FBI Forensic Services Handbook - Imprimus Forensic Services

Table of ContentsIntroduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1Submitting Evidence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7Evidence Examinations. . . . . . . . . . . 13Crime Scene Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . 147Crime Scene Search . . . . . . . . . . . . 171Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185iii

INTRODUCTIONIntroductionHandbook of Forensic Services 2007The Handbook of Forensic Services providesguidance and procedures for safe and efficientmethods of collecting, preserving, packaging, andshipping evidence and describes the forensicexaminations performed by the FBI’s LaboratoryDivision and Operational Technology Division.FBI Forensic ServicesThe successful investigation and prosecution ofcrimes require, in most cases, the collection,preservation, and forensic analysis of evidence.Forensic analysis of evidence is often crucial todeterminations of guilt or innocence.The FBI has one of the largest and mostcomprehensive forensic laboratories in the world,and the FBI Laboratory is accredited by theAmerican Society of Crime Laboratory Directors/Laboratory Accreditation Board. The forensicservices of the FBI Laboratory Division and theOperational Technology Division are available tothe following:ßFBI field offices and legal attachés.

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßßU.S. attorneys, military tribunals, and otherfederal agencies for civil and criminal matters.State, county, and municipal lawenforcement agencies in the United Statesand territorial possessions for criminalmatters.All forensic services, including expert witnesstestimonies, are rendered free of cost; however,the following limitations apply:ßßßNo examination will be conducted onevidence that has been previously subjectedto the same type of examination. Exceptionsmay be granted when there are reasons for areexamination. These reasons should beexplained in separate letters from the directorof the laboratory that conducted the originalexamination, the prosecuting attorney, and theinvestigating agency.No request for an examination will beaccepted from laboratories having thecapability of conducting the examination.Exceptions may be granted upon approval ofthe FBI Laboratory Director or a designee.No testimony will be furnished if testimony onthe same subject and in the same case is

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007provided for the prosecution by anotherexpert.ßNo request for an examination will beaccepted from a nonfederal lawenforcement agency in civil matters.In addition, when submitting evidence to the FBILaboratory, contributors acknowledge thefollowing:ßßßFBI examiners will choose appropriatetechnical processes to address thecontributor’s request for examination.Depending on the caseload of the Laboratoryand the needs of the contributor, evidenceexaminations may be subcontracted.An FBI Laboratory Report of Examination maycontain the opinions and/or interpretations ofthe examiner(s) who issued the report.Violent Crime Versus Property CrimeThe FBI accepts evidence related to all crimesunder investigation by FBI field offices; however, itaccepts from state and local law enforcementagencies only evidence related to violent crime

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßßßßßPrevious case-identification numbers,evidence submissions, and communicationsrelating to the case.Description of the nature and the basic factsof the case as they pertain to evidenceexaminations.The name(s) of and descriptive data about theindividual(s) involved (subject, suspect, victim,or a combination of those categories) and theagency-assigned case-identification number.The name of the prosecutor assigned, ifavailable.A list of the evidence being submitted“herewith” (enclosed) or “under separatecover.”üHerewith is limited to small itemsof evidence that are not endangered bytransmitting in an envelope. Write on theenvelope before placing evidence insideto avoid damaging or altering theevidence. The written communicationshould state: “Submitted herewith arethe following items of evidence.”

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007üSeparate cover is used to ship numerousor bulky items of evidence. Include a copyof the communication requesting theexaminations. The written communicationshould state: “Submitted under separatecover by [list the method of shipment]are the following items of evidence.”ßßßWhat type(s) of examination(s) is/arerequested.Where the evidence should be returned andwhere the Laboratory report should be sent.A street address must be included.A statement if the evidence was previouslyexamined, if there is local controversy, or ifother law enforcement agencies have aninterest in the case.Packaging and Shipping EvidenceßßßPrior to packaging and shipping evidence, callthe pertinent unit for specific instructions.Take precautions to preserve the evidence.Wrap and seal each item of evidenceseparately to avoid contamination.

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007üüThe outside of the container must belabeled “ORM-D, CARTRIDGES, SMALLARMS.”The Declaration of Dangerous Goodsmust include the number of packagesand the gross weight in grams of thecompleted packages.ßUnless otherwise indicated in theExaminations section, address theouter container as follows:EVIDENCE CONTROL UNITLABORATORY DIVISIONFEDERAL BUREAU OF INVESTIGATION2501 INVESTIGATION PARKWAYQUANTICO VA 22135ßShip evidence by U.S. Postal ServiceRegistered Mail, UPS, or FedEx. Record themethod of shipment and the trackingnumber(s) on the chain-of-custody form.Back to the top12

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Abrasives ExaminationsExaminations may determine the type of abrasivematerial used to sabotage engines or machinery.Questions concerning abrasives evidenceshould be directed to 703-632-8441. Follow theevidence submission directions, includingRequesting Evidence Examinations andPackaging and Shipping Evidence.ßßßßEmploy personnel familiar with the operationsand mechanics of engines and machinery torecover abrasives.Abrasives settle in oil and fuel. Submit the oiland fuel from the engine pump and/or filters.Abrasives embed in bearings and other parts.Submit the bearings and other parts.Submit abrasives in heat-sealed or resealableplastic bags or paint cans. Do not use paperor glass containers.Adhesive, Caulk, and SealantExaminationsAdhesives, caulks, and sealants can be comparedby color and chemical composition with suspected14

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007sources. The source and manufacturer ofadhesives, caulks, and sealants cannot bedetermined by compositional analysis.Questions concerning adhesive, caulk,and sealant evidence should be directed to703-632-8441. Follow the evidence submissiondirections, including Requesting EvidenceExaminations and Packaging and ShippingEvidence.ßßWhen possible, submit the item to which theadhesive, caulk, or sealant is adhered. If thisis not possible, remove a sample of thematerial with a clean, sharp instrument andtransfer it to a resealable plastic bag orleakproof container such as a film canister orplastic pill bottle.Submit a suspected source. Packageseparately.Anthropological ExaminationsAnthropological examinations can determinewhether something is a bone and, if so, whether itis human or animal in origin. Race, sex,approximate height and stature, and approximateage at death often can be determined from human15

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007remains. Damage to bone such as cuts, bluntforcetrauma, and bullet holes also may beexamined. Personal identifications can be madeby comparing X-rays of a known individual withskeletal remains.Anthropological examinations usually areconducted on bones sent to the Laboratory forDNA analysis or facial reproductions.Questions concerning anthropologicalevidence should be directed to 703-632-8449.Follow the evidence submission directions,including Requesting Evidence Examinationsand Packaging and Shipping Evidence.ßßClean and air-dry bones, if possible. Pack inpaper bags and wrap in protective materialsuch as Bubble Wrap or paper. If tissue ispresent on the skeletal material, refrigerateuntil mailing, and then ship in a Styrofoamcooler.Collect insect samples found on the remainsin leakproof containers such as film canistersor plastic pill bottles. Call the Laboratory at703-632-8449 for additional instructions.Submit medical records and X-rays, if possible.Back to the top16

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Arson ExaminationsArson examinations can determine the presenceof ignitable liquids introduced to a fire scene.Examinations of debris recovered from scenescan identify gasoline, fuel oils, and specialitysolvents. Examinations generally cannot identifyspecific brands.Search at questioned arson scenes for thefollowing items: candles, cigarettes, matchbooks,Molotov cocktails, fused chemical masses, or anyelectronic or mechanical devices an arsonist mayhave used. Also search for burn trails on cloth orpaper, burn trails on carpeted or hardwood floors,and the removal of personal property orcommercial inventory.Questions concerning arson evidence shouldbe directed to 703-632-7641. Follow theevidence submission directions, includingRequesting Evidence Examinations andPackaging and Shipping Evidence.Ignitable liquids are volatile and easily lost throughevaporation. Preserve evidence in airtightcontainers such as metal cans, glass jars, or heatsealedplastic bags approved for fire debris. Donot fill the containers to the top. Pack to preventbreakage.17

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Audio ExaminationsAudio examinations are conducted by the FBI’sOperational Technology Division (OTD), DigitalEvidence Laboratory (DEL), Forensic Audio,Video, and Image Analysis Unit (FAVIAU). TheOTD DEL has different acceptance criteria and adifferent physical address than the FBI Laboratory,as described below.AuthenticityAuthenticity examinations are conducted todetermine whether audio recordings are original,continuous, unaltered, and consistent with theoperation of the recording device used to makethe recording.EnhancementEnhancement examinations are conducted toselectively reduce interfering noise on audiorecordings to improve the intelligibility.Voice ComparisonsSpectrographic examinations compare anunknown recorded voice sample with a knownverbatim voice exemplar produced on a similartransmission-and-recording device such as thetelephone. Decisions regarding spectrographicvoice comparisons are not conclusive. The results18

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007of voice comparisons are provided forinvestigative guidance only.Signal AnalysisSignal analysis examinations are conducted toidentify, compare, and interpret such signals asgunshots and telephone touch tones.Damaged MediaAudio recordings can be repaired, restored, orretrieved for playback and examination, if damageis not too extensive.Questions concerning audio examinationsshould be directed to 703-985-1393. Questionsconcerning audio evidence should be directedto 703-985-1388.Audio examinations may not be submitted directlyfrom entities outside the FBI. State, local, orinternational agency cases must be submitted bythe FBI field office servicing the area and mustmeet one of the following two criteria: 1) the state,local, or international case has a nexus to anongoing FBI investigation or 2) the FBI divisionhead deems that the case is of enough regionalimportance to merit the dedication of federalresources to the state, local, or international case.These criteria shall be met with a written19

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007statement from the division head (Special Agent inCharge). FBI entities may submit cases directly.Follow the evidence submission directions,including Requesting Evidence Examinationsand Packaging and Shipping Evidence.ßßßßßWrite-protect the original recording, whichmay include finalizing CD and DVD media.Submit original audio recordings.Identify known and questioned voice samples.Label the outer container “FRAGILE,SENSITIVE ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT” or“FRAGILE, SENSITIVE AUDIO/VIDEOMEDIA” and “KEEP AWAY FROM MAGNETSOR MAGNETIC FIELDS.”Address the outer container as follows:FORENSIC PROGRAMBUILDING 27958AENGINEERING RESEARCH FACILITYFEDERAL BUREAU OF INVESTIGATIONQUANTICO VA 22135Back to the top20

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Bank Security Dye ExaminationsBank dye packs contain dye to stain money andclothing and tear gas to disorient a robber. Itemssuch as money and clothing can be analyzed forthe presence of bank security dye and tear gas.Questions concerning bank security dyeevidence should be directed to 703-632-8441.Follow the evidence submission directions,including Requesting Evidence Examinationsand Packaging and Shipping Evidence.ßßOnly evidence with visible red or pink stainswill be examined.Do not submit large stained evidence (e.g.,car seats). When possible, cut a small sampleof the stained area and submit in a heatsealedor resealable plastic bag. Collect anunstained control sample, package separately,and submit it with the dye-stained evidence.When cutting is not possible, transferquestioned stains by rubbing with a clean (dryor wet with alcohol) cotton swab. Use anunstained swab as a control. Air-dry the swaband pack in a heat-sealed or resealableplastic bag.21

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Building Materials ExaminationsExaminations can compare building materialssuch as brick, mortar, plaster, stucco, cement, andconcrete.Questions concerning building materialsevidence should be directed to 703-632-8449.Follow the evidence submission directions,including Requesting Evidence Examinationsand Packaging and Shipping Evidence.ßßßWhen building materials are penetrated ordamaged, debris can adhere to people,clothing, tools, bags, and stolen items and cantransfer to vehicles. If possible, submit theevidence to the Laboratory for examiners toremove the debris. Package each item ofevidence in a separate paper bag. Do notprocess tools for latent prints.Collect known samples from the penetrated ordamaged areas.Ship known and questioned debris separatelyto avoid contamination. Submit known andquestioned debris in leakproof containerssuch as film canisters or plastic pill bottles. Donot use paper or glass containers. Pack tokeep lumps intact.22

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Bullet Jacket Alloy ExaminationsElemental analysis of bullet jackets can be donewhen a bullet has fragmented so that individualpieces cannot be used for comparison with testfiredammunition from a firearm or in the absenceof a firearm or the lead component of the bullet.This analysis may be helpful when there aremultiple shooters and types of jacketedammunition. Alloy classification can differentiateamong bullet jacket alloys of different manufacturersor among the bullet jacket alloys inmanufacturers’ production lines.Questions concerning bullet jacket alloyexaminations should be directed to 703-632-8441. Follow the evidence submission directions,including Requesting Evidence Examinationsand Packaging and Shipping Evidence.ßAmmunition components such as bullets,cartridge cases, and shotshell casings can besent via Registered Mail through the U.S.Postal Service. Evidence must be packagedseparately with the date, time, location,collector’s name, case number, and evidencenumber written on the container.23

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßU.S. Department of Transportation regulationsand the following guidelines must be followedwhen shipping live ammunition:üüüPackage and ship ammunition separatelyfrom firearm(s).The outside of the container must belabeled “ORM-D, CARTRIDGES, SMALLARMS.”The Declaration of Dangerous Goodsmust include the number of package(s)and the gross weight in grams of thecompleted package(s).ß Do not mark bullets, cartridges, cartridgecases, shotshells, or shotshell casings. Thedate, time, location, collector’s name, casenumber, and evidence number must be on thecontainer.Back to the topChemical Examinations of GeneralUnknownsGeneral unknowns include powders, liquids, andstains that are of indeterminate origin or cannot bereadily classified. Full identification of an unknownmay not always be possible; however, generalclassification of a substance is usually achievable.24

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007When comparison samples are available, it maybe possible to comment regarding the consistencyof the unknown substance compared with aknown sample.Call the Laboratory at 703-632-8441 prior tosubmitting general unknowns to ensure thatthe evidence will be accepted for examination.The communication accompanying the evidencemust reference the telephone conversationaccepting the evidence.Questions concerning examinations of generalunknowns should be directed to 703-632-8441.Follow the evidence submission directions,including Requesting Evidence Examinationsand Packaging and Shipping Evidence.ßSubmit powder and liquid samples inleakproof containers.Do not submit large stained evidence. Whenpossible, cut a small sample of the stained areaand submit in a heat-sealed or resealable plasticbag. Collect an unstained control sample,package separately, and submit it with the stainedevidence. When cutting is not possible, transferquestioned stains by rubbing with a clean (dry orwet with alcohol) cotton swab. Use an unstained25

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007swab as a control. Air-dry the swab and pack in aheat-sealed or resealable plastic bag.Back to the topComputer ExaminationsContentExaminations can determine what type of datafiles are on a computer.ComparisonExaminations can compare data files with knowndocuments and data files.TransactionExaminations can determine the time andsequence that data files were created.ExtractionData files can be extracted from the computer orcomputer storage media.Deleted Data FilesDeleted data files can be recovered from thecomputer or computer storage media.Format ConversionData files can be converted from one format toanother.26

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Keyword SearchingData files can be searched for a word or phraseand all occurrences recorded.PasswordsPasswords can be recovered and used to decryptencoded files.Limited Source CodeSource code can be analyzed and compared.Call the Computer Analysis Response Team at703-985-1302 to request a search or fieldexamination. Submit requests at least oneweek in advance.Obtain as much of the following information aspossible prior to submitting a request:ßßßDetermine the type(s) of computers andoperating systems.If applicable, determine the type of networksoftware, the location of the network servers,and the number of computers on the network.Determine whether encryption and/orpassword protection is used.27

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßSpecify whether a seizure of computers andmedia or an on-site examination is required.Questions concerning computer evidenceshould be directed to 703-985-1302. Follow theevidence submission directions, includingRequesting Evidence Examinations andPackaging and Shipping Evidence.ßßßFor most examinations, submit only thecentral processing units and the internal andexternal storage media.Use a sturdy cardboard container whenshipping computer components. If possible,use the original packing case with the fittedpadding. Use large plastic Bubble Wrap orfoam rubber pads as packing. Do not useloose Styrofoam because it lodges insidecomputers and components and creates staticcharges that can cause data loss or damageto circuit boards. Seal the container with astrong packing tape.Pack and ship central processing units in theupright position. Label the outside container“THIS END UP.”28

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßßßDisks, cartridges, tapes, and hard drives mustbe packed to avoid movement duringshipping.Label the outer container “FRAGILE,SENSITIVE ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT” and“KEEP AWAY FROM MAGNETS ORMAGNETIC FIELDS.”Address the outer container as follows:FORENSIC PROGRAMBUILDING 27958AENGINEERING RESEARCH FACILITYFEDERAL BUREAU OF INVESTIGATIONQUANTICO VA 22135Back to the topControlled Substance ExaminationsControlled substance examinations can establishtrace-drug presence, identity, and quantity.Bulk DrugsThe Laboratory limits the quantity of bulk drugsthat it will analyze. Quantities exceeding 100grams of suspected marijuana or 10 grams of allother suspected drugs including cocaine,methamphetamine, and heroin will be returnedunanalyzed. The Laboratory usually analyzes onlydrugs seized in federal investigations.29

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Drug ResidueRequests for drug residue examinations onevidence will be accepted only when the evidenceis properly packaged to avoid contamination. Drugresidue examinations of currency are performedonly on a limited basis.Call the Laboratory at 703-632-8441 prior tosubmitting drugs or currency to ensure thatthe evidence will be accepted for examination.The communication accompanying the evidencemust reference the telephone conversationaccepting the evidence.Questions concerning controlled substanceevidence should be directed to 703-632-8441.Follow the evidence submission directions,including Requesting Evidence Examinationsand Packaging and Shipping Evidence.ßßSubmit evidence in separate heat-sealed orresealable plastic bags.Fold clothing to preserve trace evidence.ß Do not submit used drug field-test kits withevidence.Back to the top30

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Crime Scene Surveys, Documentation,and ReconstructionVisual information specialists receive data fromthe field or travel to the field to collect it. They thenuse the data to prepare two- and threedimensionaldigital or physical crime scenereconstructions as well as computer animations ormodels that depict bullet trajectory, line-of-sightanalysis, and vehicular-, human-, or objectmovementanalysis.Questions concerning crime scene surveys,documentation, and reconstruction should bedirected to 703-632-8194.Cryptanalysis and RacketeeringRecord ExaminationsCryptanalysisCryptanalysis examinations involve the analysis ofencoded and enciphered documents used byterrorists, foreign intelligence agents, violentcriminals, street and prison gangs, and organizedcrime groups. Encrypted documents may be faxedor e-mailed for immediate decryption. Call703-632-7356 or 703-632-7334 for contactinformation.31

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Drug RecordsDrug records are examined to determine theoverall scope of the businesses, including thehierarchy, type of drugs distributed, gross sales,gross or net weights or quantities, price structures,and other pertinent information.GamblingGambling examinations include the interpretationof records from sports and horse bookmakingbusinesses, Internet gambling operations,numbers or lottery operations, and other gamblingbusinesses.Loan-SharkingLoan-sharking records are examined to determinethe amounts of the loans, amounts paid in interestand principal, number of loans, and interest rates.Money LaunderingMoney-laundering records are examined todetermine the scope of the operations, theamounts laundered, how the funds werelaundered, and any other illegal activities.ProstitutionProstitution records are examined to determinethe scope of the businesses, including the numberof employees and their roles, gross and net32

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007revenues, and other financial and organizationalinformation.Questions concerning cryptanalysis andracketeering record evidence should bedirected to 703-632-7356 or 703-632-7334.Follow the evidence submission directions,including Requesting Evidence Examinationsand Packaging and Shipping Evidence.Back to the topDemonstrative EvidenceVisual information specialists prepare a wide arrayof demonstrative evidence for investigative andprosecutorial purposes. These items includecharts, maps, diagrams, illustrations, andanimated and digitally interactive presentations.Questions concerning demonstrative evidenceshould be directed to 703-632-8194.DNA ExaminationsDeoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is analyzed in bodyfluidstains and other biological tissues recoveredfrom items of evidence. The results of DNA testingon evidence samples are compared with theresults of DNA analysis of reference samplescollected from known individuals. Such analyses33

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007can associate victims and suspects with eachother, with evidence items, or with a crime scene.There are two types of DNA used in forensicanalyses. Nuclear DNA (nDNA) is the morediscriminating of the two types and is typicallyanalyzed in evidence containing blood, semen,saliva, body tissue, and hairs that have tissue attheir root ends. The power of nDNA testing doneby the DNA Analysis Unit I (DNAUI) lies in itsability to potentially identify an individual as beingthe source of the DNA obtained from an evidenceitem to a reasonable degree of scientific certainty,as well as the definitive power of exclusion.Additionally, where appropriate, the DNA-typingresults from evidence items (including itemsrelated to missing persons) examined in theDNAUI may be uploaded into the Combined DNAIndex System (CODIS) database.Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is typically analyzedin evidence containing naturally shed hairs, hairfragments, bones, and teeth. Typically, theseitems contain low concentrations of degradedDNA, making them unsuitable for nDNAexaminations. The high sensitivity of mtDNAanalysis allows scientists to obtain informationfrom old items of evidence associated with coldcases, samples from mass disasters, and smallpieces of evidence containing little biological34

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007material. Additionally, the maternal inheritance ofmtDNA allows scientists to compare a mtDNAprofile to reference samples from that person’smother, brother(s), sister(s), or any othermaternally related individuals. All of theseindividuals have the same mtDNA profilesbecause all maternal relatives inherit their mtDNAfrom their mother. Because multiple individualscan have the same mtDNA type, unique identificationsare not possible using mtDNA analysis.However, mtDNA performed by the DNA AnalysisUnit II is an excellent technique to use forobtaining information when nDNA analysis is notfeasible. Additionally, the mtDNA-typing resultsrelated to missing-person cases may be uploadedinto the CODIS database.Questions concerning nuclear DNA testingshould be directed to 703-632-8446. Questionsconcerning mitochondrial DNA testing shouldbe directed to 703-632-7572. Follow theevidence submission directions, includingRequesting Evidence Examinations andPackaging and Shipping Evidence.Case Acceptance Policy of the DNAAnalysis Unit IßThe DNAUI accepts FBI cases for serologicaland nDNA analysis. FBI cases are prioritized35

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007according to the FBI’s priorities of counterterrorism;cyber-based/high-technologycrimes; public corruption; civil rights;transnational/national criminal organizations/enterprises; major white-collar crime;significant violent crime; and support of local,state, federal, and international agencies. Thisincludes examinations that characterizebiological stains and may identify the sourceof a stain on an evidentiary item.ßßThe DNAUI accepts cases from FBI fieldoffices and legal attachés (LEGATs); otherfederal agencies (e.g., Bureau of IndianAffairs, DEA); U.S. attorneys’ offices; militarytribunals; and duly constituted state, county,and municipal law enforcement agencies inthe United States and its territories. TheDNAUI also accepts cases that are submittedto the Laboratory from international lawenforcement agencies through the FBILEGATs.Cases are accepted provided that:1.The submitting agency is not served byanother government forensic DNAlaboratory.36

Handbook of Forensic Services 20072.The submitted case has not beenexamined previously by anotherlaboratory.Case Consideration PolicyßßßThe DNAUI supports the National MissingPerson DNA Database (NMPDD) Program.Cases must be submitted through an NMPDDProgram Manager for entry into the BiologicalRelatives of Missing Persons or UnidentifiedHuman Remains Indexes. The NMPDDprovides investigators with an opportunity toidentify missing and unidentified persons on anational level.The DNAUI maintains the Federal ConvictedOffender (FCO) Program, which supports thecollection and nDNA analysis of samplescollected from more than 500 sites across theUnited States.The DNAUI requires known referencesample(s) for comparison with evidencematerials. DNA profiles located in the NationalDNA Index System (NDIS) ConvictedOffender database cannot be used asreferences.37

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßßThe DNAUI does not conduct low-copynumber(LCN) or “touch DNA” examinations(i.e., DNA from fingerprints, pieces of paper,handled objects, etc.). Items such as steeringwheels and firearms may be appropriate foranalysis.The DNAUI does not perform kinship analysis.Questions concerning kinship, paternity/maternity comparisons, etc., should bedirected to the DNAUI at 703-632-8446.As necessary:ßßßDNAUI cases may be prioritized according toscheduled trial dates or other case-specificinformation.The DNAUI does not examine evidence fromproperty crime cases unless violence thatresults in bodily harm is used in thecommission of the crime.For cases in which the FBI Laboratory hasconducted previous DNA or serologicaltesting, a review of the case file will beconducted to determine if additionalexaminations will be conducted.38

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Case Acceptance Policy of the DNAAnalysis Unit IIAll FBI cases that meet the suitability guidelines(outlined below) will be considered for mtDNAanalysis in the DNAUII. Cases involving terrorismare given highest priority, followed bycounterintelligence matters and violent crimes.Questions regarding case and evidence suitabilityshould be directed to the DNAUII at703-632-7572.State and local law enforcement agencies needingmtDNA analysis must contact the DNAUII for moreinformation regarding evidence submission.Agencies may call 703-632-7572 to discuss theneeds of the investigation and the evidence,following the suitability guidelines outlined below.Analysis of the evidence will be performed by oneof the unit’s regional mtDNA laboratories and iscost-free to state and local law enforcementagencies in the United States and its territories.Travel expenses for examiners testifying in stateand local cases are also paid by the FBILaboratory. FBI entities may refer to the FBILaboratory/DNAUII web page on the FBI intranetfor additional information on the regional mtDNAlaboratories.39

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Missing-person cases involving unidentifiedhuman remains and relatives of missing personsare managed and entered into the NDIS in theDNAUII by members of the NMPDD Program.Evidence from these investigations alsoundergoes mtDNA analysis in the DNAUII or inone of the regional mtDNA laboratories. Contactthe NMPDD Program Manager at 703-632-7582for questions regarding missing-person evidencesubmission. FBI entities may refer to the FBILaboratory/DNAUII web page on the FBI intranetfor additional information on the NMPDD Program.Suitability of Mitochondrial DNA AnalysisMitochondrial DNA analysis has been appliedsuccessfully to evidence from violent crimes,typically homicide, sexual assault, and assault. Itis important to remember, however, that mtDNAanalysis is appropriate in only a small portion ofcases where mtDNA evidence is present.Experience shows that about 75 percent of casesin which mtDNA analysis is actually performedinvolve hair evidence where only the hair shaft ispresent. Most often, mtDNA analysis is justified forhair evidence when no tissue is present on thehair root. Mitochondrial DNA analysis in missingpersoncases is appropriate only when bone or40

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007teeth specimens can be verified as of humanorigin.To avoid the misapplication of mtDNA analysisresources, cases must be reviewed carefully fortheir scenarios, the possibility of other tests onavailable evidence (e.g., nDNA), and the selectionof specimens having the greatest probative value.Regardless of the type of biological evidence,mtDNA analysis generally will not be performedwhen nDNA results exist on items of similar origin.For example, if nDNA results are obtained fromsemen identified on a victim’s vaginal swabs andthere is no allegation of multiple assailants,mtDNA analysis would not be performed on anassociated pubic hair found in the pubic-haircombings of the victim.Current forensic mtDNA techniques cannoteffectively distinguish between sources or relativequantities of DNA. Consequently, mtDNA is notappropriate for evidence containing possiblemixed sources of DNA such as semen stains fromsexual assaults.Mitochondrial DNA analysis generally will not beperformed on bloodstains unless the victim’sreference samples are not available or other41

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007appropriate reference samples are unavailable fornDNA analysis. For example, a kidnapping victimis missing, but a bloodstain is found in thesuspect’s vehicle and only a maternal relative’s(e.g., mother, sibling) reference sample isavailable for the victim. In that case, mtDNAanalysis could be conducted using a portion of thevehicle bloodstain, the maternal relative’sreference sample, and the suspect’s knownsample.Mitochondrial DNA Analysis of Hair EvidenceMitochondrial DNA analysis should be performedon probative hair samples only if they are deemedunsuitable for nDNA analysis. Only those hairshaving greatest probative value should besubjected to mtDNA analysis. If several similarprobative hair specimens are submitted from onesource of evidence, mtDNA analysis should beperformed on only 1–2 hairs. For example, if 10hairs collected from a victim’s body aremicroscopically associated with the suspect, nomore than 2 hairs will be analyzed.Submission guidelines for mtDNA cases mustinclude the following points for hair evidence:42

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßßKnown victim hair samples (of all types) mustbe submitted to determine whether evidencehairs are similar or dissimilar to the victim’shair.If evidence includes specimens dissimilar tothe victim, known suspect hair samples (of alltypes) should be obtained.Mitochondrial DNA analysis generally will beperformed on all probative microscopic hairassociations. In addition, the following types ofhairs are considered for mtDNA analysis, ifprobative:ßßHairs that exhibit “microscopic similarities andslight differences” (e.g., because of prolongedtime between the crime and collection ofreference samples, environmental or artificialchanges to hair, or the suitability of referencesamples or questioned hair).Hairs that are not suitable for microscopiccomparison purposes (e.g., body-area hairs,hair fragments, or any other factor thateliminates the possibility of performing acomparison). In such cases, however, the hairmust be probative (e.g., apparent foreign hairin the pubic-hair combing of the victim).43

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßHairs that are suitable for microscopiccomparison purposes but, for valid reasons,are not suitable to compare with the pertinentreference sample (e.g., hair deposited 10years prior to the collection of the referencehair sample, reference sample is from anindividual whose hair is artificially treated afterthe crime date). Regardless, the hair must beprobative.Unidentified Human RemainsPrior to mtDNA analysis, bone or teeth specimensshould be examined by a forensic anthropologistor odontologist or a similarly qualified individual.Submissions of such items should beaccompanied by a written report that verifieshuman origin by a qualified expert.Documenting, Collecting, Packaging, andPreserving DNA EvidenceIf DNA evidence is not properly documented,collected, packaged, and preserved, it will notmeet the legal and scientific requirements foradmissibility in a court of law.ßIf DNA evidence is not properly documented,its origin can be questioned.44

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßßßIf it is not properly collected, biological activitycan be lost.If it is not properly packaged, contaminationcan occur.If it is not properly preserved, decompositionand deterioration can occur.When DNA evidence is transferred by direct orsecondary (indirect) means, it remains onsurfaces by absorption or adherence. In general,liquid biological evidence is absorbed intosurfaces, and solid biological evidence adheres tosurfaces. Collecting, packaging, and preservingDNA evidence depends on the liquid or solid stateand the condition of the evidence.The more evidence retains its original integrityuntil it reaches the Laboratory, the greater thepossibility of conducting useful examinations. Itmay be necessary to use a variety of techniquesto collect suspected body-fluid evidence.Collecting Known SamplesBloodßOnly qualified medical personnel shouldcollect blood samples from a person.45

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßßßßßßßCollect at least two 5-mL tubes of blood inpurple-top tubes, which contain EDTA as apreservative, for DNA analysis. Collect drug oralcohol-testing samples in gray-top tubes,which contain NaF (sodium fluoride).Label each tube with the date, time, person’sname, location, collector’s name, casenumber, and evidence number.Refrigerate, do not freeze, liquid bloodsamples (tubes may break if frozen). Use coldpacks, not dry ice, during shipping.Pack liquid blood tubes individually inStyrofoam or cylindrical tubes with absorbentmaterial surrounding the tubes.Package blood samples from differentindividuals separately.Label the outer container “KEEP IN A COOL,DRY PLACE,” “REFRIGERATE ONARRIVAL,” and “BIOHAZARD.”Submit to the Laboratory as soon as possible.46

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Buccal (Oral) SwabsßßßßßßßUse clean cotton swabs to collect buccal(oral) samples. Rub the inside surfaces ofthe cheeks thoroughly.Air-dry the swabs and place in clean paperor an envelope with sealed corners. Do notuse plastic containers.Identify each sample with the date, time,person’s name, location, collector’s name,case number, and evidence number.Package oral samples from differentindividuals separately.Buccal samples do not need to berefrigerated.Submit to the Laboratory as soon as possible.If a reference blood or oral sample cannot beobtained, an alternate reference sample maybe submitted (for nuclear examinations only).This may include such items as surgicalsamples, Pap smear slides, pulled teeth, or atoothbrush or item of clothing known to beused solely by the individual of interest.47

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Blood on a PersonßßAbsorb suspected liquid blood onto a cleancotton cloth or swab. Air-dry the cloth or swaband pack in clean paper or an envelope withsealed corners. Do not use plastic containers.Absorb suspected dried blood onto a cleancotton cloth or swab moistened with distilledwater. Air-dry the cloth or swab and pack inclean paper or an envelope with sealedcorners. Do not use plastic containers.Blood on Surfaces or in Snow or WaterßßAbsorb suspected liquid blood or blood clotsonto a clean cotton cloth or swab. Air-dry thecloth or swab and pack in clean paper or anenvelope with sealed corners. Do not useplastic containers.Collect suspected blood in snow or waterimmediately to avoid further dilution. Eliminateas much snow as possible. Place in a clean,airtight container. Freeze the evidence andsubmit to the Laboratory as soon as possible.48

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007BloodstainsßßßßAir-dry suspected wet bloodstained garments.Wrap dried bloodstained garments in cleanpaper. Do not place wet or dried garments inplastic or airtight containers. Place all debrisor residue from the garments in clean paperor an envelope with sealed corners.Air-dry small suspected wet bloodstainedobjects and submit the objects to theLaboratory. Preserve bloodstain patterns.Avoid creating additional stain patterns duringdrying and packaging. Pack to prevent stainremoval by abrasive action during shipping.Pack in clean paper. Do not use plasticcontainers.When possible, cut a large sample ofsuspected bloodstains from immovableobjects with a clean, sharp instrument. Packto prevent stain removal by abrasive actionduring shipping. Pack in clean paper. Do notuse plastic containers.Absorb suspected dried bloodstains onimmovable objects onto a clean cotton clothor swab moistened with distilled water. Air-drythe cloth or swab and pack in clean paper or49

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007an envelope with sealed corners. Do not useplastic containers.Blood Examination Request LetterA blood examination request letter must containthe following information:ßßßßßA brief statement of facts relating to the case.Claims made by the suspect(s) regarding thesource of the blood.Whether animal blood is present.Whether the stains were laundered or dilutedwith other body fluids.Information regarding the health of thevictim(s) and suspect(s), including thepresence of such infections as AIDS,hepatitis, and tuberculosis.Semen and Semen StainsßAbsorb suspected liquid semen onto a cleancotton cloth or swab. Air-dry the cloth or swaband pack in clean paper or an envelope withsealed corners. Do not use plastic containers.50

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßßßßSubmit small suspected dry semen-stainedobjects to the Laboratory. Pack to preventstain removal by abrasive action duringshipping. Pack in clean paper. Do not useplastic containers.When possible, cut a large sample ofsuspected semen stains from immovableobjects with a clean, sharp instrument. Packto prevent stain removal by abrasive actionduring shipping. Pack in clean paper. Do notuse plastic containers.Absorb suspected dried semen stains onimmovable objects onto a clean cotton clothor swab moistened with distilled water. Air-drythe swab or cloth and place in clean paper oran envelope with sealed corners. Do not useplastic containers.Note: It is not necessary to collect referenceseminal fluid for comparison. Refer to theCollecting Known Samples section for moreinformation.Seminal Evidence from Sexual Assault VictimsßSexual assault victims must be medicallyexamined in a hospital or a physician’s office51

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007using a standard sexual assault evidence kitto collect vaginal, oral, and anal evidence.ßRefrigerate and submit the evidence to theLaboratory as soon as possible.Saliva and Urine, Other Sources ofBody-Fluid EvidenceßßßAbsorb suspected liquid saliva or urine onto aclean cotton cloth or swab. Air-dry the cloth orswab and pack in clean paper or an envelopewith sealed corners. Do not use plasticcontainers.Submit small suspected dry saliva- or urinestainedobjects to the Laboratory. Pack toprevent stain removal by abrasive actionduring shipping. Pack in clean paper or anenvelope with sealed corners. Do not useplastic containers.When possible, cut a large sample ofsuspected saliva or urine stains fromimmovable objects with a clean, sharpinstrument. Pack to prevent stain removal byabrasive action during shipping. Pack in cleanpaper. Do not use plastic containers.52

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßßßPick up cigarette butts with gloved hands orclean forceps. Do not submit ashes. Air-dryand place the cigarette butts from the samelocation (e.g., ashtray) in clean paper or anenvelope with sealed corners. Do not submitthe ashtray unless a latent print examinationis requested. Package the ashtray separately.Do not use plastic containers.Pick up chewing gum with gloved hands orclean forceps. Air-dry and place in cleanpaper or an envelope with sealed corners. Donot use plastic containers.Pick up envelopes and stamps with glovedhands or clean forceps and place in a cleanenvelope. Do not use plastic containers.HairßßßPick up hair carefully with clean forceps toprevent damaging the root tissue.Air-dry hair mixed with suspected body fluids.Package each group of hair separately inclean paper or an envelope with sealedcorners. Do not use plastic containers.53

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßRefrigerate and submit to the Laboratory assoon as possible.Tissue, Bones, and TeethCall the Laboratory at 703-632-7572 prior tosubmitting suspected tissue, bones, or teeth toensure that the evidence will be accepted forexamination. The communication accompanyingthe evidence must reference the telephoneconversation accepting the evidence.ßßßßPick up suspected tissue, bones, and teethwith gloved hands or clean forceps.Collect 1–2 cubic inches of red skeletalmuscle.Submit whole bones. Cutting bones increasesthe possibility of contamination.Collect teeth in the following order:1.2.3.4.Nonrestored molar.Nonrestored premolar.Nonrestored canine.Nonrestored front tooth.54

Handbook of Forensic Services 20075.6.7.8.Restored molar.Restored premolar.Restored canine.Restored front tooth.ßßPlace tissue samples in a clean, airtightplastic container without formalin orformaldehyde. Place teeth and bonesamples in clean paper or an envelope withsealed corners.Freeze the evidence, place in Styrofoamcontainers, and ship overnight on dry ice.Preserving DNA Evidence–—Long-TermStorageß Blood/saliva (reference samples).üüRefrigerate, do not freeze, liquid bloodsamples.Store refrigerated, frozen (if dried), orat room temperature, away from lightand humidity.ßBlood/semen (evidence samples).55

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007üStore refrigerated, frozen, or at roomtemperature, away from light andhumidity.ßDNA tubes/tissue samples, etc.üStore refrigerated or frozen,if possible.ü It is recommended that these samples bestored in a refrigerator/freezer andisolated from evidence that has notbeen examined.Back to the topElectronic Device ExaminationsCommercial Electronic DevicesExaminations of commercial electronic devices—including personal digital assistants (PDAs),cellular telephones, pagers, and global positioningsystems (GPSs)—can extract user- or ownerentereddata and other information. In somecases, it is necessary to disassemble the devicesduring examination.Interception-of-Communication DevicesInterception-of-communication (IOC) devices areused to unlawfully intercept oral or wire56

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007communications. The devices consist of radiofrequencytransmitters and receivers.Examinations are conducted to identify operatingcharacteristics (frequency of operation, range ofoperation). In some cases, it is necessary todisassemble the devices during examination.Other Electronic Devices and CircuitsExaminations on other electronic devices andcircuitry—including facsimile machines, stun guns,and bomb detonators—can extract user- orowner-entered data, stored data, and otherinformation. The examinations can identifyoperating characteristics and modifications madeto the devices. In some cases, it is necessary todisassemble the devices and/or circuits duringexamination.Questions concerning electronic deviceexaminations should be directed to703-985-2400. Questions concerning shippingelectronic device evidence should be directedto 703-985-1388. FBI entities may refer to theOperational Technology Division/DigitalEvidence Section web page on the FBI intranetfor additional information regarding evidencesubmission.57

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Follow the evidence submission directions,including Requesting Evidence Examinationsand Packaging and Shipping Evidence.ßßLabel the outer container “FRAGILE,SENSITIVE ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT”and “KEEP AWAY FROM MAGNETS ORMAGNETIC FIELDS.”Address the outer container as follows:FORENSIC PROGRAMBUILDING 27958AENGINEERING RESEARCH FACILITYFEDERAL BUREAU OF INVESTIGATIONQUANTICO VA 22135Back to the topExplosives ExaminationsEvidence resulting from an apparent explosionand/or recovery of an explosive device can beexamined. Examinations are based on thepremise that components and accessories usedto construct the devices survive the explosion,although disfigured. The examinations canaccomplish the following:ßIdentify the components used to constructthe device, such as switches, batteries,detonators, tapes, wires, and fusing systems.58

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßßßßßIdentify the explosive main charge.Determine the construction characteristics.Determine the manner in which the devicefunctioned or was designed or intended tofunction.Determine the specific assembly techniquesemployed by the builder(s) of the device.Preserve the trace evidence potentiallypresent in the devices so that it is notdestroyed or damaged during theexaminations.Call the Laboratory at 703-632-7626 each timean explosive device or a related explosive itemneeds to be shipped. The communicationaccompanying the evidence must reference thetelephone conversation accepting the evidence.Questions concerning explosives evidenceshould be directed to 703-632-7626.Explosives are hazardous materials and mustbe handled only by qualified public safety59

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007personnel, military explosives ordnancedisposal personnel, or certified bombtechnicians. Special packaging is required,and the amount to be shipped is regulated. AnFD-861 form (Mail/Package Alert) is requiredfor shipping bomb components to the FBILaboratory.Back to the topExplosives Residue ExaminationsInstrumental analyses of explosives residue candetermine whether substances are high-explosive,low-explosive, or incendiary mixtures; whether thecomposition of the substances is consistent withknown explosives products; and the type ofexplosives. Explosives residue can be depositedon metal, plastic, wood, paper, glass, cloth, andother surfaces. Residue may be deposited afterhandling, storing, or initiating an explosive.Questions concerning explosives residueevidence should be directed to 703-632-7626.Follow the evidence submission directions,including Requesting Evidence Examinationsand Packaging and Shipping Evidence.ßSome explosives residue is water-soluble andmust be protected from moisture. Other60

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007residue evaporates quickly and must becollected as soon as possible in airtightcontainers such as metal cans, glass jars, orheat-sealed or resealable nylon or Mylarbags. Ziplock storage bags are not suitable forshipping or storing explosives residueevidence. Do not fill the containers to the top.Pack to prevent breakage.ßßßCollect and preserve control samples from theblast site.Extreme care must be taken to avoidcontaminating explosives residue evidence.Never store or ship explosives residueevidence with bulk explosive materials.Never store or ship explosives residue evidencefrom a crime scene with evidence from a searchsite.Back to the topFBI Disaster SquadßßAssists in printing the deceased at disasterscenes.Assists in collecting antemortem fingerprintsof victims.61

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßßAssists in identifying friction ridge skin of thedeceased.Deployment of the FBI’s Disaster Squadrequires consent from the disaster scenecoroner or medical examiner, a ranking lawenforcement or government official, arepresentative of the National TransportationSafety Board, or a representative of the U.S.Department of State.ß Requests for assistance must be madethrough the nearest FBI field office or theFBI’s Strategic Information and OperationsCenter at 202-323-3300.Back to the topFeather ExaminationsFeather examinations can determine bird speciesand can compare feathers found on clothing,vehicles, and other objects with feathers from thecrime scene.Questions concerning feather evidenceshould be directed to 703-632-8449. Follow theevidence submission directions, includingRequesting Evidence Examinations andPackaging and Shipping Evidence.62

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ß Submit feathers in heat-sealed or resealableplastic bags or paper bags.Back to the topFirearm ExaminationsFirearmsFirearm examinations can determine the generalcondition of a firearm and whether the firearm ismechanically functional or in a condition that couldcontribute to an unintentional discharge. Triggerpullexaminations can determine the amount ofpressure necessary to release the hammer orfiring pin of a firearm. Examinations can determinewhether a firearm was altered to fire in the fullautomaticmode. Obliterated and/or alteredfirearm serial numbers sometimes can berestored. Firearms can be test-fired to obtainknown specimens for comparison with evidenceammunition components, such as bullets,cartridge cases, and shotshell casings.Comparisons of suspect firearms can be madewith firearms depicted in surveillance images,possibly resulting in an “association” conclusion.Photogrammetry can determine the length of theweapon(s) used by the subject(s) depicted in thesurveillance images. See Image AnalysisExaminations.63

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007BulletsFired bullets can be examined to determinegeneral rifling characteristics such as caliber,physical features of the rifling impressions, andthe manufacturer of the bullets. The microscopiccharacteristics on evidence bullets can becompared with test-fired bullets from a suspectfirearm to determine whether the evidence bulletwas fired from that firearm.Cartridge Cases or Shotshell CasingsCartridge-case or shotshell-casing examinationscan determine the caliber or gauge, themanufacturer, and whether there are marks ofvalue for comparison. The images of questionedcartridge cases and shotshell casings can bescanned into the National Integrated BallisticInformation Network (NIBIN) to compare withevidence from other shooting incidents. Themicroscopic characteristics of evidence cartridgecases and shotshell casings can be examined todetermine whether they were fired from a specificfirearm.Shot Pellets, Buckshot, or SlugsExaminations of shot pellets, buckshot, or slugscan determine the size of the shot, the gauge ofthe slug, and the manufacturer.64

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007WaddingExaminations of wadding components candetermine the gauge and the manufacturer.Unfired Cartridges or ShotshellsExaminations of unfired cartridges or shotshellscan determine the caliber or gauge and whetherthere are marks of value for comparison.Examinations also can determine whether theammunition was loaded in and extracted from aspecific firearm. Unfired and fired cartridges orshotshells can be associated throughmanufacturing marks.Gunshot Residue on Victim’s ClothingThe deposition of gunshot residue on evidencesuch as clothing varies with the distance from themuzzle of the firearm to the target. Patterns ofgunshot residue can be duplicated using aquestioned firearm-and-ammunition combinationfired into test materials at known distances. Thesepatterns serve as a basis for estimating muzzleto-garmentdistances.Gun PartsExaminations of gun parts can determine thecaliber and model of the gun from which the partsoriginated.65

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007SilencersMuzzle attachments can reduce the noise of afirearm by suppressing sound during firing. Testingcan determine whether a muzzle attachment canbe classified as a silencer based on a measurablesound-reduction capability.Questions concerning firearm evidenceshould be directed to 703-632-8442. Follow theevidence submission directions, includingRequesting Evidence Examinations andPackaging and Shipping Evidence.ßßßßAll firearms must be unloaded.The firearm should be submitted. If the firearmcannot be submitted, call 703-632-8442 forinstructions.The firearm must be handled minimally toavoid loss or destruction of evidence. Do notallow objects to enter or contact the firearm’sbarrel, chamber, or other operating surface.Firearms and ammunition components suchas bullets, cartridge cases, and shotshellcasings can be sent via Registered Mailthrough the U.S. Postal Service. Evidencemust be packaged separately and identified66

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007by date, time, location, collector’s name, casenumber, and evidence number.ßU.S. Department of Transportationregulations and the following guidelines mustbe followed when shipping liveammunition:üüüPackage and ship ammunition separatelyfrom firearm(s).The outside of the container must belabeled “ORM-D, CARTRIDGES, SMALLARMS.”The Declaration of Dangerous Goodsmust include the number of package(s)and the gross weight in grams of thecompleted package(s).ßßDo not mark the firearm. Firearms must beidentified with a tag containing the caliber,make, model, and serial number. The date,time, name(s) of the owner(s), location,collector’s name, case number, and evidencenumber must be on the container.Do not mark bullets, cartridges and cartridgecases, shotshells and shotshell casings, or67

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007other firearm-related evidence. The date,time, location, collector’s name, case number,and evidence number must be on thecontainer.ß Clothing submitted for gunshot residueexamination must be carefully handled, airdried,and wrapped separately in paper.Clothing with blood must be air-dried andlabeled “BIOHAZARD” on the inner and outercontainers. The date, time, location, collector’sname, case number, and evidence numbermust be on the container.Back to the topForensic Facial ImagingVisual information specialists provide compositedrawings, two- and three-dimensional facialreconstructions from skeletal remains, facial ageprogressions, postmortem reconstructions, anddigital photographic manipulations and retouches.Interviews required to prepare compositedrawings may be conducted either by having avisual information specialist travel to the field or byusing video teleconferencing.For facial comparisons between known andquestioned subjects, see Image AnalysisExaminations.68

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Questions concerning forensic facial imagingshould be directed to 703-632-8194.Back to the topGlass ExaminationsGlass comparison examinations can determinewhether particles of glass originated from abroken source of glass. Glass fractureexaminations can determine the direction andtype of the breaking force and the sequencing ofshots.Questions concerning glass evidence shouldbe directed to 703-632-8449. Follow theevidence submission directions, includingRequesting Evidence Examinations andPackaging and Shipping Evidence.Comparisonß Submit samples of glass from each brokenwindow or source in leakproof containers suchas film canisters or plastic pill bottles. Do notuse paper or glass containers.ßSubmit samples of laminated glass (e.g.,windshield) from each side of the glass. Labelthe samples “INSIDE” and “OUTSIDE” andpackage separately in leakproof containerssuch as film canisters or plastic pill bottles. Donot use paper or glass containers.69

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßßßßßSubmit the air-dried clothing of the victim(s)and suspect(s). Package each item separatelyin a paper bag.Search for particles in the hair, skin, andwounds of the victim(s) and suspect(s).Submit particles in leakproof containers suchas film canisters or plastic pill bottles. Do notuse paper or glass containers.Search for particles in vehicles by vacuumingeach section of the vehicle separately. Do notuse tape for recovering glass particles. Submitvacuum sweepings in leakproof containers.Do not use paper or glass containers.Ship known and questioned debris separatelyto avoid contamination.Do not process evidence for latent prints.Fractureß Label the sides of the glass in the frame(“INSIDE” and “OUTSIDE”). Label the glasswhere it was removed in the frame (“TOP,”“BOTTOM,” “LEFT,” and “RIGHT”).ßSubmit all glass pieces so that the pieces canbe fit together to identify the radial cracks nearand at the point(s) of impact and to increasethe probability of matching edges. Pack all70

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007glass separately and securely to avoid shiftingand breaking during shipping.ßSubmit the entire piece of laminated glass, ifpossible. Secure the glass between sheets ofplywood or sturdy cardboard. Do not placeany objects into the impact area.Do not process evidence for latent prints.Back to the topHair and Fiber ExaminationsHairHair examinations can determine whether hairsare animal or human. Race, body area, method ofremoval, damage, and alteration (e.g., bleachingor dyeing) can be determined from human-hairanalysis. Examinations can associate a hair to aperson on the basis of microscopic characteristicsin the hair but cannot provide absolute personalidentification. Hairs that are associated will besubmitted for mitochondrial DNA analysis.FibersFiber examinations can identify the type of fiber,such as animal (wool), vegetable (cotton), mineral(glass), and synthetic (manufactured). Questionedfibers can be compared with fibers from theclothing, carpeting, and other textiles of victim(s)71

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007and suspect(s). A questioned piece of fabric canbe matched physically to known fabric. Fabriccomposition, construction, and color can becompared, and impressions on and from fabriccan be examined. Label searches can determineclothing manufacturer information.Questions concerning hair and fiber evidenceshould be directed to 703-632-8449. Follow theevidence submission directions, includingRequesting Evidence Examinations andPackaging and Shipping Evidence.ßFor known hair samples, collect at least 25hairs from different parts of the head and/orpubic region. Comb and pull out the hairs.Submit hairs in clean paper or an envelopewith sealed corners.ß When possible, submit the entire garment ortextile. Submit fibers in clean paper or anenvelope with sealed corners.Back to the topImage Analysis ExaminationsImage analysis examinations are conducted bythe FBI’s Operational Technology Division (OTD),Digital Evidence Laboratory (DEL), ForensicAudio, Video, and Image Analysis Unit (FAVIAU).72

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007The OTD DEL has different acceptance criteriaand a different physical address than the FBILaboratory, as described below.Photographic ComparisonsExaminations of film, negatives, digital images,photographic prints, and video recordings,including surveillance images, involvecomparisons of subject(s) or object(s) depicted inquestioned images with those in known images.Subject(s) or object(s) also can be comparedbetween multiple questioned images. Subjectcomparisons include facial comparisons or can bemade between like body parts, such as hands orears. Examples of objects that can be comparedinclude clothing, firearms, and vehicles.PhotogrammetryPhysical dimensions can be derived from imagesthrough the use of geometric formulas or on-sitecomparison. For on-site comparisons, examinersenter the scene and place a height chart at thelocation of the subject(s) or object(s) of interest.Examples of photogrammetry include determiningthe height of a bank robbery subject(s) and thelength of the weapon(s) used by the subject(s)depicted in surveillance images.73

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Authenticity and Image-ManipulationDetectionPhotographic evidence—including film, video, anddigital images—can be examined to determinewhether the image is the result of a composite, analteration, or a copy.Location, Time, and DateExaminations of photographic evidence candetermine the location, time, and date that animage was taken.Source and AgePhotographic products, including film and prints,can be dated, and the source can be establishedby examining manufacturing characteristics. Thiscan establish the time frame during which aphotograph was taken.CamerasCameras, both film and digital, seized as evidencecan be compared with images to determinewhether a specific camera captured a specificimage. Similarly, digital video cameras can becompared with video clips.VideoStill images can be produced from video clips,enhanced and enlarged, and used in courtroompresentations.74

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Automobile Make and Model IdentificationVehicles depicted in surveillance images can becompared with the National Automotive Image Fileto determine make and model.Child Pornography ExaminationsSeized images of child pornography should besearched for known victims by checking with theNational Center for Missing and ExploitedChildren and the Innocent Images NationalInitiative. The images also can be compared withimages in the Child Exploitation and ObscenityReference File to identify the source of theimages. Video clips can be examined to determineif any of the people and scenes depicted in thevideo clips are also recorded as still images in thereference file. Video clips and still images also canbe examined to determine if they depictrecordings or images of real people and events orwhether they represent computer-generatedsubjects and events.Questions concerning image analysisexaminations should be directed to 703-985-1393. Questions concerning image analysisevidence should be directed to 703-985-1388.Image analysis examinations may not besubmitted directly from entities outside the FBI.75

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007State, local, or international agency cases mustbe submitted by the FBI field office servicing thearea and must meet one of the following twocriteria: 1) the state, local, or international casehas a nexus to an ongoing FBI investigation or2) the FBI division head deems that the case is ofenough regional importance to merit thededication of federal resources to the state, local,or international case. These criteria shall be metwith a written statement from the division head(Special Agent in Charge). FBI entities may submitcases directly.Follow the evidence submission directions,including Requesting Evidence Examinationsand Packaging and Shipping Evidence.ßßWrite-protect the original media. Never usethe Pause operation when viewing originalvideo recordings.Submit original evidence (e.g., negatives,videotape, CD) whenever possible because itcontains the greatest level of detail. If theoriginal media is unavailable, submit firstgenerationphotographic prints, videotapes, ordigital files of the evidence, being careful notto introduce further compression.76

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßßßßProcess all film prior to submitting. Banksurveillance film should be processed by thebank’s security company according tomanufacturer specifications.When requesting forensic examinations basedon video images, queue the original videotapeto the approximate time of the pertinent area.State in a communication the date and time ofthe pertinent area and use the date-timestamp on the images or the counter indicator(set from the beginning of the tape at 000). Ifprints from the relevant frames are available,submit them for reference.Arrest or known photographs of suspect(s) forcomparison with questioned images mustdepict the suspect(s) from many anglessimilar to the questioned images. If a facialcomparison is requested, ensure that the faceor head of the suspect(s) fills more than halfthe frame. If questioned images show tattoosor marks, include photographs of the sameareas of the body on the known suspect(s).When taking known photographs forcomparison with questioned images, use35 mm film or digital equivalent (at highestresolution settings to minimize imagecompression).77

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßßßßßDo not mark or cut items submitted forcomparison (e.g., clothing or firearms) wherethey are visible in the questioned images.Physical items such as clothing and firearmsmust be submitted to the Laboratory for otherexaminations such as trace evidence,ballistic, or fingerprint analyses before theyare submitted for image comparison.If photogrammetry is requested, include thedimensions of the scene to the nearest eighthof an inch and include a diagram or print fromthe relevant images indicating the location ofthe measurements. Include one diagram orprint for every angle used in the scene. Do nottouch or move the surveillance cameras.Submissions for comparison with the ChildExploitation and Obscenity Reference Filemust be limited to no more than 30 images.Call 703-985-1393 for specific instructions.When submitting such evidence as avideotape or data card, label the outercontainer “FRAGILE, SENSITIVEELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT” or “FRAGILE,SENSITIVE AUDIO/VIDEO MEDIA” and“KEEP AWAY FROM MAGNETS ORMAGNETIC FIELDS.”78

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßAddress the outer container as follows:FORENSIC PROGRAMBUILDING 27958AENGINEERING RESEARCH FACILITYFEDERAL BUREAU OF INVESTIGATIONQUANTICO VA 22135Back to the topInk ExaminationsExamining inked writing in conjunction with othertechniques (e.g., handwriting analysis, watermarkidentification) can provide details regardingdocument preparation. The composition of writinginks varies with the type of writing instrument(e.g., ballpoint pen, fountain pen, porous-tip pen)and the date of the ink manufacture. In general,inks are composed of dyes in solvents and othermaterials that impart selected characteristics. Inkanalysis usually is limited to comparisons of theorganic dye components. When ink formulationsare the same, it is not possible to determinewhether the ink originated from the same sourceto the exclusion of others. Examinations cannotdetermine how long ink has been on a document.Questions concerning ink evidence should bedirected to 703-632-8441. Follow the evidence79

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007submission directions, including RequestingEvidence Examinations and Packaging andShipping Evidence.ß Pack ink evidence separately from anydocument or surface with ink marks.Back to the topLatent Print ExaminationsCase Acceptance PolicyBecause of the increasing casework demands ofthe FBI’s primary mission, protecting the UnitedStates from terrorist attacks, the FBI Laboratorywill no longer accept routine cases from state andlocal agencies in which latent print examinationservices may be obtained from within thesubmitting agency’s system. The futureacceptance of any state and local cases generallywill be based on the submitting agency’s lack ofaccess to the same techniques or servicesprovided by the FBI Laboratory, the unusualtechnical nature of the case, or the circumstancessurrounding the case, e.g., cases of a high-profilenature or cases that also involve FBI field offices.Developing Latent Prints at Crime ScenesThe Laboratory is the best place to develop latentprints; however, it is sometimes necessary to80

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007develop latent prints at crime scenes. Cautionshould be taken to prevent destroying latentprints. The following measures ensure that crimescene latent prints are protected:ßßßßßßPhotograph latent prints prior to anyprocessing.Examine all evidence visually and with a laseror an alternate light source before using anyother latent print development process.Photograph latent prints developed withfingerprint powders before lifting them.Black, gray, or white powder can be applied toa surface with a variety of style of brushes.The color of the powder should contrast withthe color of the surface (e.g., black for lightsurfaces and gray or white for dark surfaces).Use a short-hair brush or cotton to removeexcess powder. Use caution when powdering.Avoid overbrushing latent prints and losingclarity.Use transparent tape or black-and-whiterubber lifts to lift latent prints.81

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßßßWhen transparent tape is used, the color ofthe backing card should contrast with the colorof the powders (e.g., white backing card forblack powder).When using latent print developmentprocesses, refer to the manufacturer’sinstructions and the Material Safety DataSheets. Use personal protective equipment(e.g., safety glasses, masks, gloves, smocks).The Processing Guide for Developing LatentPrints is a comprehensive guide to latent printprocesses and protocols. Refer to thispublication to ensure that proper processesare applied in the recommended order.Following this guide will maximize thepotential to develop latent prints and willpreserve evidence if other forensicexaminations are required. The guide isavailable at http://www.fbi.gov/hq/lab/fsc/backissu/jan2001/lpu.pdf. Law enforcementpersonnel may request the Processing Guidefor Developing Latent Prints in field-manualformat by faxing a request on agencyletterhead to 703-632-8374.Photographing Latent Printsß Use a tripod and cable release whenphotographing latent prints.82

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßßßßßUse a 35 mm or medium-format camera witha macro lens capable of half-size to full-sizereproduction.Photograph latent prints at each step in theprocessing sequence before moving to thenext process.Photograph latent prints developed withfingerprint powders before lifting them.When possible, use ISO 400 film. Set the lensf-stop to the smallest possible aperture whileusing the camera meter to adjust the camera’sshutter speed to obtain proper exposure.Take three exposures of each latent print bybracketing:üüüOriginal exposure.One-stop underexposed image.One-stop overexposed image.ßPhotograph latent prints individually. Thisensures that the target latent print is in focus.83

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßßßßFor reference purposes, photograph latentprints close to one another in one frame, ifpossible.Fill the frame completely.Photograph latent prints with an identificationlabel that includes a scale, reference number,date, collector’s initials, and location of thelatent prints. The identification label should beplaced on the same plane as the latent prints.Maintain a photographic log that records eachshot, reference number, date, collector’sinitials, location of prints, and other pertinentinformation.Questions concerning latent print evidenceshould be directed to 703-632-8443. Follow theevidence submission directions, includingRequesting Evidence Examinations andPackaging and Shipping Evidence.ßßStabilize the evidence to avoid movement orfriction during shipping.Place nonporous evidence (e.g., nonabsorbent,hard surfaces) in separate protectivecoverings such as thick transparent envelopes84

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007(glassine), or suspend in a container so thatthere is minimal surface contact. Friction willdestroy latent prints on this type of surface.ßßßßPlace porous evidence (e.g., paper,cardboard) in separate protective coverings.Friction generally will not destroy latent printson this type of surface.Submit known fingerprints and palm prints ofeveryone who may have handled theevidence, including suspects, victims, thosewho had legitimate access, and investigativepersonnel. All fingerprint cards must includepertinent biographical and/or demographicinformation.Palm prints should be taken on only one sideof a separate card, not on the reverse side ofa fingerprint card or on the reverse side of acard that has a recorded impression on theother side.Fingerprint cards and major-case printsshould include, at a minimum, the name of theperson printed, the name of the personrecording the prints, the date, the caseidentificationnumber, and a brief statement offacts relating to the case. The fingerprint cardshould bear an arrest offense.85

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßßThe notation “elimination prints” should beincluded if the person printed is not a suspect.When known prints are submitted separatelyfrom evidence, reference previouscommunications and case-identifyingnumbers and other pertinent information.Submitting Latent and Intentionally RecordedPrint Images in Digital FormatDigital images, including digital photographs, oflatent and intentionally recorded prints shouldinclude a scale or other measurable item. If asearch of the Integrated Automated FingerprintIdentification System (IAFIS) is requested, a scaleor other measurable item is mandatory.Digital images, including digital photographs, mustmeet the following requirements:ßßßDocumentation of the image source (e.g.,window, door frame).Documentation of the capture device (e.g.,flatbed scanner, digital camera).Documentation indicating the image is anoriginal capture.86

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßFile properties for latent images consisting of:üüüA file format without compression or withlossless compression (e.g., RAW, TIFF).A minimum of 8 bits for grayscale imagesand 24 bits for color images.A resolution that meets or exceeds 1000pixels per inch (PPI) when calibrated toactual size (1:1).ßFile properties for intentionally recorded printsconsisting of:üüüA file format without compression, withlossless compression (e.g., RAW, TIFF),or with Wavelet Scalar Quantization(WSQ) compression saved at a maximumof 15:1.A minimum of 8 bits for grayscale imagesand 24 bits for color images.A resolution that meets or exceeds 500PPI when calibrated to actual size (1:1).Latent prints submitted as facsimiles orphotocopies will not be examined in the FBILaboratory.87

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Intentionally recorded prints submitted asfacsimiles will not be examined in the FBILaboratory, except when the known prints will besearched against IAFIS in order to obtain FBI fileprints.Submitting Hands or Fingers of an UnknownDeceasedß Pack each hand or finger in a separateunbreakable, watertight, and airtight container.ßßßßßLabel each container (e.g., “RIGHT HAND,”“RIGHT THUMB,” “RIGHT INDEX”).Ship the remains in the condition in whichthey were found (e.g., in water, frozen, dried)by the most expeditious means.Provide a complete physical description of thedeceased, if possible.Label the outer container “KEEP IN A COOL,DRY PLACE,” “REFRIGERATE ONARRIVAL,” and “BIOHAZARD.”All human remains will be returned to thecontributor.88

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßAddress the outer container as follows:EVIDENCE CONTROL UNITLABORATORY DIVISIONFEDERAL BUREAU OF INVESTIGATION2501 INVESTIGATION PARKWAYQUANTICO VA 22135Legible, complete ten-print fingerprint cardsnot related to an ongoing Laboratoryinvestigation should be sent to the FBI’sCriminal Justice Information Services Division.ßAddress the outer container as follows:CRIMINAL JUSTICE INFORMATIONSERVICES DIVISIONFEDERAL BUREAU OF INVESTIGATION1000 CUSTER HOLLOW ROADCLARKSBURG WV 26306ß Questions concerning ten-print fingerprintcards should be directed to 304-625-2360.Back to the topLubricant ExaminationsLubricants encompass a range of substances,including petroleum products, natural fatty esteroils, and polyalkylene glycol oils. Automotive fluids(e.g., engine oil, brake fluid), certain cosmetics89

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007(e.g., bath oils, lotions), and some polishescontain lubricants. Lubricant examinations mayalso be conducted in sexual assault, vehicularhomicide, or heavy-equipment sabotage cases.Questions concerning lubricant evidenceshould be directed to 703-632-8441. Follow theevidence submission directions, includingRequesting Evidence Examinations andPackaging and Shipping Evidence.ßßßSubmit entire items (e.g., clothing) whenpossible. Air-dry the evidence, and packageseparately in paper bags.Absorb suspected lubricants onto a cleancotton cloth or swab. Leave a portion of thecloth or swab unstained as a control. Air-drythe swab and pack in a heat-sealed orresealable plastic bag.Submit suspected sources of lubricants forcomparison examinations.ß Package lubricants separately in leakproofcontainers.Back to the top90

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Metallurgy ExaminationsComparisonComparative examinations can determine whethertwo metals or metallic objects came from thesame source or from each other. Metalcomparisons can identify various surface andmicrostructural characteristics—includingfractured areas, accidental damage, andfabrication marks—to determine whether theobjects share a common origin. Moreover, themanufacturing methods used to produce an objectcan be determined. These manufacturingtechniques can include casting, forging, hot andcold rolling, extrusion, drawing, swaging, milling,grinding, spinning, blanking, ironing, deepdrawing, and others. Examinations can determinemechanical properties, such as the response of ametal to an applied force or load. Examinationsalso can determine chemical composition,including alloying and trace elements.Broken or Mechanically Damaged MetalThe causes of failure or damage—such as theapplication of stress exceeding the tensilestrength or yield limit of the metal; a material ormanufacturing defect; or corrosion, cracking, orexcessive service usage (fatigue)—can be91

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007determined. The magnitude of the force or loadthat caused the failure, how the force or load wastransmitted to the metal, and the direction it wastransmitted also can be determined.Burned, Heated, or Melted MetalExaminations can determine the approximatetemperature to which a metal was exposed, thenature of the heat source, and whether a metalwas in an electrical short-circuit situation.Cut or Severed MetalExaminations can determine the method by whicha metal was severed, such as sawing, shearing,milling, turning, or thermal cutting. The nature ofthe thermal source (e.g., burner bar, electric arcwelder) used can sometimes be determined.Metal FragmentsExaminations can determine how metal fragmentswere formed. If fragments were formed byimpulsive (short-duration, high strain rate) loading,an examination can determine whether anexplosive was detonated and the magnitude of thedetonation velocity. The nature of the object thatwas the source of the fragments often can bedetermined as well.92

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Specification Fraud and NoncompliantMaterialsMetallurgical testing of materials can determinewhether inferior components were substituted incontracting frauds. The composition andmechanical properties of materials can beexamined to determine if the components meetcontractual obligations or appropriate regulatorycodes. Precious-metal content also can bedetermined.Lamp BulbsExaminations can determine whether a lamp bulbwas incandescent when its glass envelope wasbroken. Determinations also can be made as towhether a lamp bulb was incandescent when itwas subjected to an impact force such as avehicular collision. Such determinations can bemade even if the glass was broken by the impact.Watches, Clocks, and TimersThe conditions causing a watch, clock, timer, orother mechanism to stop or malfunction andwhether the time displayed represents a.m. orp.m. (calendar-type timing mechanisms only) canbe determined. The on/off condition of appliancetimers damaged by a fire or explosion often canbe determined.93

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Objects with Questioned Internal ComponentsX-ray radiography can nondestructively reveal theinterior construction and the presence or absenceof defects, cavities, or foreign materials. Theposition of on/off switches and other mechanicalcomponents can be determined.Questions concerning metallurgy evidenceshould be directed to 703-632-8441. Follow theevidence submission directions, includingRequesting Evidence Examinations andPackaging and Shipping Evidence.Back to the topNational Missing Person DNA DatabaseProgram ExaminationsThe National Missing Person DNA Database(NMPDD) Program is supported by both the DNAAnalysis Unit I (DNAUI) and DNA Analysis Unit II(DNAUII). Nuclear DNA examinations areconducted in the DNAUI and mitochondrial DNAexaminations are conducted in the DNAUII tosupport the NMPDD Program. Each unit has anNMPDD Program Manager who is available toanswer any questions regarding case submission(contact information is listed below). Local, state,and federal law enforcement missing-personcases can be submitted directly to the FBILaboratory or through the FBI field offices orresident agencies. All agencies must contact one94

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007of the FBI Laboratory’s NMPDD ProgramManagers before submitting samples. Thesubmitting agency must have the necessaryinformation and completed forms for samplesubmission. The FBI will perform mitochondrialDNA and nuclear DNA (STR) analyses onsamples.All samples submitted to the FBI Laboratory musthave an incoming letter describing the samplessubmitted. A copy of the anthropology, odontology(dental), medical examiner and/or coroner, andlaw enforcement reports must be included withunidentified human remains samples submitted.Contact either of the NMPDD Program Managersprior to submitting samples or for questionsconcerning samples.ßßßCall 703-632-7586 for the DNAUI or 703-632-7582 for the DNAUII.For FBI (internal) e-mail, write to Eric Pokorakfor the DNAUI or John E. Stewart for theDNAUII.For Internet e-mail, write to eric.pokorak@ic.fbi.gov for the DNAUI or john.stewart@ic.fbi.gov for the DNAUII.95

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Follow the evidence submission directions,including Requesting Evidence Examinationsand Packaging and Shipping Evidence.Samples from Biological Relatives of MissingPersonsß Samples must be sent with a Consent andInformation Form for the National MissingPerson DNA Database (FD-935 form). A copyof the law enforcement report shouldaccompany the samples submitted.ßCollect samples in the following order ofpreference:1.2.Dried bloodstains.Buccal (oral) swabs.Dried BloodstainsUse the blood-cell collection kits that are availablein FBI field offices or by contacting the NMPDDProgram Managers at 703-632-7582 or703-632-7586.Buccal (Oral) SwabsßUse sterile, cotton-tipped applicator swabs tocollect four buccal (oral) samples. Rub the96

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007inside surfaces of the cheeks thoroughly (usetwo swabs on each side).ßßßAir-dry the swabs and place them back intothe original packaging or an envelope withsealed corners. Do not use plastic containers.Identify each sample with the date, time,subject’s name, location, collector’s name,and case number.Buccal samples do not need to berefrigerated.Samples from Unidentified Human RemainsCall the Laboratory prior to submitting bones,teeth, or tissue. The communicationaccompanying the evidence must reference thetelephone conversation accepting the evidence.Skeletal SamplesAnthropological examinations can determinewhether skeletal remains are human or animal.Race, sex, approximate height, and stature atdeath can be determined from human remains.ßPick up samples with gloved hands or cleanforceps.97

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßßßßßAir-dry samples and place in paper bags.Submit whole samples. Cutting skeletalsamples increases the possibility ofcontamination.If possible, submit three samples.Submit skeletal samples with an anthropologicalreport, preferably from an anthropologistcertified by the American Board of ForensicAnthropology, or a medical examiner’s/coroner’s report.Submit skeletal samples in the following orderof preference:1.2.3.4.5.6.Femur.Tibia.Humerus.Teeth, skull, and/or mandible.Hand and foot bones.Lower arm bone.98

Handbook of Forensic Services 20077.8.Vertebrae.Ribs.TeethPersonal identifications can be made bycomparing teeth with dental records and X-rays.ßßßßPick up teeth with gloved hands or cleanforceps.Air-dry teeth and place in paper bags.Submit teeth with an odontological report,preferably from an odontologist certified bythe American Board of Forensic Odontology,or a medical examiner’s/coroner’s report.Submit teeth in the following order ofpreference:1.2.3.4.Nonrestored molar.Nonrestored premolar.Nonrestored canine.Nonrestored front tooth.99

Handbook of Forensic Services 20075.6.7.8.Restored molar.Restored premolar.Restored canine.Restored front tooth.TissueTissue samples usually will provide sufficientquantities of DNA for testing.ßßßßPick up tissue with gloved hands or cleanforceps.Collect 1–2 cubic inches of red skeletalmuscle.Place tissue samples in a clean, airtightplastic container without formalin orformaldehyde and keep refrigerated or frozen.Label the outer container “KEEP IN A COOL,DRY PLACE,” “REFRIGERATE ONARRIVAL,” and “BIOHAZARD.”ß Submit to the Laboratory as soon as possible.Back to the top100

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Paint ExaminationsThe layer structure of a questioned paint samplecan be compared with a known source from asuspect. The sequence, relative thickness, color,texture, number, and chemical composition ofeach of the layers can be compared.The color, manufacturer, model, and model yearof an automobile may be determined from a paintchip. Sourcing automotive paints is limited tofactory-applied, original automotive paint.Paint on safes, vaults, windowsills, and doorframes can be transferred to and from tools. Acomparison can be made between the paint froman object and the paint on a tool.The Laboratory will not examine evidence toauthenticate fine art or historical artifacts or tosource spray paint or architectural paints.Questions concerning paint evidence shouldbe directed to 703-632-8441. Follow theevidence submission directions, includingRequesting Evidence Examinations andPackaging and Shipping Evidence.ßSearch the accident or crime scene and thepersonal effects of the victim(s) to locate paint101

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007fragments. Paint fragments often are found inthe clothing of the hit-and-run victim(s).Submit the clothing. Paints can be transferredfrom one car to another, from car to object, orfrom object to car during an accident or acrime.ßControl paint chips must be collected from thesuspected source of the evidentiary paint.Controls must be taken from an area close to,but not in, any damaged area. If no damage isobvious, controls should be taken fromseveral areas of the suspect substrate. Eachlayer can be a point of comparison. Controlsmust have all of the layers of paint to thesubstrate. This can be accomplished by thefollowing:üüüSection an area of the painted surface.Cut a paint sample from the surface usinga clean, sharp instrument.Lift or pry loosely attached chips ordislodge the paint by gently hitting theopposite side of the painted surface.ßPackage paint specimens in leakproofcontainers such as vials or pillboxes. Do not102

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007attach paint particles to adhesive tape. Do notuse plastic bags, cotton, or envelopes topackage paint specimens.Back to the topPepper-Spray or Pepper-FoamExaminationsOleoresin capsicum is a resin in various peppers.It may be used in self-defense sprays or foams.Ultraviolet dye (orange) and/or tear gas also maybe in the sprays or foams. Items can be analyzedfor the presence of oleoresin capsicum, dye, ortear gas.Questions concerning pepper-spray evidenceshould be directed to 703-632-8441. Follow theevidence submission directions, includingRequesting Evidence Examinations andPackaging and Shipping Evidence.ßßSubmit entire items (e.g., clothing) whenpossible. Air-dry the evidence, and packageseparately in paper bags.Moisten a clean cotton cloth or swab withisopropanol (rubbing alcohol), and wipe overthe suspected sprays or foams. Prepare asecond moistened cloth or swab as a control.103

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Air-dry the cloths or swabs and packseparately in heat-sealed or resealable plasticbags.ßSubmit spray canisters when possible.ß Refer to Hazardous MaterialsTransportation when submitting pepperspraycanisters.Back to the topPharmaceutical ExaminationsPharmaceutical examinations can identifyconstituents, active ingredients, quantity, andweight.ßßßQuestions concerning pharmaceuticalevidence should be directed to 703-632-8441. Follow the evidence submissiondirections, including Requesting EvidenceExaminations and Packaging and ShippingEvidence.List the names of the pharmaceuticals andinformation on their use.If possible, submit pharmaceuticals in originalcontainers.104

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Polymer ExaminationsPolymer evidence typically consists of pieces ofplastic or other manufactured materials. Thesource, use, or manufacturer of polymer evidenceusually cannot be identified by compositionalanalysis.Motor vehicle trim can be compared with plasticremaining on property struck in a hit-and-run case.The manufacturer, make, model, and model yearof a vehicle can be determined if a manufacturer’spart number is on the trim.Plastics in wire insulation and miscellaneousplastics such as buttons can be compared withknown sources.Questions concerning polymer evidenceshould be directed to 703-632-8441. Follow theevidence submission directions, includingRequesting Evidence Examinations andPackaging and Shipping Evidence.ßWhen a motor vehicle has been in anaccident, fragments (e.g., plastic lens covers)can be left at the scene. These pieces can bephysically reconstructed with the remnants ofthe fixture left on the car. Collect and package105

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007the fragments carefully to keep the edgesintact.ßßSearch the accident or crime scene andpersonal effects of the victim(s) to locateplastic fragments. Submit fragments inleakproof containers such as film canisters orplastic pill bottles. Do not use cotton or papercontainers.Remove damaged suspect motor vehicleparts, and package separately in resealableplastic bags or boxes.ß If possible, submit entire items (e.g., clothing)with potential or smeared polymeric transfers.Package separately in paper bags. If theentire item cannot be submitted, cut with aclean, sharp instrument a section where thetransfer is suspected. Collect an unstainedcontrol sample. Pack to prevent stain removalby abrasive action during shipping. Pack inclean paper. Do not use plastic containers.Back to the topProduct-Tampering ExaminationsProduct tampering is when a commercial productis intentionally distorted to harm someone or toextort money or other thing of value. Examples106

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007range from drug tampering in medicalenvironments, food adulteration in supermarkets,and the combination of tampering and altering indomestic settings.The Laboratory will not assess manufacturingquality control or product specifications incommercial products.Questions concerning product-tamperingevidence should be directed to 703-632-8441.Follow the evidence submission directions,including Requesting Evidence Examinationsand Packaging and Shipping Evidence.ßßSubmit control samples of the unadulteratedproduct.Package and ship control and suspectsamples separately to avoid contamination.Submit samples in leakproof containers suchas film canisters or plastic pill bottles. Do notuse paper or glass containers.ß Use caution to prevent the destruction oflatent prints.Back to the top107

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Questioned Document ExaminationsHandwriting and Hand PrintingThe examination and comparison of handwritingcharacteristics can determine the origin orauthenticity of questioned writing, although not allhandwriting is identifiable with a specific writer.Intent and such traits as age, sex, and personalitycannot be determined from handwritingexaminations. Some reasons for inconclusiveresults include:ßßßßßßLimited questioned and/or known writing.Lack of sufficiently comparable known writingfor comparison.Lack of contemporaneous writing or lapse oftime between execution of questioned andknown writing.Distortion or disguise in the questioned and/orknown writing.Lack of sufficient identifying characteristics.Submission of photocopied evidence insteadof original evidence.108

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Procedures for Obtaining Known WritingExemplarsßßßßßßßThe text, size of paper, space available forwriting, writing instrument, and writing style(handwriting or hand printing) must be asclose to the original writing as possible.Give verbal or typewritten instructionsconcerning the text to be written. Do not giveinstructions on spelling, punctuation, orarrangement of writing.All exemplars must be on separate pieces ofpaper.The writer and witness must initial and dateeach page of writing.Do not allow the writer to see the previousexemplars or the questioned writing. Removeeach exemplar from the writer’s sight as soonas it is completed.Numerous repetitions may be necessary toobtain naturally prepared writing.Obtain exemplars from the right and lefthands.109

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßßßObtain hand-printing exemplars in upper- andlowercase letters.Obtain a sufficient quantity of exemplars toaccount for natural variation in the writing.Obtain undictated writing such as businessrecords, personal correspondence, andcancelled checks or other documentsprepared during the normal course ofbusiness activity.Common Types of Nongenuine Signaturesß Traced signatures are prepared by directlyusing a genuine signature as a template orpattern.ßßSimulated signatures are prepared by copyingor drawing a genuine signature.Freehand signatures are written in the forger’snormal handwriting with no attempt to copyanother’s writing style. Therefore it may bepossible to identify the writer(s) who preparedthe signature(s).Altered or Obliterated WritingDocuments can be examined for the presence ofaltered or obliterated writing, and the originalwriting may be deciphered.110

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007TypewritingQuestioned typewriting may be identified with thetypewriter that produced it. This is most commonwhen the typewriter is a typebar machine. Theidentification is based on individual characteristicsthat develop during the manufacturing processand through use and abuse of the typewriter.Typewriters with interchangeable elements (e.g.,ball, printwheel, or thimble) are less likely to beassociated with questioned typewriting. However,these typing elements may be positively identifiedwith specific texts by examining individualcharacteristics of the elements.Comparison of questioned typewriting withreference standards can determine a possiblemake and model of the typewriter and/or thetypewriter elements.Carbon-film typewriter ribbons and correctionribbons retain readable text. These ribbonscan be compared with questioned typewrittenimpressions. Generally, fabric ribbons cannot beread or identified.Procedures for Obtaining Known TypewritingExemplarsß If the typewriter has a carbon-film ribbon orcorrection ribbon, remove it from the111

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007typewriter and submit the ribbon to theLaboratory. Insert a new ribbon in thetypewriter prior to obtaining exemplars.ßßßßßIf the typewriter has a fabric ribbon, remove itfrom the typewriter and put the typewriter inthe stencil position. Place a sheet of carbonpaper over a sheet of blank paper and insertboth into the typewriter. Allow the typeface tostrike the carbon paper. Submit the fabricribbon and the exemplars typed on the carbonpaper to the Laboratory.Obtain two full word-for-word typed exemplarsof the questioned text and two typedexemplars of the entire keyboard (all symbols,numbers, and upper- and lowercase letters).Record the make, model, and serial numberof the typewriter on the exemplars. Alsorecord the date the exemplars were obtainedand the name of the person who typed theexemplars.Obtain the typewriter service and repairhistory, if available.Normally it is not necessary to send thetypewriter to the Laboratory; however, in somecases, the examiner will request the112

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007typewriter. It must be packed securely toprevent damage during shipment. Typewriterelements (e.g., ball, printwheel, or thimble)also must be submitted to the Laboratory.Photocopies or FacsimilesPhotocopies or facsimiles of documents can beidentified with the machine used to produce themif the exemplars and questioned documents arerelatively contemporaneous. The possible makeand model of the photocopier or facsimile machinesometimes can be determined.Procedures for Obtaining Known PhotocopyExemplarsß Obtain at least 10 exemplars without adocument on the glass plate and with thecover down.ßßßObtain at least 10 exemplars without adocument on the glass plate and with thecover up.Obtain at least 10 exemplars with a documenton the glass plate and the cover down.Obtain at least 10 exemplars with a documentthrough the automatic document feeder, ifapplicable.113

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßßßRecord on each exemplar the date theexemplars were obtained, the name of theperson who prepared the exemplars, and theconditions under which the exemplars weremade.Record the make, model, and serial numberof the photocopier; information about the tonersupplies and components; whether the papersupply is sheet- or roll-fed; and options suchas color, reduction, enlargement, zoom, mask,trim, and editor board.Do not store or ship photocopies in plasticenvelopes.Graphic Arts (Commercial and OfficePrinting)Printed documents can be associated with acommon source or identified with knowncommercial printing paraphernalia such asartwork, negatives, and plates or office printingdevices such as ink-jet or laser printers.PaperTorn edges can be compared. The papermanufacturer can be determined if a watermark ispresent. Paper can be examined for indentedwriting. Do not rub the indentations with a pencil.Do not add indentations by writing on top of theevidence.114

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Burned or Charred PaperBurned or charred documents (not completelyreduced to ash) may be deciphered and stabilized.The document must be handled minimally. Thedocument must be shipped in the container inwhich it was burned, in polyester filmencapsulation, or between layers of cotton in arigid container.Age of a DocumentThe earliest date a document could have beenprepared may be determined by examining variousphysical characteristics, including watermarks,indented writing, printing, typewriting, and inks.Carbon Paper or Carbon-Film RibbonUsed carbon paper or a carbon-film ribbon can beexamined to disclose the content of the text.CheckwritersA checkwriter impression can be compared with aknown source. Examining checkwriter impressionsmay determine the brand or model of thecheckwriter.Embossings and SealsAn embossed or seal impression can be comparedwith a known source. Submit the device to theLaboratory.115

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Rubber StampsA rubber-stamp impression can be compared witha known source. Submit the rubber stamp to theLaboratory uncleaned.Plastic BagsPlastic bags (e.g., sandwich and garbage bags)can be compared with a roll or box of bags.Anonymous Letter FileThe Anonymous Letter File contains images ofanonymous and/or threatening communicationssubmitted to the Questioned Documents Unit forexamination. This file can be searched in anattempt to associate text from a communication inone case with text from communications in othercases.Bank Robbery Note FileThe Bank Robbery Note File contains images ofnotes used in bank robberies. This file can besearched in an attempt to associate text from onebank robbery note with text from bank robberynotes in other cases.Questions concerning documentary evidenceshould be directed to 703-632-8444. Follow theevidence submission directions, includingRequesting Evidence Examinations andPackaging and Shipping Evidence.116

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßßDocumentary evidence must be preserved inthe condition in which it was found. It must notbe unnecessarily folded, torn, marked, soiled,stamped, or written on or handled excessively.Protect the evidence from inadvertentindented writing. Mark documentsunobtrusively by writing the collector’s initials,date, and other information in pencil.Whenever possible, submit the originalevidence to the Laboratory. The lack of detailin photocopies makes examinations difficultand often will result in inconclusive opinions.Copies are sufficient for reference-filesearches.ß Do not store or ship photocopies in plasticenvelopes.Back to the topRope and Cordage ExaminationsA piece of rope or cord can be compared witha questioned rope or cord. The composition,construction, color, and diameter can bedetermined. If a tracer is present, themanufacturer can be determined.Questions concerning rope and cordageevidence should be directed to 703-632-8449.Follow the evidence submission directions,117

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007including Requesting Evidence Examinationsand Packaging and Shipping Evidence.ßßßSubmit the entire rope or cord. If the rope orcord must be cut, specify which end was cutduring evidence collection.Label the known and questioned samples.Handle the sections of rope or cord carefullyto prevent loss of trace material orcontamination.ß Submit in heat-sealed or resealable plastic orpaper bags.Back to the topSafe-Insulation ExaminationsSafe insulation can be compared to a knownsource. Examinations of safe insulationsometimes can determine the manufacturer.Questions concerning safe-insulationevidence should be directed to 703-632-8449.Follow the evidence submission directions,including Requesting Evidence Examinationsand Packaging and Shipping Evidence.ßCollect safe-insulation samples from damagedareas.118

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßSafe insulation can adhere to people, clothing,tools, bags, and stolen items and can transferto vehicles. If possible, submit the evidence tothe Laboratory for examiners to remove thedebris. Package each item of evidence in aseparate paper bag. Do not process tools forlatent prints.ß Ship known and questioned debris separatelyto avoid contamination. Submit known andquestioned debris in leakproof containerssuch as film canisters or plastic pill bottles. Donot use paper or glass containers. Pack tokeep lumps intact.Back to the topSerial-Number ExaminationsObliterated serial or identification numbers—including markings on metal, wood, plastic, andfiberglass—often are restorable. Comparisons canbe made with suspect dies.Questions concerning serial-number evidenceshould be directed to 703-632-8442. Follow theevidence submission directions, includingRequesting Evidence Examinations andPackaging and Shipping Evidence.119

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßßFor large objects, and if possible, remove thesection containing the serial number andsubmit it to the Laboratory.If it is not possible to remove the sectioncontaining the serial number, make a cast tosubmit to the Laboratory.1.2.3.4.Use an acrylic-surface replica cast kit. Callthe Laboratory at 703-632-8442 regardingthe appropriate cast kit.Different formulas are used in differenttemperatures. If possible, move theevidence to a warm area.Casts will duplicate foreign material in thestamped characters. Clean the areabefore proceeding. Remove paint and dirtwith a solvent such as acetone, gasoline,or paint remover. Use Naval Jelly toremove rust. Use a soft brush. Do not usea wire brush.Build a dam around the stampedcharacters to retain the acrylic liquidwhile it hardens. Use a soft and pliabledam material such as modeling clay.Ensure there are no voids in the dam.120

Handbook of Forensic Services 20075.6.7.Following the instructions in the kit, mixthe liquid and powder for one minute andpour the mixture into the dam.The acrylic liquid will take 30 minutes toharden. Remove the cast when it is hard.If paint and rust are on the cast, makeadditional casts and submit the cleanestone to the Laboratory.Indicate from where on the object (often avehicle) the cast was taken.8. Pack the cast to prevent breakage.Back to the topShoe Print and Tire Tread ExaminationsShoe print or tire tread impressions are routinelyleft at crime scenes. These impressions areretained on surfaces in two- and threedimensionalforms. Almost all impressions,including partial impressions, have value forforensic comparisons. The examination of detailedshoe print and tire tread impressions often resultsin the positive identification of the shoes of thesuspect(s) or tire(s) from the vehicle(s) of thesuspect(s).121

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Photographing Shoe Print and Tire TreadImpressionsGeneral crime scene photographs must be takento relate the impressions to the crime scene.Examination-quality photographs then must betaken to obtain maximum detail for forensicexamination and must include a scale. Allimpressions must be photographed using bothmethods.General Crime Scene PhotographsGeneral crime scene photographs of shoe print ortire tread impressions must include close-rangeand long-range photographs. ISO 400 color filmshould be used. The photographs must show therelationship of the impressions to the surroundingarea. General crime scene photographs are notsuitable for footwear or tire examinations.Examination-Quality PhotographsExamination-quality photographs must be takendirectly over the impressions using a tripod andlighting. A scale must be in every photograph. Thepurpose of these photographs is to produce adetailed negative that can be enlarged to naturalsize. Examination-quality photographs must betaken as follows:1.Place a linear scale such as a rulernext to and on the same plane as the122

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007impression. Place a label in the picture tocorrelate the impression with crime scenenotes and general photographs.2.3.4.5.Images should be taken using a 35 mm ormedium-format film camera. Low-costdigital cameras do not provide sufficientimage detail for examination-qualityphotographs. Use a manual-focuscamera. If the shoe print is made from acolored substance (e.g., blood), color filmmay be preferable to black and white. Inmost ambient-light situations, use ISO100 film. Use ISO 200 or 400 film, ifnecessary.Place the camera on a tripod and positionit directly over the impression. Adjust theheight of the camera, and if possible, usea normal lens (50 mm for a 35 mmcamera). Fill the frame with theimpression and scale. Position thecamera so the film plane is parallel to theimpression.Set the f-stop on f/16 or f/22 for a greaterdepth of field.Attach an electronic flash with a longextension cord to the camera.123

Handbook of Forensic Services 20076.7.8.9.Block out bright ambient light with asunscreen to maximize the light from theflash.Focus on the bottom of the impression,not on the scale. Take an existing- orreflected-light photograph.Position the flash at a very low angle(10–15 degrees) to the impression. Thiswill enhance the detail of the impression.For consistent exposure, hold the flash atleast 5–7 feet from the impression. Shootseveral exposures, bracketing towardoverexposure to obtain maximum imagedetail. Move the flash two or more anglesto the impression.Take the exposures, move the light toanother position, adjust the sunscreen,and repeat Steps 7 and 8.Impressions in SnowImpressions in snow are difficult to photographbecause of lack of contrast. First, attempt tophotograph the impressions as if in soil. Toincrease the contrast, lightly spray snowimpressions with Snow Print Wax, a material usedfor casting snow impressions, or with coloredspray paint. Hold the spray can at least 2–3 feet124

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007from the impression so the force of the aerosoldoes not damage the impression. Direct a lightapplication of spray at an angle of about 30–45degrees so the colored paint strikes only the highpoints of the impression. Highlighted impressionswill absorb heat from the sun and must beshielded until photographed and cast to preventmelting.Recovering the Original EvidenceWhenever possible, submit to the Laboratory theevidence bearing the original impression. If theevidence cannot be submitted to the Laboratory,use the following techniques to recover theevidence.Casting Three-Dimensional ImpressionsCasting a three-dimensional impression in soil,sand, or snow is necessary to capture detail forexamination. Dental stone, with a compressivestrength of 8,000 psi or greater, must be used forcasting all impressions. The compressive strengthis listed on the container along with the properratio of powder to water used for mixing. Dentalstone is available through local dental supplyhouses. Colored dental stone is preferred.Plaster of paris, modeling plasters, and dentalplasters are not sufficiently hard, do not resistabrasion when cleaned, and must not be used.125

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Mixing Dental Stone in a BagStore dental stone in resealable plastic bags. An8- by 12-inch resealable plastic bag can store twopounds of dental stone powder. With premeasuredbags, casting impressions at the crime sceneinvolves only adding water. The bag containingthe dental stone powder can be used to mix andpour the dental stone.To make a cast, add the appropriate amount ofwater to the bag and close the top. Mix the castingmaterial by vigorously massaging it through thebag for 3–5 minutes. Ensure that the material inthe corners of the bag is also mixed. After it hasbeen mixed, the material should have theconsistency of pancake batter or heavy cream.Mixing Dental Stone in a Bucket or BowlIf the impressions are numerous or large, it maybe necessary to mix larger quantities of dentalstone in a bucket or bowl. The dental stone shouldbe added slowly to the water and stirredcontinuously for 3–5 minutes. After it has beenmixed, the material should have the consistencyof pancake batter or heavy cream.Pouring Dental StoneCasting material has sufficient weight and volumeto erode and destroy detail if it is poured directlyon top of the impression. The casting material126

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007should be poured on the ground next to theimpression, allowing it to flow into the impression.The impression should be filled with castingmaterial until it has overflowed.If the mixture does not flow easily into all areas ofthe impression, use a finger or a small stick on thesurface to cause the dental stone to flow into theimpression. Do not put the stick or finger morethan 1/4 inch below the surface of the castingmaterial because it can damage the impression.Before the cast hardens completely, write thedate, collector’s initials, and other identifyinginformation on it. In warm weather, the cast shouldbe left undisturbed for at least 20–30 minutes. Incold weather, the cast should be left undisturbedlonger. Casts have been destroyed or damagedwhen lifted too soon. If the cast is in sand or loosesoil, it should lift easily. Casts in mud or clay mayrequire careful treatment and excavation whenbeing removed.Allow the cast to air-dry for at least 48 hours.Package the cast in paper, not in plastic. An FBILaboratory examiner must clean the cast.Lifting Two-Dimensional ImpressionsLifting an impression allows for the transfer of a127

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007two-dimensional residue or dust impression to alifting film. It also allows the impression to beshipped to the Laboratory for photographing andexamination.Electrostatic LiftsAn electrostatic lifting device lifts footwearimpressions from porous and nonporous surfaceswithout damaging the impressions. This deviceworks on dry dust or residue impressions on cleansurfaces but will not work if the impressions werewet or have become wet. Electrostatic liftingdevices come with instructions for use.Storing Electrostatic Lifting FilmLifted impressions are damaged easily if the filmis not stored properly. The film has a residualcharge that attracts dust and debris and causesthe film to cling to other surfaces. To preserve andstore the lifting film containing an impression, tapeone edge of the film securely in a clean, smooth,high-quality paper file folder or tape the edgessecurely in a shallow photographic paper box.Low-grade cardboard boxes such as pizza boxesmust not be used because the residual chargeon the film will pull dust from the box andcontaminate the impression.Items that contain a dry residue footwearimpression must not be wrapped or stored in128

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007plastic because a partial transfer of the impressionto the plastic will occur.Gelatin and Adhesive LiftsGelatin lifters can be used to lift impressions fromporous and nonporous surfaces. Black gelatinlifters work well for lifting light-colored dry or wetimpressions. White gelatin lifters can be used tolift impressions developed with fingerprint powdersor impressions dark enough to contrast with awhite background.Adhesive lifters can be used only to liftimpressions from smooth, nonporous surfaces.White adhesive lifters can be used to liftimpressions developed with fingerprint powders.Transparent adhesive lifters can be used to liftimpressions developed with black or fluorescentpowders. Transparent tapes such as two-inchfingerprint-lifting tape also can be used to liftpowdered impressions if the impressions aretransferred to a white card.Lifting Materialsß Electrostatic: can be used on porous andnonporous surfaces. Used to lift dry dust andresidue impressions. Nondestructive. Usefulfor searching for latent impressions.129

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßßßßWhite adhesive: can be used on smooth,nonporous surfaces. Used to lift wet or dryimpressions that have been chemicallyenhanced or developed with dark fingerprintpowder.Transparent adhesive: can be used onsmooth, nonporous surfaces. Used to lift wetor dry impressions that have been treated withblack or fluorescent fingerprint powder. Do notuse on an original impression.White gelatin: can be used on all porous andnonporous surfaces as long as the gelatincontrasts with an impression. Used to lift wetor dry impressions that have been chemicallyenhanced or developed with fluorescentfingerprint powder.Black gelatin: can be used on all porous andnonporous surfaces. Used to lift wet or dryimpressions. Offers good contact with mostresidue.Searching Shoe Print and Tire Tread FilesA file of shoe manufacturers’ designs and a file oftire treads and other reference material can besearched to determine brand names andmanufacturers.130

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Questions concerning shoe print and tire treadevidence should be directed to 703-632-7288,703-632-7314, or 703-632-7315. Follow theevidence submission directions, includingRequesting Evidence Examinations andPackaging and Shipping Evidence.ßßßFor shoe print and tire tread comparisons,submit original evidence whenever possible(shoes, tires, photographic negatives, casts,lifts).For shoe print and tire tread file searches,submit quality photographs of theimpressions. If photographs are not available,submit casts, lifts, or the original evidence.Detailed sketches or photocopies areacceptable. Images of impression evidencemay be submitted electronically. Call703-632-7288 for specifics on submittingevidence in this manner.Unobtrusively write the collector’s initials,dates, and other relevant information on theevidence.ß Air-dry and package evidence separately inBubble Wrap; clean, smooth, high-qualitypaper or laminated folders; or paper bags,depending on the items being submitted forexamination.Back to the top131

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Soil ExaminationsSoil examinations can determine whether soilsshare a common origin by comparing color,texture, and composition.Questions concerning soil evidence should bedirected to 703-632-8449. Follow the evidencesubmission directions, including RequestingEvidence Examinations and Packaging andShipping Evidence.ßßßßßCollect soil samples as soon as possible,because the soil at the crime scene canchange dramatically.Collect soil samples from the immediate crimescene area and from the logical access andescape route(s).Collect soil samples where there arenoticeable changes in color, texture, andcomposition.Collect soil samples at a depth that isconsistent with the depth from which thequestioned soil may have originated.If possible, collect soil samples from alibiareas such as the yard or work area of thesuspect(s).132

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßßßSubmit a map identifying soil-samplelocations.Do not remove soil adhering to shoes,clothing, and tools. Do not process tools forlatent prints. Air-dry the soil and the clothing,and package separately in paper bags.Carefully remove soil adhering to vehicles.Air-dry the soil, and package separately inpaper bags.ß Ship known and questioned debris separatelyto avoid contamination. Submit known andquestioned soil in leakproof containers suchas film canisters or plastic pill bottles. Do notuse paper envelopes or glass containers.Pack to keep lumps intact.Back to the topSpecial-Event and SituationalAwareness SupportVisual information specialists travel to the fieldand conduct digital site/venue surveys. Theseoperations include three-dimensional laserscanning and documentation of physicalstructures and objects, 360-degree sphericalvideo capture, and geographic information system(GIS) mapping.133

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Questions concerning special-event andsituational awareness support should bedirected to 703-632-8194.Tape ExaminationsTape composition, construction, and color can becompared with known sources. Comparisons canbe made with the torn end of tape and a suspectroll of tape.The Laboratory will examine duct, vinyl electrical,packaging, masking, and cellulose acetate (e.g.,Scotch) tapes.Questions concerning tape evidence shouldbe directed to 703-632-8441. Follow theevidence submission directions, includingRequesting Evidence Examinations andPackaging and Shipping Evidence.ßWhenever possible, submit tape still adheredto the substrate. This minimizes the loss oftrace evidence, latent fingerprints, or contactimpressions. If it is not possible to submit thesubstrate, the tape may be manually removedand placed adhesive side down on a clean,colorless piece of plastic sheeting (e.g.,transparency film or Kapak tubular rollstock),134

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007not on cardboard, paper, or vinyl documentprotectors. Do not distort or tear the tapeduring removal.ß If the tape is cut during removal, documentand initial each cut. Use a method thatproduces a unique cutting pattern (e.g.,pinking shears).Back to the topToolmark ExaminationsToolmarksTools can bear unique microscopic characteristicsbecause of manufacturing processes and use.These characteristics can be transferred tosurfaces that had contact with the tools. Evidencetoolmarks can be compared with recovered tools.In the absence of a questioned tool, toolmarkexaminations can determine the type of tool(s)that produced the toolmark and whether thetoolmark is of value for comparison. Toolmarkexaminations also include lock-and-keyexaminations.FracturesFracture examinations sometimes can be used todetermine whether evidence was joined togetherand subsequently broken apart.135

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Questions concerning toolmark evidenceshould be directed to 703-632-8442. Follow theevidence submission directions, includingRequesting Evidence Examinations andPackaging and Shipping Evidence.ßßIf possible, submit the tool-marked evidence.If it is not possible to submit the tool-markedevidence, make a cast to submit to theLaboratory.1.2.3.4.Use an acrylic-surface replica cast kit.Call the Laboratory at 703-632-8442regarding the appropriate cast kit.Different formulas are used in differenttemperatures. If possible, move theevidence to a warm area.Casts will duplicate foreign material in thestamped characters. Clean the areabefore proceeding. Remove paint and dirtwith a solvent such as acetone, gasoline,or paint remover. Use Naval Jelly toremove rust. Use a soft brush. Do not usea wire brush.Build a dam around the stampedcharacters to retain the acrylic liquid136

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007while it hardens. Use a soft and pliabledam material such as modeling clay.Ensure there are no voids in the dam.5.6.7.8.Following the instructions in the kit, mixthe liquid and powder for one minute andpour the mixture into the dam.The acrylic liquid will take 30 minutes toharden. Remove the cast when it is hard.If paint and rust are on the cast, makeadditional casts and submit the cleanestone to the Laboratory.Indicate where on the object (often avehicle) the cast was taken.Pack the cast to prevent breakage.ßßßPhotographs locate toolmarks but are of novalue for identification purposes.Obtain samples of any material deposited onthe tools. Submit samples in leakproofcontainers such as film canisters or plastic pillbottles.To avoid contamination, do not place the toolagainst the tool-marked evidence.137

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßSubmit the tool rather than making test cuts orimpressions.ß Mark the ends of the evidence and specifywhich end was cut during evidence collection.Back to the topToxicology ExaminationsThe Toxicology discipline of the FBI Laboratory isaccredited by the American Board of ForensicToxicologists. Toxicology examinations candisclose the presence of drugs and poisons inbiological specimens and food products. Theexaminations can determine the circumstancessurrounding drug- or poison-related homicides,suicides, and accidents.Because of the large number of potentially toxicsubstances, it may be necessary to screen forclasses of poisons. Examples include:ßßßVolatile compounds (ethanol, methanol,isopropanol).Heavy metals (arsenic).Nonvolatile organic compounds (drugs ofabuse, pharmaceuticals).138

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßMiscellaneous (strychnine, cyanide).Questions concerning toxicology evidenceshould be directed to 703-632-8441. Follow theevidence submission directions, includingRequesting Evidence Examinations andPackaging and Shipping Evidence.ßßßAccepting evidence in alleged poisoninvestigations will be based on whether thevictim(s) sought medical attention or asuspicious death occurred. A doctor’s medicalevaluation and report must be included withthe evidence.Biological evidence in drug-facilitated assaultsmust include a urine sample. The urine mustbe collected as soon as possible after theassault but must not have been collectedmore than 96 hours after the allegeddrugging.Toxicological analysis of hair specimens willbe performed only for specific drugs orpoisons. Call the Laboratory at703-632-8441 prior to submitting hair toensure that the evidence will be acceptedfor examination. The communicationaccompanying the evidence must reference139

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007the telephone conversation accepting theevidence.ßßßßThe quantity of biological specimenssubmitted depends on whether the identity ofa toxic substance is known, the route ofadministration, the time after exposure thatbiological specimens are collected, andwhether subjects(s) or victim(s) are living ordeceased. Call the Laboratory at703-632-8441 prior to submitting thespecimens to ensure that the correctquantity is submitted. The communicationaccompanying the evidence must referencethe telephone conversation accepting theevidence.Each biological specimen must be placed inseparate, labeled, sealed glass tubes, plasticcups, or heat-sealed or resealable plasticbags. Affix BIOHAZARD labels to the insideand outside containers.Refrigerate or freeze biological specimensduring storage and shipping to preventdeterioration. Pack so that no breakage,leakage, or contamination occurs.Submit a copy of the autopsy or incidentreport.140

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßßDescribe the symptoms of the suspect(s) orvictim(s) at the time of the crime or prior to thedeath.List any known or questioned drugsconsumed by or prescribed for thesuspect(s) or victim(s).ß Describe any known or questionedenvironmental exposure to toxicsubstances by the suspect(s) or victim(s).Back to the topVideo ExaminationsVideo examinations are conducted by the FBI’sOperational Technology Division (OTD), DigitalEvidence Laboratory (DEL), Forensic Audio,Video, and Image Analysis Unit (FAVIAU). TheOTD DEL has different acceptance criteria and adifferent physical address than the FBI Laboratory,as described below.AuthenticityAuthenticity examinations are conducted todetermine whether video recordings are original,continuous, unaltered, and consistent with theoperation of the recording device used to makethe recording.141

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007EnhancementEnhancement examinations are conducted tomaximize the clarity of the video signal.Video Image ProcessingEnhanced still images can be produced fromimages on video and made as prints or digitalfiles.Standards ConversionVideo can be converted from one standard toanother (e.g., PAL to NTSC or SECAM).Format ConversionVideo can be converted from one format toanother (e.g., Beta to VHS).SynchronizationAudio and video signals can be combined toproduce one composite recording.Special EffectsSpecial effects, such as a mosaic or blur spot, canbe added to video recordings to protect a person’sidentity.Damaged Media RepairVideo recordings can be repaired, restored, orretrieved for playback and examination, if damageis not too extensive.142

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Questions concerning video examinationsshould be directed to 703-985-1393. Questionsconcerning video evidence should be directedto 703-985-1388.Video examinations may not be submitted directlyfrom entities outside the FBI. State, local, orinternational agency cases must be submitted bythe FBI field office servicing the area and mustmeet one of the following two criteria: 1) the state,local, or international case has a nexus to anongoing FBI investigation or 2) the FBI divisionhead deems that the case is of enough regionalimportance to merit the dedication of federalresources to the state, local, or international case.These criteria shall be met with a writtenstatement from the division head (Special Agent inCharge). FBI entities may submit cases directly.Follow the evidence submission directions,including Requesting Evidence Examinationsand Packaging and Shipping Evidence.ßßWrite-protect the original media. Never usethe Pause operation when viewing originalvideo recordings.Submit original video recordings. If originalscannot be obtained, call for furtherinstructions.143

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßßßQueue the original videotape to theapproximate time of the pertinent area. Statein a communication the date and time of thepertinent area, and use the date-time stampon the video or the counter indicator (set fromthe beginning of the tape at 000).Label the outer container “FRAGILE,SENSITIVE ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT” or“FRAGILE, SENSITIVE AUDIO/VIDEOMEDIA” and “KEEP AWAY FROM MAGNETSOR MAGNETIC FIELDS.”Address the outer container as follows:FORENSIC PROGRAMBUILDING 27958AENGINEERING RESEARCH FACILITYFEDERAL BUREAU OF INVESTIGATIONQUANTICO VA 22135Back to the topWeapons of Mass DestructionExaminationsA weapon of mass destruction (WMD) is typicallyassociated with nuclear and/or radiological,biological, or chemical agents; however, it alsomay be an explosive. WMDs are designed tocause a large amount of destruction or disruptionto people and infrastructures.144

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007The FBI Laboratory has formalized partnershipswith a variety of government, academic, andprivate laboratories to conduct forensicexaminations of evidence that either contains or iscontaminated with hazardous chemical, biological,and/or radiological material.Depending on the nature of the threat—i.e.,chemical, biological, or radiological—evidenceexaminations will be conducted by the Laboratoryor at a designated FBI partner laboratory speciallyequipped to handle hazardous materials.The Laboratory can direct or apply the use ofspecialized analytical techniques to identify andcharacterize a wide range of biological pathogens,toxins, chemical agents, toxic chemicals, andtrace radioactive compounds that constitute asuspected or potential WMD.The FBI’s Hazardous Evidence Analysis Team(HEAT), composed of forensic examiners andtechnicians from the various FBI Laboratorydisciplines, is trained to safely conduct traditionalexaminations of hazardous evidence. Theseexaminations are conducted at FBI partnerlaboratories.Suspected or confirmed WMD crime scenesshould be handled only by qualified personnel.145

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Upon notification or suspicion of a possibleWMD incident, contact the FBI’s StrategicInformation and Operations Center at202-323-3300 and ask for the Weapons ofMass Destruction Operations Unit Duty Officer.Before it can be analyzed by the Laboratory orpartner laboratories, suspected or confirmedWMD evidence must be properly field-screenedby qualified personnel to determine the absenceor presence of hazardous materials. Questionsconcerning WMD evidence examinationsshould be directed to 703-632-7766.Back to the topWood ExaminationsWood examinations can match sides, ends, andfractures; determine wood species; and comparewood particles found on clothing, vehicles, andother objects with wood from the crime scene.Questions concerning wood evidence shouldbe directed to 703-632-8449. Follow theevidence submission directions, includingRequesting Evidence Examinations andPackaging and Shipping Evidence.ßSubmit wood in plastic or paper bags.146

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Crime Scene SafetyPersonnel have the ultimate responsibility torecognize chemical, biological, and physicalhazards when processing a crime scene.However, it is the responsibility of each agencyresponding to and providing support at the crimescene to develop policies, programs, and trainingon health and safety practices.Always consult local, state, and federalenvironmental and occupational health and safetylaws when working with forensic evidence. Allshipping of forensic evidence must comply withU.S. Department of Transportation andInternational Air Transport Association regulations.SAFETYThis section describes the hazards, safetyprecautions, safe work practices, and personalprotective equipment recommended for personnelprocessing routine crime scenes. This section alsoexplains the importance of complying with wastedisposalregulations.Routes of ExposurePersonnel operating in or around contaminatedenvironments must be aware of the various waysin which hazards may enter and harm the body. 1147

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007InhalationInhalation is the introduction of a toxic product bythe respiratory system. Airborne contaminantsmay be in the form of a dust, aerosol, smoke,vapor, gas, or fume. Materials may be in a solid orliquid form and still represent an inhalation hazardbecause they produce vapors, mists, and fumes.Proper work practices and adequate ventilationcan minimize the risk of airborne-contaminantinhalation. When working in areas with airbornecontaminants present, personnel must wearrespiratory protection. Personnel must be certifiedto wear respiratory protection and, therefore, towork in areas containing airborne contaminants.Skin ContactContamination through the skin can result fromdirect contact or by absorption. The severity of theinjury can depend on the concentration of thecontaminant and the amount of exposure time.Systemic effects—such as dizziness, tremors,nausea, blurred vision, liver and kidney damage,shock, or collapse—can occur when thesubstances are absorbed through the skin andcirculated throughout the body. Exposure can beprevented by using personal protective equipment(e.g., gloves, safety glasses, goggles, faceshields, and protective clothing).148

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007IngestionIngestion involves introducing contaminants intothe body through the mouth. Ingestion can causesevere damage to the mouth, throat, and digestivetract. To prevent entry of contaminants into themouth, safe work practices—such as washinghands before eating, smoking, or applyingcosmetics—must always be used. Personnelshould not bring food, drinks, or cigarettes intoareas where contamination can occur, regardlessof personal protection they may be wearing.InjectionThe direct injection of contaminants into thebody—either by needle sticks or mechanicalinjuries from contaminated glass, metal, or othersharp objects—can cause severe complications.Contaminants enter directly into the bloodstreamand can spread rapidly. Extreme caution shouldbe exercised when handling objects with sharp orjagged edges. Work gloves must be worn at alltimes.SafetyBloodborne Pathogen SafetyOn December 6, 1991, OSHA issued Title 29,Section 1910.1030, of the Code of FederalRegulations (CFR), Bloodborne Pathogens. 2149

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Occupations at risk for exposure to bloodbornepathogens include law enforcement, emergencyresponse, and forensic laboratory personnel.Fundamental to the bloodborne pathogensstandard is the concept of following universalprecautions. This concept is the primarymechanism for infection control. It requires thatemployees treat all blood, body fluids, or otherpotentially infectious materials as if infected withbloodborne diseases, such as the hepatitis B virus(HBV), the hepatitis C virus (HCV), and the humanimmunodeficiency virus (HIV). The followingprotective measures should be taken to avoiddirect contact with potentially infectious materials:ßßUse barrier protection—such as disposablegloves, coveralls, and shoe covers—if contactwith potentially infectious materials may occur.Change gloves when torn or punctured orwhen their ability to function as a barrier iscompromised. Wear appropriate eye and faceprotection to protect against splashes, sprays,and spatters of potentially infectious materials.Wash hands after removing gloves or otherpersonal protective equipment. Removegloves and other personal protectiveequipment in a manner that will not result incontaminating unprotected skin or clothing.150

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßßßßßProhibit eating, drinking, smoking, or applyingcosmetics where human blood, body fluids, orother potentially infectious materials arepresent, regardless of personal protection thatmay be worn.Place contaminated sharps in appropriateclosable, leakproof, puncture-resistantcontainers when transported or discarded.Label the containers with a BIOHAZARDwarning label.Do not bend, re-cap, remove, or otherwisehandle contaminated needles or other sharps.After use, decontaminate equipment with adaily prepared solution of household bleachdiluted 1:10 or with 70 percent isopropylalcohol or other appropriate disinfectant.Noncorrosive disinfectants are commerciallyavailable. It is important to allow sufficientcontact time for complete disinfection.In addition to universal precautions,engineering controls and prudent workpractices can reduce or eliminate exposure topotentially infectious materials. Examples ofengineering controls include long-handledmirrors used to locate and retrieve evidence in151

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007confined or hidden spaces and punctureresistantcontainers used to store and disposeof sharps and paint stirrers.Chemical SafetyDepending on the type of material encountered, avariety of health and safety hazards can exist.Some of these hazards are identified by thefollowing categories: 1, 3ßßßFlammable or combustible materials—such asgasoline, acetone, and ether—ignite easilywhen exposed to air and an ignition source,such as a spark or flame.Over time, some explosive materials, such asnitroglycerine and nitroglycerine-baseddynamite, deteriorate to become chemicallyunstable. In particular, ether will formperoxides around the mouth of the vessel inwhich it is stored. All explosive materials aresensitive to heat, shock, and friction.Pyrophoric materials—such as phosphorus,sodium, and barium—can be liquid or solidand can ignite without an external ignitionsource in air temperatures less than 130degrees Fahrenheit (540 degrees Celsius).152

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßßßOxidizers—such as nitrates, hydrogenperoxide, and concentrated sulfuric acid—arechemical compounds that readily yield oxygento promote combustion. Avoid storage withflammable and combustible materials orsubstances that could rapidly accelerate theirdecomposition.Corrosive materials can cause destruction toliving tissue or objects such as wood andsteel. The amount of damage depends on theconcentration and duration of contact.When working with chemicals, be aware ofhazardous properties, disposal techniques,personal protection, packaging and shippingprocedures, and emergency preparedness.This awareness comes from appropriatetraining and the information in a MaterialSafety Data Sheet. The Material Safety DataSheet provides information on the hazards ofa particular material so that personnel canwork safely and responsibly with hazardousmaterials.Light-Source SafetyWhen using ultraviolet lights, lasers, and otherlight sources, personnel must protect their eyesfrom direct and indirect exposure. 4 Not all laser153

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007beams are visible, and irreversible eye damagecan result from exposure to direct or indirect lightfrom reflected beams. Prolonged exposure to theskin also should be avoided.All personnel in the vicinity of the light sourceshould wear protective eyewear appropriate forthe light source. Goggles must have sufficientprotective material and fit snugly to prevent lightfrom entering at any angle. The goggles mustdisplay the American National StandardsInstitute’s (ANSI’s) mark denoting eye-protectioncompliance. Laser-protective eyewear must be ofthe appropriate optical density to protect againstthe maximum operating wavelength of the lasersource.Confined-Space SafetyA confined space is an enclosed area largeenough for personnel to enter and work, but it haslimited or restricted means for entry and exit.Confined spaces (e.g., sewers, open pits, tankcars, and vats) are not designed for continuousoccupancy. Confined spaces can exposepersonnel to hazards including toxic gases,explosive or oxygen-deficient atmospheres,electrical dangers, or materials that can engulfpersonnel entering the space. 5154

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Conditions in a confined space must beconsidered dangerous, and personnel may notenter the space until a confined-space permit hasbeen issued. The atmosphere must be monitoredcontinuously with a calibrated, direct-readinginstrument for oxygen, carbon monoxide,flammable gases and vapors, and toxic aircontaminants. Periodic readings from thesemonitors should be documented. Only certifiedconfined-space personnel may operate inconfined spaces. Rescue services must beimmediately available to the site.The following practices must be followed whenworking in a confined space:ßßNever enter before all atmospheric,engulfment, mechanical, and electricalhazards have been identified anddocumented. Isolating hazards must beperformed in accordance with OSHA 29 CFR1910.147, The Control of Hazardous Energy(Lockout/Tagout). 6Provide ventilation. Ensure that ventilationequipment does not interfere with entry, exit,or rescue procedures.155

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßßßßßßßProvide barriers to warn unauthorizedpersonnel and to keep entrants safe fromexternal hazards.Provide constant communication betweenpersonnel entering the confined space andattendants.Ensure that back-up communication is inplace prior to entry.Wear appropriate personal protectiveequipment, such as self-contained breathingapparatus (SCBA), a full-body harness, headprotection, and other necessary equipment.Never attempt a rescue unless part of adesignated rescue team.Ensure that personnel certified in first aid andCPR (cardiopulmonary resuscitation) areon-site.For additional information, refer to the OSHAstandard for Permit-Required ConfinedSpaces, 29 CFR 1910.146. 7156

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Excavation SafetyAll excavations must meet the requirements setforth in OSHA’s standards for excavations,29 CFR 1926.650, 8 1926.651, 9 and 1926.652. 10Each employee in an excavation shall beprotected from cave-ins by an adequate protectivesystem designed in accordance with 29 CFR1926.652(b) or 29 CFR 1926.652(c), 10 unlessexcavations are less than five feet in depth andexamination of the ground is made by acompetent person to prevent cave-ins. Acompetent person is someone capable ofidentifying existing and predictable hazards inthe surroundings or working conditions that areunsanitary, hazardous, or dangerous toemployees and who has the authorization to takeprompt corrective action to eliminate thosehazards.As with all excavations, personnel should beaware of buried utilities and control standingwater, hazardous environments, confined spaces,and oxygen-deficient atmospheres.X-Ray SafetyPortable, handheld X-ray machines, often used toidentify the contents of unknown packages, posea risk for exposure to X-ray radiation at crimescenes.157

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Keep X-ray exposure as low as reasonablyachievable by adhering to the following:ßßßßShield the X-ray device, the questionableobject, and the operator.Remove all nonessential personnel from theX-ray field.Limit the time that personnel must be in thearea of operation.Always wear assigned monitoring devicesappropriate for X-ray radiation.ß Ensure that standard X-ray operatingprocedures are in place and followed and thatadequate training has been provided inaccordance with federal and state regulations.Back to the topPersonal Protective EquipmentAt all crime scenes, the selection of personalprotective equipment must be done incoordination with a hazard risk assessmentcompleted by trained and qualified personnel. Thehazard risk assessment should identify thepossible contaminants as well as the hazardsassociated with each product. Depending on the158

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007outcome of the assessment or uncertainty of thehazards associated with the given scene, OSHA’sstandard for Hazardous Waste Operations andEmergency Response, 29 CFR 1910.120, 11 mayneed to be applied. Entry into these types ofscenes will depend on each law enforcementorganization’s available equipment, situationaltraining, and qualified personnel.Hand ProtectionHand protection should be selected on the basisof the type of material being handled and the12, 13hazard(s) associated with the material.Detailed information can be obtained from themanufacturer. The following list providesinformation about glove material types andfunctions:ßßNitrile provides protection from acids, alkalinesolutions, hydraulic fluid, photographicsolutions, fuels, lubricants, aromatics,petroleum, and chlorinated solvents. It alsooffers some resistance to cuts and snags.Neoprene offers resistance to oil, grease,acids, solvents, alkalies, bases, and mostrefrigerants.159

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßßßPolyvinyl chloride (PVC) is resistant toalkalies, oils, and limited concentrations ofnitric and chromic acids.Latex (natural rubber) resists mild acids,caustics, detergents, germicides, and ketonicsolutions. Latex will swell and degrade ifexposed to gasoline or kerosene. Whenexposed to prolonged, excessive heat ordirect sunlight, latex gloves can degrade,causing the glove material to lose its integrity.Using powder-free gloves with reducedprotein content reduces the risk of developinglatex allergies. Personnel allergic to latexusually can wear nitrile or neoprene.Guidelines for glove use include the following:ßßßPrior to donning gloves, inspect them forholes, punctures, and tears. Remove rings orother sharp objects that can cause punctures.When working with heavily contaminatedmaterials, wear a double layer of gloves.Change gloves when they become torn orpunctured or when their ability to function as abarrier is compromised.160

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßTo avoid contaminating unprotected skin orclothing, remove disposable gloves bygrasping the cuffs and pulling them off insideout. Discard disposable gloves in designatedcontainers. Do not reuse.Eye ProtectionPersonnel handling chemical, biological, andradioactive materials should wear appropriateeye protection, such as safety glasses andgoggles. 1, 14 Face shields offer better protectionwhen there is a potential for splashing or flyingdebris. Face shields must be worn in combinationwith safety glasses or goggles because faceshields alone are not considered appropriate eyeprotection.Contact lens users must wear safety glasses orgoggles to protect the eyes. In the event of achemical splash into the eye, it can be difficult toremove the contact lens to irrigate the eye, andcontaminants can be trapped behind the contactlens.Protective eyewear also should be worn overprescription glasses. Alternately, safety glassesmay be made to the wearer’s eyeglassprescription.161

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Foot ProtectionShoes that completely cover and protect the footare essential. 12, 15 Protective footwear should beworn at crime scenes when there is a danger offoot injuries from falling or rolling objects, fromobjects piercing the sole, or from exposure toelectrical hazards. The standard recognized byOSHA for protective footwear is the AmericanNational Standard for Personal Protection—Protective Footwear, ANSI Z41-1991. 16 In somesituations, nonpermeable shoe covers can providebarrier protection to shoes and prevent thetransfer of contamination outside the crime scene.Respiratory ProtectionCertain crime scenes, such as bombings andclandestine laboratories, can produce noxiousfumes and other airborne contaminants in which1, 12, 17responders must use respiratory protection.Compliance with 29 CFR 1910.134, RespiratoryProtection, 18 is mandatory whenever respiratorsare used. Critical elements for the safe use ofrespirators include a written program, training,medical evaluation, fit testing, and a respiratormaintenance program. Without these elements,the wearer is not guaranteed protection.162

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Head ProtectionAt certain crime scenes where structural damagehas occurred or may occur, protective helmetsshould be worn. The standard recognized byOSHA for protective helmets is ANSI’srequirements for industrial head protection,Z89.1-2003. 19Back to the topHazardous Materials TransportationAll shipments of suspected or confirmedhazardous materials must comply with U.S.Department of Transportation and International AirTransport Association regulations. Title 49 of theCFR lists specific requirements that must beobserved when preparing hazardous materials forshipment by air, land, or sea. 20 In addition, theInternational Air Transport Association annuallypublishes Dangerous Goods Regulations, 21 whichdetails how to prepare and package shipments forair transportation.Title 49 CFR 172.101 provides a HazardousMaterials Table 22 that identifies items consideredhazardous for the purpose of transportation.Title 49 CFR 172.101 also addresses specialprovisions for certain materials, hazardousmaterials communications, emergency responseinformation, and training requirements for163

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007shippers. Personnel who serve any function in theshipment of hazardous materials must receive thespecified training prior to shipping any materialsby commercial transportation.Back to the topHazardous Waste RegulationsThe U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’sResource Conservation and Recovery Act(RCRA), 23 commonly referred to as the “cradle-tograve”regulation, was established to trackchemicals from “cradle,” or generation, to “grave,”or disposal. This system imposes requirements onboth generators and transporters, as well as ontransport, storage, and disposal facilities. RCRAspecifies that once a material is determined to behazardous, it becomes the generator’s completeresponsibility.The process for determining whether a material isa hazardous waste should be completed byqualified personnel. Even new material in itsoriginal container may be considered waste ifthere is no use for it. The services of a hazardouswaste contractor and transporter can be used tohelp remove materials from scenes. Hazardousmaterials that are removed from crime scenes areconsidered evidence and would not fall underRCRA waste provisions. However, when a case164

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007has been adjudicated or, for other reasons, thematerial is not needed, the immediate assistanceof a qualified contractor knowledgeable aboutlocal regulations must be sought. Clandestinedrug laboratories and environmental crime scenesare examples of situations that may require theremoval of waste.Back to the topReferences1. National Research Council. Committee onHazardous Substances in the Laboratory. PrudentPractices for Handling Hazardous Chemicals inLaboratories. National Academy Press,Washington, D.C., 1981.2. Bloodborne Pathogens, 29 CFR 1910.1030,U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safetyand Health Administration, Washington, D.C.Available: http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=standards&p_id=10051.3. Upfal, M. J. Pocket Guide to First Aid forChemical Injuries. Genium, Schenectady, NewYork, 1993.165

Handbook of Forensic Services 20074. American National Standards Institute.American National Standard for Safe Use ofLasers (ANSI Z136.1-2000). American NationalStandards Institute, New York, 2000.5. Conforti, J. V. Confined Space Pocket Guide.Genium, Schenectady, New York, 1996.6. The Control of Hazardous Energy (Lockout/Tagout), 29 CFR 1910.147, U.S. Department ofLabor, Occupational Safety and HealthAdministration, Washington, D.C. Available:http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=standards&p_id=9804.7. Permit-Required Confined Spaces, 29 CFR1910.146, U.S. Department of Labor,Occupational Safety and Health Administration,Washington, D.C. Available: http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=standards&p_id=9797.8. Scope, Application, and Definitions Applicableto This Subpart, 29 CFR 1926.650, U.S.Department of Labor, Occupational Safety andHealth Administration, Washington, D.C.Available: http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=standards&p_id=10774.166

Handbook of Forensic Services 20079. Specific Excavation Requirements, 29 CFR1926.651, U.S. Department of Labor,Occupational Safety and Health Administration,Washington, D.C. Available: http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=standards&p_id=10775.10. Requirements for Protective Systems, 29 CFR1926.652, U.S. Department of Labor,Occupational Safety and Health Administration,Washington, D.C. Available: http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=standards&p_id=10776.11. Hazardous Waste Operations and EmergencyResponse, 29 CFR 1910.120, U.S. Department ofLabor, Occupational Safety and HealthAdministration, Washington, D.C. Available:http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=standards&p_id=9765.12. Office of Environmental Health and Safety.Laboratory Survival Manual. University of Virginia,Charlottesville, Virginia, 1998. Available:http://ehs.virginia.edu/chem/home.html.13. Choose the proper gloves for chemicalhandling. In: Best’s Safety Directory. A. M. Best,Oldwick, New Jersey, 1998.167

Handbook of Forensic Services 200714. American National Standards Institute.American National Standard Practice forOccupational and Educational Eye and FaceProtection (ANSI Z87.1-2003). American NationalStandards Institute, New York, 2003.15. Occupational Foot Protection, 29 CFR1910.136, U.S. Department of Labor,Occupational Safety and Health Administration,Washington, D.C. Available: http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=standards&p_id=9786.16. American National Standards Institute.American National Standard for PersonalProtection—Protective Footwear (ANSI Z41-1991). American National Standards Institute,New York, 1991.17. Gorman, C. Hazardous Waste HandlingPocket Guide. Genium, Schenectady, New York,1997.18. Respiratory Protection, 29 CFR 1910.134,U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safetyand Health Administration, Washington, D.C.Available: http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=standards&p_id=12716.168

Handbook of Forensic Services 200719. American National Standards Institute.American National Standard for PersonnelProtection—Protective Headwear for IndustrialWorkers—Requirements (ANSI Z89.1-2003).American National Standards Institute, New York,2003.20. Transportation, 49 CFR 100–185, U.S.Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C.Available: http://www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/waisidx_05/49cfr172_05.html.21. International Air Transport Association.Dangerous Goods Regulations. 44th ed.,Montreal, Canada, 2003.22. Hazardous Materials Table, 49 CFR 172.101,U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington,D.C.Available: http://www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/waisidx_05/49cfr172_05.html.23. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, 40CFR 3001–3020, U.S. Environmental ProtectionAgency, Washington, D.C. Available:http://www.epa.gov/region5/defs/html/rcra.htm.Back to the top169

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Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Crime Scene SearchCrime scenes involving suspected orconfirmed weapons of mass destruction(WMD) (nuclear and/or radiological, biological,chemical, or explosive agents) should behandled only by qualified personnel. The FBIis the lead federal agency of a suspected orconfirmed WMD crime scene. Specificinformation on how to process a hazardousmaterials crime scene is not covered in thissection. Upon notification or suspicion of apossible WMD incident, contact the FBI’sStrategic Information and Operations Center at202-323-3300 and ask for the Weapons of MassDestruction Operations Unit Duty Officer.A crime scene search is planned, coordinated,and executed by law enforcement officials tolocate physical evidence.Basic PrinciplesSEARCHßßThe best search options are usually themost difficult and time-consuming.Physical evidence cannot beoverdocumented.171

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßThere are two search approaches:1.2.A cautious search of visible areas,avoiding evidence loss or contamination.A vigorous search of concealed areas.PreparationßßßßßßObtain a search warrant, if necessary.Discuss the search with involved personnelbefore arriving at the scene, if possible.Establish a command headquarters forcommunication and decision making in majoror complicated crime scene searches.Ensure that personnel are aware of the typesof evidence usually encountered and theproper handling of the evidence.Make preliminary personnel assignmentsbefore arriving at the scene, if possible.Establish communication between the medicalexaminer, laboratory personnel, andprosecutive attorneys so that questions thatarise during the crime scene search can beresolved.172

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßßßßßßCoordinate agreements with all agencies inmultijurisdictional crime scene searches.Accumulate evidence collection andpackaging materials and equipment.Prepare the paperwork to document thesearch.Provide protective clothing, communication,lighting, shelter, transportation, equipment,food, water, restroom facilities, medicalassistance, and security for search personnel.In prolonged searches, use shifts of two ormore teams. Transfer paperwork andresponsibility in a preplanned manner fromone team to the next.Ensure that assignments are in keeping withthe attitude, aptitude, training, and experienceof search personnel. Personnel may beassigned two or more responsibilities:Team Leaderü Ensure scene security.üPrepare administrative log.173

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007üüüüConduct preliminary survey (initialwalk-through).Prepare narrative description.Resolve problems.Make final decisions.Photographerü Photograph and log evidence and scene.Sketch Preparerü Sketch and log scene.Evidence Recorderü Serve as evidence custodian and logevidence.Evidence Recovery Personnelü Ensure that evidence is located anddocumented (photo and sketch).üInitial and date all evidence collected.Specialistsü Brought in from the FBI Laboratory,private industry, academia, other174

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007laboratories, etc., on a case-by-case basisto assist in their area of expertise.üShould be identified prior to the time theyare actually needed.ApproachßßßBe alert for evidence, especially transientevidence.Take extensive notes.Consider the safety of all personnel.Secure and ProtectßßßßßTake control of the scene immediately.Determine the extent to which the scene hasbeen protected. Obtain information frompersonnel who have knowledge of the originalcondition.Continue to take extensive notes.Keep out unauthorized personnel.Record who enters and leaves.175

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Preliminary SurveyThe preliminary survey is an organizational stageto plan for the search.ßßßßßßßßßßCautiously walk through the scene.Maintain administrative and emotional control.Select a narrative technique (written, audio,or video).Take preliminary photographs.Delineate the extent of the search area.Expand the initial perimeter as needed.Organize methods and procedures.Recognize special problem areas.Identify and protect transient physicalevidence.Determine personnel and equipment needs.Make specific assignments.Determine the need for any specialists.176

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßßDevelop a general theory of the crime.Take extensive notes to document the scene,physical and environmental conditions, andpersonnel movements.Evaluate Physical Evidence PossibilitiesThis evaluation begins upon arriving at the sceneand becomes detailed in the preliminary surveystage.ßßßßßßEnsure that collection and packagingmaterials and equipment are sufficient.Focus first on evidence that could be lost.Leave the least transient evidence for last.Consider all categories of evidencepossibilities.Search the easily accessible areas andprogress to out-of-view locations. Look forhidden items.Evaluate whether evidence appears to havebeen moved inadvertently.Evaluate whether the scene appearscontrived.177

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007NarrativeThe narrative is a running description of the crimescene.ßßßßßUse a systematic approach in the narrative.Nothing is insignificant to record if it catchesone’s attention.Under most circumstances, do not collectevidence during the narrative.Use photographs and sketches tosupplement, not substitute for, the narrative.The narrative should include the following:üüüüüCase identifier.Date, time, and location.Weather and lighting conditions.Identity and assignments of personnel.Condition and position of evidence whenan evidence recovery log is not used.178

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007PhotographyßßßßßßßßPhotograph the crime scene as soon aspossible.Prepare a photographic log that records allphotographs and a description and location ofevidence.Establish a progression of overall, medium,and close-up views of the crime scene.Photograph from eye level to represent thenormal view.Photograph the most fragile areas of thecrime scene first.Photograph all evidence in place prior torecovery.All items of evidence should be photographedby close-ups, first without a scale and thenwith a scale, filling the frame.Photograph the interior crime scene in anoverlapping series using a normal lens, ifpossible. Overall photographs may be takenusing a wide-angle lens.179

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßßßPhotograph the exterior crime scene,establishing the location of the scene with aseries of overall photographs including alandmark. Photographs should have 360degrees of coverage. Consider using aerialphotography, when possible.Photograph entrances and exits from theinside and the outside.Prior to entering the scene, acquire—ifpossible—prior photographs, blueprints, ormaps of the scene.SketchThe sketch establishes a permanent record ofitems, conditions, and distance and sizerelationships.ßßßSketches should supplement photographs.Sketch number designations shouldcoordinate with the evidence log numberdesignations.Sketches normally are not drawn toscale. However, the sketch should havemeasurements and details for adrawn-to-scale diagram, if necessary.180

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßThe sketch should include the following:üüüüüüüüCase identifier.Date, time, and location.Weather and lighting conditions.Identity and assignments of personnel.Dimensions of rooms, furniture, doors,and windows.Distances between objects, persons,bodies, entrances, and exits.Measurements showing the location ofevidence. Each object should be locatedby at least two measurements using anestablished measurement system, e.g.,triangulation, transecting baseline, orazimuth.Key, legend, compass orientation, scale,scale disclaimer, or a combination ofthese features.181

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Conduct Detailed SearchßßßßUse a search pattern (grid, strip or lane, orspiral).Search for evidence from the general to thespecific.Be alert for all evidence.Search entrances and exits.Record and Collect Physical EvidenceßßßßEnsure that all items are photographed priorto collection.Mark evidence locations on the sketch.Complete an evidence log noting all items ofevidence collected. If possible, have oneperson serve as evidence custodian.Two people should observe the evidence inplace, then as it is collected, initialed, anddated. Evidence items are marked directlyonly when positive the marks will not interferewith subsequent forensic examination.182

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßßßßßWear latex or cotton gloves to avoid leavingfingerprints.Do not excessively handle the evidence afterrecovery.Seal all evidence packages at the crimescene.Obtain known standards (e.g., fiber samplesfrom a known carpet).Constantly check paperwork, packaging, andother information for errors.Final SurveyßßßßßThe final survey is a review of all aspects ofthe search.Discuss the search with all personnel.Ensure that all documentation is correct andcomplete.Photograph the scene showing the finalcondition.Ensure that all evidence is accounted forbefore departing the scene.183

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007ßßßEnsure that all supplies and equipment areremoved from the scene.Ensure that no areas have been overlooked inthe detailed search.Reconsider the need for additional specialists.ReleaseßßßßßRelease the crime scene after the final survey.The scene should be released only when allpersonnel are satisfied that the scene wassearched correctly and completely.Only the person in charge should release thescene.Ensure that the appropriate inventory hasbeen provided, consistent with legalrequirements, to the person to whom thescene is released.Crime scene release documentation shouldinclude the time and date of release, to whomreleased, and by whom released.ß Once the scene has been released, reentrymay require a warrant.Back to the top184

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007INDEXIndexAAbrasives, 14Acrylic-surface replica castkit, 119–121, 136–137Adhesives, 14–15. See alsoTapesfor lifting impressions,127–130Airborne contaminants,148–149Ammunition. See alsoBullets; Firearmscartridge cases orshotshell casings, 64packaging, shipping,labeling, 11–12, 66–68shot pellets, buckshot, orslugs, 64wadding, 65Anonymous Letter File, 116Anthropologicalexaminations, 15–16Arrest photos, 77Arson, 17limitations, 4Audio, 18–20Authenticity/manipulationdetection, 18, 74, 141See also Image analysisAutomobilesaccidents, 5, 101–102automobile theft, 5185glass samples from, 69–71make and modelidentification, 75paint samples from,101–102tire tread examinations,121–131BBank robbery, surveillancefilms, 73, 75–78Bank Robbery Note File, 116Bank security dyes, 21Biohazardous materialsbloodborne pathogensafety, 149–152packaging, shipping, andlabeling, 9–12, 46, 68,88–89, 100, 139–141routes of exposure incontaminatedenvironments, 147–149Biological relatives, missingpersons and samplesfrom, 95–97Biological tissue sampleexamination. See DNAexaminations

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Bloodblood examination requestletter, 50on clothing submitted forgunshot residueexamination, 68collecting from a person,45–46collecting known samples,45–46, 48–50collection, missing personsand, 95–96dried, 48–50, 96liquid, 48on a person, 48stains, 49–50on surfaces, in snow orwater, 48wet bloodstained garmentsand objects, 49–50Bloodborne pathogen safety,149–152Body fluids. See also DNAexaminations; specificfluids, e.g., Blood, SalivaUniversal precautions,150–152Bones. See Anthropologicalexaminations; Tissue,bones, and teeth. See alsoSkeletal samplesBuccal (oral) swab samples,47, 96–97Buckshot, 64Building materials, 22Bullets. See also Ammunition;Firearmsbullet jacket alloys, 23–24fired, 64packaging, shipping, andlabeling, 66–68Burglary, 5CCameras, image analysisand, 74, 78. See alsoPhotographs/photography;Surveillance imagesCarbon paper or carbon-filmribbon, 115Carjacking, 5Cartridges, cartridge cases,23–24, 64, 65, 66–68Casting, See Impressionsand castsCaulk, 14–15Cellular phones, 56–58Checkwriters, 115Chemical safety, 152–153Chemical unknowns, 24–26Child Exploitation andObscenity Reference File,75, 78186

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Child pornographyexaminations, imageanalysis, 75–79Clocks, 93Clothing, fabric, and textilesbank security dye on, 21blood on, 49building materials debrison, 22for comparisons, 73controlled substances on,29–30explosives residue on,60–61glass samples on, 70gunshot residue on, 65, 68hair/fibers on, 71–72paint on, 101–102pepper spray orpepper foam on,103protective. See Personalprotective equipmentsafe insulation on,118–119wood particles on, 146Coded messages. SeeCryptanalysisCommercial electronicdevices, 56–58Communication devicesinterception-of-, 57–58Computer AnalysisResponse Team, 27Computerscomparison, 26computer-animatedmodeling, 31content, 26deleted data files, 26extraction, 26format conversion, 26keyword searching, 27labeling and shipping,28–29limited source code, 27passwords, 27procedures forexamination, 27–29search or fieldexamination, 27–28transaction, 26Confined-space safety,154–156Contaminated environmentsroutes of exposure in,147–149Controlled substances, 29–30Cordage, 117–118Crime scene safety. See alsoBiohazardous materialsabout, 147bloodborne pathogensafety, 149–152chemical safety, 152–153187

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007confined-space safety,154–156hazardous materialstransportation, 163–164hazardous wasteregulations, 164–165light-source safety,153–154personal protectiveequipment, 158–163routes of exposure incontaminatedenvironments, 147–149X-ray safety, 157–158Crime scene searchproceduresapproach, 175basic principles,171–172final survey, 183–184latent prints, 80–89narrative, 178photography, 82–84,86–87, 121–124,179–180physical evidencepossibilities evaluation,177preliminary survey,176–177preparation, 172–175record and collect,182–183release, 184search, 182search personnel,173–175secure and protect, 175sketches, 180–181weapons of massdestruction and, 171Crime scene surveys,documentation, andreconstruction, 31Criminal Justice InformationServices Division, 89Cryptanalysis, 31–33DDamaged media restorationaudio recordings, 19–20video, 142–144Debrisarson and, 17building materials, 22glass samples, 69–70paint, 100–102safe insulation and,118–119soil examinations and,131–133Decontamination/disinfectionof equipment, 151Demonstrative evidence, 33Dental stone, mixing andpouring, 125–127188

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Digital cameras and film. SeeCameras; FilmDNA examinationsabout, 33–35anthropologicalexaminations of bone,15–16buccal (oral) swabs, 47,96–97case acceptance policy,35–40documenting, collecting,packaging, andpreserving, 44–45hair, 42–44, 53–54,71–72mitochondrial DNA,34–35, 40–43nuclear DNA, 34–35preserving DNA evidence,55–56saliva, 52–53semen and semen stainexaminations, 50–52seminal evidence fromsexual assault victims,52sources for analysis,33–35tissue, bones, teeth,54–55, 97–100urine, 52–53Document age, 115Drug records, 32Drug residue, 30Dyes, bank security, 21EElectronic devices, 56–58Electrostatic lifts, 127–128Elimination prints, 85Embossings, 115Enhancement examinationsaudio recordings, 18–20video, 142–144Evidencepackaging and shipping,9–12submission, 7–12Evidence examinations,requesting, 7–9. See alsospecific items, e.g.,Abrasives, DNA,ExplosivesExpert witness testimony, 2–3Explosive incidents andhoaxes, 4Explosives, 58–60. See alsoChemical safetyExplosives residue, 60–61Eye protection, 154, 161FFabric and textiles, SeeClothing, fabric, andtextiles189

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Facsimile machines, SeeElectronic devices;Questioned documentexaminationsFacsimiles, 57, 87, 112–113FBI Disaster Squad, 61–62FBI Laboratory, 1–3FBI Laboratory EvidenceControl Unit, 7, 12FBI Operational TechnologyDivision, 1–3, 18, 27, 57,72, 141Feathers, 62–63Fibers, 71–72Film, image analysis, 72–79Fingerprinting humanremains, 88–89. See alsoLatent printsFingerprints. See LatentprintsFire. See ArsonFirearms, 63–68. See alsoAmmunition; Bulletscartridge cases orshotshell casings, 64gun parts, 65gunshot residue onvictim’s clothing, 65, 68image analysis, 73, 78shot pellets, buckshot, orslugs, 64silencers, 66unfired cartridges orshotshells, 65wadding, 65Foot protection, 162Footprints. See Shoe printsForensic facial imaging/reproduction, 16, 68–69Forensic servicesabout, 1–3limitations, 3–5GGambling, 32Gelatin lifts, 128–130General unknowns (powders,liquids, stains), 24–26Glass, 69–71Global positioning systems(GPSs), 56–58Graphic arts (printing), 114Guns. See FirearmsGunshot residueon clothing, 65, 68HHair, 43–44, 53–54, 71–72toxicology screening, 139Hand protection, 159–161Handwriting and handprinting, 79–80, 107–110Hazard risk assessment,personal protectiveequipment and, 158–159190

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Hazardous materials handlingand transportation, 10–12,163–164. See alsoBiohazardous materials;Chemical safety; specifichazardous materials, e.g.,Ammunition, ExplosivesHazardous waste regulations,164–165Head protection, 163Hepatitis B and C viruses,150Hit-and-run (automobile)cases, 5, 101–102,105–106Human immunodeficiencyvirus (HIV),150Human remainsanthropologicalexaminations, 15–16hands/fingers for latentprints, 88–89samples from unidentified,44, 97–100IIgnitable materials. SeeArsonImage analysisauthenticity and imagemanipulationdetection,74automobile make andmodel identification, 75cameras, 74child pornographyexaminations, 75, 78clothing, 73, 78film, 73–74, 76–79firearms, 78location, time, and date ofphotographic evidence,74packaging, shipping, andlabeling of, 76–79photogrammetry, 73, 78photographiccomparisons, 73photographs, 73–78procedures forsubmission, 76–79providing originals, 76source and age, 74video, 73–78Impressions and castsof serial/identificationnumbers, 119–121three-dimensionalmpression casts,125–127for toolmark examinations,136–137two-dimensionalimpressions, 127–130Infectious materials, 149–152191

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Ingestion of contaminants,149Inhalation exposure, 148Injection of contaminants,149Ink, 79–80Innocent Images, 75Insect samples,anthropologicalexaminations of boneand, 16Interception-ofcommunication(IOC)devices, 57–58LLabels and labeling, shipping,9–12. See also specificitemsLamp bulbs, 93Latent labels, 10Latent prints,case acceptance policy, 80developing at crimescenes, 80–82digital images of, 86–87glass samples and, 71lifting, 81packaging, shipping, andlabeling, 84–86photographing, 82–84submitting hands/fingersof deceased for, 88–89Lifting materials, 81, 127–130Light-source safety, 153–154Loan-sharking, 32Lubricants, 89–90MMalicious mischief, 5Metallurgybroken or mechanicallydamaged metal, 91burned, heated, or meltedmetal, 92comparative examinations,90–91cut or severed metal, 92lamp bulbs, 93metal fragments, 92objects with questionedinternal components, 93specification fraud andnoncompliantmaterials, 92–93watches, clocks, andtimers, 93Minor theft and fraud, 5Missing personsabout samples, 94–97blood collection and,96bone submissions, 97–98buccal (oral) swabs, 96–97dried bloodstains, 96192

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007samples from biologicalrelatives, 95–96skeletal samples, 97–98teeth and, 98–99tissue samples, 100Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)See DNA examinationsMoney laundering, 32NNational Automotive ImageFile, 75National Center for Missingand Exploited Children, 75National Integrated BallisticInformation Network(NIBIN), 64National Missing PersonDNA Database, 37, 40, 94Nonfatal traffic accidents, 5Nuclear DNA (nDNA). SeeDNA examinationsOOleoresin capsicum. SeePepper spray or foamOral swab samples, 47,96–97PPackaging and shippingevidence, 9–12Pagers, 56–58Paint, 100–102Paper, 114–117Pepper spray or foam,103–104Personal digital assistants,(PDAs), 56–58Personal protectiveequipment (PPE),eye protection, 154, 161foot protection, 162hand protection, 159–161hazard risk assessmentand, 158–159head protection, 163respiratory protection, 162Pharmaceuticals, 104. Seealso ToxicologyPhotocopies, 87, 112–114,117, 131Photogrammetry, 73, 78Photographs/photographycrime scene searchprocedures, 179–180examination-quality,122–124image analysis, 73–75, 77impressions in snow, 124latent prints, 82–84location, time, and datedeterminations and, 74photographiccomparisons, 73193

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007shoe prints and tiretreads, 121–124of suspects, 77toolmarks, 137Plastic bags, 115Poisons. See Crime scenesafety; ToxicologyPolymers, 104–106Pornography examinations,image analysis, 75–79Printing and printed matter,114Product tampering, 106–107Property crime, 3–5Prostitution, 32–33Protective clothing andequipment, 158–163QQuestioned documents,altered or obliteratedwriting, 110Anonymous Letter File,116Bank Robbery Note File,116burned or charred paper,114carbon paper andcarbon-film ribbon, 115checkwriters, 115document age, 115embossings and seals,115facsimiles, 112–114graphic arts (printing), 114handwriting and handprinting, 107–110ink and, 79nongenuine signatures,110packaging, shipping, andlabeling, 116–117paper, 114photocopies, 112–114, 117plastic bags, 115rubber stamps, 115typewriting, 110–112RRacketeering records, 31–33Respiratory protection, 148,162Rope, 117–118Routes of exposure incontaminatedenvironments, 147–149Rubber stamps, 115SSafe insulation, 118–119Safety. See Crime scenesafetySaliva, 34, 52–53, 55–56Sealants, 14–15194

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007Seals, 115Search patterns, 182Semen and semen stainexaminations, 50–52Seminal evidence fromsexual assault victims, 52Serial numbers, 119–121Serology. See DNAexaminationsSexual assault, seminalevidence from, 52Shipping of evidence. SeePackaging and shippingevidence; specific itemsShoe prints, 121–131Shot pellets, 64Shotshells and shotshellcasings, 64, 65Signal analysis, audiorecordings, 19Signatures, 110Silencers, 66Skeletal remains, See HumanremainsSkeletal samples, 97–98Skin contamination/contact,148Slugs, 64Snowblood in, 48impressions in, 124Soil, 131–133Special-event and situationalawareness support, 133Submitting evidence, 7–12Substances, unknown(powders, liquids, stains),24–26Surveillance images, 73–79Suspects, arrest or knownphotographs of, 77TTape, 134–135for lifting impressions,128–130for lifting latent prints, 81Ten-print fingerprint cards, 89Teeth. See Tissue, bones,and teethTimers, 93Tire treads, 121–131Tissue, bones, and teethanthropologicalexaminations ofbone, 15–16DNA examinations, 54–5597–100unidentified humanremains, 44, 97–100Toolmarks, 135–138Toxicology, 138–141Traffic accidents, 5Typewriting, 110–112195

Handbook of Forensic Services 2007UUniversal precautions,150–152Urine, 52–53, 139VVandalism, 5Video, 141–144image analysis, 72–79Violent crime, 3–4Visual informationspecialists, 31, 33, 68, 133Voice comparisons, 18–19XX-ray safety, 157–158X-rays, known individualcomparison to skeletalremains, 16WWadding, ammunition, 65Watches, 93Watermark identification, 79,115Weapons of massdestruction, 144–146crime scene searchprocedures and, 171Wood, 146Writing examinations. SeeHandwriting and handprinting; Questioneddocuments196

The Handbook of Forensic Services is alsoavailable online at http://www.fbi.gov/hq/lab/handbook/forensics.pdf. Lawenforcement officers and forensic laboratorypersonnel may obtain the handbook infield-manual format by faxing a request onagency letterhead to the FBI LaboratoryLibrary at 703-632-8374.197

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