The Nutritional Biochemistry of Chromium(III) - Survival-training.info

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Chapter 1Introduction: A history of chromium studies (1955–1995)John B. Vincent ∗ and Dontarie StallingsDepartment of Chemistry and Coalition for Biomolecular Products, The University ofAlabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487-0336INTRODUCTIONWhile the fiftieth anniversary of the proposal that chromium (as the trivalent ion) is anessential trace element for mammals is rapidly approaching, little progress has actuallybeen made in establishing the nutritional requirement for and biochemistry of chromiumover these five decades. This is in stark contrast to the advances in knowledge of thenutritional role and biochemistry of other essential trace elements. The transition metalsin the third row of the Periodic Table from vanadium to zinc (V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni,Cu, and Zn) and also molybdenum and tungsten are generally considered to be essentialfor some form of life. Currently, for each of these transition elements except chromium,at least one metallobiomolecule has been well characterized in terms of its function,three-dimensional structure, and mode of action. In fact, whether chromium is essentialhas been questioned since it was first proposed to be essential over four decades ago;the question of essentialness is still debated openly (see Chapters 2 and 3). Certainlythat such a basic question still remains unanswered is problematic.The field of chromium nutrition and chromium biochemistry has had a problematicpast. The purpose of this review is to lay out this past carefully with all of its skeletonsexposed. Only from this starting point can the advances presented in the followingchapters be put into a clearer perspective with the hope that answers to the many basicquestions will soon appear. Five years ago one of the authors wrote a major reviewof the field of chromium biochemistry which appeared in Polyhedron [1]; this chapterrepresents a reappraisal of the field with 5 years of hindsight, including some appreciablere-evaluation of some key issues.∗ The invited author (and primary author) of the chapter.The Nutritional Biochemistry of Chromium(III)John B. Vincent (Editor)ISBN: 0-444-53071-1© 2007 Elsevier B.V.All rights reserved.
2 John B. Vincent and Dontarie StallingsCHROMIUM(III)The form of chromium proposed to be biologically important is the trivalent ion,Cr 3+ . The coordination chemistry of this ion is part of the problem in characterizingchromium-containing species in a biological environment. Cr 3+ possesses a d 3 electronconfiguration and almost exclusively octahedral coordination. The cation is a hard acidand generally binds oxygen-based ligands, although nitrogen-based ligands are alsocommon. With its three 3d electrons in half-occupied t 2 g orbitals in an octahedralenvironment, its complexes are generally substitutionally inert, making a role for theion in catalysis most unlikely and potential roles in biological systems probably limitedto maintaining structural conformations. In aqueous solution with the type of ligandslikely to be found in a biological environment (e.g., oxygen-based species such ascarboxylates and phosphates), chromic complexes are usually electrochemically inactive.The electronic spectra of chromic complexes are usually devoid of intense features suchas charge-transfer bands; this prevents application of resonance Raman spectroscopyas a useful characterization tool. The visible spectra of its octahedral complexes aredominated by two bands, arising from d–d transitions, with extinction coefficients of10 2 or less; the complexes of complexes with oxygen-based ligands are generally greenor violet, depending on the relative intensity of the two bands. The paramagnetic natureof the spin 3/2 center makes nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) studies problematic. Infact, the three-dimensional structure is generally required to interpret the NMR spectraof Cr(III) complexes, rather than NMR being a useful aid in structural characterization.An appropriate source for use in Mossbauer spectroscopy of chromium does not exist.Thus, these common bioinorganic probes are of limited utility. Chromium levels intissues and biological fluids are extremely low, generally within an order of magnitudeof the detection limits of current analytical techniques, which was a major factor limitingstudies of Cr in tissue and body fluids prior to 1980 (vide infra).THE GLUCOSE TOLERANCE FACTOR (GTF) STORYThe identification of GTFThe field of chromium biochemistry started in 1955 when Mertz and Schwarz fedrats a Torula yeast-based diet which resulted in the rats apparently developing impairedglucose tolerance in response to an intravenous glucose load (in addition to previouslyidentified necrotic liver degeneration) [2]. Shortly thereafter a dietary factor (selenium)was discovered which could reverse the liver disorder but not the glucose intolerance;thus, the authors believed they had identified a new dietary requirement absent from theTorula yeast-based diet and responsible for the glucose intolerance, which they coinedglucose tolerance factor or GTF [3].These researchers [4] followed their report in 1959 by identifying the activeingredient of “GTF” as Cr 3+ . Inorganic compounds containing Li, Be, B, F, Ti, V,Mn, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ge, As, Se, Br, Rb, Sr, Y, Zr, Mo, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, Sn,Sb, I, Cs, Ba, La, Ce, Ta, W, Os, Ir, Au, Hg, Tl, Bi, Th, and U (200–500 g/kg bodymass) could not restore glucose tolerance, while several inorganic Cr(III) complexes(200 g Cr/kg body mass) restored glucose tolerance from a ≤2.8% per minute rate of
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Page 6 and 7: Table of ContentsPrefaceContributor
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52 Barbara J. StoeckerEFFECTS OF ME
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54 Barbara J. Stoecker[26] Mohameds
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58 Diane M. Stearnsabout his intell
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60 Diane M. StearnsMertz and cowork
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62 Diane M. StearnsCr 6+ or Cr 3+ r
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64 Diane M. Stearnsdiabetes [68-71]
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66 Diane M. Stearns[4] Boynton, H.,
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68 Diane M. Stearns[49] Vincent, J.
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70 Diane M. Stearns[89] Snow, E. T.
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72 Henry C. LukaskiThis chapter cri
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74 Henry C. Lukaski(1.8% vs 0.9 kg)
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76 Henry C. Lukaskiexercise. These
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78 Henry C. Lukaskiits putative rol
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Table 1Effects of chromium (Cr) sup
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82 Henry C. LukaskiSOME RESOLUTION
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84 Henry C. Lukaski[27] Lefavi, R.
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86 Merlin D. LindemannThe feed indu
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88 Merlin D. LindemannSWINEIntroduc
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90 Merlin D. Lindemannstudy [19], a
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92 Merlin D. Lindemann(VT) [13] cor
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94 Merlin D. LindemannEffects on ca
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96 Merlin D. LindemannTable 3Effect
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98 Merlin D. Lindemanninsulin [13];
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100 Merlin D. Lindemannno observed
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102 Merlin D. LindemannChromium for
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104 Merlin D. LindemannA dose-respo
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106 Merlin D. LindemannTable 5Effec
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108 Merlin D. LindemannSHEEPIntrodu
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110 Merlin D. Lindemannwere not sta
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112 Merlin D. Lindemann[6] National
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114 Merlin D. Lindemann[41] Gundel,
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116 Merlin D. Lindemann[75] Kegley,
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118 Merlin D. Lindemann[113] Xianli
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122 Weiyue FengTable 1Absorption of
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124 Weiyue Fengto transferrin and t
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126 Weiyue FengKd = [Cr 51 in LMWCr
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128 Weiyue Fengdistribution in anim
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130 Weiyue FengEXCRETIONAbsorbed ch
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132 Weiyue FengApochromodulinApochr
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134 Weiyue Feng[7] Gargas, M. L., N
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136 Weiyue Feng[48] Vincent, J. B.
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Table 1(Continued)ReferenceStudytyp
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168 William T. Cefalu160Fasting ins
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170 William T. Cefalurisk factors f
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172 William T. CefaluMeta-analysis
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174 William T. CefaluMinority ethni
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176 William T. Cefalurelate to insu
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178 William T. Cefalu[24] Jovanovic
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180 William T. Cefalu[60] Ford, E.
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206 S. Zafra-Stone et al.[66] Pasma
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212 Diane M. StearnsConference on H
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214 Diane M. StearnsTHE IN VITRO MO
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218 Diane M. Stearnsmutant colonies
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220 Diane M. Stearns[15] Bright, P.
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222 Diane M. Stearns[58] Gee, P., M
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224 Diane M. Stearns[96] Parand, A.
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228 Aviva Levina et al.PhagocytesO
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234 Aviva Levina et al.of Cr(III) c
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238 Aviva Levina et al.oxo-carboxyl
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248 Aviva Levina et al.[31] Levina,
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250 Aviva Levina et al.[69] Weeks,
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252 Aviva Levina et al.[105] Stearn
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254 Aviva Levina et al.[140] Zhang,
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256 Aviva Levina et al.[178] Wongse
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258 Qingdong Ke and Max CostaAlthou
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260 Qingdong Ke and Max Costafound
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262 Qingdong Ke and Max Costa[9] Zh
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266 Forrest H. Nielsenprogram [7].
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268 Forrest H. NielsenThe assumed c
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270 Forrest H. Nielsenevidence exis
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274 Forrest H. NielsenA single acut
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276 Forrest H. Nielsen[5] Jeejeebho
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278 IndexChromium intakes in pregna
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