"O Soul, Come Back!" A Study in The Changing Conceptions of The ...
"O Soul, Come Back!" A Study in The Changing Conceptions of The ... "O Soul, Come Back!" A Study in The Changing Conceptions of The ...
SOUL AND AFTERLIFE 389at which imperial sacrifices had been made to the supreme earthlydeity, the Lord of Earth (Ti chu J__A1).66 It was indeed only a smallstep to transform the Lord of Earth into the Lord of the Underworld(ti-hsia chu JifF). The title Lord of Mount T'ai- T'ai-shan fuch/in-alsorequires a word of explanation. The term fu-chii mustnot be taken to mean "lord" in a general sense. In fact, it was apopular name referring specifically to provincial governors in Hantimes. Nor should "T'ai-shan" in this case be understood as thesacred mountain itself. Instead it was a reference to the provincenamed after the sacred mountain in which Liang-fu was alsolocated.67 In other words, calling the supreme ruler of the underworldT'ai-shan fu-chuin was to indicate both the location of hisresidence and the bureaucratic rank of his office. Since he was incharge of the dead, he was therefore assigned an official positionlower than the supreme ruler of the human world, the emperor, byone rank. This fits perfectly well with some other popular names bywhich he was also known. For example, stone inscriptions found inHan tombs often refer to him either as "Lord of Mount T'ai" oras "the provincial governor in the underworld.""' Moreover, apopular Han religious tract says that he is the "grandson of theHeavenly God. X6 The last instance is particularly revealing. Clear-66Due to limitations of space the following discussion is highly condensed. For a detailedstudy see my Chinese article, "Chung-kuo ku-tai ssu-hou shih-chieh kuan ti yen-pien" rp-NN;EWLFAMIn, 0 Yen-yuan lun-hsueh chi ?rRX (Peking, Peking University Press,1984), pp. 177-96. Shih-chi 28.1367; Burton Watson, tr., Records of the Grand Historian of China2 vols. (New York, Columbia University Press, 1961), 2:24.67 This is rightly pointed out in Hu San-hsing's M t commentary on Tzu-chih t 'ung-chienWM& (Peking: Chung-hua shu-chii, 1956), 20.678.68 Quoted in Fang Shih-ming , "Tsai-lun ti-chuan ti chien-pieh,"WW 1979.8: 84. For more details of the transformation of the Lord of Mount T'ai, seeOkamoto Saburo 1Q14 913, "Taizan fukun no yurai ni tsuite," Ftl*8C7)- '1C,Toyogaku kenkyut V9*4JM, 1 (November 1943): 63-98.69 We owe this information to a fragment of the Hsiao-ching yiuan-shen ch'i :ipreserved in Chang Hua's T (A.D. 232-300) Po-wu chih, see Fan Ning ;*, ed., Po-wu chihchiao-chu tt$J I (Peking: Chung-hua shu-chiu, 1980), p. 12. This perhaps also explainswhy, as recent archaeology amply shows, the Heavenly God often sent envoys to warn underworldofficials of all levels that they must not harass the souls under their jurisdictions. See-Hayashi Minao ; "Kandai kijin no sekai" fflft4OtD , Tohogakuho46 (March 1974): 227-28 and note 14, pp. 297-98.) Obviously, Han Chinese believed thatthe souls in the underworld were subject to the taxes and labor services demanded by underworldofficials. See the inscription from a Han tomb dated A.D. 173 in Kuo Mo-jo iNu-li chih shih-tai *Ijft, (Peking, 1972), p. 94.
390 YING-SHIH YUly, the idea of "grandson of the Heavenly God" was derivedanalogously from that of the "Son of Heaven," that is, theemperor.Second, like the supreme ruler of the human world, it was believedthat the Lord of Mount T'ai also had a bureaucracy to assisthim in governing the dead. Judging by the various official titlesfound in Han tombs and other texts, the bureaucratic structure ofthe underworld was closely modeled on the administrative systemof the Han empire. The first thing the newly dead had to do was togo to the capital of the underworld to register. There is further evidencesuggesting that the underworld government could send forthe souls of those whose alloted span on earth, according to the Registerof Death, was up. As time wore on, the idea of post-mortempunishment also found its way into the Han belief about the afterlife.The T'ai-p'ing ching of the second century A.D. has the followingvivid description of the administration of justice in the underworld.If a man commits evils unceasingly, his name will then be entered into the Registerof Death. He will be summoned to the Underworld Government (t'u-fu ?Nf) wherehis body is to be kept. Alas! When can he ever get out? His soul will be imprisonedand his doings in life will be questioned. If his words are found to be inconsistent,he will be subject to further imprisonment and torture. His soul is surely going tosuffer a great deal. But who is to blame?70This new conception of the underworld may well have been afaithful reflection of the cruel realities of interrogation and torture inthe imperial and provincial prisons, especially during the secondcentury A.D.7DThird, we have reason to believe that as the supreme ruler of theunderworld, the authority of the Lord of Mount T'ai was originallyconceived to be exercised over the hun-souls. Several historical andliterary sources specifically link the hun, but not the p 'o, to MountT'ai, which itself calls to mind the underworld in which the Lord70TPC, p. 615 and also pp. 598-99. In contrast to ancient Greece, the Chinese idea ofpost-mortem punishment is a much later development. See Emily Vermeule, Aspects of Death,p. 8, and E. R. Dodds, The Greeks and the Irrational (Berkeley: University of California Press,1951), pp. 137, 150-51.71 Lii Ssu-mien RO,, Ch'in-Han shih f 2 vols. (Shanghai: K'ai-ming shu-tien,1947), 2:704-09.
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SOUL AND AFTERLIFE 389at which imperial sacrifices had been made to the supreme earthlydeity, the Lord <strong>of</strong> Earth (Ti chu J__A1).66 It was <strong>in</strong>deed only a smallstep to transform the Lord <strong>of</strong> Earth <strong>in</strong>to the Lord <strong>of</strong> the Underworld(ti-hsia chu JifF). <strong>The</strong> title Lord <strong>of</strong> Mount T'ai- T'ai-shan fuch/<strong>in</strong>-alsorequires a word <strong>of</strong> explanation. <strong>The</strong> term fu-chii mustnot be taken to mean "lord" <strong>in</strong> a general sense. In fact, it was apopular name referr<strong>in</strong>g specifically to prov<strong>in</strong>cial governors <strong>in</strong> Hantimes. Nor should "T'ai-shan" <strong>in</strong> this case be understood as thesacred mounta<strong>in</strong> itself. Instead it was a reference to the prov<strong>in</strong>cenamed after the sacred mounta<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> which Liang-fu was alsolocated.67 In other words, call<strong>in</strong>g the supreme ruler <strong>of</strong> the underworldT'ai-shan fu-chu<strong>in</strong> was to <strong>in</strong>dicate both the location <strong>of</strong> hisresidence and the bureaucratic rank <strong>of</strong> his <strong>of</strong>fice. S<strong>in</strong>ce he was <strong>in</strong>charge <strong>of</strong> the dead, he was therefore assigned an <strong>of</strong>ficial positionlower than the supreme ruler <strong>of</strong> the human world, the emperor, byone rank. This fits perfectly well with some other popular names bywhich he was also known. For example, stone <strong>in</strong>scriptions found <strong>in</strong>Han tombs <strong>of</strong>ten refer to him either as "Lord <strong>of</strong> Mount T'ai" oras "the prov<strong>in</strong>cial governor <strong>in</strong> the underworld.""' Moreover, apopular Han religious tract says that he is the "grandson <strong>of</strong> theHeavenly God. X6 <strong>The</strong> last <strong>in</strong>stance is particularly reveal<strong>in</strong>g. Clear-66Due to limitations <strong>of</strong> space the follow<strong>in</strong>g discussion is highly condensed. For a detailedstudy see my Ch<strong>in</strong>ese article, "Chung-kuo ku-tai ssu-hou shih-chieh kuan ti yen-pien" rp-NN;EWLFAMIn, 0 Yen-yuan lun-hsueh chi ?rRX (Pek<strong>in</strong>g, Pek<strong>in</strong>g University Press,1984), pp. 177-96. Shih-chi 28.1367; Burton Watson, tr., Records <strong>of</strong> the Grand Historian <strong>of</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a2 vols. (New York, Columbia University Press, 1961), 2:24.67 This is rightly po<strong>in</strong>ted out <strong>in</strong> Hu San-hs<strong>in</strong>g's M t commentary on Tzu-chih t 'ung-chienWM& (Pek<strong>in</strong>g: Chung-hua shu-chii, 1956), 20.678.68 Quoted <strong>in</strong> Fang Shih-m<strong>in</strong>g , "Tsai-lun ti-chuan ti chien-pieh,"WW 1979.8: 84. For more details <strong>of</strong> the transformation <strong>of</strong> the Lord <strong>of</strong> Mount T'ai, seeOkamoto Saburo 1Q14 913, "Taizan fukun no yurai ni tsuite," Ftl*8C7)- '1C,Toyogaku kenkyut V9*4JM, 1 (November 1943): 63-98.69 We owe this <strong>in</strong>formation to a fragment <strong>of</strong> the Hsiao-ch<strong>in</strong>g yiuan-shen ch'i :ipreserved <strong>in</strong> Chang Hua's T (A.D. 232-300) Po-wu chih, see Fan N<strong>in</strong>g ;*, ed., Po-wu chihchiao-chu tt$J I (Pek<strong>in</strong>g: Chung-hua shu-chiu, 1980), p. 12. This perhaps also expla<strong>in</strong>swhy, as recent archaeology amply shows, the Heavenly God <strong>of</strong>ten sent envoys to warn underworld<strong>of</strong>ficials <strong>of</strong> all levels that they must not harass the souls under their jurisdictions. See-Hayashi M<strong>in</strong>ao ; "Kandai kij<strong>in</strong> no sekai" fflft4OtD , Tohogakuho46 (March 1974): 227-28 and note 14, pp. 297-98.) Obviously, Han Ch<strong>in</strong>ese believed thatthe souls <strong>in</strong> the underworld were subject to the taxes and labor services demanded by underworld<strong>of</strong>ficials. See the <strong>in</strong>scription from a Han tomb dated A.D. 173 <strong>in</strong> Kuo Mo-jo iNu-li chih shih-tai *Ijft, (Pek<strong>in</strong>g, 1972), p. 94.
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