.72Yellow Hard Endosp. Opaque 10.38 1.16 4.51Opaque-2 CompoModified 9.38 0.80 4.71Thai Opaque-2 Compo Opaque 10.13 1.20 4.80(H-E)C 2Modified 9.94 0.78 3.99White Hard Endosp. Opaque 7.94a 1.03 a 3.60 aOpaque-2 CompositeModified 8.31 a 1.00 a 3.12 aa Endosperm analysis.TABLE M22. Grain yield of normal, modified andopaque versions of five different populations.Yield, kg/ha at 15% moisturePopulation Normal Modified OpaqueComposite K 4,767 4,010 4,072Yellow Hard-EndospermComposite 4,685 4,338 3,621(Ver. 181 x Ant. Gpo. 2)(Ven. 1) 3,928 4,235 3,176CIMMYT Opaque-2Composite 5,238 4,419 3,744White Hard-EndospermComposite 5.606 4,460 4,113grain yields are not yet available, but yield lossesassociated with the opaque gene should become minimized.Preliminary results of the hard-endospermselection on yield are given in Table 22.An inheritance study of the behavior of the modifyingfactors involved in the hard-endosperm opaque-2recovered types has been undertaken. Preliminaryresults of this study indicate that additive varianceassociated with the analysis is more important thandominance variance. Dominance was partial. Reciprocalcrosses between contrasting types resulted in an apparentdifference in phenotype of the crossed seeds.Grain from soft female parents tended to be soft, whilethe grain from hard-kernel plants showed a high degreeof modified kernels. This may be no more than thedosage effect of the genes in the endosperm of thegrain as a reflection of how endosperm tissue develops.The study thus far suggests that any breeding systemthat enables the accumulation of the modifying factors107

TABLE M23. Grain yield of uniform opaque-2 trial, 1972 B.Grain yield (kg/ha at 15% moisture)EntryNo. Pedigree Poza Rica Tlaltizapan Obreg6n Batan1 (Ver. 181 x Ant. Gpo. 2) 2733 4177 2304 (10) 11402 Thai Opaque-2 Composite 2709 5163 (4) 2241 14033 Composite K (E) C, 2801 4476 2489 (1) 15494 CIMMYT Opaque-2 Composite 3269 (7)" 4942 2309 (9) 2553 (3)5 Flint Compuesto Amarillo 3220 (8) 5022 (7) 1988 1919 (7)6 Nicari!!o 3069 (10) 4428 1968 1900 (8)7 (Tuxp. x PO [MS] 6)-Sel. Amar 3137(9) 5564 (1) 2333 (7) 1968 (5)8 Opaque-2 in flint 2772 4936(10) 2022 1939 (6)9 Cuba 11 J 2~29 4273 2392 (4) 121810 Poblaci6n Cristalina 3405 (4) 4285 2358 (5) 2446 (4)11 Tuxpeiio Selection 2952 4255 2446 (3) 74012 (Mix. 1 x Col. Gpo. t) (Eto) 3517(2) 5103 (5) 2358 (6) 92613 La Posta 3464 (~) 5384 (3) 2241 92614 Compuesto Blanco Caribe 333'7 (5) 4972 (9) 2182 1734 (9)15 Compuesto Grano duro 3293 (6) 4823 2148 3274 (2)16 Foremaiz-l Opaco-2 2821 5050 (6) 2226 117917 (Comp. K x La Posta) 3634 (t) 4775 2450 (2) 1588 (10)18 (Tuxpeiio x Ant. Gpo. 2) 2660 4303 1822 113019 Composite II 2148 3729 1744 151020 PO (MS) 6-Gr. Amar. 2777 \ 3992 2324 (8) 156921 Venezuela 1 opaco-2 3020 4990 (8) 1837 126722 Composite! 97 1231 10318 (t)23 Tuxpeiio-br,br, 0.0, 2592 4422 2109 71124 Agroceres 504 2674 5390 (2) 2285 799Normal Check 4282 6101 3059 11877" Rankings of the 10 top opaque-2 entries are in parentheses.TABLE M24. Grain yield of uniform opaque-2 trial, 1972A.PedigreeYield (kg/ha at 15% moisture)Poza RicaT1altizapanAverage(Ver. 181 x Ant. Gpo. 2)Thai opaque-2 compositeComposite K (E) C,CIMMYT opaque-2 compoFlint Compo AmarilloNicarillo(Tuxp.x PO(MS) 6) Sel. Amar.TIIXD. Relection.(Mix. lxCol.Gpo.t) (Eto BI.)La PostaCompo Blanco CaribeCompo grano duroForemaiz-l opaco-2(Composite K x La Posta)PO(MS)6-Gr. AmarilloTuxpeiio PI.Chec:kBaja Normal312733133634 (10)"4345 (4)31083907 (7)3741 (9)4375 (3)4453 (1)4004 (5)34103858 (8)34004423 (2)4180 (5)40146807 (2)6215 (10)61136741 (3)6741 (4)5623605453426633 (5)6448 (5)6221 (9)6920 (t)6227 (8)6352 (7)566568484967 (6)47644873 (10)5543 (t)4924 (7)47654897 (9)48585543 (2)5226 (5)48155389 (3)48135387 (4)4922 (8)5431IIRankings of the 10 top opaque-2 entries are in parentheses.as an additive trait should be effective in developinghard-endosperm opaque-2 varieties.To maintain current information on the relativeperformance of the more advanced opaque-2 conversionsas varieties, they are regularly compared in yieldtrials. Such a trial of ~5 entries was grown at fourlocations at CIMMYT stations during 1972. Certainmaterials performed consistently well at all locations inboth planting seasons, although the normal types generallyoutyielded the opaque materials. Seed used forthese trials is not from the most recent cycle ofselection due to seed availability. Results are shown inTables 23 and 24.108Disease-' nsect Interactions in Quality-Protein MaizeDocumented information concerning the reaction ofopaque-2 maize materials to insects and pathogens israther limited. However, the available reports indtcatethat there may be an association between the softopaque-2 endosperm and susceptibility to Fusarium earrots and stored-grain insects.To make valid comparisons, the opaque-2 geneshould be present in similar genetic backgrounds.Recently, such maize populations adapted to highaltitude,subtropical and tropical environments have

een available. On the average, the maize varietiesused throughout the present work have undergonethree backcrosses and the modified types have beenselected for at least three cycles.Field Insects and DiseasesA set of 15 varieties, including the normal andits opaque version in each case, were tested in humidtropical, semiarid tropical and subtropical environments(Poza Rica, Obregon and Tlaltizapan, respectively).Also, a group of opaque-2 converted varieties and theirnormal counterparts were observed in two high-altitudeenvironments (Batan and Toluca).In addition, another group of varieties, including thenormal, opaque-2, and modified types in each case,were used to determine the rate of ear drying and thereaction of each type to different fungi and ear-feedinginsects in a humid tropical environment (Poza Rica)and a subtropical environment (Tlaltizapan). Fieldtrials were established using 5·meter-row plots replicatedfour times in a split-plot design, where the main plot wasthe variety and the subplot was the endosperm version-­normal, opaque or modified.The following fungi and insects were observed.Ear rots: Fusarium moniliforme, Fusarium roseum,Diplodia maidis and Diplodia macrospora.Earworms:Diatraea saccharalis and Heliothis zea.•Rusts and blights on foliage: Puccinia sorghi,Puccinia polysora, Helminthosporium turcicum andHelminthospor;um maidis.Insects ~m foliage:Diatraea saccharalis.Stalk rots: Fusarium moniliforme.Stem borer:· Diatraea saccharalis.Stored-grain fungi:spp.Spodoptera frugiperda andPenicillum sp. and AspergillusStored-grain insects: Sitophilus zeamais and Sitotrogacerealella.The reaction of the varieties in the field wasdetermined under natural incidence of insect pests andpathogens, except for rust (at EI Batan). Diplodia earrot, stalk rots, and stored-grain fungi and insects, whichwere artificially placed on the appropriate plant parts.The incidence of Fusarium in the set of 15 materialswas highest in the humid tropical environment of PozaRica. The mean reaction of the varieties indicated thatabout 50 percent of the opaque version was affected byFusarium, while incidence on the normals was below30 percent. There was an extreme degree of suscepti-bility in some genetic backgrounds, while in others, thedifferences between normal and opaque versions werenot so great. This performance was also similar in theother environments for several populations.In the irrigated semiarid tropical environment ofObregon, Fusarium ear rotting was next highest infrequency. Again, the incidence on the opaque versionswas significantly higher than on the normal types. Onthe average, about 40 percent of the opaque ears hadFusarium compared to less than 10 percent of thenormals.In the subtropical environments of Tlaltizapan about20 percent of the opaque harvest was affected byFusarium compared to slightly less than 10 percent ofthe normals.At Batan, located in the Valley of Mexico, thesusceptibility of the tested populations was also evident.More than 30 percent of the opaque harvest wasdamaged by Fusarium compared to nearly 15 percentof the normal types. At Toluca, the other high-altitudeenvironment, the incidence was the lowest of alLlocations. However, the opaque versions also showed asignificatly higher rate of ear rot caused by Fusarium.At three (Obregon, Tlaltizapan and Batan) of thefive highly contrasting environments, significant differencesamong populations were determined. Thenormal versions of Compuesto Blanco Caribe, La Postaand (Ver. 181 x Ant. Gpo. 2) (Ven. 1), and theopaque-2 versions of Nicarillo, Compuesto K, CompuestoBlanco Caribe and (Tuxpeno x PD (MS)6) were,on the average, the materials with the lowest Fusariumear-rot incidence. Among the high-altitude maizepopulations, Compuesto J and Mexico Gpo. 10 werethe least susceptible.When normal, opaque and modified versions werecompared (Table 25), again the opaque-2 convertedmaterials showed a significantly higher Fusarium inci·dence at Poza Rica. At Tlaltizapan there were nosignificant differences, but the ear-rotting rate washigher in the opaque versions.This information seems to confirm previous reports.Regardless of genetic background or environment, theopaque-2 and modified versions showed significantlyhigher incidences of Fusarium ear rots than theirnormal counterparts. However, variations in r

TABLE M25. Natural incidence of Fusarium ear roton normal, opaque-2 and modified opaque-2 endospermversions of four maize populations observedat Poza Rica, Veracruz, 1972.PopulationDamaged ears, %Normal Opaque Modifiedabout 15 percent and 6 percent greater in the modifiedtypes than in the normals, respectively. The incidenceon the opaques was intermediate between the othertwo types. In the high-altitude environments, therewere 110 significant differences; however, at EI Batan,the opaque versions were damaged twice as much as thenormal counterparts.(Ver. 181 x Ant. Gpo. 2)(Ven. 1)Compuesto KCompuesto BI. CaribeCompuesto CIMMYT~223503453 6062 6444 6368 56TABLE M26. Incidence of Diplodia ear rot artificiallyinoculated on normal, opaque-2 and modifiedopaque-2 endosperm versions of four maize populationsobserved at Poza Rica, Veracruz, 1972.Fusarium incidence, such as Compuesto Blanco Caribe,Nicarillo, La Posta and (Veracruz 181 x Antigua Gpo. 2)(Venezuela 1), also had the least damage from earworms.The same tendency was evident in the group ofvarieties where the three types--normals, opaques andmodifieds--were observed.The stem borer ear injury at Poza Rica (Table 27)and the earworm damage at Tlaltizapan (Table 28) wereDamaged ears, %Population Opaque Normal ModifiedCompuesto K 27 29 27Compuesto BI. Caribe 29 35 31Compuesto CIMMYT 37 23 37(Ver. 181 x Ant. Gpo. 2)(Ven. 1) 31 43 38Antonio Mercado (right), visiting scientist from the Philippines, participates in the breeding-production program ofhigh-quality-protein maize. He and Dr. S. K. Vasal of the CIMMYT resident staff screen the best ears for the next cycle ofselection at the Poza Rica Station, Mexico.110

Rusts are among the important foliar pathogens(Table 29). Records on their incidence did not revealdifferences among normal, modified or opaque types ineither of the environments sampled (Poza Rica andBatan). Differences in susceptibility were observedamong maize populations at Batan.Foliar damage by the budworm was significantlygreater in opaques than in modifieds and normals (Table30). There were no differences between normal andmodified versions. However, in other tests, therewere no differences between normal and opaque versions.Foliar damage by the stem borer was similar innormal, opaque and modified types at Tlatizapan andPoza Rica (Table 31). Also, no differences weredetected between normal and opaque versions forincidence of Fusarium stalk rot and stem borers on thestalks at Tlaltizapan and Poza Rica (Tables 32 and 33).The observed differences among materials could beassociated with an already known reaction to insectsrather than to the presence or absence of the opaque-2gene.TABLE M27. Natural incidence of the stem borer(Diatraea saccharalis) on ears from normal, opaque-2and modified opaque-2 endosperm versionsof four maize populations observed at Poza Rica,Veracruz, 1972.Population(Ver. 181 x Ant. Gpo. 2)(Ven. 1)Compuesto Blanco Car/beCompuesto KCompuesto CIMMYTDamaged ears, %Normal Opaque Modified25 42 3243 45 5433 51 6144 47 55These data do not prove that the endosperm characterassociated with the opaque-2 gene is associated withthe reaction to foliar- or stem-damaging agents. Obviously,increased susceptibility of opaque-2 convertedmaterials could be expected in the early generations if anonadapted opaque-2 donor is used in the cross.Earlier it' was indicated that there seems to be aclear association between opaque-2 endosperm andincidence of Fusarium ear rot. Attempts were made todetermine to what extent, if any, the known higherkernel moisture content of opaque materials contributedtowards this increased susceptibility. The trials wereconducted under humid-tropical and subtropical environments(Poza Rica and Tlaltizapan).TABLE M28. Natural incidence of the earworm(Heliothis zea) on normal, opaque-2 and modifiedopaque-2 endosperm versions of four maize populationsobserved at Tlaltizapan, Morelos, 1972.Damaged ears, %Population Normal Opaque ModifiedCompuesto BI. Caribe 15 12 13Compuesto CIMMYT 14 12 18(Ver. 181 x Ant. Gpo. 2)(Ven. 1) 8 19 18Compuesto K 14 19 24TABLE M29. Natural incidence of rust (Pucciniapolysora) on normal, opaque-2 and modified opaque-2endosperm versions of four maize populationsobserved at Poza Rica, Veracruz, 1972.Rust incidence index aPopulation Normal Opaque Modified(Ver. 181 x Ant. Gpo. 2)(Ven. 1) 2.2 2.0 2.2Compuesto K 2.2 2.7 2.5Compuesto BI. Caribe 2.5 2.5 2.7Compuesto CIMMYT 2.7 2.5 3.0aIndex: 1 = no damage; 5 = severe damage.Although there was a low incidence of Fusarium,there were clear differences in susceptibility. Theopaque-2 types were damaged more than the normals.The pattern of ear drying in most varieties weresimilar in both environments. The normals had 2 to 3percent lower ear moisture than the opaques, and themodified versions were intermediate between the two.It remains to be determined whether or not differencesin ear moisture of 1 to 3 percent are biolog·ically significant in favoring a higher incidence ofFusarium ear rot in the opaque types. However, theavailable information suggests an association. Incidenceof Fusarium seems to be associated with the incidenceof earworms, partiCUlarly at Poza Rica.TABLE M30. Natural incidence of the budworm(Spodoptera frugiperda) on foliage from normal,opaque-2 and modified opaque-2 endosperm versionsof four maize populations observed at PozaRica, Veracruz, 1972.Population(Ver. 181 x Ant. Gpo. 2)(Ven. 1)Compuesto BI. CaribeCompuesto KCompuesto CIMMYTa Leaf feeding.Stored-Grain InsectsDamaged plants,a %Modified Normal Opaque15917202020182824323131Susceptibility of the weevil Sitophylus zeamais variedamong types within varieties. Compuesto K was theleast-damaged population, regardless of type, whileVeracruz 181 x Antigua Group 2 x Venezuela had thehighest emergence of weevils and the heavies;t damage.The pattern of susceptibility to weevils seems clear(Table 34). In every case, the normals were theleast-damaged type. In Compuesto K and CompuestoCIMMYT, insect emergence rates were twice as high inthe modified version as in the normals, whereas inVeracruz 181 x Antigua Gpo. 2 x Venezuela and YellowHard-Endosperm Composite there was practically nodifference between the normal and modified types.On the average, emergence rates for the opaque versionswere three to four times higher than for normals.Differences in weevil damage and emergence betweennormals and modified types may not be significant.111

Except for Yellow Hard-Endosperm Composite, moth(Sitotroga cerealella) emergence was slightly higher inthe opaque versions than in the modified or normaltypes. On the average, there were no differences inmoth emergence between the normal and the modifiedtypes.Susceptibility to some of the most important storedgraininsect pests may be considerably reduced asprogress is made in reducing the soft endosperm portionof the opaque-2 types.TABLE M31. Natural incidence of the stem borerIDiatraea saccharalis) on plants from normal, opaque-2and modified opaque-2 endosperm versionsof four maize populations observed at Poza Rica,Veracruz, 1972.Damaged plants," %Population Normal Opaque ModifiedCompuesto K 46 49 47Compuesto Bf. Caribe 53 48 50Compuesto CIMMYT 48 47 57eVer. 181 x Ant. Gpo. 2)(Ven. 1) 52 56 49IILeaf feeding.Stored-Grain FungiNormal, modified and opaque kernels from severalgentoypes were subjected to inoculations of Penicilliumand Aspergillus at 75 and 85 percent relative humidity.There were differences among the genotypes, but noindication that endosperm type influenced the growthrate of the fungi.Only a slight decrease in seed germination in thethree endosperm types was evident wheh the relativehlJmidity was held at 75 percent. At 85 percent relativehumidity, germination decreased about 45 percent inall three versions.Relationships between grain moisture, fungal developmentand germination reduction were not clear whenthe data. from each population were considered separately.However, the observations suggested thatfungal development in some populations could be moreclosely associated with moisture level rather than withthe kind of substratum on which they were beinggrown.TABLE M32. Incidence of Fusarium stalk rot artificiallyinoculated on normal, opaque-2 and modifiedopaque-2 endosperm versions of four maizepopulations observed at Tlaltizapan, Morelos, 1972.Stalk rot incidence index"Population Opaque Normal ModifiedCompuesto CIMMYT 3.7 3.6 3.5(Ver. 181 x Ant. Gpo. 2)(Ven. 1) 3.7 3.6 3.8Compuesto BI. Caribe 35 3.8 3.9Compuesto K 3.5 3.8 4.1" Index: 1 = stalk rot free: 5 = three or more internodesrotted.TABLE M33. Natural incidence of the stem borerIDiatraea saccharalis) in stems from normal, opaque-2and modified opaque-2 endosperm versionsof four maize populations observed at Poza Rica,Veracruz, 1972.Dama~ed internodes, %Population Modified Normal OpaqueCompuesto 81. Caribe 14 17 28Compuesto K 31 28 27(Ver. 181 x Ant. Gpo. 2)(Ven. 1) 27 27 32Compuesto CIMMYT 27 37 27TABLE M34. Percent emergence of maize weevilsand angumois grain moths from normal, opaqueand modified endosperm versions of four maizepopulations, EI Baton, Mexico, 1972.PopulationWEEVIL, Sitophilus zeamaisCompuesto K 5 13 15Yellow Hard End. Compo 17 18 29Compuesto CIMMYT 8 19 56lVer. 181 x Ant. Gpo. 2)(Ven. 1) 16 20 55MOTH, Sitotroga cerea/e/laEndosperm versionNormal ModifiedCompuesto K 65 72 74Compuesto CIMMYT 70 66 79Yellow Hard End. Compo 83 60 74(Vp.r. 181 x Ant. Gpo. 2):. Yen. 1) 69 87 93AGRONOMY AND PHYSIOLOGYOpaqueThe agronomy-physiology efforts were concernedwith two main activities: (1) continued development ofa series of maize physiology field trials to provideinformation for use in the breeding program to guideselection and yield improvement and (2) initiation oftwo series of agronomy trials to develop efficientsystems of production, using the best varieties currentlyavailable and comprising on-farm trials in Mexico andinternational agronomy trials. The trials on experimentstations in Mexico have a dual function-·investigationand training.Maize PhysiologySeveral studies of the growth and yield of tropicalmaize have been completed. To provide some measureof the effect of different environments on growthand yield, studies were carried out at CIMMYT's threemain maize experiment stations. A summary of themeteorological data for these three stations is shown inFig. 4 and Table 35. These stations provide a range oftemperature environments for testing materials. At Poza112

Rica and Tlaltizapan two crops of maize can be growneach year. This provides a further contrast since thetemperatures from Decembe~ to May, when the wintercrop is in the field, are usually lower than temperaturesfrom June to October when the summer crop is grown.The results of two such. trials, one at Poza Rica and theother at Tlaltizapan, are shown in Fig. 5.The varieties used were selections of short plants ofTuxpeiio and of Tuxpeiio x Eto. These are two of themost advanced populations of tropical maize from theCIMMYT breeding program. These materials can begrown at much higher plant populations and with muchhigher levels of nitrogen than taller varieties which tendto lodge under such management. Plant populations of50,000, 100,000 and 150,000 plants per hectare weretested. Only the results for the highest and lowestpopulations are shown.These results show several interesting points. Therate of dry matter production and the total dry weightproduced increased with plant population: Furthermore,the rate of dry weight production, or the "cropgrowth rate", at Poza Rica was as high as or higher thanthe rate at Tlaltizapan. Thus, from this and othersimilar experiments there is little evidence to supportthe view that crop growth rate limits yield in thelowland tropics.In these and other experiments grain yield increasedwith increases in plant population. Even so, it seemsthat grain yield is limited because a large proportion ofthe crop dry weight is vegetative growth and grain yieldis only a small proportion of the dry weight produced.Thus, for example, from 13 to 16 weeks after sowing,at which time--depending on variety and location-­accumulation of dry weight in the grain began, bothvarieties had produced between 16 and 20 tons of drymatter per hectare at the high plant population.Furthermore, after silking the rate of increase of dryweight for the grain was smaller than that for totaldry weight for both varieties and at both populationdensities.In other words, only a part of the dry weightproduced after silking was going into the grain. Asimilar unfavorable pattern of dry weight distributionhas now been observed in several trials, including oneat EI Batan in which five highland varieties were studied.Examining the components of grain yield to identifythose that account for differences in yield betweenvarieties and plant populations provides some indicationof what factors appear to be limiting grain yield andwhat might be done to increase yield and overcome thepresent unfavorable distribution of dry weight.. Thegrain yields and the components of yield that correspond to the dry weights given in Fig. 5 are shown inFig. 6. The yields at Tlaltizapan were greater thanthose at Poza Rica and at both sites Tuxpeiio yieldedmore than the variety cross. Grain yield increased withplant population up to 150,000 plants per hectare, orthree times the population normally recommended inmost countries. The largest yield (8.3 tons of oven-drygrain per hectare, or 9.5 tons at 15 percent moisture)was from Tuxpeiio at Tlaltizapan at the highest poplJlation.The top two graphs in Fig. 6 show that grain yield isalmost proportional to grain number per unit area,which ranges from 2,000 to 4,000 grains/m2. In otherwords, plant population had only a comparatively smalleffect on grain size. The number of grains per unit areais the product of the number of ears per unit area andthe number of grains per ear. In both varieties at highplant population there were fewer ears than plantsbecause some plants were barren. However, there werefewer barren plants at Tlaltizapan than at Poza Rica,and at the highest population at Tlaltizapan, Tuxpeiioproduced more ears than the variety cross. Thebottom-right graph in Fig. 6 shows that as the number ofears per unit area increased with plant population, thenumber ot grains per ear decreased, but at eachpopulation the number of grains per ear was larger forTuxpeiio than for the cross. It was these differenceswhich accounted for the larger number of grains permeter and, consequently, the larger yield of Tuxpeiio.TABLE M3S. Climatic data for maize experiment stations in Mexico (1972).StationPoza Rica T1altizapan EI BatanMonth Rainfall " Evaporation" Rainfall Evaporation Rainfall EvaporationJanuaryFebruaryMarchAprilMayJuneJulyAugustSeptemberOctoberNovemberDecemberTotal123.539.239.326.2100.9254.1234.2240.2109.6182.452.531.21433.32.63.24.65.86.05.34.95.45.74.63.42.80.30.04.843.444.0246.4102.976.4171.822.37.20.4719.95.27.09.013,913.67.57.?7.~6.95.95.6Ii96.40.011.R54,7120.5111.13130.7RIi.R79.030.316.51.0649.54.25.86.37.47.96.05.15.24.74.44.23.8II Rainfall: monthly totals. mm.~ Evaporation: USWB Class A. mm/day.113

Table 36 shows the results of experiments in whichthe differences in yield between closely related tall,short and brachytic forms of Tuxpeno were examined.The tall Tuxpeno was prone to lodging and was,therefore, grown at lower plant populations (25,000and 50,000 plants per hectare) than the short Tuxpenoor the brachytic forms (50,000 and 100,000 plants perhectare). The tall Tuxpeno at 50,000 plants per hectaregave the greatest yield (5.8 tons/ha.l. but the yield ofthe short Tuxpeno at 100,000 plants per hectare wasonly slightly less (5.6 tons). The difference in yieldOr;...w'!z 10060040030200100C>c3000:2000: 100C....POZA RICA &0_ AlTITUO£ to-29'" '7-.ltW"r"~\I/-.........J;"''''''- ..--"-~-,--, ....-"1\ /_..../ •./ ~_.. "\ 50:~-~~:~~VV__._•.fl.,IAN '(1 Malt A'R MAY .tUNE .lUll AUI KPT OCT NOY MeTULnlAPAN ,...../_••_-...., 940aALTI1UDE '.-41'N 99-01'. '5 u-------_/ ,-_.........._---------- _. .••'-..-...... --'t=~::>.... 3025 ...0:20 :>15 ....c10 0:MIIIIIIIUIIIT(III"",,tUlt£ ........D­O ,."AN '[1 1II"" AP. IIIAY "UIC J....., AUG SEPT OCT NOY OfC ...1000_YIELD~:: ~~10 P.S )-TIOIt.~:: i~TO p.s]. p. Rica200-'--.------'-----'-.:.;..,.---~15II" P~ .-215..I2CJ~:NUIISER OF EARS 11_ 210N' Plont. 11- 215IlUIlBER OF GRAINS 11_ 2~ '.....,------","'" -.----- ...~II" ~nts 11- 2NUMBER OF GRAINS/EAR10No.E... 1I-2FIG. 6. An analysis of components of grain yield.15rn,IAN Fr. MAlt "'" IIIAY .... NLY AU' Sf'" OCT NOV D£CEL UTAN..............,...- _ .-3530....-.......v,..- ..~ 2S\........ 20.......................,,"" ~...........1510was accounted for almost entirely by a difference ingrain size, since the number of grains/m2 was similar inthe two varieties. This suggests that one previouslyunrecognized effect of selection for short plants hasbeen a decrease in grain size...'" coFIG. 4. Climatic data (10-day means) for CIMMYT'sPoza Rica, Tlaltizapan and EI Batan experiment stationsin MlPCico (1972).WEEKS FROM SOWING150000 PIcIIh .,1-_ ..----,........ _DollFIG. 5. Dry weight and grain yield of maize grown intwo different environments in Mexico.However, the short plants in this comparison werefrom early cycles of selection and although they wereearlier than the original tall Tuxpefio, probably 100,000plants per hectare, at which more recent selections givebest yields, was above the optimum population. Theyield of the short Tuxpefio was larger and increasedmore with higher plant populations than the yield ofeither of the brachytics. As in the previous experiments,the differences in yield were determined mainly bydifferences in the number of grains/m2. At 50,000plants per hectare, the difference in the number ofgrains and, consequently, in yield, was accounted formainly by the larger number of grains per ear on theshort-plant selection.However, at the higher 'population differences betweenvarieties in the number of grains per ear weresmall, but the short Tuxpeno produced more ears/m2than either of the brac.twtics. Even so. 26 percent ofthe plants of the short Tuxpeno were not contributingto yield at this population. In the brachytics thepercentages were even larger, 44 percent and 32 percent.All four of these Tuxpefios exhibited an unfavourablepattern of dry weight distribution similar to that shownin Fig. 5.It seems unlikely from the evidence of these andcorresponding experiments with highland tropical varietiesthat crop growth rate per se limits the grain yieldof tropical maize. The oroblem is more one of.114

distribution of dry weight and, in the lowland tropics, acomparatively short period of dry weight accumulationin the grain. It seems, therefore, that there is probablyconsiderable scope for developing plants in which amuch larger proportion of the resources available areused to produce grain.The varieties described usually produce about 2,500grains/m 2 at populations of about 40,000 or 50,000plants per hectare. This number can be increased byincreasing plant population, but with the materialsavailable and at the plant populations needed toproduce, for example, 4,000 grains/m2, a large proportionof the plants are barren.For selection to be effective in breeding nurseries,plants have to be relatively widely spaced (about40,000 plants per hectare). There is, therefore, a needto find ways of eliminating most cr- all of the lossresulting from barreness and the loss associated with adecrease in the number of grains per ear as plantpopulation is increased.There are two ways in which this might be done.The first is to hi?ve a companion nursery at a populationof 80,000 to 100,000 plants per hectare. Families ·thatdo not tolerate the higher plant population can then beidentified and discarded. This system would addanother selection variable to the entire breeding program.A second approach is to examine more thoroughlythe potential of early maturing tropical maizes. Theyhave a shorter period of vegetative growth and appear tohave a more favourable dry weight distribution.In the nurseries with widely spaced plants, the yieldof early varieties with a smaller leaf area per plantcompares unfavorably with the yield of tall, leafytropical varieties like Tuxpefio. However, in a smallplot test last year an extremely early variety, whichproduces 11 or 12 leaves compared with 24 forTuxDefio. was sown at 25 plants/m2 . This is anappreciably greater plant density than it has beenpossible to maintain with larger plant varieties, yetevery plant produced an ear. However, any suchmaterials available are susceptible to leaf diseases andear rots.CIMMYT has initiated very early maturing populationsby combining into two or three popu lations all ofthe extremely early and small plant types that it hasbeen able to collect from around the world. Thesepopulations are in the early stages of development butshould provide material that can be very intensivelymanaged. In addition, these populations should providevery early material for areas of the world needingvarieties that will mature in 90 days or less.Phenology StudiesCIMMYT is concerned with the development ofwidely adapted maize varieties which will meet thevaried climatic requirements of the world. To obtainmore information on the basis of maize adaptation, astudy is being made of the effects of variation in daylength and temperature with season and site on maizedevelopment. Most of the observations are being madeat the three main experiments stations in Mexico,which are approximately the same latitude (about 20 0N) but which differ in altitude. Limited additionalobservations are being taken at sites 4 0N in Colombiain cooperation with CIAT and at 40 0N in cooperationwith Purdue University. The data suggest that betweenlatitudes 30 0 Nand 30 0 S most of the variation intime to flowering can be accounted for by differencesin temperature. The data now available will be used toconstruct a model to gu ide selection of materialsthat are Iikely to be "suitable for use at a given locationand to fit a given growing season.Maize Agronomy TrialsOn-Station Trials in Mexico: There are two mainobjectives in this series of trials: (1) to develop fromthe best available technology, practical and efficientsystems of production and (2) to teach productiontrainees the principles of field experimentation. Somenine varieties in combination with plant population,fertilizer, insecticide and herbicide treatments havebeen included in six basic experiment designs. Thetrials are at Poza Rica and Tlaltizapan.Active participation and a sense of involvement anddedication in the acceleration of maize production isemphasized by the CIMMYT training program. lng.Roberto Vega L., former trainee from EI Salvador,is a strong supporter of the national maize program inhis country.International' Agronomy Trial: A variety of locationswere chosen in different parts of the world to test thematerials in as wide a range of environments as possible.The locations chosen for the first set of trials were:Colombia, Egypt, Kenya, Nepal, Nigeria, Pakistan,Philippines, Thailand, Zaire and Mexico (Obregon, PozaRica, RIo Bravo and Tlaltizapan). The trial consistedof eight varieties (seven from CIMMYT and one varietychosen from local material) grown under four nitrogentreatments (0, 75, 150 and 225 kg/hal in a randomizedcomplete block design with three replications.Since this was the first attempt at an international115

TABLE M36. Grain yield and yield components offour tuxpeiios.VarietyPlants/m' CR.I PB BR BRPB2.5 3.81 4Grain yield 5 5.81 4.82 3.57 3.67tons/ha 10 5.61 4.02 3.972.5 296fOOO-kernel 5 282 237 242 229weight, g 10 229 242 2202.5 1285Kernels/m' 5 2057 2039 1480 160110 2451 1651 18022.5 514Kernels/ear 5 457 429 333 32710 331 296 2652.5 2.5Ears/m' 5 4.5 4.8 4.5 4.910 7.4 5.6 6.8Source: J. Yamaguchi.CR.I Tuxpeiio crema I.PB Tuxpeiio short plant selection.BR Tuxpeiio brachytic.BRPB Tuxpeiio brachytic short plant selection.agronomy trial, the experimental design was kept simplewith few varieties. As the cooperators indicate theease or difficulty in setting out such trials, modificationswill be made in the design and selection of the materialsto be used. If certain varieties are not widely adaptedthey will be dropped from the trial. When outstandingvarieties from local materials are identified, they will beput into the trial and given wider distribution.INSECT CONTROLBudworm and Corn Stem Borer Controlwith InsecticidesEven though the ultimate goal of CIMMYT isdeveloping maize populations resistant to the maininsect pests, information about their chemical control isnecessary. Experiments were designed to gather informationwith respect to the efficiency of severalsystemic insecticides for controlling budworm (Spodopterafrugiperda) and stem borer, to investigate theadvantage or disadvantage of using insecticides in granularform versus sprays, and to study timing of theappl ications and to determine the effectiveness ofalternated plant treatment with granules to the whorl.The effectiveness of insecticides was measured byweekly counts of budworm damaged plants, and thenumber of surviving plants.Four systemic insecticides (Lannate, Thimet, Disystonand Temik) were tested for budworm controlat Tlaltizapan. At Poza Rica, only Lannate, Thimetand Disyston were tested. Three dosages of eachinsecticide were used: 2, 5 and 10 kilograms ofactive ingredient (AI) per hectare. Insecticides wereapplied to the soil at planting time.The budworm population, as measured by thenumber of damaged plants, was higher at Tlaltizapanthan at Poza Rica. However, the opposite was true forstem borer populations.These results seem to indicate that the best of thefour systemic insecticides tested was Lannate, regardlessof dosage. At both locations Lannate controlledbudworm for longer than any of the other systemicinsecticides. The effectiveness of this insecticide atTlaltizapan was reflected in the number of survivingplants, which in turn significantly affected yield. AtPoza Rica, Lannate was also the best insecticide forcontrolling both budworm and corn stem borer.Yields for the different treatments, summarized inTable 37, show that the highest yields correspondedto Lannate plots and that there was no signific!!ntdifference between the different dosages (10, 5 and2 kg AI/ha). Plant growth and appearan~e on theseplots was clearly superior, suggesting some controlof root-damaging agents. The least-effective insecticidewas Disyston.TABLE M37. Grain yield summary for systemicinsecticides in bud worm and stem borer control,Tlaltizapan and Poza Rica, 1972 A.ActiveYield. kg/haingredientInsecticide kg/ha Tlaltizapsn Poza RicaLannate 10 8426 6345Lannate 5 7510 6460Lannate 2 7448 5900Thimet 10 6919 5375Disyston 10 6679 4679Temik 5 6597Thimet 2 6585 4985Disyston 2 6567 4832Temlk 10 6563Thimet 5 6520 5222Check 6437 4945Temik 2 6272Disyston 5 5587 4679Insecticides and FormulationsThe insecticides tested were Sevin (5 percent),Cytrolane, Birlane, Dipterex, Diazinon, Cyolane, andSevin (5 percent) plus Gardona in foliar applications,both as granules and as emulsifiable concentrates. Twoapplications were made: two weeks after planting andtwo weeks later. All the insecticides were used at a rateof 250 grams AI/ha per application.The results seem to indicate that the most effectiveinsecticides at Tlaltizapan, regardless of formulation,were Sevin (5 percent), Cytrolane and Birlane. Sevin(5 percent) and Gardona gave substantially the samebudworm control and yields were not statisticallydifferent. At Poza Rica, perhaps because of the lowinfestation, there were no yield differences betweentreatments. The different insecticides tested gave thesame budworm and stem borer control. When formulationis considered, the granular applications gave bettercontrol of both insects than sprays. However, this hadno measurable effect on yield.116

Products and Interval between ApplicationsThe insecticides Birlane, Cytrolane, Sevin (5 percent),Dipterex, Sevin (2.5 percent) and Gardona were testedas granulars applied twice to the whorl at a rate of250 grams AI/ha per application. The first applicationwas made two weeks after planting. The second.application was made two weeks, three weeks or fourweeks after the first application, dependin~ on thetreatment specifications. At Tlaltizapan, all the insecticides,regardless of interval between applications, gavesubstantially the same control of budworm except in thesixth and seventh week after planting when treatmentsshowed some differences which were not reflected inyield differences. At Poza Rica, the results wereessentially the same except that the Gardona plotswere the most damaged by stem borer and yieldedless than the other plots. The results for Tlaltizapanseem to indicate that the interval between the first andthe second application did not have much influence onthe percentage of surviving plants or on yield.Insecticides and Alternated Plant TreatmentsDifferent granular insecticides (Sevin (5 percent),Sevin (2.5 percent), Cytrolane and Birlane) were appliedto: all plants; alternate plants; two of three plants in aseries; and three of four plants in a series.Two insecticide applications were made: (1) twoweeks after planting and (2) two weeks later. Insecticiderates were 250 grams AI/ha where all the plantswere treated and 125 grams AI/ha where alternateplants were treated. The insecticides effectively controlledbudworm at both locations, and the differencesbetween treatments were not significantly differentfor yield or for damage by budworm and stem borer.At Tlaltizapan, the "all plants" and "two of three in aseries" treatments gave the best control and highestyields. At Poza Rica, differences observed in the controlplots were not reflected in vieIds.During the summer of 1972 at Poza Rica, thesystemic insecticides Furadan, Cytrolane, Lannate andThimet were tested in several formulations (granules,wettable powder and emulsifiable concentrate) forTrainees learn the importance of showing to farmers what a few technological changes can do to increase maize production.Using the African hoe, three former CIMMYT trainees, Messrs. Bosa, Binsika and Shabani and a member of the CIMMYToutreach staff, Dr. T. Hart, guide preparation of a field for demonstration plantings in Zaire.117

udworm and stem borer control. The insecticideswere applied as soil, seed and foliar treatments. Thenonsystemic insecticides (Sevin, Gardona, Birlane andDipterex) were tested as granules applied to the whorl.Tamaron was used as spray. The rates and methods ofapplication with results are in Table 38. These resultsseem to indicate that good control of budworm andstem borer was provided by Furadan, Cytrolane, Birlaneand Lannate.The differences in yield between the more effectivetreatments and the control plot point out the magnitudeof the insect problem and the effectiveness in tropicalenvironments.Effective soil dosages of these systemic insecticidesare too costly and should not be suggested for farmers'use. However, seed dressing in combination with whorlapplication of granular materials will provide similarprotection at a much reduced cost. In these experiments,similar insect control was obtained wheneither granules or sprays were used.MAIZE EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMThe CIMMYT maize educational program preparestechnicians and scientists for interdisciplinary teamworkin national programs. This reflects CIMMYT's philosophythat the various disciplines must work togethertoward the common objective in improving maizeproduction.To accomplish this, technicians and scientists fromvarious countries and disciplines work within theongoing CIMMYT programs. No research activity iscarried out for educational activities pe~ se.Participants in the educational program during 1972may be categorized into three groups: (1) trainees(2) visiting scientists and (3) degree students.TraineesThe trainees vary in educational background and theamount and kind of field experience. This means thatmodifications are frequently made to meet the needsof individual trainees. Training in 1972 involved fourmajor areas: maize improvement, production, plantprotection and protein quality evaluation. Theseactivities were carried out on experiment stations, in thePuebla Project area, in laboratories and in cooperationwith local farmers.The training program is practically oriented with85 to 90 percent of the trainees' time devoted to activefield and laboratory training with CIMMYT scientists.About 10 to 15 percent of their time is for lectures andseminars. During 1972, 58 trainees from 21 countrieseither completed or initiated a training program averagingsix months.The countries represented in the CIMMYT maizetraining program and the number of participants fromeach country are: Argentina, 1; Chile, 1; Colombia, 3;Dominican Republic, 3; Ecuador, 1; Egypt, 1; EISiavador, 6; Guatemala, 4; Guyana, 1; Haiti, 3; Honduras,2; Japan, 3; Nicaragua, 2; Nigeria, 3; Pakistan, 3;Panama, 1; Philippines, 5; Tanzania, 5; Thailand, 1;Venezuela, 3; and Zaire, 6.These trainees were sponsored by USAID, Inter­American Development Bank, CONACYT (Mexico),Ing. Alfonso Alvarado (right> former CIMMYT maizetrainee, and Ing. Ezequiel Espinoza (center) showexperimental plots in Panama to H. Hanson, DirectorGeneral of CIMMYT.118

TABLE M38. EHectiveness of four systemic and four nonsystemic insecl icides for diHerent dosages, formulations and application methods forthe control of bud worm and stem borer in maize. Poza Rica. 1972 B.Bud worm - damaged plants. % Percentage of damagedActive Yield Internodes Ears byin~redient Application kg/ha 1st 2nd 3rd 4th by bud worm & SurvivingInsecticide Form g/ha method 15% moisture count count count count stem borer stem borer plants. %Furadan Granules 5 Soil 6036 6.0 2.5 9.4 15.5 22.1 29.6 99.5Furadan W.P. 5 Soil 5583 8.8 5.0 12.5 14.5 36.2 44.6 99.0Furadan Granules 2 Soil 5569 8.7 3.0 11.1 21.8 35.7 45.5 97.7Furadan W.P. 2 Soil 5501 7.9 5.1 16.4 30.0 39.6 52.5 97.0Furadan Granules 0.5 Foliar 5413 42.8 3.0 31.3 31.3 22.3 44.3 95.0Cytrolane Granules 2 Soil 5341 16.9 3.4 1.5 8.1 26.8 34.6 96.0Cytrolane Granules 5 Soil 5316 9.4 2.6 1.1 1.7 20.7 24.8 94.5Cytrolane E.C. 5 Soil 5253 14.4 3.4 3.4 2.4 18.7 24.8 94.2Blrlane Granules 0.5 Foliar 5238 43.6 10.3 33.1 8.2 29.5 53.4 94.7Lannate Granules 0.5 Foliar 5136 52.5 4.1 46.9 5.1 31.7 58.0 93.5Cytrolane E.C. 2 Soil 5028 18.5 3.4 6.0 10.3 33.3 42.7 93.2Gardona Granules 0.5 Foliar 4949 40.8 13.3 37.2 11.3 25.1 49.7 92.7Lannate W.P. 5 Soil 4942 6.4 3.0 12.3 17.2 39.1 47.1 94.7Sevin Granules 0.5 Foliar 4801 36.7 8.8 36.2 11.4 27.6 50.9 88.0Cytrolane Granules 0.5 Foliar 4721 28.6 8.8 37.8 6.2 30.5 51.0 91.5Lannate Granules 5 Soil 4522 10.5 3.5 12.3 31.5 44.0 56.3 96.7Lannate W.P. 2 Soli 4391 12.7 6.1 15.8 25.8 38.5 51.6 92.2Furadan W.P. 0.5 Seed Treat. 4183 16.6 12.5 37.0 45.5 43.5 66.0 99.2Thlmet Granules 0.5 Foliar 3960 59.1 6.7 45.7 36.3 38.3 73.0 92.5Lannate Granules 2 Soil 3956 10.2 5.0 27.4 47.2 44.9 63.9 96.0Tamaran E.C. 0.5 Foliar spray 3870 45.4 22.2 46.8 24.9 34.6 66.0 86.5Furadan WP 0.25 Seed Treat. 3837 19.6 13.1 32.6 21.8 44.8 67.2 96.0Dlpterex Granules 0.5 Foliar 3461 37.6 1.9.9 46.2 12.2 29.3 57.9 84.5Thimet Granules 5 Soli 2541 40.4 17.7 49.9 69.5 49.1 86.9. 85.5Thlmet Granules 2 Soli 2290 47.5 24.5 47.6 73.2 47.3 88.0 88.2Thlmet E.C. 5 Soil 2217 34.9 29.5 42.7 65.9 44.4 80.8 91.7Thlmet E.C. 2 Soil 2061 39.8 26.5 50.4 66.9 50.0 89.9 90.0Check 1965 47.57 27.7 44.7 64.8 40.8 82.4 81.6Lannate W.P. 0.25 Seed Treat. 1699 18.7 14.1 49.5 61.2 46.4 75.3 87.5-A-ALannate W.P. 0.5 Seed Treat. 1403 16.1 23.1 45.8 63.0 38.6 68.2 88.0CO

From seed preparation, through planting, note taking, harvesting and analyzing the results, CIMMYT maize trainees learnthe importance of good experimentation in the process of increasing production. Young scientists from several countriesplant an experiment at the EI Satan Station, Mexico.DIGESA (Guatemala), the Ford Foundation, UnitedNations Development Program and the Government ofZaire.The 29 production trainees participated in fieldexperimentation, learning the principal factors relatedto maize production. Also studied were economicconcepts and their application, and systems for resourceallocation and use at the regional level and farm level.In visits to the Puebla Project, the trainees learnedabout the organization, progress and evaluation of theresults of this pruject. They also participated in theestablishment of 18 one-acre demonstration plots usingpackages ·of recomendations in one of the project areas.The trainees organized field days and farm demonstrationson how to increase yields through the applicationof new technology.The group of 19 trainees in maize breeding workedon designing, preparing, planting, harvesting, analyzingand interpreting resu Its of experiments conducted atthe experiment stations. They studied breeding techniques,selection procedures to produce high-yieldingmaterials, how to select for resistance to insects anddiseases, and how to identify material superior inagronomic characters. Trainees became familiar withthe CIMMYT genetic material and made their ownselections of promising germ plasm sources for theirown programs. They also became acquainted withlaboratory methods to determ ine grain protein qual ityand amino acid composition.The three plant protection trainees spent their timefamiliarizing themselves with the principal insects anddiseases that attack maize, the breeding procedures usedto incorporate resistance, methods of selecting forsources of resistance, methods for increasing inoculantsand insects, methods of inoculation, and techniquesfor testing materials. Also, they were exposed to thework associated with insect control by insecticides.120The protein quality evaluation trainees were concernedwith the organization and operation of laboratoriesfor evaluation of maize protein and analyses of aminoacids in grain.In cooperation with the Mexican Extension Service,several demonstrations and experiments were established.These provided valuable experience to thetrainees in the use of scarce farm resources and inin setting up meaningful experiments to test theresults obtained at experiment stations.Visiting ScientistsDuring 1972, 10 visiting scientists from eight countriesworked with CIMMYT. These individuals are inkey positions in national programs and usually holdadvanced degrees. While working with the CIMMYTscientists they have made many valuable research inputswh ich have assisted the overall program.These scientists and their countries are: S. Sriwatauapongse,Thailand; A. Shehata, Egypt; B. Aday, Philippines;T. Mercado, Philippines; B. Gabriel, Philippines;M. Shah, Pakistan; H. Hassan, Malaysia; T. Hart, UnitedStates; F. de Wolff, Holland; and M. Pandey, India.Degree StudentsThe enthusiasm with which education in goal-orientedteam research is being accepted is exemplified byCIMMYT's participation with several academic institutionsin the preparation of students for the B.S.,M.S. and Ph.D. degrees.During 1972 CIMMYT cooperated closely with Chapingo,Los Banos, The University of Mexico andCornell University in training 17 students. Thesestudents, their degree, their institution, and their countryof origin were: C. Torres, M.S., Chapingo, Argentina;I. Bustos, M.S., Chapingo, Argentina; P. Alcibar,M.S., Chapingo, Ecuador; R. Murillo, M.S., Chapingo,

Costa Rica; C. Senigagliesi, M.S., Chapingo, Argentina;A. Berardo, M.S., Chapingo, Argentina; A. Coutino,B.S., Chapingo, Mexico; B. De Orozco, M.S., Chapingo,Colombia; J. Betancourt, M.S., Chapingo, Guatemala;R. Mejia, B.S., Chapingo, Mexico; J. Jimenez, B.S.,Chapingo, Mexico; L. Nzarea, M.S., Los Banos, Philippines;T. Mercado, Ph.D., Lo' Banos, Philippines; A.Morales, M.S., Los Banos, Philippines; S. Peniche,B.S., Univ. of Mex., Mexico; D. Sperling, Ph.D., Cornell,U.S.A.; M. Splitter, Ph.D., Cornell, U.S.A.; J. Splitter,Ph.D., Cornell, U.S.A.During 1973 the visiting scientists and degree studentprograms will expand with more individuals and institutionsparticipanting.GERM PLASM BANK ACTIVITIESNew seed storage facilities for the Maize GermPlasm Bank were completed at CIMMYT's headquartersand became operational during 1972. These facil itiesconsist of two cold-storage chambers in which thetemperature is maintained at 0° C and relative humidityat 45 percent. Open iron racks hold seed containers.The rad:s have a storage capacity of 10,440 two-I iterand 15,120 four-liter containers plus 132 drawers forsmall seed lots. There is enough refrigerated capacityinstalled to meet all immediate seed storage needs.A total of 746 accessions were propagated atTlaltizapan and EI Batan during 1972. Of these, 467were new accessions not included in the Maize GermPlasm Bank inventory. All seed produced during 1971was shelled, inventoried and placed in cold storage.A cooperative agreement to propagate and increasein Peru 1,067 accessions from Bol ivia, Ch ile, Ecuadorand Peru was reached with the Programa Cooperativode Investigaciones en Maiz, Universidad Agraria-LaMolina and put into effect in 1972. Climatic conditionsat CIMMYT's stations in Mexico are not suitable forpropagating most of these populations from high altitudes.Growing them in Peru will reduce losses andminimize effects of natural selection.Fifty shipments totaling 2,390 populations weremade to 20 countries in 1972. The pertinent informationis summarizeo in Table 39.Evaluation of Accessions Available inthe Germ Plasm BankSix hundred and sixty-three of the accessions availablein the Maize Germ Plasm Bank were compared withthree checks in randomized complete blocks at PozaRica, Tlaltizapan and EI Batan. The accessions weredivided into three tests. One test, involving 57 entries,A training program broad in scope must include library work. Trainees from the Philippines, Nigeria, Tanzania, Guatemala,and Nicaragua do their library assignments at CIMMYT headquarters at EI Batan.121

TABLE M39. Number of shipments and maizepopulations distributed by CIMMYT's Maize GermPlasm Bank in 1972.Number ofCountries Shipments PopulationsArgentina 1 7Australia 1 8Colombia 1 16Ethiopia 1 184HIII/ta Volta 1 24Holland 1 7India 2 4Ireland 4 22Italy 2 137Japan 2 91Kenya 2 69Malaya 3 105Mexico 10 75Ni~eria 1 365Pa istan 1 397PAri! I 130Philippines 1 548Uruguay 1 2U. S. A. 12 127Yugoslavia 2 72included populations originating at high elevations;the remaining two had 77 and 499 entries, respectively,from intermediate and low elevations. The checkswere Tuxpeiio Planta Baja, Composite 301 and ChalquenoA Composite.The data collected will be statistically analyzed andonly a brief summary of the results obtained inTlaltizapan with the popu lations from low elevation willbe presented here. Table 40 summarizes grain yieldswith 15.5 percent moisture content (assuming a uni~form shelling coefficient of 80 percent), days tosilking, grain moisture at harvest and percent rootlodging for the 28 highest yielding entries and TuxpenoPlanta Baja--the best check in the test. These resultsillustrate the great genetic potential available in theMaize Germ Plasm Bank. The experimental entries inthis test have not undergone any selection, and manyof them yielded as well or better and were of similarmaturity to a check that has undergone several cyclesof selection. The results also point out the need for asystemic evaluation of the populations available in theGerm Plasm Bank to isolate the most promising populationsand incorporate them into the maize breedingprogram.Total 50 2,390TABLE M40. Grain yield, days to silking, moisture at harvest, ear height and root lodging of the 28highest yielding low-elevation entries and a check compared at Tlaltizapan, 1972.RootGrain yield Days to Moisture Ear height. lodgingEntry kQ/ha silking 0/0 meters %Sinaloa 70 8479 68 14.82 1.55 87Sinaloa 81 7991 72 17.07 1.53 47Tamaulipas 28 7987 64 15.94 1.52 48Jalisco 281 7854 66 16.42 1.54 45Nuevo Le6n 17 7782 68 14.34 1.62 45Sinaloa 85 7700 72 17.93 1.56 47Tamaulipas 45 7567 66 14.64 1.45 81Tamaulipas Grupo 2 7444 65 15.77 1.39 46Nayarit 154 7411 73 19.41 1.96 58Tamaulipas Grupo 4 7203 68 17.33 1.62 75Jalisco 286 7198 72 18.03 1.59 69Nayarit 178 7167 73 18.08 1.56 36Sonora 72 7 111 71 19.53 1.59 48Tamaulipas 30 6863 64 1578 1.38 65Sonora 74 6760 74 17.61 1.45 59Nayarit 153 6647 74 21.39 1.85 31Compuesto Tuxpeiio 6639 75 19.05 1.94 64Nayarit 159 6565 74 20.02 1.77 59Nayarit 155 6483 74 17.47 1.66 73Sinaloa 85 6397 72 18.48 1.53 51Coahuila 53 6390 77 22.38 1.86 55Cuba 40 6363 69 17.28 1.47 43Cuba 168 6362 74 18.58 1.65 57Jalisco 279 6290 68 17.61 1.49 74Nayarit 162. 6272 70 17.53 1.64 76Cuba Grupo 2 6248 73 17.73 1.63 41San Luis Potosi Grupo 9 6232 71 17.51 1.88 63Nayarit 173 6087 14 19.15 1.72 46Check:Tuxpeiio Planta Baja 5989 74 19.74 1.31 37122

Development of Genetic Marker StocksA series of genetic stocks marking several segmentsin 9 of the 10 chromosomes of maize was initiated in1971. F1S of genetic stocks obtained from the Urbana(Illinois) Bank and Antigua Group 2 as well as their F2swere produced in 1971. In the 1972 winter crop, plantsshowing the desired gene combinations were backcrossedto Antigua Group 2 to recover 75 percent of thegenotype of this population. The backcrosses will beself-pollinated to obtain the linked combinations involvingrecessive genes and then some of these will becombined into stocks marking a larger number ofsegments of each chromosome.Tripsacum CollectionsWith the participation of Dr. L. F. Randolph,Emeritus Professor of Botany at Cornell University, 127Tripsacum clones were collected in the Mexican statesof Guanajuato, Jalisco and Colima, and in BritishHonduras, and added to the garden established at theTlaltizapan Field Station. Twelve clones from fourhigh-altitude Mexican populations, assumed to be coldtolerant, were planted at EI Batan. Table 41 summarizesthe species currently available in CIMMYT's Tripsacumgarden and the number of collections and clones foreach of them. Chromosome counts in 20 of the cloneshave already been made.The Tripsacum collection will be used in an intergeneticcrossing program with maize to transfer tomaize desirable genes of potential value in corn improvement.have confirmed that in F2 populations parental types arerecovered with frequencies corresponding to about fouror five major independently segregating genetic units.Backcross populations are consistent with F2 results,but the frequency of recovered parental types in bothtypes of populations varies with the maize and teocintleused. Recovered teocintle and corn lines were increasedat EI Batan and enough seed produced for furtherstudies.Chromosome Morphology Studies on MaizeIn 1959 and 1960, Dr. Barbara McClintock of theCarnegie Institute conducted the first research onchromosome morphology of different races of maize inLatin America. From these preliminary studies sheconcluded that the possibility existed that many presentlygrown races of maize originated independently indifferent centers of origin from germ plasm alreadyestablished in those centers.Wider cytological studies on different Americanraces of maize were then made and the first report waspublished by Dr. Albert A. Longley and T. A. Kato Y.in 1965. Later, this program was broadened and Dr.Almiro Blumenschein of the University of Sao Paulo inBrazil participated under the orientation of Dr. McClintock.A detailed report on these investigations is beingprepared for publication in 1973 by McClintock Wellhausen,Blumenschein and Kato.'TABLE M41. Summary of Tripsacum species andputative hybrids collected during 1970-72 andplanted at CIMMYT's field station in Tlaltizapan.Species or hybridsCollectionsmadeCronesavailableT. australe 1 1T. dactyloides ssp. hispidum 9 33T. dactyloides 31 125T. floridanum 1 1T. latifolium 9 33T. lanceolatum 4 8T. laxum 1 1T. maizar 11 37T. pilosum 11 41T. zopilotense 9 29T. sp. 3 8T. latifolium-maizar 2 6T. pilosum-maizar 3 11T. maizar-dactyloides 2 18Total 97 352Cooperative Work on Maize-Teocintle CrossesIn collaboration with Dr. G. W. Beadle, EmeritusPresident of the University of Chicago, large secondgeneration populations of Argentine popcorn x Guerreroteocintle and Argentine popcorn x Nobogame teocin~lewere grown and classified. The results of this studyINTERNATIONAL MAIZE TRIALSInternational Maize Adaptation Nursery (IMAN)In 1972, 81 IMAN trials were distributed to 46countries in Asia, Africa, the Middle East, Australia,New Zealand, North America, Central America andSouth America. These trials included materials fromthe Ivory Coast, India, Colombia, Peru, EI Salvador,Argentina, Jamaica and Mexico (CIMMYT and INIA).Data of the first (1971) IMAN has been summarized,published and distributed to cooperators and otherinterested persons and institutions. Results of thesecond (1972) IMAN are being processed and will bepublished soon.International Opaque-2 Maize Trials (I0MT)Forty-eight IOMT trials were sent to 34 countrieson all continents. The results of the first and secondIOMT trials are being processed and will be publishedsoon. These trials pose some particular •problems dueto the absolute need for growing them under strictisolation. A very thorough screening of the experimentalresults is required to avoid any possible bias in theyield measurements due to contamination with normalpollen.The delay in publishing results is mostly due tovarying planting dates among all the sites involved inthese tests. Planting dates vary from early April tolate October. This results in a period of about 18months between seed shipment (March-April) and reoturn of the field data for analysis.123

These trials have demonstrated their usefulness tobreeders in many countries. A very intensive exchangeof materials has already taken place among manyparticipants in the testing program.CIMMYT has received several requests for seedincluded in the IMAN and the IOMT series. Theserequests are immediately served for those materialsfrom the CIMMYT breeding program. Requests formaterials from other sources (national programs, privatecompanies, etc.) are given to the source involved or thenecessary steps are taken to facil itate direct negotiationsfor the provision of the seed requested. The number ofparticipants has increased considerably. Eighty-fiveIMAN and 62 IOMT sets have been requested for 1973.A group of delegates to the 8th Inter-Asian Corn Program Workshop observe the International Maize AdaptationNursery (lMAN) at Farm Suwan, Thailand.124

SORGHUMNone of the commercially available sorghum hybridsor varieties will set seed dependably at the elevation of2,240 meters in the Valley of Mexico (19° N latitude).Night temperature minimums are regularly below 10° Cduring flowering and seed formation. It is believed thatlow night temperatures cause ovule abortion and preventseed fromation even though viable pollen may bepresent.In an attempt to develop varieties capable of settingseed at these low night temperatures, collections ofmaterials from high, cool areas of the world have beenobtained periodically. Three of the first useful types ofsuch materials obtained from Africa (named Nyundo,Mabere and Magune) did produce seed at 2,240 meterselevation. Since the growing cycles were much toolong to allow use as varieties, they were hand crossed tothe early genetic stocks Ryer Milo and 40 Day Kafirobtained from Texas. The crossing and growing ofseveral subsequent segregating generations was done atlower elevations in Morelos, Mexico. Material was thenplanted· from - bulks of these advanced generations atChapingo (2,240 meters), Mexico and individual plantsthat produced seed were selected. In the originalattempt at such selection, less than five percent of theplants were saved.Head rows were then planted from these selectedplants. Other materials such as new collections fromother areas, commercial varieties and hybrids, and thethree varieties Nyundo, Mabere and Magune wereinterplanted in scattered rows. Again individual plantselection was practiced within the segregating head rows.When these subsequent selections were planted out inhead rows, it became obvious that a fair amount ofnatural crossing had occurred. As the selections hadbeen made largely for shorter and earlier floweringtypes, outcrosses were generally distinguishable as taller,bigger and somewhat later to flowering.A simple procedure to utilize this natural inter·crossing was used to obtain additional admixtures ofgerm plasm and to aid in broadening the genetic base ofthe pool. (1) The obviously outcrossed plants wereselected for the following planting cycle. (2) Additionalgerm plasm from various sources was included in eachplanting to provide pollen for adding variability. (3)Approximately one·fourth to one-third of the totalplants selected were from the shorter, earlier floweringtypes to provide an "understory structure" for detectingthe outcrosses.As successive generations of selection are done, theseearly, short selections become quite uniform and outcrossesare very easy to detect. Maintaining a fairlylarge segment of short early materials assures reasonablenumbers of crosses each season and keeps plant sizes andmaturities of selections within desirable limits. Theindividual "families" that make up th is "genetic understory"are gradually and progressively changed as thepopulation develops to prevent the pool from becomingstagnant. With selection being carried out under lownight temperature conditions, those types failing to setseed are automatically eliminated.At any point, desired families can be selected to useas varieties or to test at other locations and under otherenvironments. This type of siphoning off has beendone sporadically to observe growth under lowlandtropical conditions, to check for type of restorer actionin crosses with male steriles, to check frequency oftypes with nonphotoperiodic responses, etc.A few pertinent observations include: (1) selectionsgrow quite well at Poza Rica and in Jamaica althoughheads tend to be smaller and maturity is very early; (2)nonrestorer "B" types are present with a frequency ofabout 5 percent; and (3) reasonably high percentages ofplants were within acceptable limits of maturity inAlberta and Manitoba, Canada, as well as in Mexico.To make a more systematic effort at evaluating thisgerm plasm for potential use in other areas, 83 itemswere selected from the pool and organized into a simpleyield trial with three replications and two local checks.In Mexico where the material has been developed, thewarmest part of the year occurs at the onset of therainy season. Therefore, selection for ability of seedlingsto grow under low soil temperatures cannot be done.Also, at 19° latitude the day length does not changeradically during the year, masking photoperiod sensivitydifferences. Results with sporadic observations of thematerial at other locations have been sufficiently encouragingto suggest more extensive and systematicobservations.Hopefully, each cooperating location will harvestand save seed for its own use. Continuing to manage thepool in an intercrossing fashion will incorporate additionalvariability. Selections will continue to bedrawn off for use as lines, varieties, etc.Also, cooperators are requested to send CIMMYTa little seed of their selections. These selections fromother environments will be recombined among themselvesas selections and back into the germ plasm pool togradually widen adaptation.OUTREACH ACTIVITIESCI MMYT outreach activities increased substantiallyduring 1972, involving new activities in Nepal, Zaire,Argentina and Tanzania.Discussion with Nepal during 1971 resulted inCIMMYT placing a staff member in Nepal in 1972 incooperation with the Nepal National Program andU.SAI.D.On the basis of similar discussion with the Governmentof Zaire, CIMMYT entered into a cooperativeprogram to develop the first national maize research andproduction program in that country. During 1972CIMMYT posted three scientists in Zaire to provideleadership until Zairians have an opportunity to gainthe necessary experience. In-service training and degreeprograms for Zairian scientists are a major objective ofthe program.On request from Argentina, CIMMYT staff preparedan outline for a national program that involves cooperativeresearch with CIMMYT: and a staff developmentprogram that should make Argentina self-sufficient forresearch and production personnel.For Tanzania, IITA and CIMMYT agreed in 1972to a new cooperative program to be financed byU.S.A.I.D. and the Ford Foundation. This programcalls for two expatriate maize scientists resident inTanzania and a substantial amount of training forTanzanian staff.125

Also, consulting visits were made to more than 20countries in 1972.NATIONAL PROGRAMREPORTS: ZAI REThe Programme National MaislZaire started in 1972and the Zaire Department of Agriculture designatedKisanga Station as national headquarters. The physicalplant at the station, including housing, offices, laboratoriesand farm buildings, has been repaired and thestation is now operational. Kisanga Station is locatednear Lubumbashi in the Shaba Region.Presentlv, Programme National Mais also operates atMawunzi Station in the Bas Zaire Region. Renovationwork at Mawunzi was underway in 1972.TrainingSix trainees each received eight months of trainingat CIMMYT stations in Mexico. All have returned toZaire. Two of them are posted at Mawunzi and four arecurrently posted at the headquarters in Lubumbashi.Six new trainees, all recently graduated from thenational university at Kinshasa, have joined ProgrammeNational Mais on a probationary basis. After six weeksaf trainina with the maize team in Zaire, the newtrainees will receive six weeks of English languageinstruction at Kinshasa before departing for CIMMYT.Also, Muleba Nyanguila will depart in 1973 forfive months of training at CIMMYT before entering amaster of science degree program in the United States.Production-oriented Farmer DemonstrationsEighteen farmer demonstrations in collaborationwith Department of Agriculture personnel were plantedthroughout the Shaba Region.Six fertilizer trials have been planted across theShaba Region on different soil types in cooperation withC.E.P.S.E. and Cite Des Pionniers. Cooperation fromand enthusiasm of farmers and Department of Agriculturepersonnel has been excellent. These trials involvefour levels (0, 250, 500 and 1,000 kg/ha of 17-17-17fertilizer) of fertilizer application broadcast and diskedin prior to planting, and two levels of sidedressednitrogen (100 and 200 kg/hal when plants are 50 cm tall.For the farmer demonstrations and regional fertilizertrials, second generation seed of Shaba Safe (a whitedent type) has been used. Shaba Safe is (SR-52(Rhodesia, Zambia) x H-632 (Kenya).Agronomy TrialsStation de Mawunzi, Bas Zaire Region:1. An observational variety trial consisted of 18materials. The results are presented in Table 42.2. A date-of-planting trial began in September. Aplot has been planted weekly to IITA Composite A x B.Serious emergence problems have Gccurred due toinsects. To date, no disease problems have been noted.The trial will continue weekly throughout the firstseason and until the end of February 1973--well intothe second crop season.3. A fertilizer trial using IITA Composite A x Band Tuxpeno brachytic-2 is underway. Five levels ofN (0 to 240 kg/hal and five levels of P205 (0 to 180kg/hal have been applied. Half the replications havereceived 100 kg/ha K20 while no potash has beenapplied to the other replications.TABLE M42. Yield of dry grain for 18 entries inthe Observation Variety Trial, Mawunzi, Zaire,1972.Pedigree(Tuxpeiio x Ant. Gpo. 2 Sel. BI.)(Comp. A. CO x Compo B (S1) (C1)Tuxpeiio br2/br2Tuxpeiio Sel. PI. Baja(La Posta x Eto BI. PI. Baja)(Uneas Illinois x Eta BI. PI. Baja) F 2[(Mix. 1 x Col. GpQ. 1) (Eto BI. Sel. PI Baja)(Eto BI. PI. Baja)](Tuxpeiio Planta Baja x Eto BlancoPlanta Baja)(SR52 x H632)Eto Blanco Sel. PI. Baja(Mex. 24 x Grand Mawunzi)(Tuxpeiio x Antigua Sel. BI) (Eto BI. PI. Baja)(Uneas Illinois x Tuxpeiio PI. Baja) F 2(Hibridos pfister etc. PI. Baja. Sel. BI.)(Eta BI. PI. Baja)(Sel. Blanca Tipo Caribe x Eto BI. PI. Baja)(Mix. 1 x Col. Gpo. 1) (Eta BI. Sel. PI. Baja)(Mix. 1 x Col. Gpo. 1 PI. Baja)(Eta BI. PI. Baja)Local maizeGrain yieldkg/ha748772277200681362536067590758405800563356335400526752335173510046673453Kisanga Station, Shaba Region1. Beginning in October 1972 and continuing tothe end of the year, a plot was planted weekly toSR-52 x H-632 Shaba Safe. Emergence was excellentwith no insect or disease problems, except for some veryminor grasshopper damage.2. A fertilizer trial using SR-51 x H-632 and selectedHickory King is underway. Five levels of N (0 to 240kg/ha and five of P205 (0 to 180 kg/hal have been.used. Potash has been applied to half of the replicationsat a rate of 100 kg K20/ha.3. A fertilizer trial involved both varying placementand r~tes. SR-52 x H-632 received 500, 1,000 and1,500 kg/ha of 12-12-17. Fertilizer placement was: (1)all broadcast and disked in; (2) all banded below seed;and (3) half broadcast and half banded.4. Another trial involved constant populationdensity with varying hill spacing and times of nitrogensidedressing. The variety used was SR-52 x H-632. Theplant spacings were 25, 50, and 100 cm within rows75 cm apart. A basic application of 136 kg N/ha wasmade. Nitrogen treatments were 200 kg N/ha whenplants were 50 cm tall; 200 kg N/ha at incipienttasseling; and 100 kg N/ha at 50 cm plant height plus100 kg N/ha at incipient tasseling. This trial attemptsto test differences between recommended spacing versuscurrent local methods of Within-row maize spacing.Plant ProtectionA survery is being conducted to identify the moreimportant insect pests as a basis for further experimentation.All the materials in the various trials anddemonstrations have been evaluated for pest problems.126

BreedingA total of 347 varieties were introduced into Zaire.Most of these came from CIMMYT, while some camefrom IITA and Kitale, Kenya.As mentioned above, the advanced generation of across between a Kenyan hybrid (H-632) and a Zambianhybrid (SR-52) has been used for farmer demonstrationsin Shaba. A large crossing block is planted toSR-52 and H-632 to provide sufficient seed for nextyear's farmer demonstrations.Both hybrid parents perform well in Shaba, but atthe current stage of development using hybrid seed isimpractical. To further improve the advanced-generationcross of the two hybrids, they have been topcrossedto 278 different varieties.Seventy-eight varieties from Mexico and East Africaare being tested at five different locations in Shaba withtwo replications at each location. The remainingvarieties are being tested this first season at Kisangaonly.Sixteen varieties from CIMMYT likely to performwell in different parts of Zaire are being multiplied thisseason in isolated fields. Also, each of these 16varieties has been topcrossed to SR-52 and SR-52 xH-632.A small observation trial including 18 varieties wasgrown at Mawunzi in Bas-Zaire during the past season.Three varieties--Tuxpeiio x Ant. Gpo. 2 and Tuxpeiiobrachytic-2 from Mexico, and Composite A x CompositeB from liTA--produced over 7 tons per hectare.EGYPTRelease of Varietal Crosses and CompositesThe maize program has progressed to a stage wheredecisions can be made about the release of new andmore productive varieties. Based on two-year performancetrials of F1 varietal crosses and composite varieties,the Ministry of Agriculture decided to recommendfor cultivation varietal crosses V.C. 69 and V.C. 80,and the composite variety Shedwan 3.The two-year yield performance of the varietalcrosses is presented in (Table 43).Table 44. indicates that the two varietal crossesshowed greater resistance/tolerance to late wilt disease(Cephalosporium maidisl than the open-pollinated varietyAmerican Early and the double cross hybrid Giza186, which are currently under cultivation.The composite variety Shedwan 3, also released forcultivation, is an advanced generation of the triplevarietal cross Kitale Syn. II x (Antigua 2D x AmericanEarly). This composite has outyielded the checks by18 percent during two years of testing and alsopossesses resistance to late wilt disease about equal tothat of the varietal crosses. The composite is currentlyunder the first cycle of full-sib selection for yield wiltresistance, earlier maturity, reduced plant height: andother desirable agronomic traits.These three new varieties will be tested regionally in50 trials on farmers' fields during the 1973 crop season.TABLE M43.1970-72.VarietyV. C. 69V. C. 80Grain yield at 15 percent moisture of outstanding varietal crosseSo, mean for two locations,Yield. tons/ha% ofPedigree 1970 1971 Mean G.186La Posta x American Early 14.1 12.9 13.5 153Tep. 5 x American Early 12.4 11.9 12.1 137American Early (check) 9.1 9.4 9.2 102Giza/Hybrid 186 (check) 8.9 8.7 8.8 100TABLE M44. Percent late wilt infection in two elite varietal crosses, four locations, Egypt, 1971-72.Infection, 0/.,Variety Pedigree Gemeiza Sids Fayoum Giza MeanV. C. 69 La Posta x American Early 18 16 22 16 18.0V. C. 80 Tep. 2 x American Early 19 16 23 16 18.5American Early (check) 44 34 43 38 39.8Giza 186 (check) 100 87 98 93 94.5127

Seed Production TargetsTargets for seed increase have been drawn up so thatin the summer of 1975 about 400,000 hectares will beplanted to the new varieties. This will require 4,555hectares for seed increase. The decision as to whichvarietal cross will be grown commercially should bemade during the summer of 1973.International and Regional Maize WorkshopAt the annual CIMMYT Maize Workshop held inMexico in 1971, it was decided that every second yearCI MMYT should hold the Maize Workshop at one ofits outreach operations. After consultation with theinternational group present in Mexico at that time, itwas agreed to hold the 1972 annual meeting in theMiddle East. Egypt was chosen since it had anon-going maize project sponsored by the Ford Foundationand C/MMYT in collaboration with the Ministry ofAgriculture. The Egyptian authorities fully supportedthe Workshop and made excellent arranqements for itssuccess. Scientists from CIMMYT and other internationalagencies, delegates from the Middle East countries,and academic and Ministry personnel from Egyptparticipated.Dr. Kamal R. Stino, Director for Agricultural Researchin Egypt and member of the CIMMYT Board ofTrustees, addresses delegates to the International andRegional Maize Workshop, at Gemeiza Station, Egypt.Nabil Khamis, research assistant (left); Dr. A. Shehata, maize breeder (center); and Dr. E. W. Sprague, Director of theCIMMYT Maize Program, observe the harvest of Syn. Tep. No.5 from Mexico, one parent of Variety Cross 80 releasedfor cultuvation in Egypt. Dr. Shehata spent six months as visiting scientist at CIMMYT.

The delegates along with the local scientific staffand representatives of the universities and pertinentministries 'IIisited the two main maize experimentalstations, Gemeiza and Sids, where the projects inoperation were studied and evaluated. The delegatesremarked that a wide spectrum of genetic variabilityfurther pooling of germ plasm should be the nextphase. This would further widen the genetic baseand render the populations more amenable to recurrentselection procedures.Dr. Kamal Ramzi Stino, Director, Agricultural ResearchCenter, chaired the discussion sessions. Wideranging and comprehensive discussion included topicssuch as breeding, methodology, plant type, late wiltdisease, soil and water management, transferring resultsof research to farmers' field and regional cooperation.The Workshop provided a forum in the MiddleEast Whereby regional scientists could meet with scientistsfrom CIMMYT, Ford Foundation, RockefellerFoundation, F.A.O. and U.S.A.I.D. to discuss variedand complex problems of maize production, and techniquesand methodologies required for improving yieldlevels.maturity. About 120 such populations were groupedinto three maturity groups (short season, midseason andfull season) and yield trials were conducted. The bestentries formed three composites for the three maturitygroups for further improvement through half-sib selection.Some of the entries were selected for initial seedmultiplication during 1972, pending confirmation ofpreliminary results, with particular emphasis on theshort-season varieties. Three of these, Changez (EarlyKing x Payette), Swabi White x Changez. and (Salzer's xChangez) Salzer's, each yielding 8 to 9 tons per hectareA farm variety of maiz-e in a fertilizer demonstrationnear Bannu, Pakistan. Topping of plants. a commonpractice, proVides forage for animal feeding.TrainingAbdrabbo Ahmed Ismail, who is currently studyingat Cornell University, has completed his course work andwill proceed shortly to CIMMYT to initiate his thesisprogram. Zaki Abdel Halim Hamza completed anine-month training course at CIMMYT and has resumedhis position at the Gemeiza Experiment Station. Dr.Abdel Rahim Shehata, maize breeder from the EgyptianProgram, is at CIMMYT as a visiting scientist.PAKISTANThe high-yielding, full-season varieties Khalil (white)and BCC x Akbar (white) for the Northwest FrontierProvince, and Neelum (yellow) and Akbar (yellow) forthe Punjab w~re released. These were designed forthe progressive farmers who could and would adopt thefull package of improved technology which wouldmaximize yields. The emphasis'in the breeding programwas shifted towards developing short-season varietieswhich would respond to the improved technology, butwhich would be superior to the short-season localvarieties when grown by farmers who could not orwould not adopt the full package of improved practices.BreedingThe program to develop improved short-season varietieswas initiated in 1969 utilizing germ plasm from theUnited" States, Canada, Argentina, India, Pakistan, Afghanistan,Turkey, and South Africa, plus materials fromCIMMYT. One approach was to cross exotic materialswith the leading local varieties, backcrossing to thelocal to approach the local variety in agronomic andgrain characteristics while improving yield. Anotherapproach was to develop varieties of the requiredmaturity from a wide germ plasm base. Very early andvery late introductions were crossed and then thesewere crossed with the local x exotic crosses of similar129

in the high valleys in 100 days when planted on June10, were named Zia, Pahari, and Fazal, respectively.Changez, a locally developed variety serving as acommon parent for these new releases, is a compositeof crosses made in 1969 between Swabi White and agroup of U.S. inbreds, including A610, M14, Wf9,W64A, Oh45, 837, 814, WM13R, and Hy. Emphasis inseed multiplication for the white maize areas of theHimalayan foothills will be on these varieties.Among the short-season yellow varieties, Synthetic501, a fairly narrow-based synthetic constituted fromM14, Pa32, W9, A495 and A556, has been identified a~ agood performer. Synthetic 2, a midseason compositemade up of local orange flint varieties and U.S. yellowinbred lines, was backcrossed to a local orange flintvariety. The resulting variety is nearly indistinguishablefrom the local variety except for the slightly larger ears.This and Synthetic 501 will be multiplied in 1973 forgeneral release in the Punjab. The impact of thesevarieties will depend upon the efficiency of seedmultiplication in 1973, the availability of sufficientfertilizer and of pesticides for stem borer control, andthe sufficiency of seasonal rains.TrainingSeven men were sent to the Inter-Asian CornImprovement Program Training Center in Thailandand two to CIMMYT for practical training in breeding,pathology, production agronomy, and cereal technology.In addition, the Project Director of the NWFP Maizeand Millets Research Institute toured Thailand andMexico to study experiment station operation andadministration.Regional TestingWith improved varieties developed by the breedingprogram, the agronomists conducted regional performancetests in conjunction with fertility tests at 50 locationsin the NWFP and regional performance tests at50 locations in the Punjab.ProductionFin~' production for 1972 is expected to be well inexcess of 700,000 metric tons. This is believed to beshort of effective demand by about 300,000 tons. As aresult, the Central Government has developed a planwith the directors of the maize and millets re~ea~chinstitutes to spur maize production by seed multiplicationof the short-season varieties, by allocation of scarcefertilizer resources, and by training extension workers.COLOMBIAOPAQUE MAIZE PROMOTIONThe project promoting opaque maize in Colombiabegan in 1969 as a National Government Program withthe following objectives.1. To promote opaque maize use by rural familieson small holdings in order to improve the nutritionallevel of their diet.2. To study the possibility of introducing qualityproteinmaize into swine feeding programs.3. To stimulate the participation of the agricultural,industrial medical and paramedical sectors, and othersectors in' production programs with small- and mediumsizedfarmers.4. To study regions and structure programs ofagricultural improvement, animal improvement, nu~ritionand health improvement, etc., where qualityprotein can play an important role.5. To provide stimulation and cooperation insolving problems of marketing, storage, industrializationand trading of quality-protein maize.6. To cooperate with the maize and wheat processingindustry in incorporating quality-protein maizeflour or substituting it for wheat flour in the manufactureof bread, cookies and pastas for improvement oftheir protein quality and to reduce wheat imports.This project operates under the direction of ICAwith the cooperation of CIAT and CIMMYT.Seed DistributionThe Gaja de Gredito Agrario, a government agriculturalbank, distributed 106 tons of seed of yellowquality-protein maize (ICA H-208) and 40 tons of thewhite quality-protein maize (ICA H-255) in 1972.Adaptation Plots and Family PlotsTo study the performance of quality-protein maizein new areas, 256 adaptation plots were planted in1972 at altitudes from 5 to 1,700 meters. Yieldsvaried from 800 to 5,800 kg/ha.During the same period, 1,001 family pl~ts wereplanted in farmers' fields with rec,?mmend~tlons.oncultural practices and use of quality-protem mal~e.Most of these plots were managed as a communityproject.Trials with SwineTo show small farmers the nutritional value ofquality-protein maize as well as the advantages anddisadvantages of its use in raising and fattening pigs, n~nepreliminary trials were carried out in the field usmgthe following rations.1. Farm wastes (bananas, arracacha, sugar cane,potato peelings, etc.).2. The Diet 1 plus 0.5 to 1.5 kilograms per day ofquality-protein maize.3. Common maize added to Diet 1 at a rate of 0.5to 1.5 kilograms per day.4. Quality-protein maize, salt, a mineral mixtureand water.5. Common maize, salt, a mineral mixture andwater.The results of these trials seem to indicate that:1. Pigs fed Diet 1 showed a daily gain of 180 to 222grams, going from 35 to 90 kilograms of body weigh~ in252 to 305 days. Time and daily gain were a functIOnof the quality of the wastes used.130

2. Diet 2 was the second most efficient, but it is notrecommended due to the price of maize. From theeconomic point of view, adding only 0.5 kilogram ofquality-protein maize is recommended. This produces adaily gain of 300 to 325 grams with 170 to 180 days togo from 35 to 90 kilograms.3. Diet 3 gave a daily gain of 236 grams and theanimals took 238 days to go from 35 to 90 kilograms.4. Animals fed Diet 4 required 3.9 kilograms ofquality-protein maize per kilogram of body weightgain while those receiving Diet 5 required 6.2 kilogramsof common maize.ExtensionTo show the farmers the advantages of plantingquality-protein maize for food and for feeding theiranimals, the project sponsored 19 field days, 46conferences, 92 meetings with farmers, 3 nutrition trialswith infants, 13 courses for rural populations, 10meetings on marketing, 24 radio programs and numerousnewspaper articles.Some Indian communities have been visited toestablish an integral program deal ing with health,agriculture, rural communications, etc. Several groups,including agronomists, medical doctors, veterinarians,livestock specialists, engineers, sociologists, ar'lthropologists,nutritionists, etc., have been integrated for thispurpose. In agriculture, 127 trials with quality-proteinmaize, cOJ1lmon maize, potatoes, cassava, wheat, sugarcane, beans, vetch, cocoa, vegetables, rice, pasture, andbananas were planted. From these trials the morepromising crops and varieties will be chosen for furtherrecommendations to the Indian populations.Industry and MarketingTo compensate for the reduced yield of qualityproteinmaize, a supporting price 15 percent above theprice of normal commercial flint maize has beenestablished.The Institute of Technological Investigations hasdeveloped formulas for substituting 70, 50 and 30percent quality-protein maize flour for wheat flourin pastas, cQokies and bread, respectively, demonstratingthe feasibility of these substitutions. The results havebeen profusely distributed to millers and industrialists,and some industriai products with quality-protein maizeare in local markets.StorageThe most common problems with quality-proteinmaize, as indicated by many farmers, are its susceptibilityto ear insects and ear fungi as well as storageproblems.Searching for a better method of storage at thefarm level, four types of containers were investigated:polyethylene bags, wooden boxes, sisal bags and metalcontainers; and five insecticides were used: Malathion(4 percent), weevil-killing mixture, Phostoxin, carbontetrachloride plus carbon bisulfide and Vapona (24percent). Preliminary results seem to indicate that thebest method for storing quality-protein maize is to useair-tight metal containers where the kernels can bepreserved for two months without the use of fumigantsor for eight to nine months using Vapona (24 percent).Grain to be stored must contain less than 14 percentmoisture. Maize can be kept in plastic bags withoutusing chemicals up to two months with losses of onlyfour percent. Losses up to 40 percent occurred insisal bags without seed treatment.RURAL DEVELOPMENT PROJECTSFaced with the urgency for designing strategiesand mechanisms for rural development in areas ofsubsistence agriculture, Colombia has established sixprojects involving activities which go farther than themere acceleration of production through the adoptionof new technology. Modl'ls of regional rural developmentinvolving production, economics, public health,environmental improvement, education, infrastructure,organization and community development are contemplated.These projects are called Rural Development Projectsand are located in the following regions.1. Oriente AntioqueFio, including 8 counties with161,700 hectares and 20,000 families. This projectcooperates with CIMMYT. The main enterprises arepotatoes, maize, beans, milk production, swine andpoultry. The Faculty of Medicine, Nutrition andHealth of the University of Antioquia cooperates in thisproject.2. Oriente de Cundinamarca with 9 counties,227,200 hectares and 12,218 families. The mainproducts are potatoes, maize, beans, vegetables, swineand poultry. This project receives technical andfinancial support from the International DevelopmentResearch Center (IDRC) of Canada.3. Norte del Cauca with 10 counties, 540,000hectares and a total of 38,000 families. Tohe mainproducts are maize, beans, rice, cocoa, cassava, soybeans,vegetables, swine and poultry. The Faculty of Medicineof the University of Valle del Cauca cooperates in thisproject.4. Garcia Rovira with 12 counties, an initial area of166,633 hectares and 17,000 families. The mainproducts are potatoes, maize, vetch, milk, swine andpoultry. This project receives financial assistance plusequipment and training from the Ford Foundation.5. Region del Ariari with 6 counties, 300,000hectares and 19,000 families. The main products aremaize, rice, bananas, cassava, swine and poultry.6. Altiplano de NariFio with 11 counties, 240,000hectares, and 17,000 families. The main products arewheat, potatoes, barley, beans, horse beans, vegetables,sheep and swine.Fifteen new projects are being organized in 1973.They involve a complete change in the whole system ofrural extension toward the form of integral projects ofrural development operated by a team located in eachregion and involving professional personnel devoted toinstitlJtional coordination. These projects should begood vehicles for efficiently promoting quality-proteinmaize at the small-farmer level.From the initial steps within the projects somerecommendations on planting distances, fertilizers andvarieties have been made. Furthermore, based on theserecommendations a credit system operates for smallfarmers integrated by the Caja Agraria and the AgriculturalMarketing Institute, principally for maize, wheatand beans.Since the initiation of these projects CIMMYT hasvigorously sponsored training of Colombian personnel,principally in Mexico. CIMMYT has financed the131

training of five technicians at the Graduate School atChapingo, Mexico. Four are back with their M.S.degrees. Six more technicians are presently working ontheir M.S. degrees at Chapingo; and one more technicianwill start in 1973.The proje ts of Oriente Antioqueno, Oriente deCondinamarca, Norte del Cauca and Garcia Rovira havebeen reinforced to rna e them adequate for trainingtechnicians from several national institutions at the M.S.degree level in coordination with the Graduate Programof the ICA-National University. In-service training foruniversity students, graduate students and rural leaders isalso contemplated. The plan is based on a researchtrainingapproach and will be open to foreign students.The first International Seminar on Rural DevelopmentProjects was held in 1972 in Bogota with theparticipation of Mexico, EI Salvador, Honduras, Peru,Paraguay, Colombia and Canada. The developmentprojects in the first five countries were examined withrespect to their accomplishments, mechanisms andlimitations. The proceedings are being prepared forpubl ication.NEPALNepal comprises three distinct geographic regions. Inthe South next to India is a narrow strip of low-lyingjungle and farm land. In the Center is the morepopulous hill country which includes the fertile KathmanduValley. In the North along the Tibetanborder are the Himalayan Mountains, ranging from5,300 to 9,700 meters elevation. Approximately eightmillion people live in Nepal's hill areas. About 96percent of the people are directly dependent onagriculture for a living.Maize is the second ranking crop in Nepal. It isgrown on approximately 454,150 hectares. The maizegrowing areas range in elevation from 90 to about3,600 meters with an average yearly rainfall of 1,400mm in the West to 2,200 mm in the East. Thetraditionally grown maize is a flint type. However,Maize is an important staple food for the Nepalese people. Planted on these handmade, handtilled terraces in the foothillsof the Himalayas, impro~ing production presents a real challenge to scientists involved in the accelerated maize productionprogram sponsored by the Government of Nepal, USAID, and CIMMYT.132

Subsistence of the farmer and his family depends upon storage of the maize harvest in these rustic and typical corn loftsin the lowlands of Nepal.some dents are being grown. The annual maizeproduction in Nepal is estimated at about 833,000metric tons. In 1972, the Government of Nepalimported 20,000 metric tons. Much of the maize cropin 1971 was destroyed by excessive rains and in 1972by drought.The Government reorganized the maize programduring 1972 and announced that the Rampur ExperimentStation (228 meters elevation) will be usedas the national headquarters for maize research. About10 regional experiment stations will be used for testingand multiplying the maize materials.In the past years, plant breeders have developedthree long-season maize varieties (Kakani Yellow, KhumaltarYeHow and Rampur Yellow). During 1972, theCIMMYT International Agronomy Trial, CIMMYT InternationalMaize Adaptation Nurseries, CIMMYT InternationalOpaque-2 Maize Trials, IACP Opaque-2 Trial,IACP Trial No.1 and IACP Trial NO.2 were planted.A population improvement plan is being used todevelop materials for adaptation to a wide range ofaltitudes in Nepal. Progeny will be generated duringthe winter season at Rmapur and tested du ring thesummer.The Government is developing a natiOnal maize teamconsisting of a national coordinator, breeders, pathologists,entomologists, agronomists, and economist-statisticians.The team will be trained at CIMMYT, IACP, andin the United States. Gopal Rajbhandary has beenappointed national maize coordinator, and BrahamaramMathema, maize breeder. I.R. Regmi, presently receivingtraining in the United States and at CIMMYT, hasbeen assigned as farm manager for the Rampur ExperimentalStation. Rajbhandary and Mathema receivedadditional training at CIMMYT after they graduatedfrom Purdue University and the University of NebrasKo,respectively.One maize pathologist and one maize agronomisthave been assigned to the Rampur Experiment Station.Two junior training officers will be assigned to thestation during the fiscal year. In addition, Ledwi eDamen, breeding specialist from Holland, collaborates asa co-worker, giving additional support to the maizeprogram.The maize team's objectives are to develop (1) hardendospermopaque-2 maize, (2) resistance to downymildew and rust, (3) high-altitude, cold,tolerant materials,(4) yellow and white flints and (5) earlymaturing materials to fit farmers' crop rotation sequences.A final objective is to disseminate thematerials throughout Nepal. The team will be workingwith UNDP in a seed multiplication and seed certificationprogram. UNDP is in the process of developing aseed processing plant.In addition, the Government of Nepal is developing aProtein Quality Service Laboratory for maize, wheatand rice. The building for the laboratory has beencompleted, and the equipment is expected to arrive earlyin 1973. P. B. Shakya has been sent to Purdue Universityand CIAT for training in the operation of thelaboratory.133

PathologyVarietal ImprovementPH ILIPPINESSeveral breeding materials derived from six earlymaturing parents were tested and selected for earlinessand desirable agronomic characters.Four of 46 promising yellow and white corn varietiesoutyielded UPCA Var. 1 in yield trials at eight locations.These were: College White Composite 25; (CaribbeanYF x Metro; Cupurico x Bahia III and Tuxpantigua xTiquisate.Of several materials tested for early maturity, yieldand other agronomic characters, Tuxpeno x PH 9DMR; [(Cuba Gpo. 1 x Eto Amar.) x 60-day GPM][(Cupurico x Bahia III) x 60-day GPM]; Metro Syn IV x60-day GPM; UPCA Var. 2 x 60-day GPM; and UPCAVar. 1 x 60-day GPM surpassed the yield of AromanWF, the check.Of 15 derived brachytics evaluated during the wetseason, 13 outyielded UPCA Var. 1. The highestyielder was [A206 TMR (Cuba Gpo. 1 x P. Rico Gpo. 6)Tuxpeno br2 br2] with 4,582 kg/ha. More crosseswere made between brachytic and high-combining populationsresistant to downy mildew, opaque and earlymaturing, and the crosses advanced one generation. Inaddition, selection for lower plant and ear height wasinitiated in populations segregating for the brachyticcharacteristic.In comparative yield trials conducted in Thailand,India, Taiwan, Indonesia and the Philippines using 11varieties resistant to downy mildew, Taiwan DMRComposite 10 gave the highest yield (3,414 kg/hal,followed by DMR 3, DMR 2, DMR 6, and DMR 5, inthat order. Philippines DMR 5 was the most resistant.To compare the effectiveness of S1 progeny andfull-sib selection, about 795 full sibs and 795 S1 lineswere made from Caribbean OM R Composite, 485 eachfrom Philippines DMR 2, and 274 each from ChainOM R Synthetic. The test materials were screened fordowny mildew resistance. About 200 S1 lines and fullsibs frolT,l Philippines DMR 2 and Caribbean DMRComposite are being evaluated for yield at Los Banos.Sixty S1 lines and 70 full sibs from Chain DMRSynthetic were planted for recombination by chaincrossing.Applied Research TrialsA total of 305 trials involving promising varietieswere conducted to determine their potential yield andtest their reaction to pests, diseases and fertilizer levels,and familiarize farmers and technicians with the agronomiccharacters of these varieties. Results of theexperiments with nitrogen fertilization and plant populationindicated that with 270 kg/ha of Nand 40,000plants per hectare, yield was 3,640 kg/ha. This is 12percent more than the yield at 62,000 and 81,967 plantsper hectare. Results indicated also that to produce 50and 95 percent of the maximum dry matter yield ofcorn in a degraded clay soil, the phosphorus soil testvalues should be approximately 2.3 and 9.2 ppm,respectively.'At UPCA, leaf moisture content (LCM) was 16.40percent in varieties susceptible to downy mildew and13.90 percent in resistant varieties. It was inferred thathigh LMC invariably leads to a high guttation potential,providing abundant guttation water which is an effectivemedium for conidial germination. The result is asuccessful penetration and invasion of the plant by thefungus.Nitrogen fertilization at 60, 120, 180,240 and 300kg/ha did not influence the incidence of downy mildewon MIT Var. 2. Varying plant population densities of30,000, 40,000, 50,000, 60,000 and 70,000 plants perhectare did not affect the severity of the disease.Insect ControlSome 38 strains of rice weevil have been collectedand maintained at the laboratory. Using the discrimination-concentrationtechnique, 36 strains were tested fortheir resistance to 2 percent DDT, 5 percent Carbaryl,0.05 percent Malathion, and 0.7 percent Lindane. Theresults showed that 21 strains were resistant to DDT,36 to Carbaryl, 6 to Malathion, 5 to Lindane, and 4 toall insecticides tried. Shelled corn stored in plastic-linedsacks treated with 2 percent and 4 percent of eitherMalathion, Pirimiphos (Actellic) or Gardona was notinfested by pests after six months. In nine months,Malathion- and Actellic-treated sacks had 50 percentkernel infestation and, Gardona-treated sacks had 95percent infestation. Vapona at 4 percent concentrationwas effective for only three months. Lining the sackswith plastic bags did not produce effects significantlydifferent from the control.The toxicity of six organophosphorus insecticides onrice weevil attacking corn was determined. The rankingwas Dursban, Pirimiphos, Gardona, Malathion, DDVP.and Abate in decreasing order of toxicity.Experimental results showed that for UPCA Var. 2,reduction in grain weight due to corn borers with slightto moderate infestations was 0.16 percent per borerand 0.96 percent per tunnel. With heavy infestations,grain weight was reduced by 1.36 percent per borerand 0.94 percent per tunnel.Disease ControlDowny mildew (Sclosphoraphilippinensis Weston) isthe most destructive corn disease in the Philippines. Itattacks the plant at all stages of growth and losses up to100 percent are common, especially in high-yieldingvarieties. Leads in chemical control have been obtained,but none seem economically feasible.The research program is mainly geared to increasingthe corn yields in the provinces where downy mildew iscommon by using resistant and high-yielding varietiesand using protective measures to minimize the incidenceof the disease. In line with this effort, the program mustdevelop adapted and high-yielding varieties which possessan acceptable degree of resistance to the diseaseand desirable agronomic characters, particularly highyield. The search for effective chemical control incombination with the use of resistant varieties continuesand has been supported with studies on the physiologicalfactors surrounding infection. The project is now inits second year.134

Seed ProductionAs of April 1972, about 410.6 hectares were plantedto Philippine DMR 2 and 119.5 hectares to MIT Var. 2.The total estimated yield was 746 tons of PhilippineDMR 2 and 278 tons of MIT Var. 2. A total of 168 seedcooperators were involved in this accomplishment.National Training ProgramThe training program is designed to provide technicaltraining in various phases of corn production and farmdemonstration methods. Farmer leaders are also exposedto different aspects of cultural management to familiarizethem with modern trends being practiced atUPCA. In 1971-72, 871 technical field workersparticipated in five types of training courses.Two specialist-supervisor courses were conducted for3 1/2 months and dealt mainly with productiontechniques. In a three-week course on marketing, theparticipants were detailed as full-time marketing techniciansin their respective province of assignment. Some708 farmer leaders were briefed on the cultural managementpractices of feed grains crop production throughfarm demonstrations.ProductionTHAILANDIn 1971, Thailand's annual maize production continuedto increased, reaching a record 2.3 million metrictons from an estimated one million hectares. However,production in 1972 decreased about 45 percent from1971 due to a severe drought during the major growingseason.Maize has continued to be an important foreignexchange earner as most of the crop is exported,primarily to markets in East and Southeast Asia.Because of its success and importance to nationaldevelopment, the target for the present five-year developmentplan ending in 1976 calls for a total annualoutput of 3.5 million tons.BreedingThe breeding project has concentrated its efforts ondeveloping high-yielding varieties with good lodgingand disease resistance. One promising population hasevolved from a selection program. Four cycles offull-sib selection in (Cupurico x Flint Compuesto) hasprovided an improved population for yield, height andlodging resistance (Fig. 7). The yield progress fromCycles 1 and 2 compared to Cycles 3 and 4 is interesting.for the latter cycles, more emphasis was given tolowering height with a concommitant lower rate ofgain for grain yield. Whether this resulted from selectionfor lower plants is not known.A second promising population has resulted fromtwo cycles of S1 progeny selection in Thai Composite 1.This composite was derived from a systematic mixingof 36 adapted but somewhat diverse germ plasmcomplexes. Fig. 7 shows that yield has increasedmarkedly, ear height decreased slightly and lodgingresistance improved significantly. These two selectedpopulations have a potential yield 20 to 30 percentabove Thai farmers' present variety. They have alsoperformed well in regional trials in Asia.Plant PathologyDowny mildew caused by Sclerospora sorghi hasbecome a serious threat to Thailanp's maize production.The best sources of resistance available have beenobtained and are now being used to transfer genes forresistance to Cupurico x Flint Compuesto and ThaiComposite 1. It has been possible to recover the grainyield and other good attributes of the elite populationsmentioned while obtaining relatively high levels ofdowny mildew resistance. This is illustrated with ThaiComposite 1 in Table 45.Co~~ooco~-~000...-~ eo4~00~.!!~CD4000.!J Dolo lroOl 1912 ani,Cupurico x Flint Compuesto-- G,oin Yield-"-"- Eo' Height----- LodgingC, C2 C3Cycles of SelectionThai Composite # I',\~""",.""",.--.-,-'160 60160 60FIG. 7. Grain yield, ear height and lodging for selectionsfrom two genetic populations of maize grown atFarm Suwan, Thailand, in 1971 and 1972.E..! i!-~ ....~ 140 40 .~.. ...::IC 1:co .. ...l _" "",-------100 0Co CI C2 11CyIn of Selectionw 120 20 :II:i!...::IC". ..~.....lco.., 120 20 -II:~ 140 40...c:135

TABLE M45. Data for downy mildew resistant populationsgrown at Farm Suwan. Thailand. in 1972.RootGrain Height, em lodg- Downyyield ing mildewEntry kg/ha Plant Ear °10 %1000o~::::::::::==----==9i__- ..... 5IPhil. DMR 5 x ThaiComposite Fa 5150 240 137 3 15Phil. DMR 5 X ThaiComposite BC" 5568 239 131 9 18Phil. DMR 5 4136 241 126 8 9Thai Composite#1 (8) C 2 5494 233 129 6 41Guatemala PB 5 4737 275 164 27 50Protein QualityFourteen populations which have been crossed tosources of downy mildew resistance have subsequentlybeen crossed to Thai Opaque Composite 1 to develophigh-yielding, agronomically acceptable, downy mildewresistantvarieties with high protein-quality. The F2 andF3 populations were screened for quality protein andhard endosperm. The F3 generation was also screenedfor downy mildew resistance.Yield evaluations were made for all crosses in 1972.Each F2 population was separated phenotypically intonormal, partial opaque and opaque kernels for yieldevaluations. The partial opaque and opaque separationsyielded 95 and 93 percent, respectively, compared tothe normal-like separation. Yield and other data fortwo opaque-2 populations and two check varieties areshown in Table 46.TABLE M46. Data from two opaque-2 versionsand checks grown at Farm Suwan, Thailand, in1972.Grain yieldHeight, cmYield °/0Entry kg/ha Check Plant EarThai Opaque Camp. # 1 x(Phil. DMR 5 x Cupurico- Flint Camp.) F 2 4821 116 233 133Thai Opaque Camp. #1(Phil. DMR 5 x ThaiComposite # 1) F 2 4938 119 241 133Thai Opaque Camp. #1(opaque check) 4147 100 231 128Guatemala PB 8 (normalcheck) 4883 117 275 163AgronomyPromising experimental varieties have been evaluatedin soil fertility and 'crop production studies. Fig. 8shows a typical response to varying fertility levels at theFarm Suwan research station. Varietal response torelatively low to moderate levels of nitrogen andphosphorus are evident but significant interactionsbetween varieties and fertilizer levels are rarely observedeven when "good" tropical hybrids (varieties 4 and 5 inFig. 8) are used.Response to increasing plant populations are typified1.1--1 Guatemala PB82.-- Cupu,ica I Flint Compuesto (FI C 43.·-·Thal Composjte#1 (SI C24.0 0 Pioneer Eap 12 -685,4-6 Tuape'lla I Eta Planta baja0-1------,----,------10,.0 50-50 100-100 150-150Fertilizer Treatmentslkg/ha N- P z ° 5 )FIG. 8. Response of five maize genotypes to fourfertilizer treatments at Farm Suwan, Thaila'nd, 1972.in Fig. 9. Slight (often statistically insignificant) yieldincreases are observed from 40,000 to 53,333 plants perhectare followed by no further positive response.Variety x plant density interactions are observed sincetall, lodging-susceptible varieties such as Guatemala donot tolerate high densities.Seed Increase of New VarietiesA total of 250 tons of Bogar Synthetic 2 and TainanDMR Composite 10, two downy mildew resistantvarieties, will be distributed to farmers in areas of highdisease incidence.Seed increases of Philippine DMR 5 and DMR 3were also made, since these varieties have high levelsof resistance to downy mildew (Tainan DMR Compositeis moderately resistant) and yield equal to or slightlyless than Guatemala PB8 in experiment station tests.These are intended to serve as stopgap varieties untilnew, higher yielding varieties are developed and increased.Other increases included 150 tons of Guatemala(PB5, PB8 and PB9) and breeders' seed of improvedexperimental varieties.INTER-ASIAN CORN IMPROVEMENT PROGRAMIACP is a cooperative Asian program sponsoredand funded by the Rockefeller Foundation in cooperationwith CI MMYT and national programs. IACP isbased in Thailand in cooperation with Kasetsart Universityand the Thailand Ministry of Agriculture.IACP activities help to:1. Facilitate cooperation among Asian maize scientistsand to expedite exchange of information andmaterials.2. Develop strong national programs.136

3. Train maize workers of various disciplines,educational levels and responsibilities to improve theireffectiveness in the rapid development and adoptionof new technology.4. Promote and conduct research that can be directlyapplied to increasing amount and efficiency of maizeproduction in Asia.The maize area in Asia is second only to NorthAmerica. In eastern Asia it is usually second to rice inimportance and in South Asia to rice and/or wheat.Maize is a staple food for tens of millions of Asians andis becoming important as a livestock feed. The averageyield is only 1.2 tons per hectare and demands farexceed production--maize imports of Asian countriesequal about one-half of their production. With Asia'spresent food shortage and rapidly increasing population,maize appears poised to make the third-·afterwheat and rice--significant contribution to acceleratedproduction.....00.-- 4000 o.c'a 3500•>=c:ọ.(l)3000FIG. 9. Response of three maize genotypes to increasingplant densities at Farm Suwan, Thailand, in1971 and 1912 (averages for 2 years).Annual IACP Workshop__- ......----'1r'-'--__O 2I. Guatemala PB82. Cupurica I Flint Campuella (F) c..3. Thai Campalite # I IS) C21 ..,., ..,.... ........_40 53.3 661 80Plant Density (plants/ha x 1000)Good varieties and hybrids bred for resistance todowny mildew have been recently developed andreleased in countries of Southeast Asia. This endemicdisease has reduced annual corn production in thePhilippines, Indonesia and Nationalist China for manyyears by up to 40 percent; significant losses from downymildew alsco ,occur in Thailand, India and Nepal.The eighth annual IACP workshop was held in Thailandduring October 9-13, It was inaugurated atKasetsart University by the Prime Minister of Thailand.Eighty-four delegates and observers, including 62 delegatesfrom 18 countries outside Thailand, registered forthe five-day session.Dr. Akira Tanaka from Hokkaido, Japan, summarizedhis laboratory's research on the physiology of themaize plant. Discussion topics included: the level ofmaize production technology, farm testing, qualityprotein, breeding, plant protection and crop production.Cooperative yield trials and nurseries were plannedwithin the region for tests in 1973. A two-day fieldtrip was conducted at Farm Suwan where on-goingresearch was observed. The workshop proceedingswill be published in January 1973.Regional TestingThe third year of uniform vari~tal testing wascompleted in Asia in 1971. Two trials designated asIACP Trials 1 and 2 were formed from varieties andhybrids from local programs in the more temperate-likeregions and lowland tropical regions, respectively. Trial1 was grown in 11 locations, primarily in subtropicaland temperate areas. Two open-pollinated varietiesfrom Pakistan, Neelam and Akbar, yielded higlJestover the area. A hybrid from Japan, K-305, was thehighest yielding early maturing entry.Triar 2 was grown at eight locations in the lowlandtropics and eight locations outside this area. Ganga 5(India), UPCA VAR 1 (Philippines) and Cupurico xFlint Compuesto (Thailand) performed well in bothzones and ranked well overall. Experimental Hybrid4207 (India) yielded exceptionally well outside thelowland tropics but performed rather poorly in severallocations of the lowland tropics. Vijay (India) waseven more specifically adapted as it ranked third in themore temperate-like regions and very low in the lowlandtropics.Data from the 1971 tests support results for earlieryears on the performance of several varieties. Ganga 5,UPCA VAR 1 and Bogor Composite 2 (Indonesia)continued to exhibit rather general adaptability throughout.Entries with a significant amount of lowlandtropical germ plasm perform better over the region thanentries with a high proportion of temperate germ plasm.The suceptibility of varieties of the latter group todiseases of the humid, lowland tropics no doubtconditions some of this behavior.A cooperative yield trial of 11 downy mildewresistant to moderately resistant varieties was grownat eight locations in five Asian countries. The varietyTainan DMR 10 had the highest average grain yield(3,922 kg/hat. However, the average yields of PhilippineDMR Varieties 4, 3, 2, 6 and 5 were also abovethree tons per hectare and were much more resistantto downy mildew than Tainan DMR 10.The third series of downy mildew nurseries wereestablished in 1971 to monitor virulence among thedowny mildew species found in the various countriesand to the level of resistance being developed innational varietal improvement programs. The datasuggest that both intraspecific and interspecific virule~ceis similar for the world as evidenced by the relativeresistance rank of the differential maize used. It isevident that the disease is most damaging in thePhilippines, least damaging in Taiwan and intermediatein Thailand and Indonesia as determined by the levelof infection of "resistant" varieties in this nursery.However, it is not clear what these differences ininfection percentages among countries are due todifferencesof environment, inoculum levels or virulenceof the pathogens.A limited number of summary reports for 1969,1970 and 1971 testing are available.137

Staff VisitationsSixteen staff vIsitations to 10 national programsand two to CIMMYT were made during 1972. Thesewere for consultation, review, evaluation of materials,helping organize research and extension activities, participatingin training programs, making follow-up visitswith former IACP trainees and participating in internationalseminars.TrainingThere have been 128 participants in the IACPTraining Program since its initiation in 1967. Theirdistribution by year and country are:Year196719681969CountryAfghanistanCeylonIndonesiaJapanKoreaLaosKhmer21421638121261197019711972MalaysiaNepalPakistanPhil ippinesThailandVietnam141421213311471The training period is 6 or 12 months. Classesbegin in January and July. About half of the traineeshave been from extension services or demonstrationfarms.Broadly stated, the general objective of the trainingprogram is to develop competence in modern cropproduction technology with particular focus on maize.This involves an understanding of the agriculturalresources and the role of management in their use forimproving production and profit to the farmer andthe agricultural sector in general. Emphasis is on fieldactivities. Each trainee is expected to complete one ormore field projects involving research or demonstrationof factors affecting production in his area. The traineeswork together so that each learns techniques and skillsthat are used in working with a wide range of problems:breeding, variety trials, fertilizer trials, disease identification,loss evaluation and control, weed control, insectcontrol, methods of planting, etc. The work experienceis supplemented with lectures and reading assignments.Other ActivitiesSeed lots other than regional tests were sent fromIACP headquarters in Thailand to 15 countries onspecial request. Ineluded in these were large lots ofimproved varieties for direct increase and countrywidetesting in three countries (Burma, Ceylon and Nepal).A special downy mildew meeting was held inTaiwan, May 8-11, 1972. An in-depth examination ofcurrent problems and research activities was made byrepresentatives from the Phil ippines, Thailand andTaiwan. The group outlined a program of futureactivities.Juan Gil Preciado (third from left), former Secretary of Agriculture for Mexico, participates in discussions of the resultsof the Downy Mildew Program and regional activities by a group of scientists from Southeast Asia, the United States,and CI MMYT, in Taiwan.

PUEBLAPROJECTPage139141143144Developing RecommendationsUse of RecommendationsTrainingAssistance to Other ProgramsPUEBLA PROJECTThe Puebla Project completed its fifth year ofoperations in 1972, and plans were drawn up for athorough evaluation of results during 1973, which isthe final year under CIMMYT's leadership and financing.The Project is a pilot study of how to increaserapidly the maize yields of small farmers using traditionalmethods in rainfed areas. It has three objectives:(1) to help farmers increase their maize yields; (2) tounderstand better what services are needed to achieverapid increases in yields; and (3) train people forcarrying out similar programs in other areas.The Project began in 1967 in cooperation with theMexican Ministry of Agriculture, the State of Puebla andthe Graduate College of the National School of Agricultureat Chapingo. It is located two hours by automobileeast of Mexico City in the State of Puebla in an areacomprising 116,000 Ilectares of cultivated land and47,500 farmers. The Project is operated by a smallteam of agronomists. They develop recommendationson cropping practices for farmers by conducting fieldtrials in the Project area. They disseminate theinformation, assist farmers in obtaining credit, fertilizers,etc., and study the social and economic factorsinfluencing farmer utilization of modern technology.Developing Recommendations onCropping PracticesThe results obtained from experiments conducted onfarmers' fields have been used to develop packages ofrecommended practices for the different conditions inthe Project area. The best set of practices variessignificantly within the area due to differences in soils,planting dates and the willingness of farmers to acceptrisk. . Recommended fertilizer application rates varyfrom 80 to 130 kg/ha,tor nitrogen. and 0 to 60 kg/hafor P205. The recommended pl~nt population densitiesvary from 40,000 to 50,000 plants per hectare. 1m·proved varieties are not yet available which are consistentlybetter than the local varieties. Recommendationswere developed initially for only one crop··maize--and,since 1970, have been developed for beans, the secondmost important crop in the area.139

Many farmers have traditionally interplanted beansin their maize. Until recently, however, agriculturalscientists have not considered the maize-bean associationas a likely alternative for increasing production and netincome.Experiments were carried out at three locations in1972 to measure the response of a maize-pole beanassociation to fertilization and plant density. Maizeyields were reduced about 30 percent by the interplantingof beans; the yields of the beans were unchangedor increased by the association (Table 1).The most notable treatment was 10 tons of chickenmanure per hectare which increased maize and beanyields above levels obtained with chemical fertilizersalone by about 8 percent and 70 percent, respectively.This level of chicken manure cannot be applied as ageneral practice because of inadequate supply in thearea, but the finding is indicative.Net returns from the several maize-bean associationsand from maize and beans grown alone are given inTable 2. Net returns were calculated by subtractingvariable treatment costs from total produce value; fixed'TABLE PP1. The response of a maize-pole bean association to fertilization and plant density.TreatmentFertilizationYield of grain 14%Thousands ofmoisture (kg/halplants/ha TlalteoangoN PChiautzingo 20sSan A. Arenas Averagekg/ha kg/ha Maize Beans Maize Beans Maize Beans Maize Beans Maize Beans90 40 30 60 3965 850 3070 949 821 1651 2619 1150120 40 30 60 4561 845 3066 1116 1335 1940 2987 1300PO 40 40 60 4473 792 J960 1046 1486 1900 3306 1246120 80 30 60 3610 1043 4020 1403 1247 2199 2959 1548120 80 40 60 3998 905 3423 1306 1802 1967 3074 1393150 40 30 60 4226 1333 2818 1345 1345 2048 2796 1575150 40 40 60 4766 910 419R 961 2111 2211 37513 1161150 80 30 60 4139 999 3331 1326 1548 2401 3006 1575150 80 40 60 4755 1093 4144 1269 1779 1833 3559 1398150 0 40 60 4620 977 2835 963 2012 2395 3156 1445180 80 40 60 4031 1342 4559 1159 2151 2093 3580 15311S0 110 .40 flO+ 10 ton/ha chicken manure 4596 2301 5197 2836 2376 2202 4056 2446120 40 40 0 5184 0 5514 0 3203 0 4634 060 60 0 90 0 894 0 1476 0 1295 0 1222costs were not considered. The values in the lastcolumn of Table 2 reveal: (1) net returns from fertilizedmaize and beans, when grown alone, are similar; (2)net income from the maize-bean association is abouttwice that obtained from either of the crops alone; and(3) the chicken manure treatment gave a net income ofUS$129 per hectare above that obtained with thebest chemical fertilizer treatment. Based on these andsimilar results obtained in 1971, farmers will be encouragedto use the maize-pole bean association, andrecommendations on fertilization and plant densitywill be provided.A few farmers in the Project area have appliedherbicides after the last maize cultivation. ManyTABLE PP2. Net returns from a maize-pole bean association using different levels of fertilization andplant density.FertilizationThousands ofplants/haNP20skg/ha kg/ha Maize Beans Tla/tenango90 40 30 60 422120 40 30 60 453120 40 40 60 436120 80 30 60 432120 80 40 60 423150 40 30 60 543150 40 40 60 480150 80 30 60 453150 80 40 60 507150 0 40 60 471180 80 40 60 484150 40 40 60+ 10 ton/ha chicken manure 651120 40 40 0 32560 60 0 90 146U.S. Dollars per hectare"Chiautzingo San A. Arenas Average412 398 411457 493 468490 493 473560 534 509506 513 480503 497 514505 574 520515 573 ~14547 461 505406 637 505534 540 519824 471 649354 179 286273 234 218" Using the following prices for produce in the field:• Maize grain USS 54.80/tonMaize stover14.40/tonBeans219.20/ton140

people have questioned the value of an auxiliaryhand weeding of maize at the same time as the firstor second mechanical cultivation. Experiments werecarried out at two locations in 1972 to determine theeffect of these weed control measures.Table 3 shows that: (1) an auxiliary weeding byhand at the first cultivation, second cultivation, or 25days after the second cultivation had about the sameeffect and increased grain yields by about 2.30 and1.24 tons per hectare at Tlaltenango and Apango,respectively, and (2) a broadcast treatment with amixture of Atrazin and 2, 4-D after the second cultiva-.tion gave an additional yield increase of 0.69 and 2.00tons per hectare at Tlaltenango and Apango, respectively.Thus, both the hand weeding and the herbicideapplication were high profitable. Weather conditions in1972 were very favorable for plant growth, so theobserved effects of weed control perhaps representthe largest effects that can be expected in the area.Use of the Recommendations by FarmersInformation on maize and bean recommendations istransmitted to farmers through meetings, movies, fielddemonstrations at planting and the second applicationof nitrogen, field inspections and evaluations of plantings,field days at harvest, pamphlets, radio programs,etc. Assistance is provided to groups of organizedfarmers in obtaining credit and in purchasing opportunelythe fertilizers specified by the recommendations.The new recommendations were used for the firsttime in 1968 on 76 hectares by 103 farmers. Ageneral effort to extend the use of the recommendationsto all farmers was begun in 1969 and has continued forthe past four years. Some information is available thatindicates the extent to which farmers are using Projectrecommendations:Dr. Antonio Turrent, CIMMYT soils scientists andtraining agronomist, examines a maize-bean associationin the Puebla Project area just prior to harvest.1. Number of farmers receiving credit for fertilizers.Farmers using the maize recommendations mustinvest US$28 to US$56 dollars per hectare in inputs,primarily fertil izers. Many farmers can use the recommendationsonly if credit is available. The extensionagents have encouraged and assisted the small farmersto organize into groups so that they may receivefinancing from the major sources of credit in Puebla-­three public banks and a fertilizer distributor. Progressin increasing the participation of organized farmers issummarized:1968 1969 1970 1971 1972Farmersreceivingcredit 103 2,561 4,833 5,259 6,202Hectaresundercredit 76 5,743 12,661 14,438 17,581Amountof credit(US$l,OOO) 6 392 768 608 910Compared to 1971, the values for 1972 representincreases of 18 percent in the number of farmers, 22percent in area, and 48 percent in amount of credit.The number of farmers on credit lists in 1972 is about23 percent of the total area planted to maize.2. Amount of nitrogen used for rainfed maize.In addition to the farmers on credit lists, others usethe maize recommendations, but purchase the' inputswith their own funds or through credit obtained fromlocal sources. There is no way of readily measuringthe extent of use of the maize recommendations bythis .category of farmers. In general, however, farmersprefer to work individually and only join together withother farmers when this is the only way they can obtaincredit.The major input that farmers purchase in order tocarry out the maize recommendations is nitrogen.Therefore, by examining the change that has occurredsince 1967 in the amount of nitrogen used for fainfedmaize, it is possible to get some measure of the extentto which the recommendations are being followed.TABLE PP3. Effect of several weed control practiceson the yield of maize grain in kilos perhectare with 14% moisture.Weed control treatment"TlaltenangoLocationsApangoTraditional (Tl l>T + elimination (El at 1st cultivationT + E at 2nd cultivationT + E 25 days after 2nd cultivationT + E at 2nd cultivation + herbicide4281704863806305706644035626560657007605.• All plots at both locations had 50,000 plants per hectare.The fertilizer treatment at Tlaltenango was 130-40-0and at Apango was 100-0-0.10 Cultivating 30 and 60 days after planting; uncoveringmaize plants by hand.141

Surveys in 1967 and 1971 collected information onfertilizer use from a random sample of farmers. Thetwo surveys show:Percent of farmers using no nitrogenPercent of farmers using 0 to 59.9 kg/haPercent of farmers using 60 kg/ha ormoreAverage nitrogen application (kg/ha)The percentage of farmers using 60 kg/ha or more ofnitrogen increased by 25.8 percentage points. Theaverage amount of nitrogen applied per hectare to allthe rainfed maize in the Project area almost doubledduring the four-year period.A study in 1971 of fertilizer use by 240 farmers inthe project area indicated that: (1) 47 percent of thefarmers applied at least 70 kg/ha of nitrogen on at leastone field of rainfed maize, and (2) 38 percent of thefarmers applied at least 60 kg/ha of nitrogen on at leasthalf of their fields of rainfed maize.3. Average maize yields.1967 197138.252.29.729.428.136.435.557.1Eighty-four percent used the right amount of nitrogenin Zone V (phosphorus is not recommended there).Although the recommended time of applying nitrogenis at planting and at the second cultivation, thesecond and third alternatives shown in Table 4 shouldhave given good results. Twenty percent of the farmers,however, applied all of the nitrogen at the secondcultivation which almost certainly reduced its effect onyield. Only 24 percent of the farmers in Zone IIapplied phosphorus at the right time.Thirty-two percent of the participants in Zone IIand 39 percent in Zone V achieved plant densities closeto the recommendation. Forty-five percent of thefarmers in Zone II and 31 percent in Zone V haddensities less than 35,000 plants per hectare, whichwould be expected to lower yields significantly.TABLE PP4. The percentage of farmers in creditlists in Zones II and V that followed fully or inpart the maize production recommendations of thePuebla Project.The maize yields of the 103 farmers using therecommendations in 1968 were measured. In addition,the maize yields of a random sample of all the fannersin the Project area were determined. Since 1968,maize yields have been estimated for random samplesof all farmers on credit lists and all farmers in theProject area. An indirect estimating method involvingthe length and diameter of ears in a sample area hasbeen used.Maize yields in kilograms per hectare of grain at14 percent moisture for the two categories of farmersare:1968 1969 1970 1971 1972Farmers oncredit lists 3,985 2,829 2,732 2,679 2,920All farmersin the area 2,140 1,832 1,962 1,927 2,499These data appear contradictory, because this is arainfed area, and there is a significant annual variationdue to climatic differences. The most favorable of thesefive years for maize was 1968 (first year), the secondbest was 1972 (most recent year), and the three interveningyears were less favorable. Also influencing. theaverages for farmers on credit lists is the tendency foraverages to decline as the number of participatingfarmers increases.Estimates of adoption are difficult because onrya part of the farmers who use fertilizer follow therecommendations exactly while others modify thethe fertilizer rate. time of application, plant density,information on this point, a random sample of 57farmers on credit lists in Zone II (the Project area isdivided into five zones) and 51 in Zone V were selectedfor a detailed study of their use of the maize recommendations.The percentages of the farmers that followed therecommendations fully or in part are shown in Table 4.Fifty-one percent of the farmers on credit lists inZone II used the correct amount of nitrogen and 39percent used the recommended amount of phosphorus.142A. Amount of nitrogenUsed the recommendationUsed at least 3/. of the recommendationUsed at least 1/2 of the recommendationUsed less than 1/2 of the recommendationB. Amount of phosphorusUsed the recommendationUsed at least 3/. of the recommendationUsed at least 1/2 of the recommendationUsed less than 1/2 of the recommendationC. Time of applying nitrogenAt planting and 2nd cultivation[the recommended practice)1st cultivation and 2nd cultivation1st cultivation2nd cultivationD. Time of applying phosphorusAt planting (the recomended practice)1st cultivation2nd cultivationE. Plant density (thousands/ha)> 42.5 (approximately the recommendedrate)35.0-42.527.5-34.9< 27.5Percentage offarmers oncredit listsZone IIZone V51 B428 1214 239247 273018 o58 313 4921 2024661032 3923 3033 29212

TrainingTechnical Assistance to Other P~ogramsThe Puebla Project and the Communications Departmentof the Graduate College at Chapingo aretraining agronomists to participate in ather productionprograms similar to the Puebla Project. During 1972,five Colombians completed a two-year training programand five other Colombians began an eight-month program.Assistance in planning agronomic research and ininterpreting experimental results was provided to regionalproduction programs in Honduras, Colombia, Peru,and the states of Mexico and Tlaxcala in Mexico.A Puebla Project extension agent, Ing. Gildardo Espinoza (second from left), meets with a group of farmers to discuss arrangementsfor credit and fertilizers.143

144

SUPPORTINGSERVICESPageSERVICE LABORATORI ESProtein Quality Laboratory145146147147Service LaboratoriesEconomics UnitExperiment StationsCommunications ServicesThe protein quality laboratory has become an importantworking tool of the cereal breeder only sincethe mid-1960s.Both wheat and maize are somewhat deficient intotal protein, and both are inadequate in amino acidbalance. The low nutritional value of cereal protein isgenerally caused by a deficiency of only one' aminoacid--Iysine, and in the case of maize, by one additionaldeficiency--tryptophan.For many years plant scientists believed the shortcomingsof cereal protein could be corrected only by abalanced diet (that is, by including ditlerent proteinsources in the diets), or by adding synthetic amino acidsto processed foods. Then in the 1960s scientists atPurdue University discovered that certain mutant genesin maize could greatly alter the amino acid composition.This created new potential for cereal improvement, andit also made the protein quality laboratory a necessarytool in cereal breeding.In 1972, the CIMMYT laboratory processed approximately11,800 samples of cereals, including maize,wheat, triticale, and barley. All these crop programsare seeking to improve protein quality while developingbetter plant types and higher yields.To obtain reliable evaluation of protein quality forthousands of cereal samples between the two breedingcycles each year, chemical assay methods must berapid, reliable, and relatively inexpensive. The chemicalaspects of these tests have been simplified at CIMMYTduring the six years since the protein laboratory wasestablished.The protein laboratory serves as a training center forlaboratory technicians from developing countries. In1972, four trainees from four different countries workedin the CIMMYT laboratory.Animal Nutrition LaboratorySome cereal samples which rank highest in chemicalanalysis for protein quality are also tested by CIMMYTin January 1972. The feeding trial further verifiesthe protein quality.The animal chosen for feeding trials at CIMMYT isthe meadow vole (Microtus pennsilvanicus). This animalwas chosen because of its high growth rate, low TOodrequirement, and high reporduction rate. CIMMYT145

imported 100 animals from Dr. F. C. Elliott at MichiganState University where these animals were used forp!eliminary nutritional evaluation of protein efficiency.Approximately 650 feeding trials with the voleswere conducted atCIMMYT during 1972. The colonyhad increased to 800 animals by the end of the year.ECONOMICS UNITThe year 1972 was the first full year in whichCIMMYT employed an economist. The EconomicsUnit employed only one staff member, and the activitieswere necessarily exploratory.Adoption StudiesThese meadow voles provide a biological assay ofprotein quality of cereal strains in CIMMYT breedingprograms.The protein efficiency ratios established by the volesduring 1972 have not been wholly consistent withthe results of feeding trials at other institutions, whereother animals are used. While continuing its biologicalassays with the voles, CIMMYT is studying the nutritionalrequirements and physiological behavior of the volein order to interpret better the protein data from thefeeding trials. Also, CIMMYT is gathering the comparativedata produced by other institutions in the UnitedStates, Canada, and Colombia, where rats, mice, chicksand pigs are used for determining protein efficiencyratios.Soils and Plant Nutrition LaboratoryThis laboratory, established in 1969, serves boththe wheat and maize programs.Soil characteristics are important factors in developingrecommended fertilizer practices, and this laborato'ryhas provided analytical services to agronomy trials.The wheat program has used this laboratory since1969 to obtain information on certain metabol ic processesand to analyze nitrate-reductase activity in wheatplants as one possible criteria in selecting breedingmaterials with high protein levels in the grain.Other ActivitiesOther CIMMYT laboratory activities are describedin the wheat and maize sections of this report, includingthe work on industrial quality of wheats.146First priority was given to a series of adoptionstudies on new technology for wheat and maize. Thesestudies were prompted by a question from CIMMYTTrustees: who is making use of new technology forwheat and maize, and what factors influence farmers toadopt? The studies were begun in eight countriesduring 1972:For wheat: India, Iran, Turkey, Tunisia.For maize: Mexico, EI Salvador, Colombia, Kenya.In each cou ntry the study began with a questiona ire,covering four questions:1. To what extent have different classes of farmersadopted the new technology for wheat or maize?Are the farmer-adopters large landholders or smallholders,or both? Are the farmer-adopters usingirrigation or dryland methods, or both?2. What is the relative profitability of the newtechnology compared to traditional methods as measuredon research stations and in farmers' fields?3. What was the nature of government supportsystems--for example, extension service, credit service,fertilizer distribution, and price supports--at the timethe new technology was introduced?4. To what extent have government programsaiming to benefit small farmers helped diffuse newtechnology among that class of farmers?CIMMYT's manner of conducting these studies hasbeen influenced by the limited headquarters staff.First, CIMMYT arranged for a local national in eachcountry to serve as the principal researcher, andwherever possible, a researcher was chosen who alreadyhad engaged in this type of study. Second, knowledgeabletechnicians living in the country were asked toadvise the project. Third, the local government wasasked to give its endorsement, and in some cases, itsfincmcial support. With few exceptions, the responsewas favorable.By the end of 1972, all studies were under way.An interim progress report is expected by mid-1973,and a final report in 1974. These studies have drawninquiries from several foreign aid agencies because ofwidespread interest in whether the new "high-yieldingvarieties" of wheat, rice, and other cereals are of equalbenefit for all climatic conditions and for all classes offarmers.Other ActivitiesBesides the adoption studies, CIMMYT's economistwas involved in three other major activities, all of themcontinuing:1. In-depth evaluation of the Puebla Project, amaize production project in Mexico which completedits sixth cropping cycle in 1972.i. Consulting with outreach projects in Zair.e,Nigeria, Peru, EI Salvador, and Honduras. The purposeis to r.elp identify economic constraints in cereal productionprojects.3. Participating in CIMMYT's headquarters activitiesto contribute an economic viewpoint to internationalworkshops, program reviews, training activities, andresearch planning by the scientists.

TABLE ES1. Information on CIMMYT's six research locations in Mexico: 1972.Distance fromHa of experimentalName of Mexico City Altitude land used by Croppingstation km meters CIMMYT per crop monthsCIANO-INIA 1.800 39 80. wheat Nov-Apr5. maize Jun-DecRio Bravo-INIA 1,600 30 5. maize Feb.JulyPoza Rica-CIMMYT 282 60 45. maize Dec-Maytwice yearlyJun.NovEI Batan·CIMMYT 47 2.249 26. maize17. wheatApr-DecAll year2. sorghum Jun-DecToluca-CIMMYT 85 2.640 44. wheat All year10. maize Apr-Dec5. potatoes Mar-DecTlaltlzapan-CIMMYT 132 940 30. maize Dec-Maytwice yearlyJun_DecEXPERIMENT STATIONS IN MEXICODuring 1972 CIMMYT conducted its crop researchat six locations in Mexico with widely differing elevations.Thus, the varying environments simulated growingconditions in many parts of Asia, Africa, and LatinAmerica. The basic information on these locations inMexico is given in Table 1.Station Improvements in 1972Because of generous support by the donors of theCIMMYT capital budget, many improvements werecarried out on the experiment stations. some of whichhad been posponed for several years. The improvementsin 1972 are Sl.lmmarized:EI Batan Station near Mexico City: l.and levellingand a new irrigation system were substantially completedon 43 hectares of the original headquarters station.An additional 22 hectares of land were purchased on thenorth boundary of the headquarters in mid-1972, andimprovement of th is land awaits the 1973 budget.Atizapan Station near Toluca: Land levelling wascompleted, and there were no drainage problems duringthe year. A new block of four crop driers was installed.A shortage of irrigation water caused some crop damage,and will be remedied in 1973 by constructing a newreservoir.POla Ric'a Station, Veracruz State: Land leveliingwas completed. Four stone spurs were installed alongthe station's river boundary to stop river erosion. Anew drainage system was installed and proved effective.Also, a new building was constructed for the use oftrainees.Tlaltizapan Station. Morelos State: An additional2.5 hectares of land was purchased on the stationboundary, increasing the total tillable land area toabout 33 hectares. Land levelling and drainage systemswere completed. The rains failed at this station in1972, confirming the need for a complete irrigationsystem.Meteorological ObservationsCI MMYT maintains daily weather observations atits stations, and obtains weather data from the MexicanGovernment where CIMMYT uses Government stations.The CIMMYT records include: precipitation. maximumand minimum temperatures. net and solar radiation.wind movclT'ent. evaporation dnd humidity. Details for1972 are given in Table 2.COMMUNICATIONS SERVICESInformation activities at CIMMYT in 1972 included:printed publications, audiovisual materials, visitor services,library services and training.PRINTED PUBLICATIONSCIMMYT edits and produces more than 50 printedpublications each year. These appear in various seriessuch as the information bulletin series, research series,translation and reprint series, and scientific newsletters.In 1972 CIMMYT issued more publications than inany previous year.Special PublicationsUnder this heading, the following title appeared:CIMMYT Annual Report, 1970-71.In addition, the following were reprinted and distributed.The Puebla Project. 1967·69 (English and Spanish,4th printing).Strategies for Increasing Agricultural Production onSmall Holdings (English and Spanish, 3rd printing).Information Bulletin SeriesNo.1 Results of the First International Triticale YieldNursery 1969-70. January 1972No.2 Results of the First International Durum YieldNursery. 1969-70. February 1972No.3 Results of the First Elite Selection Yield Trial-1and Elite Selection Yield Trial-2. 1969-70No.4 The International Wheat and Maize NurseriesHandbook for Fertilizer Conversions to BasicUnits. March. 1972 (2nd printing)No.5 Report on the Grain Quality of the Entriesin The Seventh International Spring WheatYield Nursery 1970-71. March 1972No.6 Results of the First International Maize AdaptationNursery. October 1972No.7 Instrucciones para el Manejo y Presentaci6nde los Resultados de los Viveros Internacionales147

TABLE ES2. Temperatures at CIMMYT experiment stations in 1971 and 197~E L B A T A NDays ofDays ofMonth Max. Min. Ave. Precipitation rain Max. Min. Ave. Precipitation rain9 7 9 7 2Jan. 23.3 1.2 12.2 20.4 24.6 0.5 12.5 6.4Feb. 24.4 1.3 12.8 25.5 -0.4 12.5Mar. 26.3 4.7 15.5 11.4 5 26.1 2.8 14.4 11.8 9Apr. 26.7 4.3 15.5 9.0 3 28.1 5.0 16.5 54.7 8May. 28.4 7.8 18.1 34.1 8 27.7 8.5 18.1 120.5 13Jun. 24.0 9.8 16.9 192.9 19 25.2 10.0 17.6 111.8 14Jul. 24.0 9.6 16.8 87.8 17 23.3 9.5 16.4 130.7 21Aug. 24.2 8.9 16.5 105.0 18 22.9 8.0 15.5 85.8 17Sep. 25.0 8.9 16.9 137.1 17 23.0 8.3 15.6 79.0 16Oct. 23.2 6.9 15.1 38.8 13 23.0 6.9 14.9 30.3 8Nov. 25.3 1.9 13.6 5.2 2 23.1 4.9 14.0 16.5 5Dec. 24.1 1.1 12.6 8.8 3P 0 Z A R I C AJan. 27.3 15.4 18.6 50.8 3 26.2 16.3 21.3 123.5 9Feb. 28.3 15.1 21.7 18.7 4 24.5 15.1 19.8 39.2 12Mar. 30.5 17.2 24.4 24.2 4 30.2 20.3 25.3 39.3 7Apr. 31.4 18.3 24.8 42.5 3 32.9 22.8 27.8 26.6 3May. 33.4 22.5 27.9 75.2 4 32.2 23.1 27.7 100.9 10Jun. 35.3 23.3 29.3 86.6 13 32.5 22.7 27.6 254.1 14Jul. 32.3 21.9 27.1 215.1 14 30.7 21.9 26.3 234.2 17Aug. 31.9 22.3 27.1 201.1 17 31.6 21.4 26.5 240.2 19Sep. 32.3 22.5 27.4 93.7 14 32.1 21.8 26.9 130.3 12Oct. 30.0 22.1 26.1 319.1 12 31.0 21.6 26.2 182.4 11Nov. 28.3 19.2 23.8 16.1 9 27.8 18.6 23.2 52.5 15Dec. 27.2 18.2 22.7 37.2 11A T Z A P A N . T 0 L U C AJan. 16.8 2.3 9.5 2.0 17.6 -3.9 6.8Feb. 19.0 - 0.4 10.0 18.1 -4.1 6.9 1.8 1Mar. 21.2 2.2 11.6 36.6 5 20.7 -3.0 8.8 15.0 4Apr. 22.4 1.1 13.1 14.0 4 23.8 2.5 13.1 17.3 6May. 26.2 6.2 16.2 20.5 7 23.6 4.6 14.1 78.3 10Jun: 20.1 8.8 14.4 191.3 15 19.8 8.0 13.9 167.3 14Jul. 18.7 8.6 13.7 201.8 23 18.6 8.1 13.3 164.0 22·Aug. 19.2 8.3 13.8 122.8 20 18.7 10.6 14.6 198.9 17Sep. 19.4 9.0 14.0 176.0 15 19.6 7.6 13.6 96.8 14Oct. 19.8 6.3 13.1 40.8 7 16.5 5.2 10.8 52.4 6Nov. 19.8 - 1.6 9.1 22.5 2Dec. 18.3 2.6 10.5 9.0 1T L A L T I Z A P A NJan. 31.0 9.1 19.9 1.5 31.2 9.8 20.1 0.3Feb. 31.7 9.5 20.5 32.4 8.8 20.6Mar. 35.0 13.5 24.5 3.4 2 33.7 12.3 22.8Apr. 36.1 13.3 24.7 36.4 17.8 26.2 45.6 9May. 37.6 16.9 27.4 42.8 5 36.2 22.9 29.3 44.0 6Jun. 32.3 18.7 15.1 218.9 15 38.3 21.2 29.7 246.4 14Jul. 30.3 17.9 24.2 202.6 20 30.7 20.4 25.2 103.1 17Aug. 29.8 17.7 23.6 138.2 20 31.7 20.8 26.2 76.1 12Sep. 27.9 18.9 23.3 307.4 25 31.3 19.7 25.4 171.8 16Oct. 28.0 17.3 22.8 239.1 13 31.7 15.0 23.1 22.3 5Nov. 27.1 12.1 19.6 15.4 1 31.8 14.5 22.7 7.1 3Dec. 30.7 10.5 20.0 7.1 1de SeJecci6n (Screening Nurseries). (I nstructionsfor the Management and Reporting ofResults for all International Screening Nurserries).(2nd printing)No.8 Instrucciones para el manejo de los ViverosInternacionales de Rendimiento. (Instructionsfor the management of the International YieldNurseries) March 1971 (3rd printing)No.9 Preliminary Summary of the Second InternationalElite Selection Yield Trials (1 and 2).A Spring Wheat Yield Nursery, 1970-71. January1972Research SeriesNo. 20 Chemical Screening Methods for Maize ProteinQuality at CIMMYT (Spanish Edition). May1971 (1972) •No. 23 Results of the Sixth International Spring WheatYield Nursery, 1969-1970 (1972)The following were reprinted and distributed uponrequest.No.2 Statistical Genetic Theory and Procedures Usefulin Studying Varieties and Inter-VarietalCrosses in Maize. 1968 (English and Spanish,3rd printing)148

No.9 Field Technique for Fertilizer Experiments.1968 (English and Spanish, 4th printing)No.12 Combining Data from Fertilizer Experimentsinto a Function Useful for Estimating SpecificFertilizer Recommendations. 1969 (2ndprinting)Translation and Reprint SeriesThe Communications program acquired and distributedupon request reprints of the following papers byCIMMYT scientists or papers based on CIMMYT workand published in journals or series outside CIMMYT.No.9 Human Population, Food Demands and Wildlifeneeds. Dr. N. E. BorlaiJg. Reprintedfrom Transactions of the 37th North AmericanWildlife and Natural Resources Conference,March 1972. Wildlife Management Institute,Washington, D.C.No. 10 Mankind and Civilization at Another Crossroad.Dr. N. E. Borlaug. McDougall MemorialLecture, FAO. 1971 (English, Spanish andFrench)No. 11 Dry Matter Production, Yield Components andGrain Yield of the Maize Plant. Akira Tanakaand Jurichi Yamaguchi. Reprinted from Journalof the Faculty of Agriculture, HokkaidoUniversity, Vol. 57, Pt. 1. Sapporo, Japan1972.In addition, new printings were made of the following.No.2Wheat Breeding and its Impact on World FoodSupply. N. E. Borlaug. International WheatGenetics Symposium, Canberra, Australia, 19­68. (English and Spanish, 3rd printing atCIMMYT)CIMMYT ReportA significant change in C~MMYT informational activitiesin 1972 was the creation of a new bimonthlynewsletter in English and Spanish--CIMMYT Report.This replaces "CIMMYT News", which was suspendedin 1970 during a series of stall changes at CIMMYT.CIMMYT Report presents a program progress reportand deals with one primary subject in each issue.Subjects include research advances of general interest.The first issue was an updating publication released atthe end of 1972.Maize and Wheat BibliographiesDuring 1972, a Maize Bibliography and a WheatBibliography were completed by a team of documentalistsat the Catholic University in Washington, D.C.These bibliographies, covering world bibliographies onmaize and wheat from 1958 to 1968, were compiled,edited and published through a special contract betweenthe Catholic University and the Rockefeller Foundation,which financed the contract. A commercial concernpublished'the three-volume sets on each crop. CIMMYTreceived 250 sets of each for distribution.Extension Materials for Puebla ProjectCircular letters for farmers (EI Plan Puebla Informa,3 issues) and reports for the Puebla Proiect annualmeeting (February 1972) were produced by the CIMMYTinformation staff.Translations into FrenchIn the past, CIMMYT publications were issued inEnglish and Spanish, depending on the subject, scopeand interest. As CIMMYT activities now extend toFrench-speaking North Africa and tropical Africa, theneed for publishing in French has increased. Twopublications were translated into French in 1972 andhereafter, several will be published in English, Spanishand French. Narrations of slide sets and movies alsowill include French.Mailing ListsThe permanent mailing lists now include over 7,500names of individuals, libraries and institutions in 117countries. This represents the addition of more than1,500 names in 1972.AUDIOVISUAL MATERIALSCIMMYT produces and distributes audiovisual materialspertinent to CIMMYT programs, including stillphotographs, motion pictures, slide sets, graphs, maps,and charts. These materials are used in CIMMYTpublications, training activities, conferences, and exhibits.Films and Slide SetsDuring 1972, two motion pictures in color and soundwere edited and the master copies will be available forreprints in 1973.1. Corn Reproduction was made under the supervisionof the maize staff. It shows all stages of corngrowth and reproduction. It is intended to be used intraining activities, both at the headquarters and inoutreach programs.2. Wheat Rust Handling was made under thesupervision of CIMMYT Wheat Program pathologists.It shows how rust materials are collected, prepared,maintained and used in the field and in greenhouses.The film is intended for training. Copies for distributionare expected by the spring of 1973. Color slidesets have been completed based on these movies.Other slide sets now in production include: MaizeDiseases; Nutritional Tests for Advanced Materials atCIMMYT; Milling, Baking and Macarroni Tests forAdvanced Materials at CIMMYT; and What is CIMMYT?The last is for showing to groups of visitors at CIMMYTHeadquarters. These slide sets will be available in1973.The photographers work in collaboration withCIMMYT scientists, who advise on the subjects to becovered and on the technical contents of the pictures.The audiovisual section also fills requests for graphs,charts and maps needed by the staff, and designs coversfor publications.ExhibitsDuring the year the audiovisual section prepared aset of exhibits for the CIMMYT-Purdue International149

Symposium on High-Quality-Protein Maize. This involvedthe design and production of photo-murals, charts,maps, lettering and arrangement of plant materials toshow the kind and scope of CIMMYT programs. Theexhibits were mounted in the halls of the CIMMYTAdministration Building.At the end of 1972, a new set of exhibits was beingmounted for the CIMMYT International Wheat, Triticaleand Barley Symposium, to be held in January 1973.During 1973, permanent exhibits are partially derivedfrom these two exhibits planned for the AdministrationBuilding.TRAININGDuring 1973 the CIMMYT Communications staffcontinued its cooperation with the CommunicationsDepartment of the Graduate School at Chapingo intraining students in visual aids. The CIMMYT Com·munications staff offers opportunities for student participationin the planning, production and laboratoryprocesses at CIMMYT. Staff members also serve asconsultants in research projects for CI MMYT traineesstudying at Chapingo.150These training activities were extended in ·1972 toother institutions, and the following persons weretrained in audiovisuals: (1) Harry M. Hardy ofDesarrural, Honduras, June-Nov., 1972; (2) Javier Juarezof the University of Coahuila, College of Agriculture,Mexico, June-Aug., 1972; (3) Eleuterio Reyes of theInstitute for the Improvement of Sugar Cane, Nov.-Dec.,1972; and (4) Roberto Ulibarri of the ExtensionService and Graduate School, Chapingo, Mexico, June­Dec., 1972.

At the master of science degree level, one CIMMYTfellow from Colombia completed his degree at theChapingo Graduate School, and was advised by theCommunications staff in his thesis work carried out atthe Puebla Project.VISITORS AND SEMINARS SERVICEA new service for visitors to EI Batan was created inJanuary 1972. The number of visitors has been risingsteadily since CIMMYT moved to its present headquartersin mid-1971.During 1972 registered visitors to EI Batan totalled3,000, and another 1,500 to 2,000 were received atCIMMYT experiment stations and at the Puebla Project,bringing total visitors to approximately 5,000 for' theyear. In providing service, CIMMYT classified thesevisitors as follows: (1) individual scientists who wantedto talk to particular scientists at CIMMYT, approximately1,000 during 1972; (2) groups from universities andscientific conferences registered on 77 occasions, totallingover 1,000 visitors and (3) 900 casual visitors,mostly from within Mexico, who requested generalinformation about CIMMYT.The Visitors Service arranges appointement schedulesfor individual scientists wishing to see CIMMYT staff,and has set up tours of EI Batan and slide presentationsfor larger groups making arrangements in advance.The Visitors Service also prepares information foldersfor visitors and in 1972 distributed over 3,000 publications.As a related activity, the Visitors Service publishes£1 Battin Informa, a mimeographed staff informationbulletin issued weekly in both English and Spanish.Informa carries institutional news, administrative announcements,and reprints of articles relating to internationalfood supply and similar topics affectingCIMMYT programs. The 50 issues of Informa in 1972contained over 500 pages of news and reprints.LIBRARYCIMMYT maintains a small agricultural referencelibrary, and relies upon the Mexican National AgriculturalLibrary at Chapingo, 10 kilometers from EI Batan,for its basic book loan service.During 1972, 450 new books were processed in theCIMMYT collections, 68 new periodicals were added tothe shelves, and CIMMYT librarians handled 1,180requests from staff and trainees for reference service.Dr. Dorothy Parker of the Rockefeller Foundationserved as consultant to the library in 1972 and infullfillment of one of Dr. Parker's recommendations, aCIMMYT librarian spent two months at the DocumentationCenter and Agricultural Library at Turrialba, CostaRica.151