The Nutritional Biochemistry of Chromium(III) - Survival-training.info

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Chapter 9Benefits of chromium(III) complexes in animal andhuman healthS. Zafra-Stone, 1 M. Bagchi, 1 H. G. Preuss, 2 and D. Bagchi 13∗1 InterHealth Research Center, Benicia, CA 94510; 2 Georgetown University MedicalCenter, Washington, DC 20007; and 3 Department of Pharmacy Sciences, CreightonUniversity Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68178INTRODUCTIONChromium, one of the most common elements in the earth’s crust and sea water, existsmainly in five valence states: metallic chromium [Cr(0)], trivalent chromium [Cr(III)],bivalent chromium [Cr(II)], pentavalent chromium [Cr(V)], and hexavalent chromium[Cr(VI)] [1]. Chromium(VI) is prepared by oxidizing naturally occurring Cr(III) and usedextensively in industrial chemicals including steel, chrome plating, welding, painting,metal finishes, steel manufacturing, alloy, cast iron, and wood treatment. Chromium(VI)is widely known to cause allergic dermatitis as well as toxic and carcinogenic effectsin animals and humans. Although chromium(V) has been identified as the ultimatecarcinogen, investigators have demonstrated that Cr(V) complexes, produced in thereduction of Cr(VI) by cellular reductants, generate hydroxyl radicals and cause DNAdamage. Chromium(III) is relatively non-toxic and identified as a novel micronutrientfor its beneficial role in human nutrition by serving as a critical cofactor in the action ofinsulin as well as nutritional enhancement to energy, glucose, and lipid metabolism [2].However, Ozawa et al. in 1990 demonstrated that Cr(III) can be reduced to Cr(II) by thebiological reductants L-cysteine and NADH, and the newly formed Cr(II) reacts withhydrogen peroxide to generate hydroxyl radicals, which can be detected by erthrocytesedimentation rate(ESR) and high performance liquid chromatography(HPLC) [3].CHROMIUM DEFICIENCY AND DISEASESChromium deficiency is a wide spread problem. Many people such as athletes, diabetics,pregnant women, and the elderly are especially at risk of chromium deficiency leading∗ The invited author (and primary author) of this chapter.The Nutritional Biochemistry of Chromium(III)John B. Vincent (Editor)ISBN: 0-444-53071-1© 2007 Elsevier B.V.All rights reserved.
184 S. Zafra-Stone et al.to impaired insulin function, inhibition of protein synthesis and energy production, andto type 2 diabetes and heart disease [4]. Numerous studies have shown that a strongassociation exists between chromium deficiency, high blood insulin, and elevated bloodcholesterol levels. In rats, chromium deficiency has been shown to increase serumcholesterol levels and formation of aortic plaques [4]. However, adding chromium to thediet prevented both the formation of aortic plaques and the rise of serum cholesterol [2].Further, chromium losses are found in diets with large quantities of refined foods,especially simple sugars, which exacerbates the problem since these foods are not onlylow in chromium but also increase losses of chromium through the urine. Severalexperiments in animals have also demonstrated that high sucrose, chromium deficientdiets potentially cause severe atherosclerosis. Additional forms of chromium loss arefound during long periods of stress such as pregnancy, infection, physical trauma, andstrenuous exercise. Exercise has been shown to induce chromium loss in athletes andlead to chromium deficiency resulting in impaired insulin function [5].DIETARY SOURCES OF BENEFICIAL CHROMIUMSignificant dietary sources of trivalent chromium are available in various food sourcessuch as whole-grain products, high-bran breakfast cereals, egg yolks, coffee, nuts,green beans, broccoli, meat, Brewers’ yeast, and selected brands of beer and wine.Chromium is also found in many mineral or multivitamin supplements. According tothe National Research Council (NRC), the Estimated Safe and Adequate Daily DietaryIntake (ESADDI) for trivalent chromium is 50–200 g/day, corresponding to 0.83–3.33 g/kg/day for an adult weighing 60 kg [6]. The Food and Drug Administration(FDA) has selected a Reference Daily Intake (RDI) of 120 g/day for chromium. However,normal dietary intake of chromium for adults may be less than optimal. Recentreports demonstrate that the normal US adult chromium dietary intake is less than50 g/day, resulting in approximately 0.4% chromium absorption. Results from one studyindicated that daily chromium intakes for men and women in the US were 33 and 25 g,respectively [7]. Fortunately, trivalent chromium significantly influences bioavailability.At a dose of 1000 g/day absorption of chromium from chromium chloride (CrCl 3 )is∼0.4%, whereas that from chromium picolinate may be as high as 2.8%. Once absorbed,chromium is distributed widely in the body, with the highest levels being found in thekidney, liver, spleen, and bone [8].TRIVALENT CHROMIUM, ABSORPTION, AND BIOAVAILABILITYSeveral Cr(III) organic complexes have shown to have significantly high absorptionpotential and tissue incorporation activity. Nutritional research on trivalent chromiumhas primarily focused on Cr(III) complexes with organic acids, including nicotinic acidor niacin and picolinic acid as well as chromium amino acid chelates. Current methodsused for assaying chromium by atomic absorption spectrometry utilize graphite furnaceor neutron activation, which are sufficiently sensitive and specific to evaluate chromiumlevels in blood, urine, or hair [9].
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The Nutritional Biochemistryof Chro
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The NutritionalBiochemistry ofChrom
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Table of ContentsPrefaceContributor
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PrefaceThe manufacture and sale of
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Prefaceixdiscuss the implications o
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ContributorsD. BagchiInterHealth Re
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Chapter 1Introduction: A history of
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Introduction: A history of chromium
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Part IChromium as a nutrient and nu
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Chapter 2Basis for dietary recommen
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46 Barbara J. Stoeckerof supplement
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48 Barbara J. StoeckerREPORTED CHRO
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50 Barbara J. Stoeckerhigh fiber di
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52 Barbara J. StoeckerEFFECTS OF ME
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54 Barbara J. Stoecker[26] Mohameds
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58 Diane M. Stearnsabout his intell
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60 Diane M. StearnsMertz and cowork
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62 Diane M. StearnsCr 6+ or Cr 3+ r
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64 Diane M. Stearnsdiabetes [68-71]
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66 Diane M. Stearns[4] Boynton, H.,
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68 Diane M. Stearns[49] Vincent, J.
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70 Diane M. Stearns[89] Snow, E. T.
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72 Henry C. LukaskiThis chapter cri
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74 Henry C. Lukaski(1.8% vs 0.9 kg)
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76 Henry C. Lukaskiexercise. These
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78 Henry C. Lukaskiits putative rol
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Table 1Effects of chromium (Cr) sup
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82 Henry C. LukaskiSOME RESOLUTION
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84 Henry C. Lukaski[27] Lefavi, R.
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86 Merlin D. LindemannThe feed indu
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88 Merlin D. LindemannSWINEIntroduc
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90 Merlin D. Lindemannstudy [19], a
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92 Merlin D. Lindemann(VT) [13] cor
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94 Merlin D. LindemannEffects on ca
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96 Merlin D. LindemannTable 3Effect
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98 Merlin D. Lindemanninsulin [13];
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100 Merlin D. Lindemannno observed
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102 Merlin D. LindemannChromium for
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104 Merlin D. LindemannA dose-respo
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106 Merlin D. LindemannTable 5Effec
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108 Merlin D. LindemannSHEEPIntrodu
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110 Merlin D. Lindemannwere not sta
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112 Merlin D. Lindemann[6] National
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114 Merlin D. Lindemann[41] Gundel,
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116 Merlin D. Lindemann[75] Kegley,
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118 Merlin D. Lindemann[113] Xianli
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122 Weiyue FengTable 1Absorption of
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124 Weiyue Fengto transferrin and t
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126 Weiyue FengKd = [Cr 51 in LMWCr
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128 Weiyue Fengdistribution in anim
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130 Weiyue FengEXCRETIONAbsorbed ch
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Page 239 and 240: 226 Aviva Levina et al.FORMATION AN
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234 Aviva Levina et al.of Cr(III) c
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236 Aviva Levina et al.a preconcept
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238 Aviva Levina et al.oxo-carboxyl
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240 Aviva Levina et al.radicals 17,
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242 Aviva Levina et al.(formed in t
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244 Aviva Levina et al.improve gluc
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246 Aviva Levina et al.The oxidativ
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248 Aviva Levina et al.[31] Levina,
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250 Aviva Levina et al.[69] Weeks,
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252 Aviva Levina et al.[105] Stearn
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254 Aviva Levina et al.[140] Zhang,
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256 Aviva Levina et al.[178] Wongse
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258 Qingdong Ke and Max CostaAlthou
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260 Qingdong Ke and Max Costafound
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262 Qingdong Ke and Max Costa[9] Zh
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266 Forrest H. Nielsenprogram [7].
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268 Forrest H. NielsenThe assumed c
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270 Forrest H. Nielsenevidence exis
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272 Forrest H. Nielsenthe pharmacol
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274 Forrest H. NielsenA single acut
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276 Forrest H. Nielsen[5] Jeejeebho
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278 IndexChromium intakes in pregna
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