a comparative analysis of the lexical items translation/tradução and ...

UNIVERSIDADE FEDERAL DE SANTA CATARINAGRADUAÇÃO EM LETRAS/INGLÊS E LITERATURA CORRESPONDENTEA COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE LEXICAL ITEMS TRANSLATION/TRADUÇÃOAND TRANSLATOR/TRADUTOR IN A BILINGUAL CORPUS: PARATEXTS ANDINTRODUCTIONS OF ACADEMIC BOOKS ON TRANSLATION STUDIES IN BRAZILEDELWEISS VITOL GYSELTrabalho de conclusão de curso submetido à Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina emcumprimento parcial dos requisitos para obtenção do grau deBACHAREL EM LETRASFlorianópolisNovember, 2009

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSI am truly thankful to all the special people who were at my side helping me directlyor indirectly throughout my undergraduate years.First I would like to thank my advisor Prof. Dr Maria Lúcia Vasconcellos forbelieving in me. Her guidance and wise decisions were crucial for this work.I sincerely thank my co- advisor Prof. Lilian J. Fleuri for her irreplaceable presenceduring the final months. Her knowledge, creative ideas, and objective view inspired me andmade this monograph come true.A special thank to Phd. José Luiz Meurer (In Memoriam) who, with his greatknowledge, taught me the first steps in Systemic Functional Linguistics.I also thank the member of the examination board, MSc. Elaine Espindola, foraccepting my invitation.I thank my friend Rafael Matielo for your support and laughs. He made the difficulttimes seem much easier.I thank my friends Fernanda, Eliane, Karen and Mari. I thank them for being therewhenever I needed and for the precious moments we had together.I really thank my dad Arnaldo and my mom Nancy for making me one of theirpriorities. Their emotional, psychological, spiritual, and practical support were essential. Momand dad, you are the best parents ever!I also thank my brother Leonardo for all his practical support helping me when Ineeded, and my sister Leila for all the encouragement she always gave me.I thank my kids Philipp and Matteo - the sunshine of my life!Special thanks to my other half and the love of my life Lukas. Lukas, I don‘t knowwhat I would do if I didn‘t have you. I love you forever!And last but not least I want to thank God, my holy father, for the strength when timeswere difficult but also for the joy of accomplishing these years of study.3

ABSTRACTA COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE LEXICAL ITEMS TRANSLATION/TRADUÇÃOAND TRANSLATOR/TRADUTOR IN BILINGUAL CORPUS: PARATEXTS ANDINTRODUCTIONS OF ACADEMIC BOOKS ON TRANSLATION STUDIES IN BRAZILEDELWEISS VITOL GYSELUNIVERSIDADE FEDERAL DE SANTA CATARINA2009Supervising Professor: Maria Lúcia VasconcellosCo-advisor: Lilian J. FleuriAbstract: This study is carried out at the interface among Systemic Functional Linguistics(SFL), which sees language as a modeling system of realities. Working at the interfacebetween SFL, Translation Studies (TS) and Corpus Based Methodologies and aims atanalyzing excerpts of the combined corpus consisting of the introductions to TranslatorsThrough History, Scandals of Translation, Becoming a Translator, Contemporary TranslationTheories, and After Babel (hereafter textualizations), their translations into BrazilianPortuguese, Os Tradutores na História, Escândalos da Tradução, Construindo o Tradutor,Teorias Contemporâneas da Tradução, e Depois de Babel (hereafter retextualizations), andtheir paratexts in English and in Brazilian Portuguese. This study focuses on the clause as theunit of analysis and looks at the Ideational profile of the Participants selected for analysis,namely translation/tradução and translator/tradutor in both textualizations andretextualizations, with a view to identifying emerging patterns in the texts and paratexts. Theresults show that translation is more frequently construed as a Participant being impacted byan action in Material Processes and translator as Actor in the same kind of Process in thetextualization, which construes a representation associated to Material Processes of doing,creating, and transforming and the active role of ‗translator‘ in the source context. Traduçãois more frequently construed as a Participant also being impacted by an action, not only inMaterial Processes but also in Relational Processes and tradutor is more frequently construedas an active Participant in Material and Relational Processes in the retextualization. Theconfiguration emerging from the analysis shows that the translator’s identification is asimportant as his actions and has an impact upon his environment, as manifested in theretextualization.Keywords: text analysis and translation; representation of ‗translation/tradução‘ and‗translator/tradutor‘; combined corpus.Nº of pages: 49Nº of words: 11.8824

RESUMOANALISE COMPARATIVA DOS ÍTENS LEXICAIS TRANSLATION/TRADUÇÃO ETRANSLATOR/TRADUTOR EM CORPUS BILINGUE: PARATEXTOS E INTRODUÇÕESDE LIVROS ACADÊMICOS NA ÁREA DE ESTUDOS DA TRADUÇÃO NO BRASILEDELWEISS VITOL GYSELUNIVERSIDADE FEDERAL DE SANTA CATARINA2009Professora Orientadora: Maria Lúcia VasconcellosCo-orientadora: Lilian J. FleuriResumo: Este estudo se insere na interface entre a Lingüística Sistêmico-Funcional (SFL) -que vê a língua como um sistema semiótico, modelador de realidades - Estudos da Tradução(TS) e as metodologias dos Estudos Baseados em Corpus, e tem como objetivo a análise deexertos do corpus combinado constituído de Translators Through History, Scandals ofTranslation, Becoming a Translator, Contemporary Translation Theories, e After Babel esuas respectivas traduções para o português brasileiro (PB), Os Tradutores na História,Escândalos da Tradução, Construindo o Tradutor, Teorias Contemporâneas da Tradução, eDepois de Babel. Este estudo tem como foco a oração como unidade de análise e examina,por meio das categorias do Sistema da Transitividade, em seu componente experiencial, oPerfil Ideacional construído para os Participantes selecionados para análise―translation/tradução‖ e "translator/tradutor" nos textos e paratextos, com vistas a identificaros padrões emergentes nas textualizações (textos em inglês) e nas retextualizações (textos emportuguês brasileiro) e os novos significados construídos no processo de retextualização. Apesquisa evidenciou que há maior frequência de translation como Participante sendoimpactado por uma ação em Processos Materiais, e de translator como Ator nesse mesmo tipode Processo nas textualizações, os quais constroem uma representação vinculada a ProcessosMateriais de fazer, transformar e agir num papel ativo do tradutor no contexto de saida. Nasretextualizações, tradução é mais frequente como Participante também sendo impactado poruma ação não só nos Processos Materiais mas também Relacionais. A configuraçãoemergente da análise evidencia que a identificação do tradutor na representação no contextode chegada é tão importante como sua ação e seu impacto sobre seu meio .Palavras-chave: análise textual e tradução; representação de ‗translation/tradução‘ e‗translator/tradutor‘; corpus combinado.Nº de páginas: 49Nº de palavras: 11.8825

TABLE OF CONTENTS1. Introduction 112. Theoretical Framework 152.1 The concept of Text Analysis and Translation 162.2 Corpus Based Studies 182.3 Systemic Functional Linguistics 192.4. The Clause as the unit of analysis 203. Methodology 243.1 Data Source 243.2 Procedures for aligning the data 253.3 Analytical Procedures 264. Data Analysis and Discussion of the Findings 264.1. Analysis of the Data 264.2. Back Covers‘ and Introductions Analyses Translators throughHistory/ Os Tradutores na História 284.3. Back Covers‘ and Introductions Analyses Scandals of Translation/Escândalos da Tradução 304.4. Back Covers‘ and Introductions Analyses Becoming a Translator/Construindo o Tradutor 334.5. Back Covers‘ and Introductions Analyses ContemporaryTranslation Theories/ Teorias Contemporâneas da Tradução 364.6. Back Covers‘ and Introductions Analyses After Babel/Depois de Babel 384.7. Discussions of the Findings 395. Conclusions 405.1 Final Remarks 405.2 Limitations of the Study 465.3 Suggestions for further Research 476. References 476

LIST OF FIGURESFIGURE 1: Areas in Translation Research. (WILLIAMS, J. & CHESTERMAN, A., 2002, p. 6-8)FIGURE 2: Theoretical and methodological framework: exploring interfaces among complementaryparadigms (Fleuri; Pagano e Vasconcellos, 2009, forthcoming)FIGURE 3: The Transitivity System (Halliday, 1994, p. 108)7

LIST OF TABLESTable 1: Typological Classification of the Parallel Corpus under StudyTable 2: Examples of different Process typesTable 3: The five titles in English and in PortugueseTable 4: Types of Participants, Processes, and CircumstancesTable 5: Clauses containing the lexical item ―translator/tradutor‖ in the English and Portuguese backcovers of Translators through History/ Os Tradutores na HistóriaTable 6: Textualization (translation and translator) and retextualization (tradução e tradutor) ofTranslators through History/ Os Tradutores na HistóriaTable 7: Clauses containing the lexical items ―translation/tradução‖ and ―translator/tradutor‖ in theEnglish and Portuguese back covers of Scandals of Translation/ Escândalos da TraduçãoTable 8: Types of Processes in textualization (translation and translator) and retextualization (traduçãoe tradutor) of Scandals of Translation/ Escândalos da TraduçãoTable 9: Textualization (translation and translator) and retextualization (tradução and tradutor) ofScandals of Translation/ Escândalos da TraduçãoTable 10: Clauses containing the lexical items ―translation/tradução‖ and ―translator/tradutor‖ in thetextualization and retextualization of Becoming a Translator/ Construindo o TradutorTable 11: Textualization (translation and translator) and retextualization ( tradução e tradutor) ofBecoming a Translator/ Construindo o TradutorTable 12: Textualization (translation and translator) and retextualization (tradução and tradutor) ofBecoming a Translator/ Construindo o TradutorTable 13: Textualization (translation and translator) and retextualization (tradução e tradutor) ofContemporary Translation Theories/ Teorias Contemporâneas da TraduçãoTable 14: Textualization (translation and translator) and retextualization (tradução e tradutor) of AfterBabel/ Depois de BabelTable 15: Results of the findings regarding the differences between textualization and retextualizationof all five books.8

1. INTRODUCTIONMan acts as if he were the shaper and master of language,while it is language which remains mistress of man.Martin Heidegger, 1954In times of globalization 1not only the importance but also the performance oftranslation has become the focus of debates and theories around the world: Authors such asLawrence Venutti (1998), Jean Delisle (1995), and Edwin Gentzler (2001) raise relevantissues regarding translation and the act of translating. Difficulties and doubts are evidencedand shared; therefore strategies and solutions are being elaborated for the problems emergingin the field of Translation Studies, which, as an established academic field, has, in recentyears, acquired visibility as regards its influence in every space where languages and culturesare in contact. As an undergraduate English student and translator, my interest in this areamotivated this specific subject of analysis.The present project is part of the undergraduate completion requirements atLetras/UFSC. It is affiliated with Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais – UFMG, andUniversidade Federal de Santa Catarina – UFSC, being a part of the project developed by myadvisor, Prof. Maria Lucia B. de Vasconcelos 2 , within the context of a joint project betweenthe two universities.The topic I chose for my monograph is concerned with Translation Studies as anestablished area of investigation and is linked to what researchers in Brazil (cf. Grupo dePesquisas – CNPq) call ―Abordagens Textuais da tradução‖ [Textual approaches to1 The term ―globalization‖ is mentioned here as Ashcroft, Griffiths, and Tiffin (2007) define: ―Globalization isthe process of the world becoming a single place.‖ As Pym (2003) completes: ―Globalization as an economicprocess with certain consequences for the social role of translation.‖ And explained by Vasconcellos (2004), ―Afocus on globalization is a promising route to the reflection on issues of asymmetries, difference and identity intranslation.‖2 Project number 348a22e459f5d30e83257503, called „Abordagens Textuais aos Estudos da Tradução‖,coordinated by Profs. Maria Lucia Barbosa de Vasconcelos and Célia Maria Magalhães.11

Translation], and is described on the site of X ENTRAD – X ENCONTRO NACIONAL DETRADUTORES [http://www.iti.org.uk/ice/uploadedFiles/730_10 ENTRAD] as follows:In providing translation researchers with a ‗map‘ or ‗point of orientation‘ totranslation studies, Williams and Chesterman (2002) list ‗translation and textanalysis‘ as one of the twelve research subareas of the discipline. This subareaencompasses source text analysis, comparison of translations and source texts,comparison of translated and non-translated texts and annotated translation, allof them interfacing with some form of contrastive text analysis and contrastivestylistics. In this vein, Textual approaches to translation (TAT) concentratesresearch attention on the investigation of meaning as manifested in thelanguage of translation. It thus sides with Malmkjaer‘s (2005, see back cover)perspective in which ‗meaning is seen as a temporary relationship betweenparticipants in language events and translation as a creative activity thatcontributes to such events‘. In addition, TAT is interested in research thatreflects upon textual models of language in their approach to translation. Thespecific theory of language it draws upon is Systemic functional Linguistics(SFL), as proposed by Halliday since the late sixties ―(...) a point of contact, acrossroads, or a ‗third place‘, where different social practices meet in theshaping of oral or written exchanges‘ (2007, p. 141). The contribution ofcorpus based translation studies to TAT - Textual Approaches to Translation -is also taken into account since corpus methodologies researches to access alarge amount of data which in turn make the relations of languages in use – asinstantiated in texts standing in a translation relationship – visible.In this sense, my study will be placed within Williams and Chesterman‘s (2002)second research sub area: ―comparison of translations and their source texts‖; in a secondmoment, an investigation will be undertaken with a view to observing whether or not theintroductory sections of the specific books confirm what their particular paratexts 3havepromised, in terms of representations of both ―translation/tradução‖ and ―translator/tradutor‖.All these steps will be performed with the aid of Corpus Based Methodologies and thecategories for analysis provided by Systemic Functional Linguistics.Although interlingual translation 4exists since mankind noticed difficulties incommunicating because of language diversity, Translation Studies as an independent area of3 ―Paratext‖, meaning what Genette (1982, p.10) proposes: they are extra textual elements such as titles,subheadings, epilogues, inscriptions, prologues, book covers, back covers, introductions, editorial notes,appendices, publicity, synopsis, bibliographical and legal information, or any other sign that relate to the textwhich it belongs to.4 The term interlingual translation is used here in the sense proposed by Jakobson (1959) and it refers to the―interpretation of verbal signs by means of some other language.‖ (p. 233).12

Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) can be such a theory because it has a semanticorientation, presents no dissociation of grammar and meaning, seeks to consider, and identifythe role of the various linguistic items in any text in terms of their function in buildingmeaning, particularly in terms of what the linguistic items represent and how they represent it,as Davidse (1992) explains. The research problem this study looks at is how some linguisticitems in translation theory in translation can be described, with a view to understanding howparticular lexical entities are represented in translation theories translated into the Braziliancontext.In this context, the present research uses categories of SFL – particularly thoseof the system realizing the ideational function of language – the Transitivity System - in theanalysis of re-representations of two specific lexical entities – central to theorizing in TS -―translator‖ or ―translation‖, by looking at the clauses in which they are realized, both in theST and at the TT. It is argued here that this analysis may yield relevant informationconcerning the status of the discipline itself, as embodied in the lexical items at issue.According to previous researches and studies based in the interface betweenTranslation Studies, SFL, and Corpus Based Methodologies, Fleuri (2006) agrees that SFLand TS based on Corpus methodologies are perspectives that complement each other in thedescription of ST‘s and their translations. Therefore, these perspectives will be used in theanalysis of the data to be collected for the study, described in section 3.2. entitled ―AnalyticalProcedures‖, part of the Method section .My monograph is organized in five chapters: (1) the present introductory chapter; (2)the Theoretical Framework informing the analysis with a view to reviewing relevant researchthat has investigated similar or correlated matters and establishing the contribution of thepresent research to the conversation in the area; (3) the Methods, in which is presented thesurvey of the corpus, composed by TS books produced in the period between 1998 and 2008translated into Brazilian Portuguese and where I describe the procedures used to analyse such14

corpus; (4) the Data Analysis and the discussion of the findings, where is developed acomparative analysis of the lexical items ―translator/tradutor‖ and ―translation/tradução‖ inthe paratexts 6and introductions of these books in order to see whether or not a patternemerges in the Ideational representations of the lexical items, both in the source and in thetarget texts, and to confirming or disconfirming whether the representation construed in theparatexts correspond to the body of the introductions to the books; and (5) the Final Results,where I answer the research questions raised in the introductory chapter.In the context of the objectives stated above, the following Research Questions (RQs)can be put forward:RQ 1 - What are the English titles of academic books in the field of TranslationStudies translated into Brazilian-Portuguese, between 1998 and 2009?RQ2 - What kind of information do their paratexts (back covers) contain both in theEnglish ST and the Portuguese TT?RQ3 – What ideational profile emerges concerning the words ―translator/tradutor‖ and―translation/tradução‖ in the paratexts introducing the books and in their introductions inEnglish and in Portuguese?RQ4 – In terms of content and through an SFL analysis, do the introductions fulfill, orat least relate to what the paratexts promise?.2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKThis chapter proposes (i) to locate the present work at the interface among the areas of―Text Analysis and Translation‖, ―Corpus Based Studies‖, and ―Systemic FunctionalLinguistics‖ with a focus on the Transitivity System realizing the Experiential component ofthe ideational Metafunction, and (ii) to provide a brief introduction to the definition of theclause as representation, as put forward by Halliday (cf. Halliday & Mathiessen, 2004). To doso, this chapter is subdivided into subsections, presented below.6 In this study, paratext means the textual information on the back covers of the analyzed books.15

2.1. The area of Text Analysis and Translation.Williams & Chesterman (2002) state in their book ―The Map‖ that one of the twelveareas in translation research is ―Text Analysis and Translation‖, which encompasses also thecomparison of translations and their source texts, where a comparison of a translation with itsoriginal is undertaken. In this research, a particular lexical item considered in its context istaken from the English source text, examined and compared to its corresponding word andcontext in the translation. Figure 1 below provides a visualization of the sub area:1. TextAnalysis andTranslationSource TextAnalysisComparison ofTranslationsand theirSource TextsComparison ofTranslationsand NontranslatedTextsTranslationwithCommentaryFIGURE 1: Areas in Translation Research. (WILLIAMS, J. & CHESTERMAN, A., 2002, p. 6-8)As Figure 1 shows, this area encompasses different types of text analysis;―Comparison of Translations and their source Texts‘ is selected for the present research. Forthe purposes of the comparison, the study focuses on the language of translation (viz.Malkjaer, 2005); the research is located at the interface among Translation Studies / SystemicFunctional Linguistics / Corpus-Based Translation Studies, already established in theBrazilian context (viz. Pagano & Vasconcellos, 2005 and Vasconcellos, 2009).Figure 2 below shows the interface at which the research is carried out:16

TRANSLATION STUDIESSystemicfunctionalLinguistics(SFL)ThisstudyCorpusBasedTranslationStudies (CBTS)Text Analysis and TranslationFIGURE 2: Theoretical and methodological framework: exploring interfaces amongcomplementary paradigms (Fleuri; Pagano e Vasconcellos, 2009, forthcoming)The theoretical basis of the text analysis carried out both for the source and target texts(referred to as ‗textualization‘ and ‗retextualization‘, respectively, in the context of SystemicFunctional Translation Studies) is the model of language and language description offered bySFL as proposed by Halliday (VIZ. Haliday & Matthiessen, 2004); the methodological basisis informed by the methodologies provided by Corpus-Based Translation Studies, along thelines suggested by Baker (1995) and Olohan (2004).Attention to the language of the translation is here manifested in the investigation ofsome particular lexical items, considered relevant for the purposes of the study in terms of therealities they represent: the lexical items ―translation/tradução‖ and ―translator/tradutor‖contained in the back covers and introductions of the following pair of books: ―Becoming aTranslator‖ and ―Construindo o Tradutor‖; ―Translators through History‖ and ―Tradutores naHistória‖; ―Scandals of Translation‖ and ―Escandalos da Tradução‖; ―After Babel‖ and―Depois de Babel‖; and finally ―Contemporary Translation Studies‖ and ―TeoriasContemporâneas da Tradução‖.17

2.2. Corpus Based Translation Studies (CBTS)The corpora of this study consist of all the five paratexts (back covers) andintroductions from the books at issue. According to Baker (1995), corpus has been defined inthree important ways:(i) it means primarily a collection of texts held in a machine-readable form and capable ofbeing analyzed automatically or semi-automatically in a variety of ways; (ii) a corpus is nolonger restricted to ―writings‖ but includes spoken as well as written text, and (iii) a corpusmay include a large number of texts from a variety of sources, by many writers and speakersand on a multitude of topics.This study concentrates mainly in the first and third ways, for all the texts aredigitalized and amenable to automatic or semi-automatic analysis (though in this particularstudy the analysis is carried out manually), 7 it also includes texts from a variety of sources(internet and books) written by different authors. Baker (ibid) also states that comparing thesecorpora may lead to the identification of patterns in the source texts, in the target texts andbetween them. In the light of Systemic Functional Linguistics, a comparison of these corporais undertaken in order to identify patterns between the paratexts and the introductions inEnglish and Portuguese and at last confirm if the Ideational representation of the analysedlexical items construed in the paratexts corresponds to their representation in the Introductionof the book.The corpus of this study can be partly classified (only the introductions) as small scaleparallel bilingual corpus according to the parameters put forward by Olohan (2004), Baker(1998), and Sinclair (2001). The definition of small scale parallel bilingual corpus, adoptedin my research, is compiled in Fleuri (2006). It is ―parallel‖ in that the textualization (sourcetext) is aligned with its retextualization for comparison purposes (Olohan, 2004); it is―bilingual‖ in that it involves the language pair English and Brazilian Portuguese (BP) (Baker,1995); it is defined as ―a small scale corpus‖, not only on the basis of the quantitative aspect,7 In the case of this particular study, corpus annotation was not carried out for two reasons: (i) the dimension ofthe corpus, which comfortably allowed for manual analysis; and (ii) lack of familiarity of the researcher withcomputational tools available for analysis – which are grounded in corpus annotation.18

ut also and mainly for its characteristics: it is designed and built by the researcher, afterdefining the objectives of the research, for the particular purposes of the investigation at hand(Sinclair, 2001), it is amenable to the so called ―Early Human Intervention‘ – EHI‘, in termsof manual analysis and (possible and potential) corpus annotation, as proposed by Sinclair(idem, ibdem).As regards the paratexts, the corpus consists of texts independently produced byEnglish and Brazilian publishers, therefore the Brazilian Portuguese texts can not beconsidered translations from the English texts. According to Vela e Hansen-Schirra (2006)this corpus (the paratexts) is considered a combined parallel-comparable corpus, which inspite of its complexity has been viewed as more productive for translation research purposes.Hansen (2002:20) applies the definition comparable and parallel corpus and describes twotypes of conbined corpus: the bilingual and the multilingual (more than two languages).Furthermore, Fernandes (2004) based on Atkins (1992), Baker (idem), and Zanettin(2000) offers an alternative categorization, visualized in the table below:Table 1: Typological Classification of the Parallel Corpus under StudyParallel CorpusCriterionNumber of languagesAttributeBilingual (ST: English; TT: Brazilian PortugueseTemporal Restriction Synchronic (1998 – 2009)DomainDirectionalitySpecialised (books on Translation Studies)Unidirectional (English into Brazilian Portuguese)According to this categorization, the corpus of this study can be described in thefollowing terms: it is ―synchronic‖ for it focuses on an object of study at one particular pointin time; it is a ―specialized corpus‖ because it looks into the language of specific translatedgenres or texts types; and it is ―unidirectional‖ when the direction functions in just onedirection, for instance, texts originally written in L1 and their respective translations in L2.19

2.3. Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL)Systemic Functional Linguistics is adopted in the context of Text Analysis andTranslation for its potentialities as a descriptive and interpretative framework, as pointed outby Eggins (2004):a very useful descriptive and interpretative framework for viewing language as a strategic,meaning-making resource, constituted by three main strands of meanings called metafunctions(ideational, interpersonal and textual. (3))This analysis will focus on the Experiential meaning, in which language is seen as asystem for modeling the ―content‖ of the text. Thompson (2004) explains that the experientialperspective of Systemic-Functional grammar allows us to recognize the ―content‖ of asentence through the observation of lexical entities as regards the way they behave, and howthey relate to each other. To this end, some functional labels are used in the analysis anddescription of clauses. The label ―Process‖ is used to identify the verb, the label ―Participant‖is used to name the subject and/or object and the label ―Circumstance‖ is used to determineadverbial groups and prepositional groups. This difference in the labeling system of SFL isnot a mere question of terminology, but of the theoretical underpinnings of the framework,which sees the elements of the clause in their functional roles, as opposed to the structural rolein traditional grammar analysis.Halliday (1968) defines Transitivity as follows:Transitivity is defined as relating to the experiential component of meaning (or ‗cognitive‘,this term is not really appropriate since all components involve a cognitive stratum); thediscussion has been confined to the expression of processes and the participants therein –syntactically, those functions having in general verbal and nominal realizations – although afull treatment of the experiential component in the syntax of the clause would take account ofother features, the expression of time and place and other adjuncts to and conditions on theprocess.The analysis starts with the recognition of the ―Process‖ for it will determine how theother parts will be labeled. There are three main categories of processes: the material(involving physical actions), the mental (something that goes on in the internal world of themind), and the relational (determines the existence of something). The other three minorcategories are: verbal (when someone says, tells, states, etc.), behavioral (very similar to20

mental, but involving perception), and existential (normally identified through the word―there‖. Based on this theoretical framework, the analysis of the data will be performed anddemonstrated.2.4. The Clause as the unit of analysisConsidering the clause as the minimum unit of analysis in Transitivity (Halliday,2004), I find it relevant to open this section defining the clause in accordance with acommonsensical definition presented by Collins Cobuild (1987):A clause is, in grammar, a structure which has one or more of the following elements: subject,verbal group, object, complement, adjunct. There are two types of clause, subordinate clausesand main clauses. A main clause can be used on its own as a sentence; a subordinate clause canonly be used with a main clause and is often introduced by a subordinating conjunction or asentence adverb.Although the meaning of a clause remains the same, in this study anothermetalanguage 8 is applied. In this case, as proposed by Halliday (2004), a clause is ascribed asa representation of experiences consisting of three metafunctional lines of meaning: Textual(the clause as a message), Interpersonal (the clause as exchange), and Experiential (the clauseas a representation). Matthissen (2001) says that:The clause is a strong candidate for the ―unit of analysis‖ in translations, detailedlexicogrammatical analysis of the source texts and corresponding target texts are an importantsource of insight for the study of translation within linguistics.According to Halliday and Matthiessen (2004, p. 59-60), the clause embodies in itsstructure three distinct kinds of meaning, expressed in the headings: ‗the clause as a message‘,‗the clause as an exchange‘ and ‗the clause as a representation‘. The total configuration offunctions embodied in the clause construes, or realizes the meaning. The same point is madeby Malmkjaer (2005), who talks of a unit of structure understood as ‗the locus for three typesof action performed by the manipulation of three linguistic systems, the systems of mood,theme and rheme, and transitivity‘ (p. 168). The author states that each system enables therealization of a clause function, as exchange, as message and as representation. This8 Metalanguage is used here under the definition of Cambridge Advanced Learner‘s Dictionary (2008): ―aspecialized form of language or set of symbols used when discussing or describing the structure of a language.‖21

functional approach to the clause leads Malmkjaer (ibid.) to refer to these functions as thedifferent parts of an orchestra working together to produce what she calls ‗the clausesymphony‖ (p. 168). However, as she points out (ibid.), it is possible to describe each of thelinguistic systems separately and to concentrate in the meanings each of them realizes.Along these lines, this study looks at a separate strand in the overall meaning of theclause – the clause as representation – which reflects in the grammar the experientialmetafunctional, responsible for construing a model of experience from the ‗goings-on‘ of theexternal or internal worlds. Experientially, the clause construes experience as a configurationof a process, participants involved in it and the circumstances associated with it. In the presentstudy, taking into account the fact that the clause represents an interpretation of reality, theinvestigative look concentrates on the way the entities ―translation/translator‖ are representedin each clause in which they are realized, in the experiential configuration mentioned above –that of a process, participants and circumstances.More specifically, this study analyses the lexical items ―translation/tradução‖ and―translator/tradutor‖ contained in the back covers and introductions of the following books:―Becoming a Translator‖ and ―Construindo o Tradutor‖, ―Translators through History‖ and―Tradutores na História‖, ―Scandals of Translation‖ and ―Escandalos da Tradução‖, ―AfterBabel‖ and ―Depois de Babel‖, and finally ―Contemporary Translation Studies‖ and ―TeoriasContemporâneas da Tradução‖ in terms of Transitivity, as described above, in the context ofTranslation Studies interfacing with Corpus Based Methodologies. Furthermore, I base part ofthe development of my study on the thesis by Zuniga (2006) and on the thesis by Fleuri(2006), who analyzed two of the books at issue in terms of Corpus Based Studies and SFL.According to Halliday and Matthissen (2004), ―the transitivity system construes theworld of experience into a manageable set of PROCESS TYPES.― This world of experiencerefers to a flow of events, which we capture from around us and construe clauses. Each ofthese clauses contain Processes and Participants. Figure 3 shows the Transitivity System.22

Types of ProcessesFIGURE 3: The Transitivity System (Halliday, 1994, p. 108)The Processes are classified in three major groups: as Material (Process of doing andcreating), Mental (Process of seeing, feeling, and thinking), and Relational (Process of being/having identity or attribute, or symbolizing). The three minor groups are Existential (Processof existing), Behavioural (Process of behaving), and Verbal (Process of saying). Each Processhas its respective Participant, namely, in Material Processes the Participant is the Actor; inMental Processes the Participant is the Senser; in Relational Processes the Participant is theCarrier (when having an attribute), or the Token (when having an identity); in ExistentialProcesses the Participant is the Existent; in Behavioural Processes the Participant is theBehaver; and in Verbal Processes the Participant is the Sayer. The following table shows thedifferent Process types.Table 2: Examples of different Process types.Process typeMaterialBehaviouralMentalVerbalRelationalExistentialExample ( Participants underlined; Process in bold; Circumstances in italics)The American translator worked closely with the Argentine writer.Translation lies deeply repressed in the cultural identities.I will be concerned with interlingual translation.We should like to Express our deepest gratitude.Translators are those ―lonely soldiers―.The greatest hindrances to translation exist outside the discipline itself.23

This chapter proposed to locate the present work at the interface among the areas of―Text Analysis and Translation‖, ―Corpus Based Studies‖, and ―Systemic FunctionalLinguistics‖ with a focus on the Transitivity System realizing the Experiential component ofthe ideational Metafunction, and to provide a brief introduction to the definition of the clauseas representation, as put forward by Halliday (cf. Halliday & Mathiessen, 2004). The nextchapter – Chapter 3 – Data Analysis – presents the theoretical and methodological apparatusat work by looking at the textualizations and their retextualizations selected for this research,with a focus on the units set apart for the study of the representation of ―translation/tradução‖and ―translator/tradutor‖ in the paratexts and introductions of academic books on TScirculating in the Brazilian Portuguese in Brazil.The next section describes how this research is carried out in terms of the steps andcriteria for data selection and the analytical procedures employed for the analysis of the fivebooks on Translation Studies with their respective translations.3. METHODOLOGYThe first step of the research was a survey of Translation Studies books and theirparatexts already defined in the introduction of this study. In this monograph, the paratext isthe textual information on the back covers of the books at issue. This information of the backcovers, both in English and Portuguese will be taken from various web pages of book shops,and from their English and Brazilian publishers respectively.3.1 Search Procedures: Methods for compiling the Data Source24

Method for carrying out the survey of titles, their respective translations and the backcover‘s information from the textualization and retextualization.1. Reading of bibliographical references in dissertations and thesis from CCE/UFSC:PGET graduation students, and those dissertations and thesis from CCE/UFSC: PGIgraduation students, which had the subject ―translation‖ as its main topic.2. Selection of Translation Studies titles and authors from the specific period of research(2000 – 2009).3. Search for author‘s names at Livraria Cultura‘s website (www.livrariacultura.com.br),foregrounding titles in Portuguese, once the aim is to find translated texts.4. Listing of the translated titles found.5. Search for their ―source-texts‖ in English.6. Browsing through the sites of the publishers of the translations analyzed in this study,in order to get extratextual information.7. Exchange of emails with the Brazilian publishers and with the foreign ones, whichpublished the translated texts and the source-texts respectively.8. Exchange of emails with the source-texts translators.9. Browsing through particular blogs focusing attention on translation theory with a viewto refining the search tools for translation theory titles translated into BrazilianPortuguese – according to the purposes of the present research; two blogs are selected:www.esttranslationstudies.org andwww.translation.utdallas.edu/aboutus/contactus.htmThis first part of the research yielded the following results:Five titles in English (Source Texts - STs / Textualizations) with their respective translations(Target Texts - TTs/Retextualizations):Table 3: The five titles in English and in PortugueseTranslators through HistoryScandals of TranslationBecoming a TranslatorContemporary Translation TheoriesAfter BabelTradutores na HistóriasEscândalos da TraduçãoConstruindo o TradutorTeorias Contemporâneas da TraduçãoDepois de Babel10. Search for the ST and TT‘s back cover‘s information at Livraria Cultura‘s website.11. Differences between the ST and TT‘s back cover‘s textual information could beconfirmed.12. Only the textual information on the back cover of Becoming a Translator was translatedinto the presentation of the book Construindo o Tradutor.13. Search in the Central Library at UFSC, at PPGI‘s library and at professors‘ privatelibraries.14. The following titles were found: After Babel, Depois de Babel, Teorias Contemporâneasda Tradução, and Os Escândalos da Tradução.15. The book Scandals of Translation was borrowed from PPGI‘s Library.16. The book Contemporary Translation Theories was borrowed from prof. Maria LuciaVasconcellos.25

17. The introductions from the books Translators through History and Os Tradutores naHistória were given by Lilian Fleuri, for she had previously worked with these texts.18. The introductions from Becoming a Translator and Construindo o Tradutor were givenby Gleimara Zuniga, for she had also previously worked with these texts.19. The introductions of Translators through History, Os Tradutores na História, Becominga Translator, and Construindo o Tradutor, were in Word format, prepared to beanalyzed.20. Before starting the analytical procedures, tables with contextual information from eachbook at issue were assembled from Livraria Cultura‘s webpage in order to contextualizethe information each one contained (see Appendix number 21 – 25).3.2 Procedures for aligning the data:1. All the clauses containing the words ―translation/tradução‖ and ―translator/tradutor‖were underlined in the texts.2. These clauses were copied manually, and put into tables.3. These tables were divided according to the type of Participants, Processes, andCircumstances of each clause.4. The analysis was undertaken as described in 3.3.5. The number of Participants and Processes was checked.6. Other tables were done with the aligned types of Processes and Participants of eachST‘s and TT‘s back cover‘s text and introduction.3.3 Analytical Procedures1. The analysis focused on the lexical items ―translation/tradução‖ and―translator/tradutor‖.2. All the clauses in the back covers and introductions containing these words as thenuclear Participant of the clause were isolated and analyzed manually.3. The categories of the transitivity system, which realize the experiential metafuncitonin SFL were applied.4. The Participants, Processes and Circumstances were labeled manually.5. The result was displayed in tabular form (see appendixes for the full picture), forinstance , , and containing the classification according to the nexttable.Table 4: Types of Participants, Processes, and Circumstances.Nuclear Participants Processes CircumstancesActor/Goal/Range/BeneficiarySenser/PhenomenonCarrier/AttributeToken/ValueSayer/ReceiverBehaverExistentMaterialMentalRelationalVerbalBehaviouralExistentialExtentLocationMannerCauseContingencyAccompanimentRoleMatterAngle26

6. After this analysis, a comparison between the English clauses and the Portuguese oneswas done.7. The aim of this comparison was structure patterns of difference in the ideationalprofile of the texts in translation relationship.8. The back cover‘s textual information of each book was compared with the informationin the introduction.9. The analysis focused on the extent to which the introductions really fulfilled theexpectations raised in the back cover‘s information, as regards the representation of―translation/translator‖.10. Finally, the information gathered in the analysis provided material for the reflectionsmade in the concluding section of the monograph.The following section will display the tables with the results of the analysis of the dataand disscuss the findings and results.4. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA AND DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS4.1 Analysis of the DataIt is important to state that the paratexts (defined in chapter 1), in this study, are thetextual information on back covers of the books at issue. This textual information exposes thesubject of the book, and therefore we assume that it should, at least, relate to the insidecontent of the book.The collected data is excerpted from these back covers and the introductions of thefollowing five books: Translators through History ( Deslile / Woodsworth, 1995), Scandals ofTranslation (Venuti, 1998), Becoming a Translator (Robinson, 1998), ContemporaryTranslation Theories (Gentzler, 2001), and After Babel (Steiner, 1975, 1° Ed.), and theircorrespondent retextualizations in Portuguese: Os Tradutores na História (trad. Bath, 2003),Escândalos da Tradução (trad. Pelegrin/ Villela/ Esquerda/ Biondo 2002), Construindo oTradutor (trad. Simões, 2002), Teorias Contemporâneas da Tradução (trad. Malvezzi, 2009),and Depois de Babel (trad. Pereira, 2005).The representation of the lexical items ―translation/tradução‖ and ―translator/tradutor‖are observed in the back covers, aiming at analyzing the representations of such Participants27

efore reading the introductions. In this monograph, such back covers not only contextualizethe reader about the studied corpus, but also provide previous analytical elements about theParticipants ―translation/translator‖, showing how these Participants are represented in thetextualization and retextualization even before the reading of the book.Concerning the introductions, the same lexical items are observed and analyzed but thefocus of the analysis is, at this point, to check if the representation of ―translation/tradução‖and ―translator/tradutor‖ correspond to the representation construed in the back covers. Thus,we can observe whether the previous construal of the Participant in the back coverscorrespond to its construal in the introductions. The back covers information analysis as theintroduction analysis are done manually (as showed in the appendices number 33-46),followed by the analysis‘ results, done in the same way.In this study I intend to analyze one book at the time observing the bilingual corpus ofthe back covers, followed by the introductions analysis and finally confronting the results ofthese two analyses.4.2. Back Covers’ and Introduction AnalysesTranslators through History/ Os Tradutores na História4.2.1 Back cover‘s analysisThe back cover‘s analysis (appendix number 31) from Translators through Historystarts with some stories of ancient translators, aiming at contextualizing the reader to wherethe history of translation began, therefore, not many occurrences of the words―translation/translator‖ happen. Only when the authors start to describe their purposes withthe book, clauses containing the words at issue are present.Different from the English back cover, the Portuguese one does not start with anarration about ancient translators; it is rather objective and points out the contributions whichtranslators have been giving to the field of translation. The lexical item ―tradutor‖ is, at first,represented as a Participant in a Mental Process being the one who creates alphabets; then28

eing the Participant in four Material Processes being the one who acts on activities related tothe translation task, therefore being an important and rather central figure in the field; andfinally, being the Participant in a Relational Process, here the authors highlight the roletranslators play within the area of Translation Studies. The table with both back covers‘information are displayed in the appendix number 26.After analysing the ocurrence of the lexical items ―translator/tradutor‖ in bothtextualization and retextualization, the Process and the involved Participants were countedand the number of occurence is displayed in Table 5.Table 5: Clauses containing the lexical item translators/tradutor in the English and Portuguese back coverof Translators through History/ Os Tradutores na História. (appendix 31 and 33)TYPES OFENGLISH Percentage PORTUGUESE PercentagePARTICIPANTSGOAL 1 100% 0 0%ACTOR 0 0% 3 50%SENSER 0 0% 1 17%TOKEN 0 0% 2 33%TOTAL 1 100% 6 100%Departing from the analysis of both back covers, we can conclude that, in the Englishtext, the representation of translators as a title of the book is mere information, the book itselfis personified being the one who will tell the story. The second occurrence puts translatorsinvolved in action as Goal in a Material Process, here the representation of the translatorbecomes more similar to its representation in the Portuguese text. Different from the Englishtext, the Portuguese one starts with a Mental Process followed by Relational and MaterialProcesses. The importance of the translator‘s actions is foregrounded, and his actions arecentral. And even in the end, when their role in the field of translation is showed, thetranslator himself is placed as Participant.It is very important to remember that both back covers can not be considered atranslation for their characteristics neither in their structure and content nor in theirrepresentations of the analyzed lexical items correspond. However, they point to a29

epresentation of ―translator/tradutor‖ from the inside content of the book. The ―translator‖ isexpected to be represented in the English book as Goal involved in a Material Processes andin the Portuguese book, as Actor, Senser and Token involved respectively in Material, Mentaland Relational Processes. The lexical item ―translation/tradução‖ was not analyzed because itappeared in the clauses as a modifier.4.2.2. Analysis of the IntroductionThe introduction of Os Tradutores na História is a parallel translation of Translatorsthrough History, therefore not many differences in the analysis were found. The textconcentrates in the role of the ―tradutor‖ and his acting in the translation area, as the analysisof its back cover showed. Comparing the introduction with the back cover we can perceivethat the Portuguese back cover follows more closely the patterns of the introduction than theEnglish one because in Portuguese the ―tradutor‖ is represented as an active participantmainly in Material, Mental and Relational Processes. Whereas in English the ―translator‖ isrepresented in other kinds of Processes, not only in Material ones.Table with the types of Participants in the analysis of the introductions follows.Table 6: Textualization (translation and translator) and retextualization (tradução e tradutor) ofTranslators through History/ Os Tradutores na História (appendix 32 and 34)TYPES OFTEXTUALIZATION Percentage RETEXTUALIZATION PercentagePARTICIPANTSSENSER 1 9% 1 10%CARRIER 1 9% 1 10%ACTOR 2 18% 2 20%TOKEN 2 18% 3 30%GOAL 1 9% 0 0%SAYER 1 9% 0 0%PHENOMENON 2 18% 2 20%RECEIVER 1 9% 1 10%TOTAL 11 100% 10 100%Table 6 shows a total of 11 Participants in the textualization and 10 in theretextualization as the result of the analysis. The four overriding Participants are: Actor,Token, and Phenomenon. Therefore, in both introductions (textualization and retextualization)the lexical items ―translator/tradutor‖ are mostly realized by Participants involved in30

SAYER (translator) 1 33% 0 0%PHENOMENON1 33% 0 0%(translation)TOTAL 3 100% 0 100%As already stated, the Portuguese text is not a translation from the English texttherefore they focus on different aspects. The author of the Portuguese version represents thelexical item ―tradução‖ as a Circumstance being looked at and being degraded. By doing so,he discusses the perspectives in which ―tradução‖ is being the location in a Relational Processwhere cultural elements are hidden.4.3.2 Introductions AnalysisIn this introduction, Venuti discusses through various Processes the identity and actionof ―translations/traduções―and ―translators/tradutores‖ in the present global scene. These twowords are represented throughout the introduction, most clauses contain them, and Venutiportraits ―translations/traduções ―and ―translators/tradutores‖ as Participants mostly involvedin Material Process, this means that the words at issue are very relevant to the topic.The table below states the types of Processes in which such lexical items are involved.Table 8: Types of Processes in textualization (translation and translator) and retextualization ( tradução etradutor) of Scandals of Translation/ Escândalos da Tradução (appendix 36 and 38)TYPES OFTEXTUALIZATION Percentage RETEXTUALIZATION PercentagePROCESSESMATERIAL 48 66% 50 66%MENTAL 10 14% 9 12%RELATIONAL 8 11% 10 13%VERBAL 5 7% 5 7%BEHAVIUORAL 1 1% 1 1%EXISTENTIAL 1 1% 1 1%TOTAL 73 100% 76 100%Most of the analyzed ocurrences in both the textualization and the retextualizationbelong to Material Processes, in which the words at issue appear as Actors. This shows that,in Venuti‘s point of view, ―translation/tradução― and ―translator/tradutor― play active roles in32

the field of Translation Studies. In order to confirm that, Table 9 shows the types ofParticipants.Table 9: Textualization (translation and translator) and retextualization (tradução and tradutor) ofScandals of Translation/ Escândalos da Tradução (appendix 36 and 38)TYPES OFTEXTUALIZATION Percentage RETEXTUALIZATION PercentagePARTICIPANTSACTOR 26 67% 26 64%SENSER 4 10% 4 10%SAYER 2 5% 2 5%TOKEN 5 12% 4 10%EXISTENT 1 3% 1 2%BEHAVER 1 3% 1 2%CARRIER 1 3% 3 7%TOTAL 39 100% 41 100%The patterns of the Types of Processes‘ table are confirmed in the previous table. Thismeans that the Material Processes are still the most recurrent, and that the words at issue, arerepresented as active Participants. In other words, the introduction of Escândalos daTradução projects the same light upon the roles that the lexical items ―tradução― and―tradutor― play in the Portuguese text and the English one. Comparing the choices made in theEnglish textualization and in the Portuguese retextualization, there is a very importantdifference to be pointed out: the retextualization represents the ―tradutor‖ twice as a Carrier,whereas the English text does not realize it in the same manner. It seems as the author of thePortuguese retaxtualization is more concerned in identifying the ―tradutor‖ in his explanation.After a detailed analysis of the English introduction, it becomes rather clear that itfulfills the profile that the paratext portrayed. The lexical items ―translation‖ and ―translator‖are involved in active Processes, where they are frequently Actors.From the Portuguese introduction and its back cover, we can conclude that, due to thefact that the back cover contains only one occurence of the lexical item ―tradução‖ it becomesdifficult to state if the introduction fulfills what the back cover promised. It is however clearthat in its only occurence is realized by a modifier, not representing a Participant itself.33

4.4. Back Covers’ and Introduction AnalysesBecoming a Translator/ Construindo o Tradutor4.4.1. Back cover‘s analysisThe Portuguese back cover from the book Becoming a Translator is the only one,from all the analyzed books, that although having the clauses rearranged, can be seen as aparallel translation from the English back cover. Therefore, both back covers are addressed astextualization (English version) and retextualization (Portuguese version). The full backcover‘s textual information from both books and their respective front covers are to be seen inthe Table in appendix number 28.Although the words ―translation‖ and ―translator‖ are central in the information onboth back covers, all the clauses containing the lexical items ―translation/translator‖ aremedifiers. Both textualization and retextualization introduce the author and present thevarious skills translators will acquire after reading the book. Through the ideational analysis,as the results below show, the profile of these words can be described in Table 10.Table 10: Clauses containing the lexical items “translation/tradução” and “translator/tradutor” in thetextualization and retextualization of Becoming a Translator/ Construindo o Tradutor (appendix 39 and 41)TYPES OFENGLISH Percentage PORTUGUESE PercentagePARTICIPANTSGOAL 0 0% 1 50%CARRIER 1 50% 0 0%BENEFICIARY 1 50% 1 50%TOTAL 2 100% 2 100%According to the textualization analysis, the lexical item ―translator‖ is presented intwo clauses. In the first, as part of a Relational Process being the Carrier, and in this case the―translator‖ has an Attribute, which are the practical skills he needs to accomplish his tasks. Inthe second clause he is represented as Goal in a Material Process. It is interesting to noticethat the lexical item ―translation‖ is part of a Material Process being represented as Goal inthe retextualization. As already mentioned, these are the only back covers that can be34

considered a parallel translation. But I have to point out that the sentences have beenrearranged, therefore some differences are to be signalized. The first clause in which the word―tradução―appears in the retextualization, is classified as a Material Process. In thetextualization ―translation‖ is Beneficiary, but in the retextualization it is the Participant Goal.The book in the position of Actor will integrate ―tradução―in order to benefit knowledge. Inthe second clause, we have a Relational Process and ―tradutores―are the Beneficiary, who willmake use of the book, which is analyzed as the Token, here the author is identifying the bookas useful. In both clauses the book is a Participant, first as Actor and then as Token. It iscurious that the information on the back cover is usually made to introduce a product which,in this case, is the book.4.4.2. Introductions AnalysisConcerning the content of the book, Zuniga (2006), a researcher who previouslyworked with the book, explains that:The book is designed for introductory undergraduate courses in the theory andpractice of translation. It provides information and advice to translators as how totranslate faster and more accurately as well as issues regarding job market work andethics. It also brings exercises and discussion topics for the teacher, being most ofthem related to Suggestopedia, defined by the author as ―accelerated learning, aimingat speeding the learning of both practice and theory. (34)In this sense, the ideational analysis was undertaken viewing the confirmation of suchstatement and the relation between the information on the back cover and content of the book.The table with the types of Processes found in the two books follows.Table 11: Textualization (translation and translator) and retextualization ( tradução e tradutor) ofBecoming a Translator/ Construindo o Tradutor (appendix 40 and 42)TYPES OFTEXTUALIZATION Percentage RETEXTUALIZATION PercentagePROCESSESMATERIAL 12 67% 7 70%MENTAL 6 33% 2 20%RELATIONAL 0 0% 1 10%TOTAL 18 100% 10 100%35

Regarding the types of Processes, we can assume that in both textualization andretextualization the Material Process constitutes more than 50% of the cases. This shows thatboth words ―translation/tradução― and ―translator/tradutor― play an active role, doing, creatingand influencing things and situations. As the title says, Becoming a Translator translated asConstruindo o Tradutor takes into account a great deal of actions and initiative.Consequently, the Processes which involve ―translation/tradução‖ and ―translator/tradutor‖confirm what the title promissed.occurences.In order to check the roles of the Participants the following table displays theTable 12: Textualization (translation and translator) and retextualization (tradução and tradutor) ofBecoming a Translator/ Construindo o Tradutor (appendix 40 and 42)TYPES OFTEXTUALIZATION Percentage RETEXTUALIZATION PercentagePARTICIPANTSACTOR 7 43% 4 50%SENSER 2 13% 1 12,5%CARRIER 0 0% 1 12,5%GOAL 3 19% 2 25%BENEFICIARY 3 19% 0 0%PHENOMENON 1 6% 0 0%TOTAL 16 100% 8 100%As expected most of the Participants are Actors, reinforcing the survey of theProcesses. Furthermore, the lexical item ―translator/tradutor‖ occured as a Participant moreoften than the lexical item ―translation/tradução‖, which in the textualization did not appearonce. In the retextualization it did occur as Goal and a Circumstance of Location. This factcorresponds to the expectation that the figure of the ―translator/tradutor‖ is an activeParticipant. However, in the comparison between the information at the back covers and thetext from the introductions, we can state that the back covers focus on the book itself, itsimportance and its effect upon the reader, while the introductions concentrate on the processesof becoming a translator, not only the challenges and obstacles a translator scholar will face,but also the benefits this scholar will gain through this process.36

4.5. Back Covers’ and Introduction Analyses: Contemporary Translation Theories/Teorias Contemporâneas da Tradução4.5.1. Back cover‘s analysisIn Contemporary Translation Theories, Edwin Gentzler presents the evolution ofTranslation Studies up to the moment when the book was written (2001), and discusses newapproaches related to the act of translating. The Table with the back covers‘ information is inappendix number 29.The textual information at the back covers of both books can not be considered a paralleltranslation, for they were produced separately and written by different authors.In the English back cover there are occurrences of the lexical items ―translation‖ and―translator‖ but as modifiers. They appear in relation to workshop, science, theories, studies,and field. This means that the approach to ―translation‖ chosen by the author does notprioritize ―translation‖ itself, but the process it is involved in. As it is the case in the Englishtext, in the Portuguese text happens the same, there are some occurrences of the words atissue linked with theories, science and workshop. Although the Portuguese text on the backcover is not exactly a translation of the English one, it follows the same pattern not referringto ―tradução‖ alone, but transforming it into a modifier.4.5.2. Introduction AnalysisThe introduction of Contemporary Translation Theories has many occurrences of thelexical item ―translation‖, in which it is realized as Participant. ―Translator‖ is not oftenmentioned, but when it appears it is represented as Actor, doing and influencing the MaterialProcesses. Due to the fact that there are no occurrences of these words on the back covers, itremains open if the introduction confirms the information on the back covers. But it isimportant to point out that many clauses also contain the lexical item ―translation‖ linked withother words such as science, theories, field, etc. as it is the case in the back covers.Following the table of the types of Participants.37

Table 13: Textualization (translation and translator) and retextualization ( tradução e tradutor) ofContemporary Translation Theories/ Teorias Contemporâneas da Tradução (appendix 43 and 44)TYPES OFTEXTUALIZATION Percentage RETEXTUALIZATION PercentagePARTICIPANTSTOKEN 4 29% 4 27%VALUE 0 0% 2 13%PHENOMENON 3 21% 0 0%ACTOR 3 21% 4 27%GOAL 3 21% 3 19%BENEFICIARY 0 0% 1 7%SAYER 0 0% 1 7%TOTAL 14 100% 15 100%Most of the occurrences relate to Relational Processes and Material Processes, wherethe Participants are whether Token, Value, Actor, or Goal. The information on the backcovers of the books contain the words at issue as modifiers and are addressed as science,theories and field, this result confirms the profile of ―translation/tradução‖ of the back covers.In the information contained in the back covers the words at issue are being identified inrelation to science, theories and field, and in the afterwords they are also being identified asValues. The word ―translator/tradutor―is often portrait as Actor and Goal, which means thatthey are active in the processes of translation.4.6. Back Covers’ and Introduction Analyses: After Babel/ Depois de Babel4.6.1. Back cover‘s analysisAs it was the case in the previous two books, in After Babel and Depois de Babel thereare occurrences of the words at issue but just as modifiers. In this book, George Steinerpresents an investigation of the processes of translation which will be useful not only fortranslators, but also for other researchers in the area of linguistics.The Table showing both front covers and the information on the back covers are to be foundin appendix number 30.In the English back cover all the occurrences of the lexical item ―translation‖ are likedwith other words, such as studies, processes and aspects. The approach of the book is very38

historical, and it aims at telling the history of language. This is why the words language andcommunication appear more frequently than ―translation‖ or ―translator‖. Following thepatterns of the English text, the Portuguese back cover also has the words ―translation‖ and―translator‖ as modifiers. Instead, it presents the phenomenon of language and communicationin a detailed way, and leaves the definitions of ―translation―to another moment.4.6.2. Afterword AnalysisAt this point, it is necessary to say that the books After Babel and Depois de Babel donot have an introduction. Therefore, the afterword was taken as the text for analysis for itaims at giving a small summary of the book, as it is the aim of an introduction.Following the table with the occurrances in which the lexical items ―translation―and―translator― appear as Participants.Table 14: Textualization (translation and translator) and retextualization (tradução e tradutor) of AfterBabel/ Depois de Babel (appendix 45 and 46)TYPES OFTEXTUALIZATION Percentage RETEXTUALIZATION PercentagePARTICIPANTSCARRIER 4 100% 4 100%TOTAL 4 100% 4 100%It is very interesting to highlight the fact that all the occurrences of the lexical item―translation‖ are represented as Carrier in a Relational Process. This shows the concern of theauthor to give ―translation‖ an identity, a clear definition of what he understands behind thisword. Relating this afterword with its respective back cover, we can perceive that one aim ofthe author could be to define what ―translation‖ is in the context of communication andlanguage. As already stated in the English afterword, all the occurrences of the lexical item―translation‖ are a part of a Relational Process being represented as Carrier. It shows the clearaim of the author to define what he understands behind ―translation―.4.7. Discussion of the findingsConsidering what Munday (2002) states regarding probability of occurrence of newconstruals in patterns of transitivity in translation, and what Baker (1995) says regarding the39

fact that comparing corpora may lead to the identification of patterns in the source texts, in thetarget texts and between them, one of the aims of this monograph was to try to ascertain ifnew configurations of the ideational profile of the words ―translation― and ―translator― trulyoccurred (where and how) within the corpora of the back covers and introductions of theanalyzed books. This analysis was performed in the interface between Systemic FunctionalLinguistics, Translation Studies based on Corpus methodologies, and Translation Studies.The Table below shows these results:Table 15: Results of the findings regarding the differences between textualization and retextualization ofall five books.TYPES OFTEXTUALIZATION Percentage RETEXTUALIZATION PercentagePARTICIPANTSGOAL1 6% 0 0%(translation)ACTOR10 59% 8 50%(translator)CARRIER1 6% 4 25%(translator)VALUE0 0% 2 13%(translation)SENSER (translator) 2 12% 1 6%PHENOMENON3 18% 0 0%(translation)BENEFICIARY0 0% 1 6%(translator)TOTAL 17 100% 16 100%Based on theses results, collected from all the analysis of all back covers andintroductions, we can assume that ―translation‖ is more frequently construed as a ParticipantGoal suffering an action in Material Processes and ―translator‖ as Actor in the same kind ofProcess in the textualization, which construes a representation associated to MaterialProcesses of doing, creating, and transforming and an active role of ‗translator‘ in the sourcecontext. ―Tradução‖ is more frequently construed as a Participant also suffering an action, butnot only in Material Processes but mainly in Relational Processes and ―tradutor‖ is morefrequently construed as an active Participant in Material and principally Relational Processesin the retextualization, showing that the translator‘s identification is as important as hisactions and impact upon his envoiroment in the representation in the target context.40

The last section of this study presents the final remarks resulting from both thetheoretical basis and analytical results. The limitations of the study and suggestions for furtherresearch are also presented in the same section.5. CONCLUSIONS5.1. Final RemarksThis study was located within Williams and Chesterman‘s (2002) second research subarea: ―comparison of translations and their source texts‖, and in a second moment, aninvestigation was undertaken in order to prove if the introductions of the specific booksconfirmed what the information on the back covers promised. All these steps were performedapplying Corpus Based Methodologies and the categories for analysis provided by SystemicFunctional Linguistics.The research problem this study wanted to look at is how some linguistic items intranslation theory in translation could be described, with a view to understanding howparticular lexical entities are represented in translation theories produced in BrazilianPortuguese (BP).In this context, the present research aimed at using categories of SFL – particularly thoseof the system realizing the ideational function of language – the transitivity system in thedescription of re-representations of two specific lexical entities – central to any theorizing inTS - ―translator―and ―translation―, by looking at the clauses in which they were realized, bothin the ST and in the TT. It is argued here that this description may yield relevant informationconcerning the status of the discipline itself, as embodied in the lexical items at issue.According to Fleuri (2006) Systemic Functional Linguistics and Translation Studiesbased on Corpus methodologies are perspectives that complete each other in the description of41

ST‘s and their translations. Therefore, these perspectives were used in the analysis of the datacollected for the study, described in the section entitled: Procedures.My monograph consisted of three parts: (i) survey of the books in TS produced in theperiod between 1998 and 2008 and translated into Brazilian Portuguese; this survey was donevia internet, where web pages from book shops, and English and Brazilian publishers werebrowsed with the intention of finding the intended data; (ii) a comparative analysis of thelexical items ―translator‖ and ―translation‖ on the back covers of these books were done to seewhether or not a pattern emerged in the representations of the items both in the source and inthe target texts with a view to comparing the ideational profile of both texts; (iii) through theideational metafunction, an investigation aiming at confirming if the content promised on theback covers was fulfilled in their respective introductions.In the context of the objectives stated above, the following RQs were put forward:RQ 1 - What are the English titles of academic books in the field of TranslationStudies translated into Brazilian-Portuguese, between 1998 and 2008?RQ2 - What kind of information do their back covers contain both in English ST andPortuguese TT?RQ3 – What ideational profile emerges concerning the words ―translator‖ and―translation‖ on the back covers introducing the books and in their introductions in Englishand in Portuguese?RQ4 – In terms of content and through an SFL analysis, do the introductions fulfill, orat least relate to what the back covers promise?In relation to RQ1, five titles were found namely, Translators through History (Deslile / Woodsworth, 1995), Os Tradutores na História (trad. Bath, 2003), Scandals ofTranslation (Venuti, 1998), Os Escândalos da Tradução (trad. Pelegrin/ Villela/ Esquerda/Biondo 2002), Becoming a Translator (Robinson, 1998), Construindo o Tradutor (trad.Simões, 2002), Contemporary Translation Theories (Gentzler, 2001), TeoriasContemporâneas da Tradução ( trad. Malvezzi, 2009), After Babel (Steiner, 1975, 1° Ed.),and Depois de Babel (trad. Pereira, 2005).42

In what concerns RQ2, we can not refer to all the Portuguese back covers as TT fromthe English ST, for they were produced independently, and partly by Brazilian publishers. Theonly back cover text that could be considered a translation is Construindo o Tradutor,translated from the one of Becoming a Translator. Starting with Translators through History,the first half of the back cover‘s text is a narration about the first translators in history, theword ―translator‖ does not appear and is replaced by the names of the first translators. Only inthe end, ―translator‖ and ―translation‖ appear in the explanation of what the book proposes.The main focus of this text is the book, being the one that tells the story and involves―translators‖ and authors in its project. The back cover of Os Tradutores na História is not aslong as the one of Translators through History, it omits the first part of the English backcover, and goes straight to the purpose of the book, which focuses on the influence of the―tradutor‖ upon the translation history. In the back cover‘s text of Scandals of Translation, theauthor is introduced as a professional translator and from this position he discusses theimplications of translations for translators and authors as well as publishers. The back coverof Os Escândalos da Tradução starts with questions concerning the act of translating and thetranslation itself. Moreover it states that the main voice in this book is the one from theauthor. As mentioned above, the back covers from Becoming a Translator and Construindo oTradutor can be considered ST and TT. Although some clauses are positioned differently, thefocus is the same. In Becoming a Translator the back cover‘s text introduces the author andpromises information regarding the process of translation based on recent discoveries. Fromthe text‘s point of view, the book provides valuable advice to novice translators. InConstruindo o Tradutor the ―content‖ is the same. The back cover of ContemporaryTranslation Theories introduces the new theories in the field of Translation Studies, it alsocontains information about new approaches to translation. The back cover of TeoriasContemporâneas da Tradução follows the same pattern of the Enlgish text, but includes animportant comment at the end, namely, that along with the information the author makes a43

critical analysis of these new approaches. In the back cover of After Babel, the historicalimportance of the book in the field of Translation Studies is evidenced, and investigations aswell as analyses of the phenomenon of translation are promised. In Depois de Babel theimportance of the book is also showed, and the scholars from different areas, who can profitfrom this work, are listed.Regarding RQ3, the results showed that in Translators through History the word―translator‖ appears just once in a Material Process where ―translators‖ are represented asGoal, being involved by the project (the project of the book). In Os Tradutores na História,the lexical item ―tradutores‖ occurs once in a clause which has six secondary clauses, all ofthem contain the lexical item ―tradutores‖ in three kinds of Processes, moreover ―tradutores‖is always a Participant: as Actor in four Material Processes contributing, forming,participating, importing and exporting; as Senser in one Mental Process creating alphabets;and as Token in one Relational Process representing a role. It is important to recall that thePortuguese back cover text is not a translation of the English. Therefore, we can observe adifference: the English back cover advertises the book, and the Portuguese focuses on theinfluence of the ―tradutor‖ upon the translation history.Moving on to the introductions, a central issue in the English textualization is theposition and attitude of the „translator―, being the main Participant involved in Material,Mental, Relational and Verbal Processes. The Portuguese retextualization follows the samepattern: the ―tradutor‖ is mostly represented as a Participant. The back cover of Scandals ofTranslation has three clauses in which the words ―translation‖ and ―translator‖ occur. In twoof them ―translation‖ is represented as Participant in a Mental and Material Processes. Thelexical item ―translator‖ is represented as the Participant Sayer in a Verbal Process. Itsintroduction, partly confirms the back cover, in the sense that more than 50% of the Processesare Material and the words at issue are Participants and seldom Circumstances. In thePotruguese back cover ―tradução‖ is realized as Circumstance of a Relational Process, it44

seems that the author wants to identify the ―translation‖ he wants to deal with, and make itclear to the reader. The introduction of Escândalos da Tradução places the lexical items―tradução‖ and ―tradutor‖ as Participants and Circumstamces of mainly Material Processes. Inthis case, the retextualization of the introduction follows the same patterns as thetextualization. The texts on the back covers of Becoming a Translator and Construindo oTradutor are the only ones from the analyzed books that can be considered textualization(English) and retextualization (Portuguese). This is the reason why the Processes the words atissue are involved in are similar. In both back covers the book/author presents―translation/tradução‖ to the reader. However, the ―translator‖ is the Carrier in a RelationalProcess having attributes, while the ―tradutor‖ is a Beneficiary in the same kind of Process. Inthe back covers of Contemporary Translation Theories and of Teorias Contemporâneas daTradução there were no occurrences of the words ―translation‖ and ―translator‖, however theyappeared as a workshop, science, theories, studies, and field. This means that the approach to―translation‖ chosen by the author did not prioritize ―translation‖ itself, but the process it isinvolved in. As it was the case in Contemporary Translation Theories, in the back covers ofAfter Babel and Depois de Babel all the occurrences of the word ―translation‖ were linked toother words. The approach of the book is very historical, and it aims at telling the history oflanguage. This is why the words language and communication appeared more frequently than―translation‖ or ―translator‖.As for RQ4, in Translators through History, we can assume that the Englishintroduction did not fulfilled exactly what the back cover‘s text promised, this text introducesthe book, while the introduction discusses the role of the ―translator‖. However theintroduction of Os Tradutores na História states what its back cover proposed. In Scandals ofTranslation the back cover introduces the author of the book and the lexical item ―translation‖in different Processes. Its introduction develops the roles of the ―translation‖ and ―translator‖in Material Processes. Therefore we can assume that one reinforces the ―content‖ of the other.45

In Escândalos da Tradução the texton the back cover is concerned in identifying ―tradução‖,whereas its introduction focuses on the role this ―tradução‖ and the ―tradutor‖ will play in thepresent field of translation. In the comparison of what the back covers of Becoming aTranslator and Construindo o Tradutor portray and what the introductions actually say, wecan state that the texts on the back covers focus on the book itself, its importance and its effectupon the reader, whereas the introductions concentrate on the processes of becoming atranslator, not only the challenges and obstacles a translator scholar will face, but also thebenefits this scholar will gain through this process. The back covers of ContemporaryTranslation Theories and Teorias Contemporâneas da Tradução contain the analyzed wordsas modifiers such as adjectives for workshop, science, theories, studies, and field. As statedabove, the approach to translation does not prioritize translation itself, but the process it isinvolved in. After the SFL analysis, we can state that the introductions confirm what the backcovers proposed, and ―translation‖ partly as a Participant being identified, and partly beingacted upon can be interpreted as a quality, or an adjective. After Babel and Depois de Babelalso have the words at issue as modifiers. These words are related to aspects, processes andstudy, this means that the context in which translation is performed is rather the central issuethan ―translation‖ itself. However, after the SFL analysis of the afterword, and observing theprofile of these words on the back covers, we can perceive that one aim of the author in bothof them could be to define what ―translation‖ is in the context of communication andlanguage.When reading any information on the back cover of a book, we frequently assume thatthe issues discussed in it and its focus will be confirmed throughout the book. Taking theintroductions of the books at issue as a sample of the whole, I could verify that, in the onehand, some texts on the back covers introduce its author, while their introductions discusswhat this author claims. In the other hand, some back covers present the book as its content46

teller; they seem to personify the book, whereas their introductions do not even mention thebook itself.Regarding the English introductions as ST and the Brazilian Portuguese as TT, notmany differences in terms of SFL were testified. However, I could perceive that the TTs weremore concerned in identifying the analyzed lexical items than the STs, which discusses theselexical items more frequently as active agents in the clause.5.2. Limitations of the StudyThe profile of ―translator‖ in the Brazilian context of Translation Studies, based onSFL analysis, has been traced in Brazil only by few researchers in the area. With thismonograph I intended to contribute a little with the major research interfacing TranslationTheories and Systemic Functional Linguistics. My study was often faced with somelimitations, some of them were:Time and space constrains prevented me from analyzing the words ―translation‖ and―translator‖ when they were part of a nominal group.The proposed language direction precluded the inclusion of other books handling withthe same subject.The temporal restriction of 1998 to 2009, excluded the analysis of previous bookswritten and translated in the same direction and within the same field.5.3. Suggestions for further researchSystemic Functional Linguistics interfacing with Translation Studies is an exploredresearch field in various countries. In this sense, this interface is becoming more and moreexplored in descriptive studies in the Brazilian context, as stated by Vasconcellos (2009).Since this is an ongoing research process, some suggestions for further research can be listedas follows: To analyze further paratexts as critical reviews and magazine articles about the booksat issue; To analyze the ideational profile of other words from the books at issue; To survey translated books in the area of Translation Studies from other languages ; To deepen the analysis not only focusing on the Ideational Profile, but also the logicalprofile of the same words.47

During the four years of my undergraduate course I have fallen in love withtranslation, not only for its usefulness, but I see it as a chain of connection betweenpeoples and cultures. In this sense, wanting to deepen my knowledge in this area, Ifocused my interest in Translation Studies, and from this interest my monograph initiated.I hope to have achieved clarity in my explanations, and to have fulfilled my aims. Maythis study serve as a source for further works, and as an inspiration for future researchers.REFERENCESArrojo, R. (1998). ‗Translation studies‘ as an independent area of research: dilemmas and illusions ofa discipline in (de)construction. Available from:http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0102-44501998000200007(Retrieved on 17/06/2009)Baker, M. (1995). Corpora in Translation Studies: An Overview and Suggestions for Future Research.Amsterdam: John Benjamins. pp. 230-223.Delisle, J. and Woodsworth, J. (1995). Translators Through History. London: John BenjaminsPublishing Co.Davidse, K. (1992). Transitivity/ergativity: the Janus-headed grammar of actions and events. InDavies, M. and Louise Ravelli (Eds.) Advances in Systemic Linguistics. Theory and Practice. GreatBritain: Pinter Publishers Limited. pp.105-135.Eggins, S. (2005). An Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics. London and New York:Continuum International Publishing Group. p.3.Fleuri, L. J. (2006). O perfil ideacional dos itens lexicais translator/tradutor em ―Translators throughHistory‖ and ―Os Tradutores na História‖. Florianópolis: Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina. pp.15-16.Gentzler, E. (2001). Contemporary Translation Theories. Revised 2 nd Edition. Bristol: MultilingualMatters.Halliday, M. A. K. (1968). Notes on transitivity and theme in English Part 3. Journal of Linguistics,Department of General Linguistics. Available from:http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=2717168 (Retrieved on04/07/2009).Jakobson, R. (1959). On linguistic aspects of translation. In: The Translation Studies Reader.Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Malmkajaer, K. (2005). Linguistics and the language of translation. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UniversityPress. p. 208.48

Munday, J. (2002). Systems in Translation. A Systemic Model for Descriptive Translation Studies. InT. Hermans, Crosscultural Transgressions, Research Models in Translation Studies, II. Historical andIdeological Issues. Manchester: St. Jerome, pp. 76-92.Olohan, M. (2004). Introducing Corpora in Translation Studies. London/New York: Routledge.Pagano, A. S. & Vasconcellos, M.L. (2005). Explorando interfaces: Estudos da Tradução, LingüísticaSistêmico-Funcional e Lingüística de corpus. IN: Alves et al. Competência em Tradução: Cognição eDiscurso. Belo Horizonte/MG: Editora da UFMG, pp. 157-188.Robinson, D. (1998). Becoming a Translator. New York: Routledge (Taylor & Francis).Salkie, R. (2001). Review of Munday, Introducing Translation Studies. Available from:http://www.linguistlist.org/issues/12/12-2587.html (Retrieved on 17/06/2009)Sinclair, J. M. (1987). Collins Cobuild English Language Dictionary. London: Collins ELT.Steiner, G. (1998). After Babel. 3° Ed. Oxford: Oxford UK.Thompson, G. (2004). Introducing Functional Grammar. Secound Edition. New York: OxfordUniversity Press Inc. pp. 87-90.Vasconcellos, M. L. (2009). Systemic Functional Translation Studies (SFTS): The Theory Travelingin Brazilian Environments. In D.E.L.T.A - Documentação de Estudos em Linguistica Teórica eAplicada. São Paulo: Puc/SP.Vasconcellos, M.L.,Fleuri, L., Filgueira, J. P. Transcorbi—Transitividade em Corpora BilíngüesParalelos: Explorando a Linguagem como "Sistema Modelador de Realidade(S)‖ em Estudos daTradução. In: Anais do 6º Encontro do Círculo de Estudos Lingüísticos do Sul – Celsul, 2004.Vela, M., Hansen-Schirra, S. (2006). The use of multi-level annotation and alignment for thetranslator. In: Proceedings der ASLIB Translating and the computer 28 conference. London.Available in: http://fr46.uni-saarland.de/croco/publicationen.htmlRetrived in Venuti, L. (1998). The Scandals of Translation: Towards an Ethics of Difference. New York:Routledge.Williams, J. and Chesterman, A. (2002). The Map: A Beginner‘s Guide to Doing Research inTranslations Studies. Manchester: St. Jerome.Zuniga, G. R. F. (2006). Construing the translator: a meta-reflexion grounded in corpus-basedtranslationstudies and systemic functional linguistics. Florianopolis: Universidade Federal de SantaCatarina. pp. 34-35.APPENDIXESAppendix 1: Textual information from the back cover of Translators Through History.49

Translators Through HistoryIn AD 629, a Chinese monk named Xuan Zang set out for India on a quest for sacred texts. Hereturned with a caravan of twenty-two horses bearing Buddhist treasures and spent the lasttwenty years of his life in the ―Great Wild Goose Pagoda‖, in present-day Xi‘an, translatingthe Sanskrit manuscripts into Chinese with a team of collaborators.In the twelfth century, scholars came to Spain from all over Europe seeking knowledge thathad been transmitted from the Arab world. Their names tell the story: Adelard of Bath,Hermann of Dalmatia, Plato of Tivoli. Among them was Robert of Chester (or Robert ofKent), who was part of an elaborate team that translated documents on Islam and the Koranitself.Doña Marina, also called la Malinche, was a crucial link between Cortés and native peopleshe set out to convert and conquer in sixteenth-century Mexico. One of the conquistador‘s―tongues‖ or interpreters, she was also the mother of his son. She has been an ambivalentfigure in the history of the new world, her own history having been rewritten in different waysover the centuries.James Evans, an Englishman sent to evangelize and educate the natives of western Canadaduring the nineteenth century, invented a writing system in order to translate and transcribereligious texts. Known as ―the man who made birchbark talk‖, he even succeeded in printing anumber of pamphlets, using crude type fashioned out of lead from the lining of tea chests andink made from a mixture of soot and sturgeon oil. A jackpress used by traders to pack fursserved as a press.These are just some of the stories told in Translators through History, published under theauspices of the International Federation of Translators (FIT). Over seventy people have beeninvolved in this project — as principal authors, contributors or translators and proofreaders.The participants come from some twenty countries, reflecting the make-up and interests ofFIT.Appendix 2: Textual information from the back cover of Os tradutores na história.Os tradutores na históriaAo longo dos tempos, os tradutores inventaram alfabetos, contribuíram para a criação delínguas e deram forma às literaturas nacionais. Participaram também da difusão doconhecimento e da propagação das religiões, importaram e exportaram valores culturais.Além disso, representaram um papel determinante na evolução das sociedades e na vidaintelectual.Appendix 3: Textual information from the back cover of Scandals of translation.Scandals of translationLawrence Venuti exposes the 'scandals of translation' by looking at the relationship betweentranslation and the practices which at once need and marginalize it. Lawrence Venuti, aprofessional translator, argues that prevalent concepts of authorship degrade translation inliterary scholarship and underwrite its unfavorable definition in copyright law. Exposingmyriad abuses, Venuti provides stinging critiques of institutions such as the ModernLanguage Association for its neglect of translation, as well as publishers for their questionabletreatment of translators.Appendix 4: Textual information from the back cover of Escandalos da tradução.50

Escandalos da traduçãoComo um texto que vai ser publicado num jornal, numa revista, num livro, deve sertraduzido? Quais são os elementos culturais ocultos em qualquer tradução? Estas são algumasquestões discutidas neste livro por Lawrence Venuti - autor famoso por suas posiçõespolêmicas em relação ao processo da tradução.Appendix 5: Textual information from the back cover of Becoming a translator.Becoming a translatorDouglas Robinson presents an innovative approach to translation by integrating translationtheory and the practical skills required by the working translator. The book provides the typeof information and advice that novice translators really need; how to translate faster and moreaccurately; how to deal with arising problems and stress; how the market works; includes awide variety of lively activities and exercises to facilitate the learning of both theory andpractice; includes a detailed Teachers Guide; and contains suggestions for discussion andactivities and hints for the teaching of translation.Appendix 6: Textual information from the back cover of Construindo o tradutor.Construindo o tradutorComo traduzir com mais rapidez e maior precisão? Como lidar com os problemas quegeralmente surgem nesse processo? Como funciona o mercado de traduções? Estas sãoalgumas perguntas que Douglas Robinson discute e responde neste livro, que integra atradução aos conhecimentos práticos necessários a seu ofício, escudado nas mais recentesdescobertas da Pedagogia, dos estudos da memória e das neurociências. Criado inicialmentepara cursos de graduação em teoria e prática de tradução, este livro é útil também paratradutores profissionais e estudiosos de tradução e línguas.Appendix 7: Textual information from the back cover of Contemporary TranslationStudies.Contemporary Translation StudiesFrom 1970 through to the beginning of the new millennium, the field of translation hasexploded with multiple new theories. "Contemporary Translation Theories" examines fivenew approaches - the translation workshop, the science of translation, translation studies,polysystem theory, and deconstruction - all of which began in the mid-1960s and continue tobe influential.Appendix 8: Textual information from the back cover of Teorias Contemporâneas daTradução.Teorias Contemporâneas da Tradução'Teorias Contemporâneas da Tradução' delineia o crescimento da teoria da tradução a partir desuas raízes tradicionais por meio da proliferação de teorias incentivadas por pesquisas eminvestigações feministas, pós-estruturais e pós-coloniais. Edwin Gentzler examina cincoabordagens - oficina de tradução, ciência da tradução, estudos da tradução, teoria dospolissistemas e desconstrução -, as quais começaram em meados dos anos de 1960 econtinuam a ser influentes. Nesse panorama crítico, ele explora os pontos fortes e fracos decada método, detectando as conexões entre as diferentes escolas de pensamento.51

Appendix 9: Textual information from the back cover of After Babel.After BabelStudents of language, linguistics, literary theory, translation studies, comparative literature.On its first publication in 1975, 'After Babel' quickly established itself as both controversialand seminal. George Steiner was the first since the eighteenth century to present a systematicinvestigation of the phenomenology and processes of translation both inside and betweenlanguages. Taking issue with the principal emphasis of modern linguistics, he finds the root ofthe 'Babel problem' in our deep instinct for privacy and a unique body of shared secrecy. Withthis provocative thesis he analyses every aspect of translation, from fundamental conditions ofinterpretation to the most intricate of linguistic constructions.Appendix 10: Textual information from the back cover of Depois de Babel.Depois de BabelPioneiro quando publicado pela primeira vez em 1975, Depois de Babel, permanece, trintaanos depois, insuperável, constituindo-se talvez na mais importante obra de George Steiner - oque, em se tratando de um intelectual como ele, não é dizer pouco. Manejando como emnenhuma outra obra a erudição que marca sua produção, Steiner discute, a partir dosproblemas levantados pelo fenômeno da tradução, a linguagem humana e o fenômenoliterário. Livro que tem contribuição direta a dar não apenas aos estudiosos da tradução, mastambém aos que se interessam por literatura, linguística e filosofia, é uma das grandes obrasde nosso tempo.52

Appendix 11: Introduction of Translators through HistoryThis book comes at the end of a long gestation period; it is the culmination of an idea that took root in the early 1960s when the InternationalFederation of Translators (FIT) was only ten years old. At the Fourth World Congress of FIT held in Dubrovnik in 1963, it was unanimously agreedthat a comprehensive history of translation should be written.One of the principal initiators of this project, Dr Gyõrgy Radó (1912-94) (Hungary), called upon historians of translation to carry outpreliminary studies and write monographs on this subject, which had previously received little attention. "We have to show the way and lay thefoundations; in other words, we must create a framework and a method that will enable us to carry out the research and ultimately write theproposed history of translation" (Radó 1964: 15).At the FIT Congress held three years later in Lahti, Finland, Dr Radó raised the matter once more and outlined to the delegates his conceptof how a comprehensive history of translation should be written. The reaction was enthusiastic, and the FIT Council decided to establish aCommittee for the History of Translation. The scope of the project was enormous: the proposed study was to cover no less than twenty-fivecenturies, encompass every continent and deal with hundreds of languages. Studying the history of translation in this way would be tantamount torewriting the history of the world, the history of civilization - but from the perspective of translation (Van Hoof 1991: 7).Given the amount of work involved, the state of research in history of translation and the limited financial and human resources of FIT, some peoplewere sceptical about whether so ambitious a project would ever be completed. In an articIe that appeared in Babei, Radó nevertheless presented adetailed outline of the book as he saw it (Radó 1967: 4-8). Years went by.Despite a steady increase in the number of publications on the subject, the vast compendium of translation history envisioned by thetranslators of thirty years ago had not yet been written. Would it be possible to produce this "worldwide encyclopedia of translation", full of datesand facts, containing all the milestones along the "glorious road which the art of translation has travelled" (Radó 1964: 15)? Even the mostenthusiastic and daring of historians would feel daunted by such an undertaking, and justifiably so. A new Committee for the History of Translationwas struck at the Twelfth World Congress of FIT in Belgrade in 1990.Moved by the same spirit as those who initiated the original history project, the Committee developed plans for a publication that would bemore limited in scope. The goal remained the same: to enhance the translation profession throughout the world by revealing the immeasurablecontribution of translators to the intelIectual and cultural history of humanity.To borrow the words of PierreFrançois Caillé, founding president of FIT, translators are those "Ionely soldiers" who plunge into the fray ofideas and cultures to bear messages from one to the other, often becoming agents of profound ideological and social change (1955: 3). It was feltthat their work, their dignity, their place in the "Republic of Letters" had yet to be highlighted (Larbaud 1946: 9). Interest in the history oftranslation has grown in recent years.Since the 1980s, in particular, translation scholars have been aware of the importance of historical research and have begun to defineappropriate methods and theoretical models for the new subdiscipline. In their conference papers, scholarly articIes and books, they have addressed53

the subject of the history of translation from a variety of perspectives, each drawing the boundaries of history in a different way and looking at thepast through different lenses. The Committee for the History of Translation set out to make a contribution to this area.One of its first tasks was to compile as complete a list as possible of historians of translation around the world and to gather informationabout their research. This groundwork led to the publication of the lnternational Directory of Historians of Translation in 1991. The Directory, ofwhich a second edition appeared in 1993, and a third will be issued in 1996, now lists over 140 scholars, with their addresses and areas of expertise.This valuable tool enabled us to set up research teams, create an international network of historians and get the preparation of Translators throughHistory under way.While broad-ranging and ambitious, Translators through History does not cIaim to be an exhaustive study of the history of translation.Instead, it is a selective and thematic overview of the principal roles played by translators through the ages. Nine broad themes were chosen toreflect the various areas in which the work of translators has been most apparent. Translators have been viewed not so much from a psychologicalpoint of view, but rather in terms of their position in a cultural and temporal space. The result is rather like a canvas drawn with a broad brush, andreaders will undoubtedly discover significant omissions in the pages that folIow. We are well aware of the lacunae, which inevitably derive from theapproach we decided to adopt. Each of the nine themes was assigned to an international team of historians, headed by a principal author. Theparticipating scholars had complete freedom to ilIustrate their remarks by means of examples drawn from any period of time and any cultural orlinguistic community. Through teamwork, we have drawn on the expertise of scholars living in various parts of the world and have sought to movebeyond a Eurocentric view of translation, thereby respecting the vocation of FIT. It is undeniable that the West in general, and Europe in particular,have been given preferential treatment, as it were, owing to the sheer number of historians in that part of the world, and to the important strides theyhave made in historical research in the past twenty years.And yet we have been fortunate enough to incIude history specialists from the major regions of the world: from Europe, the Americas, theMiddle East and - to a lesser extent - from Africa and Asia. Underlying our task as editors were two concerns: one was for our readership, whichwas intended to be an international one, and the other Was for stylistic and methodological consistency.Without compromising our standards of scholarship, we have sought to make the book readable and accessible to as wide an audience aspossible.For this reason, we have been careful to avoid using some of the highly specialized terminology particular to the field of translation studiesor related disciplines.In addition, explanations have been added, either in the text or in endnotes, to cIarify allusions to specific historical events or culturalfeatures that might not be familiar to every reader. Translators through History can be regarded as a guide to the field of translation history.The "Further Readings" section at the end of each chapter is intended to help readers find more information on that particular topic. All thefurther readings, as welI as works mentioned in parenthetical references in the body of the text, are listed in full in the bibliography at the end of thebook.An index of proper names is also provided to make the book easier to use.54

IlIustrations have been inserted between the chapters. They are another means of portraying the role and status of translators through history.These iIIustrations, in our opinion, are not simply decorative. The iconography of a field is an essential element in any meaningful history of it. Adescription of all illustrations is incIuded in Appendix I.We should like to express our deepest gratitude to the translators and revisers - around twenty-five in all - who have made it possible topublish the English and French editions of this book simultaneously. Their names are listed in Appendix 11.It is our sincere hope that you, the reader, will take pleasure in reading this coIlective work, and that the wide range of material presentedwill arouse your curiosity about the history of translation.Jean DelisleJudith Woodsworth55

Appendix 12: Introduction of Os Tradutores na HistóriaEste livro tem atrás de si um longo período de gestação. É o florescimento de uma idéia que criou raízes no princípio da década de 1960, quando aFederação Internacional de Tradutores (FIT) tinha ,só 10 anos. No seu quarto congresso mundial (Dubrovnik, 1963), chegou-se ao acordo unânimede que deveria ser preparada uma história compreensiva da tradução.Um dos principais iniciadores do projeto, o dr Gyorgy Radó, da Hungria (1912-94), convocou os historiadores da tradução a desenvolverestudos preliminares e escrever monografias sobre o tema, que até aquele momento recebera pouca atenção: "Precisamos mostrar o caminho efirmar os alicerces; em outras palavras, precisamos criar uma estrutura e uma metodologia que nos permitam pesquisar e por fim escrever a propostahistória da tradução" (Radó, 1964, p, 15).No congresso da FIT reunido três anos mais tarde em Lahti, na Finlândia, o dr. Radó focalizou outra vez esse tema, resumindo para osdelegados sua idéia de como poderia ser preparada uma história compreensiva da tradução. A reação foi entusiástica, e o Conselho da FIT decidiucriar uma Comissão para a História da Tradução. O escopo do projeto era grandioso: o estudo proposto deveria cobrir não menos de 25 séculos,abrangendo todos os continentes e centenas de línguas. Estudar a história da tradução corresponderia a reescrever a história do mundo, a história dacivilização, vista da perspectiva da tradução (Van Hoof, 1991, p 7). Dada a extensão do trabalho envolvido, a situação da pesquisa na história datradução e a limitação dos recursos financeiros e humanos da FIT, alguns reagiram com ceticismo à idéia de que um projeto de tal ambição pudessechegar a ser concluído. No entanto, em artigo publicado em Babe! (Radó, 1967, p 4-8), Radó apresentou um projeto minucioso de estrutura da obra,conforme ele a concebia. Passaram-se os anos.A despeito do aumento regular do número de publicações sobre o tema, o amplo compêndio sobre a história da tradução, imaginado pelostradutores há trinta anos, ainda não tinha sido escrito. Seria possível produzir essa "enciclopédia mundial e exaustiva da tradução", contendo todasas datas e fatos da "gloriosa estrada percorrida pela arte da tradução" (Radó, 1964, p 15). Até mesmo o historiador mais ousado e entusiasta seassustaria diante desse empreendimento - com boas razões. Uma nova Comissão para a História da Tradução foi criada no 12Q Congresso Mundialda FIT, em Belgrado, em 1990.Movida pelo mesmo espírito dos que deram o impulso inicial ao projeto original, a comissão preparou planos para uma obra que teria escopomais limitado. O objetivo era o mesmo: valorizar a profissão de tradutor em todo o mundo, revelando a enorme contribuição dos tradutores para ahistória intelectual e cultural da humanidade.Para repetir as palavras de Pierre-François Caillé, presidente fundador da FIT, os tradutores são esses "soldados solitários" que mergulhamna confusão das idéias e das culturas para transmitir mensagens de um lado para outro, tornando-se, muitas vezes, os agentes de profundasmudanças sociais e ideológicas (1955, p 3). Sentia-se que o seu trabalho, a sua dignidade e o seu lugar na "república das letras" ainda precisavam serdevidamente reconhecidos (Larbaud, 1946, p 9). Nos últimos anos cresceu o interesse pela história da tradução.Especialmente a partir da década de 1980, os estudiosos da tradução perceberam a importância da pesquisa histórica e começaram a definiros métodos apropriados e os modelos teóricos da sua nova subdisciplina. Nos trabalhos apresentados em conferências, em seus livros e artigos,56

esses especialistas têm abordado o tema de uma variedade de perspectivas, desenhando as fronteiras da história de uma forma diferente e vendo opassado de diversos pontos de vista. A Comissão para a História da Tradução se empenhou em dar uma contribuição nessa área.Uma das suas primeiras tarefas consistiu em compilar uma lista tão completa quanto possível dos historiadores da tradução de todo o mundo,e em procurar informar-se sobre as suas pesquisas. Esse esforço levou à publicação, em 1991, do lnternational Directory of HistoriansofTranslarion. O Directory, cuja segunda edição apareceu em 1993 e uma terceira estava programada para 1996, relaciona 140 especialistas, com orespectivo endereço e áreas de interesse. É um instrumento valioso que nos permitiu compor grupos de pesquisa, criar uma rede internacional dehistoriadores e iniciar o preparo da presente obra.Embora tenha objetivos amplos e ambiciosos, esta obra não pretende ser um estudo exaustivo da história da tradução, mas simplesmente umexame seletivo e temático dos principais papéis exercidos pelos tradutores ao longo do tempo. Nove temas foram selecionados para refletir asdiferentes áreas nas quais o trabalho dos tradutores foi mais visível. Os tradutores foram considerados não tanto sob uma perspectiva sociológicacomo em termos da sua posição no espaço cultural e temporal. O resultado é um painel pintado a traços largos, e os leitores identificarão sem dúvidaomissões importantes nas páginas que seguem. Estamos bem conscientes dessas lacunas, inevitáveis devido ao tipo de abordagem adotada. Cada umdos nove temas foi entregue a um grupo internacional de historiadores, liderado por um autor principal. Esses historiadores tiveram completaliberdade para ilustrar suas observações com exemplos extraídos de qualquer época e de qualquer comunidade lingüística e cultural. Mediante essetrabalho coletivo, utilizamos a experiência de pesquisadores de várias partes do mundo, procurando afastar-nos de uma visão eurocêntrica do nossotema, seguindo assim a vocação da FIT. É inegável que o Ocidente, em geral, e a Europa, em particular, de certo modo receberam tratamentopreferencial, devido ao grande número de historiadores daquela parte do mundo, e aos importantes esforços que eles fizeram no campo da pesquisahistórica, nos últimos vinte anos.No entanto, tivemos a sorte de incluir historiadores das principais regiões do globo: da Europa, das Américas, do Oriente Médio e, em menornúmero, da África e da Ásia. Subjacente à nossa tarefa como organizadores do livro havia uma dupla preocupação: a primeira, com respeito aosnossos leitores, que pretendíamos constituíssem um público internacional; a outra, com a preservação da consistência estilística e metodológica.Sem prejudicar nossos padrões de pesquisa, procuramos tornar o livro de fácil leitura e acessível a um público maior de leitores. Por isso,evitamos cuidadosamente o uso da terminologia altamente especializada do campo dos estudos de tradução e disciplinas correlatas.Além disso, ao longo do texto ou ao final de cada capítulo, acrescentamos explicações para esclarecer as alusões a eventos históricosespecíficos ou a traços cultUrais que pudessem ser desconhecidos de muitos leitores. Os tradutores na história pode ser considerado um guia docampo da história da tradução.A seção intitulada "Leitura suplementar", ao fim de cada capítulo, se destina a ajudar os leitores a informar-se mais amplamente sobre oassunto. Todas essas fontes, assim como os trabalhos mencionados entre parênteses ao longo do texto, aparecem relacionados na bibliografia, naspáginas finais.Um índice onomástico facilitará o manuseio do livro.57

Entre os capítUlos, o leitor encontrará algumas ilustrações - outro meio de retratar o papel e o status dos tradutores ao longo da história.Essas ilustrações não são meramente decorativas. A iconografia é um elemento essencial para histOriar de forma significativa qualquer campo. OApêndice I descreve todas essas ilustrações.Gostaríamos de exprimir nossa gratidão aos tradutores e revisores cerca de 25 pessoas - que tornaram possível a publicação simultânea dasedições inglesa e francesa deste livro. Seus nomes estão registrados no Apêndice II.Esperamos sinceramente que o leitor tenha prazer na leitura desta obra coletiva, e que a amplitude do material apresentado estimule suacuriosidade sobre a história da tradução.Jean Delisle Judith Woodsworth58

Appendix 13: Introduction of Scandals of Translation59

Appendix 14: Introduction of Escândalos da Tradução63

Appendix 15: Introduction of Becoming a TranslatorThe present-day rapid development of science and technology, as well as the continuous growth of cultural, economic, and political relationsbetween nations, have confronted humanity with exceptional difficulties in the assimilation of useful and necessary information. No way has yetbeen found to solve the problems in overcoming language barriers and of accelerated assimilation of scientific and technological achievements byeither the traditional or modern methods of teaching. A new approach to the process of teaching and learning is, therefore, required if the world is tomeet the needs of today and tomorrow.The study of translation and the training of professional translators is without question an integral part of the explosion of both interculturalrelations and the transmission of scientific and technological knowledge; the need for a new approach to the process of teaching and learning iscertainly felt in translator and interpreter training programs around the world as well. How best to bring student translators up to speed, in the literalsense of helping them to learn and to translate rapidly and effectively? How best to get them both to retain the linguistic and cultural knowledge andto master the learning and translation skills they will need to be effective professionals?At present the prevailing pedagogical assumptions in translator training programs are (a) that there is no substitute for practical experience -to learnhow to translate one must translate, translate, translate—and (b) that there is no way to accelerate that process without damaging students' ability todetect errors in their own work. Faster is generally better in the professional world, where faster translators—provided that they continue to translateaccurately—earn more money; but it is generally not considered better in the pedagogical world, where faster learners are thought to be necessarilycareless, sloppy, or superficial.This book is grounded in a simultaneous acceptance of assumption (a) and rejection of assumption (b). There is no substitute for practicalexperience, and translator training programs should continue to provide their students with as much of it as they can. But there are ways ofaccelerating that process that do not simply foster bad work habits.The methodological shift involved is from a pedagogy that places primary emphasis on conscious analysis to a pedagogy that balances consciousanalysis with subliminal discovery and assimilation. The more consciously, analytically, rationally, logically, systematically a subject is presented tostudents, and the more consciously and analytically they are expected to process the materials presented, the more slowly those materials areinternalized.And this is often a good thing. Professional translators need to be able to slow down to examine a problematic word or phrase or syntacticstructure or cultural assumption painstakingly, with full analytical awareness of the problem and its possible solutions. Slow analysis is also apowerful source of new knowledge. Without the kinds of problems that slow the translation process down to a snail's pace, the translator wouldquickly fall into a rut.The premise of this book is, however, that in the professional world slow, painstaking, analytical learning is the exception rather than therule—and should be in the academic world of translator training as well. All humans learn better, faster, more effectively, more naturally, and moreenjoyably through rapid and holistic subliminal channels. Conscious, analytical learning is a useful check on more efficient learning channels; it isnot, or at least it should not be, the only or even main channel through which material is presented.70

This book, therefore, is set up to shuttle between the two extremes of subliminal or unconscious learning, the "natural" way people learnoutside of class, and conscious, analytical learning, the "artificial" way people are traditionally taught in class. As teaching methods move awayfrom traditional analytical modes, learning speeds up and becomes more enjoyable and more effective; as it approaches the subliminal extreme,students learn enormous quantities of material at up to ten times the speed of traditional methods while hardly even noticing that they're learninganything. Because learning is unconscious, it seems they haven't learned anything; to their surprise, however, they can perform complicated tasksmuch more rapidly and confidently and accurately than they ever believed possible.Effective as these subliminal methods are, however, they are also somewhat mindless, in the sense of involving very little critical reflection,metathinking, testing of material against experience or reason. Translators need to be able to process linguistic materials quickly and efficiently; butthey also need to be able to recognize problem areas and to slow down to solve them in complex analytical ways. The main reason for integratingconscious with subliminal teaching methods is that learners need to be able to test and challenge the materials and patterns that they sublimate soquickly and effectively. Translators need to be able to shuttle back and forth between rapid subliminal translating and slow, painstaking criticalanalysis—which means not only that they should be trained to do both, but that their training should embody the shuttle movement between the two,subliminal-becoming-analytical, analytical-becoming-subliminal. Translators need to be able not only to perform both subliminal speed-translatingand conscious analytical problem-solving, but also to shift from one to the other when the situation requires it (and also to recognize when thesituation does require it).Hence the rather strange look of some of the chapters, and especially the exercises at the end of the chapters. Teachers and studentsaccustomed to traditional analytical pedagogies will probably shy away at first from critical perspectives and hands-on exercises designed todevelop subliminal skills. And this critical caution is a good thing: it is part of the shuttle movement from subliminal to conscious processing. Thetopics for discussion that precede the exercises at the end of every chapter are in fact designed to foster just this sort of critical skepticism about theclaims made in the chapter. Students should be given a chance both to experience the power of subliminal learning and translating and to questionthe nature and impact of what they are experiencing. Subliminal functioning without critical self-awareness quickly becomes mind-numbingmechanical routine; analytical critiques without rich playful experience quickly become inert scholasticism.The primary course for which this textbook is intended is the introduction to the theory and practice of translation. Such introductory coursesare designed to give undergraduate (and, in some cases, graduate) students an overall view of what translators do and how translation is studied. Tothese ends the book is full of practical details regarding the professional activities of translators, and in chapters 6-10 it offers ways of integrating awhole series of theoretical perspectives on translation, from psychological theories in chapter 6 through terminological theories in chapter 7,linguistic theories in chapter 8, and social theories in chapter 9 to cultural theories in chapter 10.In addition, however, the exercises are designed not only to teach about translation but to help students translate better as well; and the bookmight also be used as supplementary material in practical translation seminars. Since the book is not written for a specific language combination, theteacher will have to do some work to adapt the exercises to the specific language combination in which the students are working; while suggestionsare given on how this might be done, it would be impossible to anticipate the specific needs of individual students in countries around the world. If71

this requires more active and creative input from teachers, it also allows teachers more latitude to adapt the book's exercises to their students' needs.A teacher's guide at the end of the book provides some additional suggestions for adapting these exercises to individual classrooms.Since most translators traditionally (myself included) were not trained for the job, and many still undergo no formal training even today, Ihave also set up the book for self-study. Readers not currently enrolled in, or employed to teach in, translator training programs can benefit from thebook by reading the chapters and doing the exercises that do not require group work. Many of the exercises designed for group work can easily beadapted for individuals. The main thing is doing the exercises and not just thinking about them. Thought experiments work only when they are trulyexperiments and not just reflection upon what this or that experiment might be like.72

Appendix 16: Introduction of Construindo o TradutorO desenvolvimento rápido da ciência e da tecnologia na atualidade, bem como o aumento das relações culturais, econômicas e políticas entreas nações, fazem com que a humanidade enfrente dificuldades excepcionais na assimilação de informações úteis e necessárias.Ainda não sedescobriu um meio de resolver o problema das barreiras lingüísticas e da assimilação acelerada de realizações científicas e tecnológicas pelosmodelos didáticos, tanto tradicionais quanto modernos. Para que o mundo atenda às necessidades atuais e do futuro, portanto, é preciso criar umnovo método de ensino e aprendizagem.Os estudos de tradução e a formação de tradutores profissionais são, sem dúvida, parte integrante da explosão das relações interculturais e datransmissão de conhecimentos científicos e tecnológicos; a necessidade de um novo método para os processos de ensino e aprendizagem também sefaz sentir nos programas de formação de tradutores e intérpretes do mundo inteiro. Qual seria a melhor maneira de acelerar, no sentido literal, oaprendizado dos alunos de tradução para que aprendam e traduzam com rapidez e eficácia? Qual seria a melhor maneira de fazer com queapreendam língua e cultura e dominem os conhecimentos de aprendizado e de tradução de que precisarão para se tornarem profissionais eficientes?Atualmente, os pressupostos pedagógicos predominantes dos programas de formação de tradutores são (1) que não há substituto para aprática para aprender a traduzir é preciso traduzir, traduzir, traduzir e (2) que não há como acelerar esse processo sem prejudicar a capacidade doaluno de detectar erros em seu próprio trabalho. A velocidade é melhor, em geral, no mundo profissional, onde os tradutores mais velozes contantoque continuem a traduzir com precisão ganham mais dinheiro; mas normalmente não se considera a rapidez melhor no mundo pedagógico, onde seacredita que quem aprende mais depressa é obrigatoriamente desatento, relaxado ou superficial.Este livro baseia-se na aceitação simultânea do pressuposto (1) e na rejeição do pressuposto (2). Não há substituto para a prática, e os programas deformação de tradutores devem continuar a oferecer aos alunos o máximo possível em experiência. Mas há meios de acelerar esse processo que nãosejam o simples estímulo de maus hábitos de trabalho.A mudança metodológica parte de uma pedagogia cuja ênfase principal está na análise consciente rumo a uma pedagogia que equilibre aanálise consciente com a descoberta e a assimilação subliminares. Quanto mais consciente, analítica, racional, lógica e sistemática for aapresentação do assunto aos alunos, e quanto mais consciente e analiticamente se esperar que processem o material apresentado, mais lenta é aassimilação desse material.E isso é sempre bom‘. Os tradutores profissionais precisam ser capazes de reduzir a marcha para examinar minuciosamente uma palavra,frase, ou estrutura sintática problemática ou um pressuposto cultural, com plena consciência analítica do problema e de suas possíveis soluções. Aanálise lenta também é uma potente fonte de novos conhecimentos. Sem os problemas que levam a passo de lesma o processo tradutório, o tradutorrapidamente cairia na rotina.A premissa deste livro, porém, é que no mundo profissional o aprendizado lento, minucioso e analítico é a exceção, e não a regra – e deviaestar no mundo acadêmico da formação do tradutor também. ‗todos os seres humanos aprendem melhor, mais depressa, com maior eficiência, maisnaturalidade e mais prazer por meio de canais subliminares rápidos e holísticos. O aprendizado consciente e analítico é um controle útil dos canaismais eficientes de aprendizado; não é, ou pelo menos não devia ser, o único canal ou, pelo menos o principal, pelo qual se apresentam as matérias.73

Este livro, portanto, foi configurado como ponte entre os dois extremos do aprendizado subliminar ou inconsciente, o modo ―natural‖ comoas pessoas aprendem fora da sala de aula, e o aprendizado analítico e consciente, o modo ―artificial‖ que normalmente se emprega em sala de aula.Quando os métodos didáticos se afastam das modalidades analíticas tradicionais, cresce a velocidade do aprendizado, que se torna mais agradável emais eficiente; quando se aproxima do extremo subliminar, os alunos apreendem quantidades imensas de dados até dez vezes mais depressa do quenos métodos tradicionais, praticamente sem reparar que estão aprendendo. Já que o aprendizado é inconsciente, parece que não aprenderam nada;surpreendem-se, porém, realizando tarefas complicadas com muito mais rapidez, confiança e precisão do que acreditavam ser possível.Por mais eficientes que esses métodos subliminares sejam, no entanto, também são um tanto irracionais, no sentido em que envolvem muitopouca reflexão crítica, meta-raciocínio, comparação do material com a experiência ou a razão. Os tradutores precisam estar aptos a processarmateriais lingüísticos com rapidez e eficiência; mas também precisam estar aptos a reconhecer áreas problemáticas e a reduzir a velocidade pararesolvê-los de maneira complexa e analítica. O principal motivo da integração dos métodos conscientes com os subliminares é que os educandosprecisam estar capacitados a testar e refutar o material e os modelos que assimilarem por sublimação com a mesma rapidez e eficiência. Ostradutores precisam da capacidade de transitar entre a tradução subliminar rápida e a análise crítica lenta e minuciosa o que significa que, além de seprepararem para fazer as duas coisas, sua formação deve incluir o movimento de ligação entre as duas, de subliminar para analítica, de analítica parasubliminar. Os tradutores precisam estar aptos a realizar a tradução veloz subliminar e a resolução de problemas consciente e analítica, mas tambémprecisam da capacidade de passar de um método para outro quando a situação o exigir (e também reconhecer quando a situação o exige).É conseqüência disso a esquisitice de alguns capítulos e, principalmente, dos exercícios ao final dos capítulos. Professores e alunosacostumados com as pedagogias analíticas tradicionais talvez se sintam intimidados a princípio com as perspectivas críticas e os exercícios práticoscriados, para desenvolver a capacidade subliminar. E essa cautela crítica é boa: faz parte do movimento de ida e volta entre processamentosubliminar e consciente. Os tópicos para discussão que precedem os exercícios ao fim de cada capítulo foram, de fato, elaborados para incentivarexatamente esse tipo de ceticismo crítico com relação às afirmações feitas no capítulo. Deve-se dar aos alunos a oportunidade de experimentar opoder do aprendizado subliminar, de traduzir e de questionar a natureza e o impacto do que estiverem experimentando. O funcionamento subliminarsem conscientização crítica rapidamente se transforma numa rotina mecânica entorpecente; as críticas analíticas sem experiências ricas e divertidaslogo se transformam em eruditismo inerte.O principal curso ao qual este livro se destina é o de introdução à teoria e à prática da tradução. Tais cursos introdutórios destinam-se aoferecer ao aluno de graduação (e, em alguns casos, pós-graduação) um panorama geral daquilo que os tradutores fazem e de como se estudatradução. Para isso, o livro está repleto de detalhes relativos às atividades profissionais de tradutores e, nos Capítulos de 6 a 10, oferece meios deintegrar uma série de perspectivas teóricas da tradução, das teorias psicológicas do Capítulo 6 às teorias terminológicas do Capítulo 7, das teoriaslingüísticas do Capítulo 8 e das teorias sociais do Capítulo 9 às teorias culturais do Capítulo 10.Além disso, porém, os exercícios não foram elaborados somente para ensinar a respeito da tradução, mas também para ajudar os alunos atraduzir melhore também se pode utilizar o livro como material complementar em seminários de prática de tradução. Já que o livro não foi escritopara uma combinação específica de línguas, o professor deverá tratar de adaptar os exercícios à combinação de línguas na qual os alunos estiveremtrabalhando; embora haja sugestões com relação a como fazê-lo, seria impossível prever as necessidades específicas dos alunos de todos os países74

do mundo. Embora exija mais contribuições ativas e criativas dos professores, também lhes oferece maior flexibilidade para adaptar os exercíciosdo livro às necessidades dos alunos. No fim do livro ha um manual do professor que oferece mais algumas sugestões para a adaptação dessesexercícios às salas de aula.Já que a maioria dos tradutores não teve formação específica para o ofício (eu, inclusive), e muitos ainda hoje não passam por preparaçãoformal, também elaborei o livro para autodidatas. Os leitores que não estejam matriculados, ou contratados para lecionar, em cursos de formação detradutores podem tirar proveito do livro lendo os capítulos e fazendo os exercícios que não requeiram trabalho em equipe. Muitos dos exercícioscriados para equipe podem ser facilmente adaptados para trabalho individual. O mais importante é fazer os exercícios, em vez de apenas pensarneles. As experiências racionais só funcionam quando são verdadeiras experiências, e não apenas reflexões sobre o que esse ou aquele experimentopoderia ser.75

Appendix 17: Introduction of Contemporary Translation Theories76

Appendix 18: Introdiction of Teorias Contemporâneas da Tradução79

Appendix 19: Afterword of After Babel82

Appendix 20: Afterword of Depois de Babel85

Appendix 21: Table of contextual information about Translators through History andTradutores na HistóriaContextual information ofthe source textContextual information ofthe target textGenre Book BookLanguage English PortugueseAuthor / Translator Jean Delisle, Judith Sérgio BathWoodsworthTitle Translators through History Os Tradutores na HistóriaNumber of pages 346 359Publishing year 1995 2003Publisher John Benjamins AticaPlace of publishing Montreal São PauloAppendix 22: Table of contextual information about Scandals of Translation andEscândalos da TraduçãoContextual information ofthe source textContextual information ofthe target textGenre Book BookLanguage English PortugueseAuthor / Translator Lawrence Venuti Laureano Pelegrim. LucinéiaM. Vilela, Marileide D.Esqueda, Valéria BiondoTitle Scandals of Translation Escandalos da TraduçãoNumber of pages 210 396Publishing year 1998 2002Publisher Taylor Print on Dema EDUSCPlace of publishing New York São PauloAppendix 23: Table of contextual information about Becoming a Translator andConstruindo o TradutorContextual information ofthe source textContextual information ofthe target textGenre Book BookLanguage English PortugueseAuthor / Translator Douglas Robinson Jussara SimõesTitle Becoming a Translator Construindo o TradutorNumber of pages 320 450Publishing year 1998 (2° Ed.) 2002PublisherRoutledge (Taylor & EDUSCFrancis)Place of publishing New York São PauloAppendix 24: Table of contextual information about Contemporary Translation Theoriesand Teorias Contemporâneas da TraduçãoContextual information ofContextual information of

the source textthe target textGenre Book BookLanguage English PortugueseAuthor / Translator Edwin Gentzler Marcos MalvezziTitleContemporary TranslationTheoriesTeorias Contemporâneas daTraduçãoNumber of pages 230 296Publishing year 2001 2009Publisher Multilingual Matters Ltd. MadrasPlace of publishing London Rio de JaneiroAppendix 25: Table of contextual information about After Babel and Depois de BabelContextual information ofthe source textContextual information ofthe target textGenre Book BookLanguage English PortugueseAuthor / Translator George Steiner Carlos Alberto FaracoTitle After Babel Depois de BabelNumber of pages 560 533Publishing year 1998 (3° Ed.) 2005Publisher Oxford UK Editora UFPRPlace of publishing Oxford CuritibaAppendix 26: Translators through History’s covers– English and PortugueseTranslators Through HistoryIn AD 629, a Chinese monk named XuanZang set out for India on a quest for sacredtexts. He returned with a caravan of twentytwohorses bearing Buddhist treasures andspent the last twenty years of his life in the―Great Wild Goose Pagoda‖, in present-dayXi‘an, translating the Sanskrit manuscriptsinto Chinese with a team of collaborators.In the twelfth century, scholars came toSpain from all over Europe seekingknowledge that had been transmitted fromthe Arab world. Their names tell the story:Adelard of Bath, Hermann of Dalmatia, Platoof Tivoli. Among them was Robert ofOs tradutores na históriaAo longo dos tempos, os tradutoresinventaram alfabetos, contribuíram para acriação de línguas e deram forma àsliteraturas nacionais. Participaram tambémda difusão do conhecimento e da propagaçãodas religiões, importaram e exportaramvalores culturais. Além disso, representaramum papel determinante na evolução dassociedades e na vida intelectual.89

Chester (or Robert of Kent), who was part ofan elaborate team that translated documentson Islam and the Koran itself.Doña Marina, also called la Malinche, was acrucial link between Cortés and nativepeoples he set out to convert and conquer insixteenth-century Mexico. One of theconquistador‘s ―tongues‖ or interpreters, shewas also the mother of his son. She has beenan ambivalent figure in the history of the newworld, her own history having been rewrittenin different ways over the centuries.James Evans, an Englishman sent toevangelize and educate the natives of westernCanada during the nineteenth century,invented a writing system in order totranslate and transcribe religious texts.Known as ―the man who made birchbarktalk‖, he even succeeded in printing anumber of pamphlets, using crude typefashioned out of lead from the lining of teachests and ink made from a mixture of sootand sturgeon oil. A jackpress used by tradersto pack furs served as a press.These are just some of the stories told inTranslators through History, published underthe auspices of the International Federationof Translators (FIT). Over seventy peoplehave been involved in this project — asprincipal authors, contributors or translatorsand proofreaders. The participants comefrom some twenty countries, reflecting themake-up and interests of FIT.Appendix 27: Scandals of Translation’s covers– English and PortugueseScandals of translationLawrence Venuti exposes the 'scandals oftranslation' by looking at the relationshipbetween translation and the practices whichEscandalos da traduçãoComo um texto que vai ser publicado numjornal, numa revista, num livro, deve sertraduzido? Quais são os elementos culturais90

at once need and marginalize it. LawrenceVenuti, a professional translator, argues thatprevalent concepts of authorship degradetranslation in literary scholarchip andunderwrite its unfavorable definition incopyright law. Exposing myriad abuses,Venuti provides stinging critiques ofinstitutions such as the Modern LanguageAssociation for its neglect of translation, aswell as publishers for their questionabletreatment of translators.ocultos em qualquer tradução? Estas sãoalgumas questões discutidas neste livro porLawrence Venuti - autor famoso por suasposições polêmicas em relação ao processoda tradução.Appendix 28: Becoming a Translator’s covers – English and PortugueseBecoming a translatorDouglas Robinson presents an innovativeapproach to translation by integratingtranslation theory and the practical skillsrequired by the working translator. The bookprovides the type of information and advicethat novice translators really need; how totranslate faster and more accurately; how todeal with arising problems and stress; howthe market works; includes a wide variety oflively activities and exercises to facilitate thelearning of both theory and practice; includesa detailed Teachers Guide; and containssuggestions for discussion and activities andhints for the teaching of translation.Construindo o tradutorComo traduzir com mais rapidez e maiorprecisão? Como lidar com os problemas quegeralmente surgem nesse processo? Comofunciona o mercado de traduções? Estas sãoalgumas perguntas que Douglas Robinsondiscute e responde neste livro, que integra atradução aos conhecimentos práticosnecessários a seu ofício, escudado nas maisrecentes descobertas da Pedagogia, dosestudos da memória e das neurociências.Criado inicialmente para cursos de graduaçãoem teoria e prática de tradução, este livro éútil também para tradutores profissionais eestudiosos de tradução e línguas.Appendix 29: Contemporary Translation Theories’ covers– English and PortugueseContemporary Translation TheoriesTeorias Contemporâneas da Tradução91

From 1970 through to the beginning of thenew millennium, the field of translation hasexploded with multiple new theories."Contemporary Translation Theories"examines five new approaches - thetranslation workshop, the science oftranslation, translation studies, polysystemtheory, and deconstruction - all of whichbegan in the mid-1960s and continue to beinfluential.'Teorias Contemporâneas da Tradução'delineia o crescimento da teoria da traduçãoa partir de suas raízes tradicionais por meioda proliferação de teorias incentivadas porpesquisas em investigações feministas, pósestruturaise pós-coloniais. Edwin Gentzlerexamina cinco abordagens - oficina detradução, ciência da tradução, estudos datradução, teoria dos polissistemas edesconstrução -, as quais começaram emmeados dos anos de 1960 e continuam a serinfluentes. Nesse panorama crítico, eleexplora os pontos fortes e fracos de cadamétodo, detectando as conexões entre asdiferentes escolas de pensamento.Appendix 30: After Babel’s covers– English and PortugueseAfter BabelStudents of language, linguistics, literarytheory, translation studies, comparativeliterature. On its first publication in 1975,'After Babel' quickly established itself asboth controversial and seminal. GeorgeSteiner was the first since the eighteenthcentury to present a systematic investigationof the phenomenology and processes oftranslation both inside and betweenlanguages. Taking issue with the principalemphasis of modern linguistics, he finds theroot of the 'Babel problem' in our deepinstinct for privacy and a unique body ofshared secrecy. With this provocative thesishe analyses every aspect of translation, fromfundamental conditions of interpretation tothe most intricate of linguistic constructions.Depois de BabelPioneiro quando publicado pela primeira vezem 1975, Depois de Babel, permanece, trintaanos depois, insuperável, constituindo-setalvez na mais importante obra de GeorgeSteiner - o que, em se tratando de umintelectual como ele, não é dizer pouco.Manejando como em nenhuma outra obra aerudição que marca sua produção, Steinerdiscute, a partir dos problemas levantadospelo fenômeno da tradução, a linguagemhumana e o fenômeno literário. Livro quetem contribuição direta a dar não apenas aosestudiosos da tradução, mas também aos quese interessam por literatura, linguística efilosofia, é uma das grandes obras de nossotempo. (UFPR)Appendix 31: Translators Through History – Back cover’s analysis1. Over seventy people have been involved in this project — as principal authors, contributorsor translators and proofreaders.92

Over seventy people have been involved by Ø in this project— as principalauthors, contributorsor translators andproofreaders. Appendix 32: Translators Through History – Introduction’s analysis1. Despite a steady increase in the number of publications on the subject, the vastcompendium of translation history envisioned by the translators of thirty years ago had notyet been written.…the vastcompendium oftranslation historyenvisionedby the translatorsof… 2. To borrow the words of PierreFrançois Caillé, founding president of FIT, translators arethose "Ionely soldiers"……translators are those "Ionely soldiers"… 3. …who plunge into the fray of ideas and cultures to bear messages from one to the other,often becoming agents of profound ideological and social change (1955: 3).…who (translators) plunge into the fray of ideas … …Ø (they) becoming agents of… 4. This valuable tool enabled us to set up research teams, create an international network ofhistorians and get the preparation of Translators through History under way.This valuable tool enabled us to get thepreparation ofTranslatorsthroughHistory underway. 5. While broad-ranging and ambitious, Translators through History does not claim to be anexhaustive study of the history of translation.Translators through History does not claim to be an exhaustive study… 93

6. Instead, it is a selective and thematic overview of the principal roles played by translatorsthrough the ages.…the principal roles played by translators through the ages. 7. Translators have been viewed not so much from a psychological point of view, but rather interms of their position in a cultural and temporal space.Translators have been viewed… (by Ø) …from apsychologicalpoint of view, 8. Translators through History can be regarded as a guide to the field of translation history.Translators through can be regarded (by Ø) as a guide to…History 9. We should like to express our deepest gratitude to the translators and revisers - aroundtwenty-five in all-…We should like to express our deepest gratitude to thetranslators… 10. …- who have made it possible to publish the English and French editions of this booksimultaneously.…who (translators) have made it possible to the English and French …publish Appendix 33: Os tradutores na história – Back cover’s analysis1. Ao longo dos tempos, os tradutores inventaram alfabetos, contribuíram para a criação delínguas e deram forma às literaturas nacionais.Ao longo dos tempos, os tradutores inventaram alfabetos, Ø contribuíram para a criação delínguas Ø deram forma às literaturas94

nacionais. Ø participaram da difusão do... Øimportaram e valores culturais.exportaram Ø representaram um papeldeterminante... Appendix 34: Os tradutores na história – Introduction’s analysis1. A despeito do aumento regular do número de publicações sobre o tema, o amplocompêndio sobre a história da tradução, imaginado pelos tradutores há trinta anos, aindanão tinha sido escrito.…o amploimaginadopelos tradutores…compêndio sobre ahistória da tradução, 2. Para repetir as palavras de Pierre-François Caillé, presidente fundador da FIT, ostradutores são esses "soldados solitários"...…os tradutores são esses "soldados solitários"... 3. ... que mergulham na confusão das idéias e das culturas para transmitir mensagens de umlado para outro, tornando-se, muitas vezes, os agentes de profundas mudanças sociais eideológicas (1955, p 3).…que (tradutores) mergulham na confusão das idéias ... …tornando -se os agentes de profundas... 4. Embora tenha objetivos amplos e ambiciosos, esta obra não pretende ser um estudoexaustivo da história da tradução, mas simplesmente um exame seletivo e temático dosprincipais papéis exercidos pelos tradutores ao longo do tempo.…principais papéis exercidos pelos tradutores ao longo do tempo. 95

5. Os tradutores foram considerados não tanto sob uma perspectiva sociológica como emtermos da sua posição no espaço cultural e temporal.Os tradutores foram considerados (por Ø) ... sob umaperspectivasociológica ... 6. Os tradutores na história pode ser considerado um guia do campo da história da tradução.Os tradutores na pode ser considerado (por Ø) um guia do campohistóriada … 7. Embora tenha objetivos amplos e ambiciosos, esta obra não pretende ser um estudo exaustivo dahistória da tradução, mas simplesmente um exame seletivo e temático dos principais papéis exercidospelos tradutores ao longo do tempo.…dos principais papéis exercidos pelos tradutores ao longo do tempo. 8. Gostaríamos de exprimir nossa gratidão aos tradutores e revisores cerca de 25 pessoas -...Gostaríamos de exprimir nossa gratidão aos tradutores... 9. ... - que tornaram possível a publicação simultânea das edições inglesa e francesa destelivro.… que (tradutores)tornaram possível a das edições inglesa epublicaçãofrancesa… Appendix 35: Scandals of translation – Back cover’s analysis1. Lawrence Venuti exposes the 'scandals of translation' by looking at the relationshipbetween translation and the practices which at once need and marginalize it.Lawrence Venutiexposesthe 'scandals of translation' bylookingat the relationshipbetweentranslation and… 2. Lawrence Venuti, a professional translator, argues that prevalent concepts of authorshipdegrade translation in literary scholarship and underwrite its unfavorable definition incopyright law.LawrenceVenuti, aarguesthat…96

professionaltranslator, …prevalent concepts of degradetranslation in literaryauthorshipscholarship and… Appendix 36: Scandals of translation – Introduction’s analysis1. They are revealed when one asks why translation today remains in the margins of research,commentary, and debate, especially in English.…translation… remains in the margins of research, 2. Translation is stigmatized as a form of writing, discouraged by copyright law, depreciatedby the academy, exploited by publishers and corporations, governments and religiousorganizations.Translation is stigmatized … (by Ø) as a form ofwriting Ø (translation) discouraged by copyright law Ø (translation) depreciated by the academy Ø (translation) exploited by publishers… 3. Translation is treated so disadvantageously, I want to suggest, partly because it occasionsrevelations that question the authority of dominant cultural values and institutions.Translation is treated (by Ø) sodisadvantageously, 4. And like every challenge to established reputations, it provokes their efforts at damagecontrol, their various policing functions, all designed to shore up the questioned values andinstitutions by mystifying their uses of translation.…it provokes their efforts 97

5. My project is, first, to expose these scandals by enquiring into the relationships betweentranslation and a range of categories and practices that contribute to its current marginalstatus.My project is to expose by enquiringintotherelationshipsbetweentranslationand a rangeof … 6. Research thus becomes scientistific, claiming to be objective or value-free, ignoring thefact that translation, like any cultural practice, entails the creative reproduction of values.…translation, entails the creativereproductionof values. 7. These lines of research are not only limited in their explanatory power, but directedprimarily to other academic specialists in linguistics, instead of translators or readers oftranslations or even specialists in other humanistic disciplines.These lines are directed… (by Ø) to other academic…insteadof research…of translators or… 8. In the end translation suffers from an institutional isolation, divorced from thecontemporary cultural developments and debates that invest it with significance.…translation suffers aninstitutionalisolation, 9. By far the greatest hindrances to translation, however, exist outside the discipline itself.… the greatesthindrances totranslation,existoutside thedisciplineitself. 10. Translation is degraded by prevalent concepts of authorship, especially in literature andin literary scholarship, and these concepts underwrite its unfavorable definition in copyrightlaw, not only the codes of specific national jurisdictions, but the major international treaties.Translation is degraded by prevalentconcepts 98

11. Translation lies deeply repressed in the cultural identities that are constructed byacademic, religious, and political institutions;Translation lies deeplyrepressedin the culturalidentities 12. Translation figures hugely in the corporate world, in the international publishing ofbestsellers and the unequal patterns of cross-cultural commerce between the hegemonicNorthern and Western countries and their others in Africa, Asia, and South America.Translation figures in thecorporateworld, 13. Translation powers the global cultural economy, enabling transnational corporations todominate the print and electronic media in the so-called developing countries by capitalizingon the marketability of translations from the major languages, preeminently English.Translation powers the globalculturaleconomy, enablingtransnationalcorporationstodominatethe print… 14. Translation embarrasses the institutions that house these categories and practicesbecause it calls attention to their questionable conditions and effects, the contradictions andexclusions that make them possible – and discredit them.Translation embarrasses the institutions 15. The English translation is extraordinary for its ideological slanting against pre-Columbian Mexicans, whose oral culture is represented as inferior, especially as a repositoryof the past.The Englishtranslationisextraordinary… 16. In the following sentence, the translation has edited the Spanish, diminishing theindigenous culture by simplifying the syntax and deleting another key term, ―mitos‖.the has edited the Spanish,translation thetranslationdiminishingtheindigenousbysimplifying99

has editedculture the syntax…the Spanish, 17. As Mason observed, we do not need to attribute a deliberate intention to the translator inorder to perceive the skewed representation in the translation.…we do not need to a deliberate to theattribute intention translator… 18. The ideological slanting against the indigenous population is inscribed in specificdiscursive choices which work both to create a subordinate identity and to make it seemnatural or obvious – as it must have seemed to the translator and the magazine editors.…itmust haveseemed to thetranslator19. Despite the magnitude of this particular example, the exposures that translation enableshere will seek to avoid the sensationalism inherent in any simple muckraking.…the exposures translation enables here…that 20. I want instead to initiate a productive rethinking of the questioned values and institutions,although through their anxious relationships with translation.I want to initiate a productive although through their anxiousrethinking relationships with translation. 21. I want to explore the ways in which translation redefines authorship in literature and inlaw, creates identities receptive to cultural difference, requires different approaches toteaching literature to doing philosophy, and recommends new policies for publishers andcorporations.…translation redefines authorship… 22. In the process translation will be conceived anew on the basis of detailed case studies,resulting in a set of theoretical concepts that carry practical consequences.…translation will be conceived anew (by Ø) on the basisof… 23. Translations are produced for many reasons, literary and commercial, pedagogical andtechnical, propagandistic and diplomatic.100

Translations are produced (by Ø) for manyreasons, 24. Yet no translator or institutional initiator of a translation can hope to control or even beaware of every condition of its production.… no translator can hope to everycontrol condition … no translator can hope to every conditionbe aware of 25. Nonetheless, it is these conditions and consequences that offer the most compellingreasons for discriminating among the stakes involved in translating and reading translations.… the stakes translating translations.involved in and… … the stakes reading translations.involved in 26. They move between several different languages, cultures, periods, disciplines, andinstitutions in an effort to describe and evaluate the social effects of translated texts, toexpand the possibilities for translation projects, to establish translation more firmly as anarea of research in the academy, and to win for translators greater cultural authority and amore favorable legal status, especially in the US and UK.They move to establish translation more firmly as an area…between severaldifferentlanguages, They movebetween severaldifferentlanguages,to win for translators greaterculturalauthorityand… 27. The authority I wish to achieve for translators and translations isn’t a mereaggrandizement.The authority I wish to achieve for translatorsandtranslations… 101

28. The only authority that translation can expect depends on its remaining derivative,distinguishable from the original compositions that it tries to communicate, and collective,remaining open to the other agents who influence it, especially domestic readerships.The only authoritythattranslation can expect… depends on its remainingderivative, 29. Hence, the only prestige that a translator can gain comes from practicing translation, notas a form of personal expression, but as collaboration between divergent groups, motivatedby an acknowledgement of the linguistic and cultural differences that translation necessarilyrewrites and reorders.…the only a translatorcan gain…prestige that the onlyprestige thata translator can gain comes from practicingtranslation anacknowledgementof the linguisticand culturaldifferences thattranslationrewrites andreorders. 30. Translators are complicit in the institutional exploitation of foreign texts and cultures.Translators are complicit… 31. But there have also been translators who acted just as dubiously on their own, not in theemploy of any bureaucracy.…translators acteddubiously onwhotheir own… 32. Between 1967 and 1972, the American translator Norman Thomas di Giovanni workedclosely with the Argentine writer Jorge Luis Borges, publishing several English-languagevolumes of Borge’s fiction and poetry, acting as his literary agent, helping him gain thecanonical status he enjoys today.…the American worked closely with thetranslatorArgentine writer 102

…the Americantranslatorworked closelywith theArgentine writerpublishingseveralEnglishlanguage… …the Americantranslatorworked closelywith theArgentine writeractingas his literaryagent, …the Americantranslatorworked closelywith theArgentine writerhelping him gain thecanonicalstatus heenjoys today. 33. But he was himself enforcing a discursive regime that sought to repress the literarypeculiarities of Borge’s innovative writing, practicing and anti-intellectualism in thetranslation of a most intellectual writer.But he was enforcinga discursivehimselfregime … But he was practicingan antiintellectualismin thehimselftranslation… 34. Authors have in turn exploited translators, but few have publicly denounced thetranslations of their writing.Authors have exploited translators, few have denounced thetranslations… 35. …the second in 1982 was ―unacceptable‖ because he judged it ―not my text‖, a―translation-adaptation‖.(…he) judged it a ―translationadaptation‖. 103

36. Kundera is rightly suspicious of domesticating translations that assimilate foreignliterary texts too forcefully to dominant values at home, erasing the sense of foreignness thatwas likely to have invited translation in the first place.Kundera is suspicious of domesticatingtranslations …the sense of to have invited translation…foreignness thatwas likely 37. Yet how can any foreignness be registered in a translation except trough anotherlanguage?…anybe registered in a translation…foreignness 38. He assumes that the meaning of the foreign text can avoid change in translation, that theforeign writer’s intention can travel unadulterated across a linguistic and cultural divide.the meaning of can avoid change in translationthe foreign text 39. A translation always communicates an interpretation, a foreign text that is partial andaltered, supplemented with features peculiar to the translating language, no longerinscrutably foreign but made comprehensible in a distinctively domestic style.A translation communicates an interpretation,always 40. Translations, in other words, inevitably perform a work of domestication.Translations, perform a work ofdomestication. 41. Kundera, in effect, wishes to control the interpretations put forward by French andEnglish translators.Kundera wishes to control the interpretations put forward byFrench and English translators. 42. That a translation was well received in French or English, important for achieving aninternational readership for the author, doesn’t matter to Kundera (whose own writing hasacquired considerable cultural and economic capital through translations).104

That awas well received in French ortranslationEnglish, whose ownwritinghas acquiredconsiderablecultural andeconomic capitalthroughtranslations 43. He wishes only to evaluate the relationship between the translation and the foreign text asif his access to the latter were direct and unmediated.He wishes to evaluate the relationshipbetween thetranslation and theforeign text 44. But a translation can’t give what a foreign writer would want if he were alive and writingin the translating language and culture.a translation can’t give what a foreignwriter… 45. Kundera doesn’t want to recognize the linguistic and cultural differences that atranslation must negotiate;… the linguistic that a translation must negotiate;and culturaldifferences 46. Thus, he produced a third English version of his novel The Joke, which he cobbledtogether not just from his own English and French renderings, but also from the many ―finesolutions‖ and the ―great many faithful renderings and good formulations‖ in the previoustranslations.he produced third Englishversionfrom the many―finesolutions‖…in theprevioustranslations. 47. Whether the translators consented to Kundera’s handling of their work remains unclear;the translators consented to Kundera’shandling… 105

48. When the author is the translator, apparently, he is not above the domestications that heattacked in the previous English versions.the author is the translator, 49. Translation clearly raises ethical questions that have yet to be sorted out.Translation raises ethicalquestions… 50. The mere identification of a translation scandal is an act of judgment: here it presupposesan ethics that recognizes and seeks to remedy the asymmetries in translating, a theory of goodand bad methods for practicing and studying translation.a theory of good for Ø practicing translation.and bad methods a theory of good for Ø studying translation.and bad methods 51. And the ethics at issue must be theorized as contingent, an ideal grounded in the specificcultural situations in which foreign texts are chosen and translated or in which translationsand the act of translating are made the objects of research.…translationsand the act oftranslatingare madethe objects ofresearch. 52. I articulate these ethical responsibilities first in terms of my own work, beginning with adiscussion of the choices I confront as an American translator of literary texts.…with adiscussion of thechoicesI…as an Americantranslator of literarytextsconfront 53. The ethical stance I advocate urges that translations be written, read, and evaluated withgreater respect for linguistic and cultural differences.The ethical urgesthat translations bestance I advocatewritten, 54. Insofar as translation involves an intercultural collaboration, my aim extends to theglobal reach of my topic: to address translators and users of translations throughout the106

world, but with an attentiveness to their different locations that influences the terms ofaddress.translation involves an interculturalcollaboration, Ø I address translators andusers oftranslations… 55. For translation looms large among the cultural practices that at once join and separateus.translation looms large… Appendix 37: Escandalos da tradução – Back cover’s analysis1. Quais são os elementos culturais ocultos em qualquer tradução?Quais são os elementosculturaisocultos em qualquertradução?Appendix 38: Escandalos da tradução – Introduction’s analysis1. São revelados quando se pergunta por que a tradução permanece hoje às margens dapesquisa, dos comentários e dos debates, especialmente em inglês.…a tradução … permanece às margens da pesquisa, 2. A tradução é estigmatizada como uma forma de escrita, desencorajada pela lei dos direitosautorais, depreciada pela academia, explorada pelas editoras e empresas, organizaçõesgovernamentais e religiosas.A tradução é estigmatizada (por Ø) como uma formade escrita, Ø tradução é desencorajada pela lei dos direitos autorais, Ø tradução é depreciada pela academia, 107

Ø tradução é explorada pelas editoras... 3. Quero sugerir que a tradução é tratada de forma tão desvantajosa em parte porquepropicia revelações que questionam a autoridade de valores culturais e instituiçõesdominantes....a tradução é tratada (por Ø) de forma tãodesvantajosa... 4. E como todo desafios às reputações estabelecidas, ela provoca seus esforços paracontrolar danos, suas diversas funções policiais, todas com o objetivo de escorar os valores eas instituições questionados, mistificando os usos que fazem da tradução.…ela (tradução) provoca seus esforços 5. Meu projeto é, em primeiro lugar, expor esses escândalos ao averiguar as relações entre atradução e uma gama de categorias e práticas que contribuem para seu status marginalatual.Meu projeto é, expor essesescândalosao averiguaras relaçõesentre atradução euma gamade... 6. Pelo fato de tais abordagens promoverem modelos científicos de pesquisa, elas relutam emlevar em consideração os valores sociais envolvidos na tradução bem como em deu estudo....tais abordagensrelutam em levar emconsideraçãoos valores sociaisenvolvidos natradução... 7.Dessa maneira, a pesquisa torna-se científica, reinvindicando ser objetiva ou livre de valor,ignorando o fato de que a tradução, como qualquer prática cultural, acarreta a reproduçãocriativa de valores....a tradução acarreta areproduçãocriativa devalores. 108

8. Essas linhas de pesquisa não são somente limitadas em seu poder explanatório, masdirecionadas, principalmente, a outros especialistas acadêmicos em linguistica, em vez de sedirigirem a tradutores ou leitores de traduções ou mesmo a especialistas em outrasdisciplinas da área de humanas.Essas linhas são(por Ø) a outros...de pesquisa... direcionadas,a tradutores 9. Finalmente, a tradução sofre de um isolamento institucional, divorciada dosdesenvolvimentos culturais contemporâneos e dos debates que a revestem de significado.a tradução sofre de umisolamentoinstitucional, 10. De longe, os maiores obstáculos à tradução, entretanto, encontram-se fora da própriadisciplina.os maioresobstáculos àtradução,encontram-se fora daprópriadisciplina. 11. A tradução é degradada pelos conceitos dominantes de autoria, especialmente emliteratura e na discussão literária acadêmica, e esses conceitos reforçam sua definiçãodesfavorável na lei sobre os direitos autorais, não somente nos códigos de jurisdiçõesnacionais específicas, mas nos principais tratados internacionais.A tradução é degradada pelosconceitos... 12. A tradução encontra-se profundamente reprimida nas identidades culturais que sãoconstruídas pelas instituições acadêmicas, religiosas e poliíticas;A tradução encontra-se profundamentereprimida nasidentidadesculturais13. A tradução faz-se presente de forma maciça no mundo empresarial, na publicaçãointernacional de best-sellers e nos padrões desiguais de comércio intercultural entre ospaíses hegemônicos do norte e do ocidente e seus Outros na África, Ásia e América do Sul.A tradução faz-se presente no mundoempresarial, 109

14. A tradução fortalece a economia cultural global, possibilitando às empresasmultinacionais dominar a mídia impressa e eletrônica nos chamados países emdesenvolvimento, lucrando com a possibilidade de venda das traduções a partir das línguasde maior difusão, principalmente do inglês.A tradução fortalece a economiaculturalglobal, 15. A tradução constrange as instituições que abrigam essas categorias e práticas, visto quechama a atenção para as condições e efeitos questionáveis dessas instituições, para ascontradições e exclusões que as tornam possíveis – e as desacreditam.A tradução constrange as instituições... 16. A tradução em inglês é extraordinária por seu viés ideológico contra os mexicanos précolombianos, cuja cultura oral é representada como inferior, especialmente como depósito dopassado.A traduçãoem inglêséextraordinária... 17. Como Mason observou, não precisamos atribuir uma inteção deliberada ao tradutor paraperceber a representação enviesada na tradução.Ø (nós) não precisamos atribuirumainteçãoao tradutor... para perceber a representaçãoenviesadana tra

20. Pelo contrário, quero iniciar uma reflexão produtiva sobre os valores e instituiçõesquestionados, embora por meio de suas relações angustiadas com a tradução.Ø (eu) quero iniciar uma reflexãoprodutiva embora por meio de suasrelações angustiadas com atradução.21. Quero explorar as maneiras pelas quais a tradução redefine a autoria na literatura e nalei, cria identidades receptivas à diferença cultural, exige abordagens diferentes no ensino daliteratua e na prática filosófica e recomenda novas políticas para editoras e empresas.…a redefine a autoria...tradução 22.No decorrer deste trabalho, a tradução será tratada mais uma vez com base em estudos decaso detalhados, resultando num conjunto de conceitos teóricos que acarretamconsequencias práticas.a tradução será tratada mais uma vez (por Ø) com base em... 23. As traduções são produzidas por muitas razões, literárias e comerciais, pedagógicas etécnicas, propagandistas e diplomáticas.As traduções são produzidas (por Ø) por muitasrazões, 24. Contudo, nenhum tradutor ou instituição que patrocina uma tradução pode ter aesperança de controlar ou mesmo ter conciência de todas as condições de sua produção.…nenhum que patrocina umatradutortradução... …Øtradutor pode ter a esperança... …Øtradutor ter conciência de todas ascondições... 25. Eles movem-se entre diversas línguas, culturas, períodos, disciplinas e instituiçõesdiferentes num esforço para descrever e avaliar os efeitos sociais de textos traduzidos,expandir as possibilidades para projetos de tradução, estabelecer a tradução de forma maisfirme como uma área de pesquisa acadêmica, e conquistar para os tradutores uma111

autoridade cultural maior e um status legal mais favorável, especialmente nos EUA e ReinoUnido.Eles movem-seentre diversaslínguas,...para estabelecer a tradução de forma maisfirme…como umaárea Eles movem-seentre diversaslínguas,...para conquistarpara ostradutoresumaautoridadecultural... 26. A autoridade que desejo alcançar para os tradutores e para as traduções não é um meroengrandecimento.A autoridade que Ø (eu) desejo alcançar para ostradutores e paraas traduções... 27. Pelo contrário, visto que a tradução é intercultural, ela envolve um tipo diferente deautoria, secundária para o texto estrangeiro e a serviço de diferentes comunidades, tantoestrangeiras como domésticas.…a tradução é é intercultural, 28. A única autoridade que a tradução pode esperar depende da continuidade do seu caráterdeirvado, distinto das composições originais que tenta comunicar , e coletivo, permanecendoaberta aos outros agentes que a influenciam, especialmente os públicos-leitores domésticos.A únicaautoridade quea tradução podeesperar...depende dacontinuidadedo seucaráter... 29. Portanto, o único prestígio que um tradutor pode ganhar vem da prática da tradução, nãocomo uma forma de expressão pessoal, mas como uma colaboração entre grupos divergentes,motivada por um reconhecimento das diferenças linguisticas e culturais que a traduçãonecessariamente reescreve e reordena.…o únicoprestígio queum tradutor pode ganhar... vem da prática datradução, ...umreconhecimentoa traduçãoreescreve ereordena.112

das diferençaslinguisticas eculturais que 30. A tradução, como qualquer escrita, é geralmente praticada em condições solitárias.A tradução, é praticada por Ø em condiçõessolitárias.… 31. Mas ela (tradução) liga multidões, frequentemente nos grupos mais inesperados.…ela (tradução) liga multidões, 32. Os tradutores são cúmplices na exploração institucional de textos e culturas estrangeiros.Os tradutores são cúmplices … 33. Mas também existiram tradutores que agiram de forma duvidosa, por conta própria, nãoa serviço de qualquer burocracia.…tradutores que agiram de formaduvidosa... 34. Entre 1967 e 1972, o tradutor americano Norman Thomas di Giovanni trabalhou próximoao escritor argentino Jorge Luis Borges, publicando vários volumes em língua inglesa daobra ficcional e poética de Borges, atuando como seu agente literário, ajudando-o a ganharo status canônico de que hoje goza.…o tradutor trabalhou próximo ao escritoramericano...argentino …o tradutor americano publicando vários volumes...trabalhou próximo ao escritorargentino …o tradutor americano atuando como seu agente literário,trabalhou próximo ao escritorargentino... …o tradutor americanotrabalhou próximo aoajudando -o a ganhar o statuscanônico de que hoje113

escritor argentino...goza. 35. Di Giovanni acreditava estar advogando uma abordagem de escritura para a tradução,oposta aos ―professores e pseudo-eruditos que olham a escrita através de microscópios,colocando muita ênfase em palavras isoladas e abstrações‖.Di Giovanni acreditava estar advogando uma abordagemde escritura para a tradução, 36. Mas ele próprio estava pondo em prárica um regime discursivo que procurava reprimiras peculiaridades literárias da escrita inovadora de Borges, exercendo um antiintelectualismona tradução de um escritor antes de mais nada intelectual.Mas ele próprio estava pondo em um regimepráricadiscursivo... Mas ele próprio exercendo um antiintelectualismona traduçãode… 37. Os autores, por sua vez, exploram os tradutores, mas poucos têm denunciado de formapública as traduções de seus escritos.Os autores exploram os tradutores, poucos têm denunciado as traduções de seusescritos. 38. ... a segunda, de 1982, foi ―inaceitável‖ porque ele julgou-a ―não meu texto‖, uma―tradução-adaptação‖....ele julgou -a uma ―traduçãoadaptação‖. 39. Kundera tem razão ao suspeitar de traduções domesticadoras que assimilam de modomuito violento textos literários estrangeiros aos valores dominantes locais, apagando o ar deestrangeiridade que foi provávelmente o que motivou a tradução.Kundera ao suspeitar de traduçõesdomesticadoras... …o ar de estrangeiridade quefoi provávelmente o quemotivoua tradução.114

40. Contudo, como pode qualquer estrangeiridade ser registrada numa tradução senão pormeio de outra língua...…qualquer ser registrada por Ø numa tradução...estrangeiridade 41. O pensamento de Kundera sobre tradução é de uma ingenuidade notável para um escritortão finamente sintonizado com os efeitos estilísticos.O pensamento de Kundera éde umasobre traduçãoingenuidade... 42. Ele acredita que o significado do texto estrangeiro pode evitar mudanças na tradução,que a intenção do escritor estrangeiro pode cruzar de forma não adulterada uma fronteiralinguistica e cultural.o significado do pode evitar mudanças na tradução,texto estrangeiro 43. Uma tradução sempre comunica uma interpretação, um texto estrangeiro que é parcial ealterado, suplementado com carcaterísticas peculiares à lingua de chegada, não maisinescrutavelmente estrangeiro, mas tornado compreensível num estilo claramente doméstico.Uma tradução sempre comunica uma interpretação, 44. As traduções, em outras palavras, inevitavelmente realizam um trabalho de domesticação.As traduções, realizam um trabalho de domesticação. 45. De fato Kundera deseja controlar as interpretações apresentadas pelos tradutores delíngua francesa e inglesa – mas na base do desacordo absoluto com eles.Kundera deseja controlar as interpretaçõespresentadas pelostradutores 46. O fato de uma tradução ter sido bem recebida em francês ou inglês não importa paraKundera (cuja própria escrita adquiriu capital cultural e econômico considerável por meiodas traduções).O fato de umatraduçãoter sido bem recebida francês ou inglês...115

cuja própriaescritaadquiriucapital cultural eeconômicoconsiderávelconsiderável pormeio dastraduções 47. Ele deseja apenas avaliar a relação entre a tradução e o texto estrangeiro como se seuacesso ao último fosse direto e não mediado.Ele deseja apenas avaliar a relação entre a tradução e o texto... 48. Mas uma tradução não pode dar o que o escritor estrangeiro teria desejado se eleestivesse vivo e escrevendo na língua e cultura para a qual se traduz.uma tradução não pode dar o que o escritorestrangeiro... 49. Kundera não quer reconhecer as diferenças linguisticas e culturais que uma traduçãodeve negociar;… as diferençasque uma tradução deve negociar;linguisticas e culturais 50. Dessa maneira, produziu uma terceira versão em inglês do seu romance A brincadeira, aqual ele alinhavou não somente a partir de suas próprias traduções em inglês e francês, mastambém a partir de ―várias soluções boas‖ e de ―muitas traduções fiéis e boas formulações‖das traduções anteriores.a qual ele alinhavou a partir de suaspróprias traduções Ø (ele) produziu uma terceiraversãoa partir de ―váriassoluções boas‖ dastraduções anteriores. 51. Não se sabe se os tradutores permitiram a intervenção de Kundera em seus trabalhos;os tradutores permitiram a intervenção deKundera... 52. Quando o autor é tradutor, aparentemente, ele não está acima das domesticações queatacou nas versões anteriores em inglês.116

o autor é tradutor, 53. A tradução certamente levanta questões éticas que ainda tem que ser esclarecidas.A tradução levanta questões éticas... 54. A simples identificação de um escândalo de tradução é um ato de julgamento: aqui elepressupõe uma ética que reconhece e procura remediar as assimetrias no ato tradutório, umateoria de métodos bons e ruins para praticar e estudar a tradução.uma teoria de para Ø praticar a tradução.métodos bons eruins uma teoria de para Ø estudar a tradução.métodos bons eruins 55. É a ética em questão deve ser teorizada como contingente, um ideal baseado em situaçõesculturais específicas nas quais os textos estrangeiros são escolhidos e traduzidos ou nasquais as traduções e o ato de traduzir são feitos objeto de pesquisa.as traduções e o são feitosobjeto deato de traduzirpesquisa. 56. Articulo essas responsabilidades éticas primeiramente em termos de meu própriotrabalho, começando com uma discussão das escolhas as quais me confronto como umtradutor americano de textos literários....as quais me confronto como um tradutor americano detextos literários. 57. A postura ética que advogo insiste que as traduções sejam escritas, lidas e avaliadas commaior respeito em relação às diferenças linguisticas e culturais.A postura ética insisteque as traduçõesque advogosejam escritas, 58. Na medida em que a tradução envolve uma colaboração intercultural, meu objetivoestende-se ao alcance global de meu tópico: dirijo-me a tradutores e usuários de tradução emtodo o mundo, mas com uma atenção especial a suas diferentes localidades as quaisinfluenciam os termos do diálogo.117

...a tradução envolve uma colaboraçãointercultural, 59. Pois a tradução sobressai-se entre as práticas culturais que ao mesmo tempo nos unem enos separam.a tradução sobressai-se entre as práticas... Appendix 39: Becoming a translator – Back cover’s analysis1. Douglas Robinson presents an innovative approach to translation…Douglas Robinson presents an innovative to translation…approach 2. …by integrating translation theory and the practical skills required by the workingtranslator.…practical skills required by the working translator. 3. The book provides the type of information and advice that novice translators really need;The book provides the type ofinformation andadvice that novicetranslators reallyneedAppendix 40: Becoming a translator – Introduction’s analysis1. How best to bring student translators up to speed, in the literal sense of helping them tolearn and to translate rapidly and effectively?Ø bring… up tospeedstudenttranslators Ø helping…to themlearn and totranslate 2. How best to get them both to retain the linguistic and cultural knowledge and to master thelearning and translation skills they will need to be effective professionals?Øto get…toretain…them boththe linguistic andcultural118

knowledge… 3. Faster is generally better in the professional world, where faster translators—provided thatthey continue to translate accurately—earn more money;translators earn more money; 4. Professional translators need to be able to slow down to examine a problematic word orphrase or syntactic structure or cultural assumption painstakingly, with full analyticalawareness of the problem and its possible solutions.translatorsneed to be ableto slow down toexaminea problematicword… 5. Without the kinds of problems that slow the translation process down to a snail's pace, thetranslator would quickly fall into a rut.…the would quickly a rut.translator fall into 6. Translators need to be able to process linguistic materials quickly and efficiently;Translators need to be ableto process linguisticmaterials…7. …but they also need to be able to recognize problem areas and to slow down to solve themin complex analytical ways.they need to be ableto recognize problem areas…8. Translators need to be able to shuttle back and forth between rapid subliminal translatingand slow, painstaking critical analysis—Translators need to be ableto shuttleback and forth between rapidsubliminal… 9. …which means not only that they should be trained to do both, but that their trainingshould embody the shuttle movement between the two, subliminal-becoming-analytical,analytical-becoming-subliminal.they should be (by) Ø both,119

trained to do 10. Translators need to be able not only to perform both subliminal speed-translating andconscious analytical problem-solving, but also to shift from one to the other when thesituation requires it (and also to recognize when the situation does require it).Translators need to be able both subliminal…not only toperform 11. Such introductory courses are designed to give undergraduate (and, in some cases,graduate) students an overall view of what translators do and how translation is studied.…of what translators do …translation is studied (by) Ø 12. In addition, however, the exercises are designed not only to teach about translation but tohelp students translate better as well;the exercises are designed (by) Ø not only to teach abouttranslation… 13. Since most translators traditionally (myself included) were not trained for the job, andmany still undergo no formal training even today, I have also set up the book for self-study.…translators were not trained (by) Ø for the job, … many undergo no formal(translators)training… Appendix 41: Construindo o tradutor – Back cover’s analysis1. Estas são algumas perguntas que Douglas Robinson discute e responde neste livro, queintegra a tradução aos conhecimentos práticos necessários a seu ofício, escudado nas maisrecentes descobertas da Pedagogia, dos estudos da memória e das neurociências.…Ø(livro) que integra a tradução aos conhecimentospráticos ... 120

2. Criado inicialmente para cursos de graduação em teoria e prática de tradução, este livro éútil também para tradutores profissionais e estudiosos de tradução e línguas.este livro é útil... ...para tradutores... Appendix 42: Construindo o tradutor – Introduction’s analysis1. A velocidade é melhor, em geral, no mundo profissional, onde os tradutores mais velozescontanto que continuem a traduzir com precisão ganham mais dinheiro;os ganham mais dinheiro;tradutores 2. Os tradutores profissionais precisam ser capazes de reduzir a marcha para examinarminuciosamente uma palavra, frase, ou estrutura sintática problemática ou um pressupostocultural, com plena consciência analítica do problema e de suas possíveis soluções.Ostradutoresprecisam ser capazes dereduzir... 3. Sem os problemas que levam a passo de lesma o processo tradutório, o tradutorrapidamente cairia na rotina.tradutor cairia na rotina. 4. Os tradutores precisam estar aptos a processar materiais lingüísticos com rapidez eeficiência; mas também precisam estar aptos a reconhecer áreas problemáticas e a reduzir avelocidade para resolvê-los de maneira complexa e analítica.tradutores precisam estaraptos aprocessar materiaislingüísticos...5. Os tradutores precisam da capacidade de transitar entre a tradução subliminar rápida e aanálise crítica lenta e minuciosa o que significa que, além de se prepararem para fazer asduas coisas, sua formação deve incluir o movimento de ligação entre as duas, de subliminarpara analítica, de analítica para subliminar.tradutoresprecisam dacapacidade detransitarentre a traduçãosubliminar... 6. Os tradutores precisam estar aptos a realizar a tradução veloz subliminar e a resolução deproblemas consciente e analítica, mas também precisam da capacidade de passar de um121

método para outro quando a situação o exigir (e também reconhecer quando a situação oexige).tradutores precisam estaraptos a realizara tradução velozsubliminar... 7. Tais cursos introdutórios destinam-se a oferecer ao aluno de graduação (e, em algunscasos, pós-graduação) um panorama geral daquilo que os tradutores fazem e de como seestuda tradução.…daquilo que os tradutores fazem... …se estuda tradução (por) Ø 8. Além disso, porém, os exercícios não foram elaborados somente para ensinar a respeito datradução, mas também para ajudar os alunos a traduzir melhore também se pode utilizar olivro como material complementar em seminários de prática de tradução.os exercícios foramelaborados(por) Ø para ensinar a respeito datradução, Appendix 43: Contemporary Translation Theories – Introduction’s analysis1. …yet translation inheres in every language by its relationships to other signifying systemsboth past and present.translation inheres in every language by itsrelationships… 2. …intralingual translation, a rewording of signs in one language with signs from the samelanguage;…intralingual translation, Ø (is) a rewording of signs … 3. …interlingual translation, or the interpretation of signs in one language with signs fromanother language;…interlingual translation, Ø (is) the interpretation of signs … 4. …intersemiotic translation, or the transfer of the signs in one language to non-verbal signsystems.…intersemiotic translation, Ø (is) the transfer of the signs …122

5. I will be concerned mostly with the secound aspect of Jakobson’s definition – interlingualtranslation - …I will be concerned with… interlingualtranslation… 6. …but I hope to demosntrate as well that such isolation is impossible, and that eventranslation „proper― entails multiple linguistic, literary, and cultural aspects.…translation „proper― entails multiple…aspects. 7. The following chapters focus on just five different approaches to translation that…The following chapters focus on just five different approachesto translation that… 8. Literary translators, for example, distance themselves from the „jargon‖ of linguisticapproaches;Literary translators, distance themselves from the„jargon‖ of linguisticapproaches; 9. Euro-American translators, for example, generally resist the suggestion that…Euro-American translators resist the suggestion… 10. …institutional manipulation influences translation.…institutional manipulation influences translation. 11. While such terms may help the translation scholar articulate the way translations functionin a society……translations function in a society… 12. …most of which comes from „outside― a translation-oriented or even a comparativediscipline...…most of which (secondary comes from „outside― a translation-123

literature)oriented...discipline... 13. Some of the ―precursors‖ work may or may not have been intended for translation.…―precursors‖ ...have been intended Ø(by someone) for translation.work 14. Richards, for example, was clearly teaching students techniques for learning the Englishcanon, yet translation workshops in the USA use New Critical methods to interpret andevaluate translations.…translationworkshopsuse New Critical methods tointerpretandevaluate translations.15. Chomsky did not intend his model to be used for translation…Chomsky did not intend ...his model to be used for translation… 16. Late Russian Formalists such as Jurij Tynjanov and Roman Jakobson allowed fortranslation as well as other cultural phenomena in their theory...Late RussianFormalists suchas Jurij Tynjanovand RomanJakobsonallowed fortranslation as wellas other cultural...in their theory... 17. Such standards imply notions of substantialism that limit other possibilities of translationpractice, marginalize unorthodox translation, and impinge…Such standardsimply notions ofsubstantialismthat limit otherpossibilities oftranslationpractice,marginalizeunorthodoxtranslation,… Appendix 44: Teorias Contemporâneas da Tradução – Introduction’s analysis1. ...outros, talvez tradutores também, alegam saber tudo o que precisam saber.124

…outros, talvez tradutores alegamsaber tudo o que precisamtambém,saber 2. ...a tradução, porém, é inerente a todas as línguas por meio de suas relações com outrossistemas significativos , tanto do passado como do presente.a tradução é inerente a todas as línguas... por meio de suasrelações 3. ...tradução intralingual, uma reescrita de sinais em uma língua com sinais da mesmalíngua;…tradução intralingual, Ø é uma reescrita de sinais… 4. ...tradução interlingual, ou a interpretação de sinais em uma língua com sinais de outra.…tradução interlingual, Ø é a interpretação de sinais… 5. ...e tradução intersemiótica, ou a transferência dos sinais em uma língua para sistemas desinais de língua em arte ou música.…tradução intersemiótica Ø é a transferência dos sinais … 6. Meu enfoque principal é o segundo aspecto da definição de Jakobson – traduçãointerlingual...Meu enfoque principal é o segundo aspecto dadefinição de Jakobson –tradução interlingual... 7. ...mas espero demonstrar também que esse isolamento é impossível e que mesmo atradução ―propriamente dita‖ acarreta múltiplos aspectos linguísticos, literarios e culturais.…a tradução „própriamentedita―acarretamúltiplos aspectoslinguísticos, literarios eculturais. 8. Tradutores literários, por exemplo, distanciam-se do ―jargão‖ das abordagenslinguísticas;Tradutores literários, distanciam-se do ―jargão‖ das abordagenslinguísticas; 125

9. Tradutores euro-amricanos, por exemplo, costumam resistir à sugestão...Tradutores euro-amricanos, costumam resistir à sugestão… 10. ...a manipulação institucional influencia a tradução.…a manipulaçãoinfluenciaa tradução.institucional 11. Embora tais termos possam ajudar o estudioso de tradução a articular o modo como astraduções funcionam em uma sociedade, também contribuem para inibir a natureza dainvestigação.…as traduções funcionam em uma sociedade, 12. Diante dessa metodologia, as fontes originais se mostram mais valiosas que a literaturasecundária, a maior parte da qual tem origem ―externa‖a uma disciplina orientada para atradução ou sequer comparativa,......uma disciplina orientada para a tradução... 13. Parte do trabalho dos ―precursores‖ podia ou não ter sido pretendida para tradução....trabalho dos podia ou não ter sido Ø(by someone) para tradução.―precursores pretendida 14. ...entretanto, as oficinas de tradução nos EUA usam os novos métodos críticos parainterpretar e avaliar as traduções.…oficinas de usamos novos métodos interpretar e as traduções.traduçãocríticos para avaliar 15. Chomsky não pretendia que seu modelo fosse usado para tradução, mas Nida e WolframWills...Chomsky não pretendia que seumodelofosse usado Ø(bysomeone)paratradução,... 16. Outros abordam de forma direta questões ligadas à tradução.Outros abordam de forma questões ligadas à tradução.126

direta 17. Formalistas russos mais recentes como Jurij Tynjanov e Roman Jakobson inseriram atradução, bem como outros fenômenos culturais, em sua teoria...Formalistas inseriram a tradução... ...em sua teoria...russos maisrecentes comoJurij Tynjanov eRoman Jakobson 18. Esses padrões implicam noções de substancialismo que limitam outras possibilidades daprática de tradução, marginalizam a tradução não ortodoxa e comprometem...Esses padrõesimplicam noçõesdesubstancialismoque limitamoutraspossibilidades daprática detraduçãomarginalizama tradução nãoortodoxa... Appendix 45: After Babel – Introduction’s analysis1. Translation is fully implicit in the most rudimentary communication.Translation is fully implicit… 2. It is explicit in the coexistence and mutual contact of the thousands of languages spoken onthe earth.It (translation) is explicit in the… 3. The Kabbalah, in which the problem of Babel and the nature of language is so insistentlyexamined, knows of a day of redemption on which translation will no longer be necessary.…translation will (no longer) be necessary 4. It records the conjecture, no doubt heretical, that there shall come a day when translationis not only unnecessary but inconceivable....translation is not only unnecessary ... 127

Appendix 46: Depois de Babel – Introduction’s analysis1. A tradução está totalmente implícita na comunicação mais rudimentar.tradução está totalmente implícita ... 2. Está explícita na coexistência e no contato mútuo das milhares de línguas faladas nomundo.Ø está explícita na ... 3. A cabala, na qual o problema de Babel e da natureza da linguagem é tão insistentementeexaminado, sabe de um dia de redenção no qual a tradução não será mais necessária....tradução (não) será mais necessária 4. Ela registra a conjectura, sem dúvida herética, de que vai existir um dia em que a traduçãonão será apenas desnecessária, mas também inconcebível....tradução (não) será apenas desnecessária,... Appendix 47: Table with examples of meanings of Token and Value roles128