Wyoming BMPs - Wyoming State Lands

246891011WATER QUALITY BMPS FOR WYOMING FORESTSWATERSHEDSA WATERSHED AND ITS PARTSHOW WATER GETS TO A FOREST STREAMRIPARIAN & WETLAND AREASWHAT ARE RIPARIAN AND WETLAND AREASEDGES AND LAYERS IN RIPARIAN/WETLAND AREASIDENTIFYING FORESTED RIPARIAN AND WETLAND AREASSEDIMENTHOW SEDIMENT ACCUMULATES IN A WATERSHEDTHE RESULT OF SEDIMENT IN STREAMSTABLE OF CONTENTS1214STREAMSIDE MANAGEMENTSTREAMSIDE MANAGEMENT ZONE DEFINITIONSWHEN HARVESTING IN AND AROUND THE SMZ1617182026313234ROADSFOREST ROAD SERVICE LEVELSROAD USE MANAGEMENTPLANNING AND LOCATINGROAD CONSTRUCTIONCONTROLLING DRAINAGE FROM ROAD SURFACESROAD GRADINGROAD MAINTENANCEROAD CLOSURES3638414243STREAM CROSSINGSCHOOSING AND DESIGNING A STREAM CROSSINGSTREAM CULVERT INSTALLATIONSTREAM CROSSINGS AND FISHBRIDGE CROSSINGSFORD CROSSINGS4445SOILFOREST SOILSOIL COMPACTION464748505152TIMBER HARVESTINGHARVEST SYSTEMSCUT-TO-LENGTH HARVESTINGWHOLE TREE HARVESTINGHAND HARVESTINGCABLE YARDING HARVESTINGHELICOPTER HARVESTING545657REFORESTATIONSLASH TREATMENT AND SITE PREPARATIONWINTER PLANNINGWINTER LOGGING PRECAUTIONSWINTER ROAD AND DRAINAGE CONSIDERATIONS58CLEAN-UPHAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES59PRESCRIBED FIRE AND FIRE SUPPRESSIONFIRELINES AND ROADS60REVEGETATION OF DISTURBED AREASSEEDING RECOMMENDATIONS1

WATERSHEDSA WATERSHED AND ITS PARTSA Watershed and its PartsWhat is a Watershed?A watershed is an area of sloping landsurrounded by ridges and drained by awatercourse. Watersheds collect rainfall andsnowmelt and deliver it to a single outlet.They range in size from a few acres to drainagesthat are thousands of square miles.What are the Parts of a Watershed?A watershed is a network of surface streams,underground water flows and otherwater bodies.Surface streams that flow year-aroundare called perennial streams. Feeding perennialstreams are intermittent streams, oftendry except for spring and early summerflows. Some disappear underground only toreappear downstream.Ephemeral areas deliver surface flowduring spring runoff and rainstorms and feedintermittent and perennial streams. Theyrarely carry heavy water flows, but effortsshould be made to minimize soil disturbancein these areas. Sediment from logging orroad building can be carried by ephemeral,intermittent and perennial stream channelsfurther down into the watershed.Other parts of the watershed collectionsystem include:• Surface and subsurface water source areas.Their location is not always obvious, butunderstanding their function is important(pages 4-5).• Riparian and wetland areas. Riparianand wetland areas are special places alongstreams, lakes and rivers. They include seeps,springs, vernal pools, wallows, marshes andbogs.These areas require special protectionwhen forest activities occur in or aroundthem. Even during dry seasons of the year,riparian and wetland areas can be identifiedby the presence of certain plants (page 9).PERENNIALSTREAMSediment fromephemeral areascan end upin perennialstreams, causingproblemsfor downstreamusers.INTERMITTENTSTREAMWhether wet ordry, intermittentstreams havegravel bottomsand identifiablebanks.They connectephemeral areaswith perennialstreams.EPHEMERALAREATorn-upephemeral soilscan be carrieddownhill duringheavy rainfallor snowmelt.RIPARIAN/WETLANDSSprings, vernalpools, marshesand bogs allcontribute tothe watershedcollection systemand requireprotection.2

WATERSHEDSWhy are Watersheds Important?• They collect, store and filter rain and snowmelt.• They recharge groundwater aquifers.• They provide water to towns and cities.• They provide habitat for fish and wildlife.• They connect uplands and headwaters with riparian andwetland areas.• They provide clear, clean water to streams and lakes foreveryone’s recreation enjoyment, if properly managed.A WATERSHED AND ITS PARTSWallows are shallow pools used by elk during the mating season.Be sure to protect their surrounding trees and hiding cover.A WATERSHED AND ITS PARTSEPHEMERAL AREAWATER SOURCEAREAINTERMITTENT STREAMPERENNIALSTREAMRIPARIAN/WETLANDAREAEPHEMERAL AREAINTERMITTENT STREAMPERENNIAL STREAMWATERSHED OUTLET3

WATERSHEDSHOW WATER GETS TO A FOREST STREAMWhat Can Go Wrong in a Watershed?Roadbuilding, timber harvesting and site preparation can affect thequality and quantity of water flowing through a watershed by creatingsediment, changing water temperature or adding nutrients.#18Minimize the number of roads constructed in a watershedthrough comprehensive road planning, recognizing intermingledownership and foreseeable future uses.When improperly planned, located or constructed, logging roads,skid trails and landings can become man-made streams carryingsediment. If BMPs are not followed, sediment can make its way tothe watershed outlet, creating problems downstream. Hazardousmaterials, like fuels and chemicals, can contaminate water anddamage downstream life forms.Damage to intermittentstreambeds and bankscan result in sedimentbeing carried to perennialstreams during high-water.How Water Gets To AForest StreamIn non-forested watersheds it’s not uncommonto see water flowing across the soil surfaceduring storms. But surface water flow rarelyhappens in undisturbed forested watersheds.Why?There’s a layer of organic litter or duff onthe surface of forested watersheds, so evenduring intense storms, overland orsurface flow is rare. While most rainfall onforested watersheds infiltrates the soil, thereare small rills, rivulets and channels that can befound discharging water into headwater streamchannels.Science and observation has taught usthat certain areas in a watershed contributesurface water flow to streams. They’re called“water source areas,” and they change in size,depending on rainstorm or snowmelt intensity.During low intensity storms, that portionof the watershed near the stream channel isthe only part that contributes surface runoff.That part further away from the stream makesno surface contribution, but does contributesubsurface water. But as rainstorms and snowmeltincreases, the size of water source areasexpands. (See diagram on page 5.)Ephemeral areas used asskid roads can becomeman-made streams, whicherode and deliver sedimentto the watershed.Ignoring BMPs can resultin damaged streams,unhappy downstreamneighbors and fines.What This Means for Forestry ActivitiesKnowing about surface and subsurfacewater source areas around streams andheadwaters makes the following BMPs easierto understand.#18Avoid wet areas including moisture-ladenor unstable toe slopes, seeps, wetlands, wetmeadows and natural drainage channels.#18Design roads to minimize disruption ofnatural drainage patterns.4BMPIndicates State of Wyoming BMP

WATERSHEDSWATER SOURCE AREASHOW WATER GETS TO A FOREST STREAMThis is an actual headwaterstream in a forested watershed.It shows how water source areasswell and shrink depending onrainstorm and snowmelt eventsand how road locations can interceptthese water source areas.See Road Planning & Locating onPages 18-19Installing a road network in awatershed may affect stream hydrologyin several ways. Compacted roadsurfaces generate overland flow.Ditches and relief culvertsconcentrate runoff and changenatural water flow pathways. Roadlocation and cut slopes can interruptwater source areas. The result can bewatershed streams that respond fasterand have larger peak flows duringsnowmelt or rain events.Recognizing water source areason the ground is not always easy.Topographic maps and landformscan help. The identification ofcertain plants can be an additionalclue (page 9).1. The immediate areaadjacent to the stream and theheadwater areas of stream channels(in dark blue) can remain moist.These water source areas contributesurface water to the stream.2. During heavier storms and periodsof snowmelt, water source areasbecome larger (in medium blue).These bulb-shaped water sourceareas expand and contract with stormintensity and quantity of snowmelt.Their surface water flows beneaththe layer of forest litter and duff andmay not be obvious to the casualobserver.3. The subsurface water source areas(shown in light blue), carry waterthat has infiltrated into the soil. Thiswater moves slowly to the channeland feeds the stream between stormsand periods of snowmelt. Forestroads, like the one shown crossingthe water source areas, can showevidence of contact with water (cutslope seepage; ditch water) at certaintimes of the year. Be sure that roaddesign and drainage structures allowfor adequate surface and subsurfacewater drainage.Caution!Misplaced and poorly designedroads can alter watershed hydrologyor the natural flow of water. Roadditches can become man-madechannels, directing water intostream channels faster than normal.The result can be flashy watershedresponse and potential downstreamflooding. It is possible to relievesome of this problem by directingroad ditches into vegetation filters(page 37), or providing morefrequent ditch relief (pages 27and 28), but the hydrology ofheavily roaded watersheds canbe permanently altered. It is veryimportant to understand watersheddrainage patterns and plan roads thatminimize watershed impacts.5

RIPARIAN & WETLAND AREASWHAT ARE RIPARIAN AND WETLAND AREAS?What are Riparian and Wetland(R/W) Areas?R/Ws have seasonally moist, sometimes wet soils andhigh water tables where water-loving plants such as alder,willow and cottonwood grow. Certain shrubs, grasses andherbaceous plants like rushes and sedges can grow thick.Where are they?R/Ws occur along the shoreline of streams, lakes orponds and around springs, marshes, bogs and seeps.Some take the shape of narrow bands hugging the edgeof a stream.Others stretch hundreds of feet beyond the water’sedge, reaching out across broad floodplains.Still others may be located in forested uplands, andare called “isolated” R/W areas (pages 12-13).R/W areas are common along streams and rivers but are also foundaround “other bodies of water,” see page 9.An Early Description of R/WsExplorers Lewis and Clark described R/W areas andwhat they found in them. “The bank of the river (continues)back (from the river), is well watered and abounds indeer, elk and bear.” 12th June 1804.Before 1950, timber harvesting along streams and riverswas no different than upland harvesting. Forests werecut from ridge to stream edge.Those early logging practices created problems, butover time many changes have been made in the way riversare used. Today, R/W areas adjacent to streams areprotected. Logging equipment stays a safe distancefrom the stream and some trees are left for shade toprotect water temperature. These and other streamsideprecautions are recommended within Wyoming'sStreamside Management Zone (SMZ) BMPs (page 12).Douglas Creek, in the Medicine Bow Mountains, WY during the 1900s and today. Splashdams were built across narrow stretches of the river,and the riverbed was filled with logs. When filled to capacity, dynamite was used to blow the dam, sending water and logs crashing down thedrainage to the sawmill. The effect on the watershed, the river and its adjacent R/W areas were staggering. The river bottom, banks and poolswere scoured, and natural instream log structures were swept away. Yet Douglas Creek, today, is a very popular trout stream. Obviously rivers canrecover from disturbance, but the leagcy of these huge disturbances are still evident as the stream recovers.6

RIPARIAN & WETLAND AREASAre Riparian and Wetland Areas the Same?Technically, no.Wetlands also include riparian areas, floodplains, lowlands andshallow lakes and ponds. So, riparian areas are one type of wetland.Many wetlands have the following characteristics:1. Standing water, long enough each year to createoxygen-deficient soil.2. These oxygen deficient soils are a permanent partof the wetland’s soil profile.3. Plants that require or tolerate oxygen-deficient soils growduring some part of the growing season.Some riparian areas are found near running water such as rivers,streams and drainages with recognizable channels and floodplains.Other riparian areas may be the fringe of land around ponds, lakesand other water bodies. Clearly, riparian areas are the link betweenwater environments and uplands.Why are Riparian and Wetland AreasImportant?R/W plants and soils serve as a filter, trappingpollutants and keeping them from entering streams,lakes and other water bodies.WHAT ARE RIPARIAN AND WETLAND AREAS?What makes Riparian and Wetland Areas Unique?Their mix of water, plant cover and food is rare compared to the restof the watershed.For some animals, the presence of water makes R/W areas theirpreferred or sole habitat. Most amphibians live on land and returnto water to breed, spending much of their lives in R/W areas. Openwater and a high water table combine to produce higher humidity,more shade and unique air movement.Frequently, they support a greater number of individuals, as wellas a greater number of species, when compared to other parts of thewatershed.R/W organic litter and soil act like a sponge,collecting and holding water, reducing downstreamfloods, allowing water to gradually leak out, andreplenishing streams and lakes.Many wildlife speciesrely on R/Wsfor the necessitiesof life - food,water, protectionfrom enemies anda place torear young.R/Ws are popular areas for recreation, hunting, fishingand camping.7

RIPARIAN & WETLAND AREASEDGES AND LAYERS IN RIPARIAN/WETLAND AREASEdges and Layers in Riparian/Wetland AreasAn “edge” is where two differentplant groups come together. In R/Wareas there are two obvious edges.One occurs where R/W plants meetaquatic plants at the water’s edge.The other is where R/W forest plantsend and upland forest plants begin.Edges give animals simultaneousaccess to more than one environment.They offer greater variety ofplant cover and more abundant foodsources. For some animals, edges canbe hazardous; places where they ventureto feed or rest and become preyfor waiting predators.Two edges in stream R/W areas.The multi-layered, vertical and horizontal plant canopy offers avariety of nesting, resting, feeding and wildlife reproduction areas.The tree canopy layer shades the water, keeping it cold. This isimportant to cold water species like cutthroat trout.Other Bodies of Water (OBW).These are ponds and constructedfeatures like irrigation ditches andreservoirs. OBWs may dry up rarelyor briefly. They are distinguishablefrom wetlands by a clear bank andan area without plants except aquaticplants.An “Other Body of Water”: A pond or pothole where poor drainage creates peat deposits,acidic water and floating aquatic plants such as pond lilies. Their water comes fromprecipitation and has standing water most of the year.8

RIPARIAN & WETLAND AREASIdentifying ForestedRiparian and Wetland AreasSpecific plants can help locateand indicate the extent of a R/Warea. Shown here are three commonforested R/W areas identifiedby tree name and at least oneunderstory plant. In each case,specific understory plants must bepresent. Remember, a R/W areadoes not always have standingwater or wet soils, but can still beidentified by its plants.NARROWLEAF COTTONWOOD WITH COM-MON CHOKECHERRY AND SNOWBERRY INTHE UNDERSTORYIDENTIFYING FORESTED RIPARIAN AND WETLAND AREASADJACENT TO THIS R/W FOREST OTHERTREE SPECIES that can be found areDouglas fir and ponderosa pine.OTHER UNDERSTORY PLANTS that can befound in this R/W forest include Kentuckybluegrass and poison ivy.SPRUCE WITH FIELD HORSETAIL AND/ORBLUEJOINT REEDGRASS UNDERSTORY.IN THIS R/W FOREST, OTHER TREE SPECIESoften found include subalpine fir andlodgepole pine found on drier, elevatedsoil mounds.QUAKING ASPEN WITH BLUEJOINTREEDGRASS OR KENTUCKY BLUEGRASSUNDERSTORY.Bluejointreedgrass, commonlygrowsthree feet tall andhas flat dull bluish-greenleavesthat are roughto touch. Its purplish-redseedhead droops withage. Seed headsaren’t alwayspresent when theplant grows inshade.Field HorsetailBEAKED SEDGE AND AQUATIC SEDGE R/WTYPES ARE COMMON AS ARE WILLOW-DOMINATED R/W FORESTSADJACENT TO THESE R/W FORESTS, OTHERTREE SPECIES can include ponderosa pine,lodgepole pine, Douglas fir, cottonwood andquaking aspen.OTHER UNDERSTORY PLANTS includebluejoint reedgrass and Kentucky bluegrass.There are many willow and sedge R/W typesin Wyoming. They are interspersed betweenconifer forests on the adjacent uplands andare excellent indicators of water source areas,where water is very close to the surface andequipment operation and rodbuilding should beavoided.9

SEDIMENTHOW SEDIMENT ACCUMULATES IN A WATERSHEDHow Sediment Accumulates ina WatershedWhat is Sediment?Sediment is solid material, bothmineral and organic, that is carriedfrom its point of origin by water.Most people think sediment onlycomes from gullies, but importantsources can include rain splash,rills and erosion from road surfaces,road cut and fill slopes and thebanks of the stream itself.How does Sediment AffectWater Quality?Sedimentation is the process ofdepositing sediment. Sedimentoriginates from mudslides, floodingand weathering erosion. Sedimentdeposits enrich soils for cropsand create spawning beds for fish.However, water quality and streamhealth problems occur whensedimentation is excessive. Withoutcarefully applying BMPs, forestryactivities combined with naturalerosion can cause excessivesedimentation.What are Cumulative Effects?Each of the soil erosion problemsshown here creates sedimentthat can move into the network ofstreams in a watershed. All of them,natural and man-made, addedtogether can have a serious damagingcumulative effect on a watershed.Naturally Caused SedimentThe force of rain splashing on bare soil canloosen and detach soil particles that canbecome sediment.Landslides movetons of sedimentand debris into riversand streams.Landowners and Loggers canMinimize Cumulative EffectsThe job of ensuring clean waterand stable soils in a watershed fallsto landowners and loggers whoconstruct roads, build streamcrossings, harvest timber and preparethose locations for new forests.Every effort to reduce sediment willlower the cumulative impacts ofsediment on water quality.Man-made Sources of SedimentWater runoff formed these long narrowchutes or rills, running downslope on thesurface of this road cut slope. It is a source ofsediment.10This improperly placed culvert with noditch plug has resulted in sediment.This plugged crossdrain culvert and washedoutcatch basin can be a source of sediment.

11SEDIMENTThe Result of Excess Sedimentin StreamsExcess Sediment in streams can result in:• Death of fish eggs and fry.• Filling-in of spawning beds.• Reduced aquatic insects and less fish food.• Reduced growth of underwater plants.• Increased costs for water filtration.Dead fry that couldn’t wriggle their way free from asediment encased stream bottom.The Effect ofSediment on FishFoodA large number andvariety of invertebrateslive in streams, readyand waiting for thesmorgasbord of fallingorganic debris. Amongthis army are shredders,collectors, grazersand scrapers.Sediment affects aquatic insects and plants whichare eaten by fish, which are then eaten by birds.Sediment interferes with aquatic insects and the growth of underwaterplants that these insects depend on for food. Whether shredders,scrapers, grazers or collectors, aquatic insects depend on clean,well oxygenated and sediment-free water to survive. Many of them feedon plant food floating downstream. Sediment also interferes with theirbreathing gills and their ability to gather food particles from the wateras it passes through their filter feeding mechanisms. Aquatic insectsare a food source for other aquatic animals and fish, so anything thataffects the insects also disrupts the rest of the food chain. Damage tofish and other aquatic life can be minimized by protecting soil fromerosion.THE RESULT OF SEDIMENT IN STREAMSSac fry growing in oxygen-enriched water, hiding frompredators among rocks and boulders on the bottom ofa stream.Trout Life CycleTrout and other fish reproduce by buryingtheir eggs in clear stream-bottom gravels,where cold, aerated water circulates aroundthem. When too much sediment settles tothe bottom, it fills the gaps between gravelrocks, suffocating the developing sac fry.Shredders attach their cases tothe upper surfaces of rocks. Theytear away the soft parts of leavesand needles until only a skeletonof veins is left.Scrapers gathertheir food fromthe surfaces ofleaves and rocks.Grazers feed on the slippery layer ofdiatoms and algae found on rocks,protected from predators by theirdomed cases.Collector/Gatherers build a shelterfrom bits of sand, gravel and twigs,held together with silk. Hiding deepin the net, the insect comes out onlyto feed on food particles strainedfrom the water.

STREAMSIDE MANAGEMENTSTREAMSIDE MANAGEMENT ZONE DEFINITIONSStreamside ManagementZone DefinitionsIn Wyoming, some of the most importantBMPs are those that deal with StreamsideManagement Zones, or SMZs.The Streamside Management Zone or SMZmeans the stream, lake or other body ofwater and an adjacent area of varying widthwhere management practices that mightaffect wildlife habitat or water quality, fish orother aquatic resources need to be modified.The SMZ encompasses a strip at least 50 feetwide on each side of a stream, lake or otherbody of water, measured from the ordinaryhighwater mark, and extending beyond thehigh water mark to include wetlands andareas that provide additional protection inzones with steep slopes or erosive soils.“Stream” means a natural channel withdefined bed and banks, that confines andconducts continuously or intermittentlyflowing water.“Wetlands” mean those areas that are inundatedor saturated by surface or groundwater at afrequency and duration sufficient to supporta prevalence of vegetation typically adaptedfor life in saturated soil conditions. Wetlandsinclude marshes, swamps, bogs and similarareas (pages 6-9).“Adjacent wetlands” are wetlands within oradjoining the SMZ boundary.“Isolated wetlands” are wetlands that liewithin the area of operation (timber harvest),outside of the SMZ boundary.What is a stream?A stream can be identifiedin one of two ways. Astream must have a sandyor gravel bottom—theresult of flowing water.Or a stream must havedefinite banks that restrictwater. When no definitebank is apparent, watchfor evidence of wheresand or gravel stops andsoil begins at the edge ofa stream.Is this a stream?No. There’s no rockybottom or identifiablebanks. But it is anephemeral area, part ofthe watershed collectionsystem, that maycarry water during wetperiods. Disturbing thesesoils can create sediment.Whenever possible, avoidthese areas when logging.Clearly mark the SMZboundary for equipmentoperators. Use plasticflagging, paint or signs atfrequent intervals.Steep slopes likethis require a100-foot SMZ.12

STREAMSIDE MANAGEMENTThe SMZ is measuredfrom the ordinary highwater mark (OHWM),or where the waterlevel normally reachesduring peak flow.50 FeetOHWMPerennialStreamCMZ50 FeetOld Streambed(could be usedin the future)Providesome SMZprotectionadjacentto CMZs.Isolated wetlands lie withinthe timber harvest area, butoutside of the SMZ boundary.They are not regulated,but voluntarily protected.ISOLATED WETLANDWhat About Streams that Migrate fromSide to Side?Channel Migration Zones (CMZs) are areasalong a stream where terraces or floodplains arelikely to be occupied by the stream channel atsome time in the future.The ProblemSimply applying the 50-foot SMZ in CMZscould fail to account for future channelmovement and would not provide streamshading or the need for fallen large woodydebris (LWD).#10Avoid operationof wheeled or trackedequipment within isolatedwetlands, except when theground is frozen.#7Use directional fellingor alternativeskidding systems forharvest operation inisolated wetlands(see page 14).STREAMSIDE MANAGEMENT ZONE DEFINITIONS100 FeetSlopes greater than 35%,indicated here by closecontour lines, require a100-foot SMZ.ADJACENTRIPARIAN/WETLANDIntermittent Stream50 FeetWhen a riparian and wetland(R/W) area lies adjacentto a stream, the SMZboundary must be extendedto include and protectthe R/W.Perennial streams are easy to identify.Intermittent streams are more difficult, especiallywhen dry. Whether wet or dry, perennial andintermittent streams must be protected with anSMZ.13

STREAMSIDE MANAGEMENTWHEN HARVESTING IN AND AROUND THE SMZWhen Harvesting In andAround the SMZThe SMZ is not a “keep out” zone,but due to its values, timber harvestingin and around the SMZ requiresspecial care.****Wheeled or tracked equipmentshould be kept out of the SMZ andlogging operations modified to protectthe vegetation and ground coverin the SMZ.#3Wyoming BMPs specify a minimum50' SMZ, which is extended toa 100' minimum when slope perpendicularto the stream is greater than35%.****Some larger trees should beretained in the SMZ, to provideshade that helps to moderate streamtemperature and to provide a sourceof large woody debris, to enhancestream channel diversity.The trees left after harvest are importantto a healthy SMZ. The probability of a treefalling into a stream depends on its heightand distance from the stream. Researchindicates that approximately 1/3 of thetrees within one tree height of the streamwill fall into the stream and that 80% ofLarge Woody Debris originates within 2/3tree heights of the stream channel.Wyoming BMPs encourage broadening theSMZ to allow for the retention of tallertrees, which provide for more shade andlarge woody debris recruitment.Streambank trees and shrubs are important.They anchor the bank, shade the stream,provide food, and supply cover for fishand habitat for birds and other wildlife.PerennialStream50 foot SMZ14Ground vegetation is the filter that keepssediment from reaching the stream. If tornup during harvesting, it cannot do its job.Skidder and tractor operators must stay outof SMZs.Directional fallingand/or mechanicalfeller-bunchersallow removal ofsome SMZ treeswithout damagingthe SMZ.

STREAMSIDE MANAGEMENTLogs must be fullysuspended whenskyline skiddingacross a streamand streambanks.Conifer Regeneration Tips In and Around SMZ’sBe aware that in some types of soil and drainages,clearcuts adjacent to SMZs can cause marked increasesin the water table, cold-air ponding and grass/shrub competition. All of these conditions can inhibitconifer regeneration.Trees act as a buffer. Except for times of extreme precipitation andrunoff, trees help maintain the normal water table along streams. Theyact like wicks, pumping water from the soil and releasing it into theair through leaves and needles (transpiration). Some soil moisture, ofcourse, seeps underground, slowly draining into the stream channel.WHEN HARVESTING IN AND AROUND THE SMZSnags and live trees arehabitat for many birds andanimals. Conks on the trunkof trees indicate internalheart rot. Woodpeckers testsnags for heart rot bylistening for a certain soundas they peck. Nest holesare common in trees withheart rot.Stumps along the SMZborder keep debris fromrolling down steep slopesand reaching the stream.Keep slash out ofstreams and other waterbodies. Rotting slashuses up oxygen, neededby fish and other aquaticanimals. Move harvestedtree limbs and tops tolocations well above thestream high-water mark.Trees leaning toward thestream are important.Large diameter, fallentree stems with attachedrootwads are most likelyto remain permanent ina stream channel. Thesewoody “anchors” promotethe development ofpersistent pools, controlsediment and create fishhabitat.After adjacent hillside trees are harvested and many of the “wicks”have been removed, transpiration is reduced, and more undergroundwater is available, at least until vegetation recovers. Removing treescan lead to cold-air ponding, a condition that extends winter’s coldtemperatures into early spring and interferes with natural coniferregeneration. Removing adjacent hillside trees can also raise thestreamside water table, making soils too wet for conifer regeneration.Wetter soils often result in grass and shrub invasion, making coniferregeneration more difficult. Conifer regeneration with preferred speciescan be a challenge. Artificially hand-planting tree seedlings canincrease success rates.15

ROADSFOREST ROAD SERVICE LEVELSForest Road Service LevelsRoads are essential for forest management.But of all the forest development, harvestand management practices, roads arethe number one source of sediment. Roadsproduce 90 percent of all sediment fromforest activities.When properly constructed andmaintained on gentle and moderate slopeswith stable topography, roads have a lowpotential for contributing sediment.However, if not well-planned, constructedand maintained, roads located next tostreams, on steep slopes or on unstabletopography have a high potential to producesediment for a long time. Roads on steepslopes cost more to build and generally havegreater environmental impact.Road DesignForest roads are built to different standardsdepending on the service they are designedto provide. General categories rangefrom high to medium to low service level.Standards include traffic load, surfacing,width, steepness, sight distances and vehiclespeed. Most forest landowners want roadsas narrow as possible to reduce constructionand maintenance costs. A 12-foot minimumtravelway is needed for log truck traffic.Roads used as log landings will need widersections to allow for traffic to pass. Highservice level forest roads are those that canaccommodate two-lane traffic, usually have agravel driving surface and can accommodatelonger distance visibility. While beneficial,high service level roads require more spaceand disturb more soil during construction.Medium and low service level roads aremore common.#18Design roads to the minimum standardnecessary to accommodate anticipated use andequipment.High service level roadsaccommodate two-lanetraffic, public use andusually have a graveldriving surface. They arecapable of yearrounduse and largetruck traffic.Single lane, mediumservice level roads likethis, with occasionalpull-outs for oncomingtraffic, are common inthe forest. To reduce theimpact of roads alwaysbuild the narrowest roadthat will serve the need.A 12-foot-wide runningsurface is usually neededfor log truck traffic.Temporary low servicelevel roads are designedfor short-term minimaluse during timberharvesting. Low servicelevel roads involveclearing vegetation andminimal construction.They can be built, usedand reclaimed whenrainfall and erosionpotential is minimal.Restoration oftemporary roadsincludes pulling uproadside berms, rippingcompacted surfaces,restoring natural drainageand reseeding withappropriategrasses (see pages34-35 for more onroad restoration).16

17ROADSThis road is too close to the stream.There’s not an adequate filtration zoneto trap road sediment and keep it fromentering the stream.Road Use Management#19Design roads and drainage facilitiesto prevent potential water-quality problemsfrom road construction.ROAD USE MANAGEMENT#19The need forhigher-standardroads can bealleviated throughproper road-usemanagement.Forest management roadsprovide access to favoriterecreation areas.Problems occur when roads that were primarilybuilt for timber harvesting must also provide forrecreation traffic. Higher standard road constructioncosts can exceed $100,000 per mile. An alternativeto that expense, while still accommodatingall of these needs, is better road-use management.Temporary roadblockage by loggingequipment issometimes necessary.Access through locked gates is one method ofroad-use management. Seasonal weather conditionsmay also require restricted access.When access requirescrossing moist areaswith a poor road base,cross only when theground is frozen ordry, otherwise a rutted,poorly drainedroad results.

ROADSPLANNING AND LOCATINGPlanning and Locating#18Minimize the number of roadsconstructed in a watershed throughcomprehensive road planning, recognizingintermingled ownership andforeseeable future uses. Use existingroads where practical, unless use ofsuch roads would cause or aggravatean erosion problem.Hillsides like this are evidence ofexcessive roading. Cooperation andplanning among adjacent landownerswithin a watershed can reduce roadsand road sediment.LOGLANDINGINTERMITTENTSTREAM#18Review available informationand consult with professionals asnecessary to help identify erodiblesoils and unstable areas and to locateappropriate road-surface materials.Topographic maps are availablefrom the U.S. Geological Survey.The USDA Natural ResourcesConservation Service (NRCS) canprovide soil information.WETLAND#18Locate roads on stable geology, includingwell-drained soils and rock formationsthat tend to dip into the slope. Avoid slumpsand slide-prone areas characterized by steepslopes, highly weathered bedrock, clay beds,concave slopes, hummocky topography, and rocklayers that dip parallel to the slope. Avoid wetareas includingmoisture-laden or unstable toe slopes, seeps,wetlands, wet meadows andnatural drainage channels.#18Fit the road to thetopography by locatingroads on natural benchesand following naturalcontours.Avoid long, steep roadgrades and narrow canyons,like this one.#11Locate roadsto provide access to suitable(relatively flat andwell-drained)log landing areas toreduce soil disturbance.18Rock layers that slant with, rather than into, theslope are a clue to potentially unstable bedrockconditions.Roads dictate the location of log landings wherelogs are sorted and loaded on trucks. When roadsuse natural benches and flat areas, log landingexcavation and sediment is reduced.

The road system planned for this mixed ownership forest is detailed on the topographic map below. Alllandowners agreed to a coordinated road plan to minimize the number of roads. Many of the problemsthat had to be dealt with during road location planning are noted.MAIN HAUL ROADRESIDENCELog landings are locatedon flat, well-drainedareas where excavationis minimal and sedimentcan be reduced.PERENNIAL STREAM.LOGLANDINGNATURALCLEARINGTEMPORARY HAUL ROADROADSPLANNING AND LOCATINGEXISTING ROADCompare this photo to the topographic map below.While crossing this drainage,the road follows the contour,in an attempt to avoidwater source areas. Where astream crossing is necessary,it occurs at the head of theintermittent stream awayfrom headwater springs.LOG LANDING#11Locate theroad to provideaccess to these flat,well-drained areas,suitable for loglanding sites.Temporary and low-service level roads wereplanned and located to provide for singleentry activities. When completed, theseroads will be closed.INTERMITTENTSTREAMEXISTING ROAD#18Minimize the number of#18stream crossings and choosestable stream-crossing sites.MAIN HAUL ROADINTERMITTENTSTREAMLOG LANDINGTEMPORARY HAUL ROADRESIDENCEEXISTING ROADPERENNIALSTREAMOwners of this 160-acre tract agreedto an easement when they realized thebenefits of reduced road constructionand a coordinated road plan.LEGENDMAIN HAUL ROADTEMPORARY HAUL ROADLOG LANDINGS19

ROADSROAD CONSTRUCTIONRoad ConstructionThe Basics of a ConstructedRoadOnce a route is identified, the road ismarked on the ground with surveystakes or plastic flagging.1. Road construction begins withcutting merchantable trees within theroad right-of-way. This timber faller iscutting logs into appropriate lengthsfor later sale.2. This is the finished road shown inphoto 1. Described next are the stepsof construction.3. An excavator clears the right-of-way.Its clamshell bucket digs soil and picksup objects. The excavator cab andhydraulic arm can rotate 360 degreeswhile the machine sits in place. Thismotion allows the operator to moveand stack logs on both edges of theroad. After the road is constructedthese logs are hauled to a sawmill.4. Stumps and root wads are shakento remove soil and placed in a disposalarea outside the roadway. Small trees,brush and other woody debris are liftedand piled on the downslope edge ofthe new road to provide erosioncontrol. Never bury this material inthe road.5. The excavator’s primary job isto clear vegetation and obstacles. Itmoves only enough earth to build itsown running surface. A rough roadshape is now visible. The remainingconstruction can be completed witha bulldozer. However, excavators canbe used to dig cuts and fills and maydo substantial earthwork on steepslopes.6. Here’s the finished road in photo5. It has a 14-foot driving surface.Vegetation was cleared to 30-40 feetdepending on the slope. Steeperslopes require more clearing widththan level slopes.7. There is a lot of work betweenphotos 5 and 6. A bulldozer followsthe excavator. This D7 has a 12-foot,U-shaped blade that prevents excavatedmaterial from spilling off the bladeedges. Bulldozers begin by digginginto the cutslope side of the road anddrift the material to the outside edgeas they build the fillslope of the road.12378912131420

ROADS8. Here the operator is moving soil tobe used as fill to build up this low spotand support the planned road curve.9. With each pass of the dozer, thegrade is lowered and fill is built up.10. When the curve and its 35-footturnout are finished the dozer moveson to the next road segment.11. Cross drain culverts are installedbefore the final smoothing of theroad surface.12. The final step is to smooth, shapeand ditch the road with a motorgrader, allowing water to drain offand away from the road.13. High service level forest roadconstruction involves additionalsteps. A compactor may follow thebulldozer to compact and stabilizethe new roadbed. Compactingincreases the density of the road surfacefor improved support for heavyvehicles and to resist erosion.14. High service level roads are oftensurfaced with non-native material.Surfacing material, excavated from agravel pit, is trucked to the new road.Separate layers of material may beused on the road surface to improvedrainage and provide a more stableroad surface. Each layer is compacted.Water trucks may be used to wet thematerial and improve compaction.Chemicals can be added to road gravelto control dust and harden the surface.15. After construction all roadsidesare seeded with the appropriate grassseed mixture. Grass on exposed soilreduces erosion and limits weeds.16. Both cutslopes and fillslopes canand should be revegetated.Rules of Thumb for Road Grades• Try to keep road grades less than8 percent.• Try to avoid road grades greater than12 percent for distances over 300 feet.• When necessary, short steep pitchesunder 300 feet long are acceptable.ROAD CONSTRUCTION4561011#25Keep slope stabilization,erosion and sediment-controlwork current with roadconstruction. Install drainagefeatures as part of the constructionprocess,ensuring that drainagefeatures are fully functional.15 1621

ROADSROAD CONSTRUCTIONMore on Cuts and FillsMost forest roads are built by excavating a road surface. Thedesign of a road and its layout on-the-ground indicates tomachine operators the proper cut slopes and cut slope steepness.A bulldozer or excavator, starts at the top of the cutslope, excavating and sidecasting material until the desiredroad grade and width are obtained. Soil taken from cuts isoften pushed or “drifted” in front of the blade to areas where fillis needed. Road fill is used to cover culverts and build up flatareas. Since fill must support the weight of traffic, it needs to bespread and compacted in layers in order to develop strength.During the process of cut-and-fill, never let sidecast orwaste material enter streams and never place it on unstableareas where it might erode.#21Construct cut and fill slopes at stable angles toprevent sloughing and other subsequent erosion.CUTFILLCut-and-fill road construction is common for gentle terrain.#21Design roads to balance cuts and fills or usefull bench construction (no fill slope) where stablefill construction is not possible.Full-bench roadconstruction is used onslopes over 65 percent.Original SlopeWhen constructing a full-bench road, theentire road surface is excavated into thehill. The excavated material is hauled toan area needing fill or to a disposal area.#26 Place debris, overburden and other wastematerials associated with construction andmaintenance activities in a location to avoidentry into streams. Include these waste areasin soil stabilization planning for the road.Root wads, slash and vegetative debris duringroad construction are disposed of in burn bays.To prevent contamination, locate burn baysaway from water sources.22

23ROADSYou Need to KnowMost road erosion occurs in the firsttwo or three years after construction.When cut and fill slopes stabilize andrevegetate, erosion rates decrease.After this initial period, and withproper maintenance, erosion in lateryears comes primarily from the roadtravelway. Without a rock surface,water erosion on a bare soil travelwaycontinues to generate sediment.Control techniques for travelwayerosion are described on pages 29-30.#22Complete or stabilizeroad sections within the sameoperating season.Always avoid mixing stumps andother vegetative debris into theroad fill. Over time, it can lead toroad slumping and failure.#32Avoid incorporating potentiallyunstable woody debris in the fill portionof the road prism. Where possible, leaveexisting rooted trees or shrubs at thetoe of the fill slope to stabilize the fill.Do not disturbtrees and shrubsgrowing at thebase of aroad fill slope.ROAD PRISM FILLToe offill slopeA slash filterwindrowpreventserosion fromfillslopes.#20Minimize earth-moving activitieswhen soils appear excessively wet. Donot disturb roadside vegetation morethan necessary to maintain slope stabilityand to serve traffic needs.ROAD CONSTRUCTIONSlash Filter Windrows#26At the toe of potentially erodible fill slopes, particularly near stream channels,pile slash in a row parallel to the road to trap sediment. When done concurrentlywith road construction, this is one method that can effectively control sediment movement,and it can also provide an economical way of disposing of roadway slash. Limitthe height, width and length of “slash filter windrows” so wildlife movement is notimpeded. Sediment fabric fences or other methods may be used if effective.Spreading slash along the right-of-way is oneway to cover bare soil and reduce erosion.Slash-filter windrows are compacted loggingslash, installed along the base of fill slopesduring road construction. Built byexcavators, these 3x3 foot barriers are veryeffective at slowing surface runoff and keepingsediment from entering streams.Sediment fabric fences are another techniquefor reducing sediment movement. They slowsurface water and trap sediment.

ROADSROAD CONSTRUCTIONGeotextiles and Their UsesGeotextiles are synthetic permeable fabrics used to reducerutting, stabilize the ground and increase the load-carryingcapacity of unpaved roads.They are used to separate rock surfacing materialsfrom subgrade soils while allowing for water passage.Geotextiles can reduce the amount of rock surfacingneeded and reduce road costs.#19Consider roadsurfacing to minimize erosion.Geotextiles are used to reinforce subgrades by spreading theload over a larger area. This reduces the chance of settling andfailure. It also allows road construction over wet areas, reducingthe need to remove unsuitable roadbed material.Geotextiles can keep weak subgrade soils frommoving into the road base rocklayer, reducing itsweight-carrying effectiveness.Road surfacing can double the cost of a road. However, gravel roadscan provide all-weather access, reduce road maintenance costs andensure water-quality protection, because the soil is covered with aweather-resistant surface. Rock is applied in two layers. The base layercan be 6-18 inches of larger rock, capable of supporting heavy loads.The running surface is a 2- to 4-inch layer of smaller rock. Use of geotextilecan significantly reduce these thicknesses.AggregateSurfaceCourseAggregateSurface RockRemains SolidMud SlurryRoadway without GeotextileMud slurry mixes with surface aggregate.NativeSoilSubgradeFinesRoadway with GeotextileFines are stopped by GeotextileGeotextileBarrierNativeSoil Subgrade24

25Road ImprovementsOver time, it’s often necessary toadd culverts for improved drainage.Anticipate the need to add more culvertsand avoid drainage problems.ROADS#21Stabilize erodible, exposed soilsby seeding, compacting, riprapping,benching, mulching or other suitablemeans prior to fall or spring runoff.Geotextile material can also be used tohold embankment soil in place, allowingvegetation to grow. It’s applied at culvertinlets and outlets to protect slopes adjacentto flowing water.ROAD CONSTRUCTION#31Minimize sediment productionfrom borrow pits and gravel sourcesthrough proper location, developmentand reclamation.Deep, wide road fills like this can bestabilized with log terraces. Afterinstallation, the entire road fill isseeded with grass cover.Borrow pits supply soil, rock or other materialused in road construction. Be aware ofthe potential for borrow pits to contaminatesurface water. Take precautions tocontrol drainage and escaping sediment.The drain dip at the mouth of the borrowpit channels surface drainage into the roadditch and away to a safe location.Reopening Existing RoadsUse existing roads if possible to reduce new construction. Sometimes existingroads are so poorly designed they cannot or should not be re-used.Road improvements, such as cuttingback an inside slope and removingvegetation crowding the roadway, canimprove vehicle safety and visibility.#18 When using existing roads, reconstruct only to the extent necessaryto provide adequate drainage and safety; avoid disturbing stable road surfaces.Consider abandoning existing roads when their use would aggravate erosion.Reopening a closed road can be a big job. In addition to removal ofovergrown vegetation, culverts, ditches and the original surface grade may needreconstruction. Carefully consider how it can be done to minimize sediment.

ROADSCONTROLLING DRAINAGE FROM ROAD SURFACESControlling Drainage from RoadSurfacesWhen compared to natural sediment, roadsediment includes other contaminants. It’smore fine grained and carries oils. That’s whycontrol techniques that reduce road sedimentare so important for healthy streams.Drainage Techniques that Work:Ditch gradeDitch relief culvertDrain dipOpen top pipe culvertOpen top wood culvertWater bar#23Provide adequate drainage from the surfaceof all permanent and temporary roads. Useoutsloped, insloped or crowned roads, and installproper drainage features. Space road-drainage featuresso peak drainage flow on the road surfaceor in ditches will not exceed capacity.#18Outsloped roads provide means ofdispersing water in a low-energy flow from theroad surface. Outsloped roads are appropriatewhen fill slopes are stable, drainage will notflow directly into stream channels, andtransportation safety can be met.Roadway surfaces are normally crowned or sloped to remove surface water. Welldesignedforest roads have changing road grades, adequate ditches and ditchrelief culverts that control drainage and ensure water quality.OUTSLOPE ROAD IS USED WHEN:• Road grade is gentle or flat (< 7%)• Ditch or cutslope is unstable• Surface can be kept smoothOriginal ground lineINSLOPE ROAD IS USED WHEN:• Road grade is steep (>8%)• Surface drainage is carried to aditch or surface drainOriginal ground lineOutslope Road3 to 5%Original ground lineInslope Road3 to 5%Crown Road• Road is closed• Rutting can be controlled• Road use is seasonal andtraffic is light• Outslope causes fill erosion• Outslope is ineffective due to ruts• Slippery or icy road conditionsare prevalent3 to 5% 3 to 5%Sloped from cutslopeto outside road edgeSloped from outsideedge to ditch.Sloped to both sidesfrom centerline.#18For insloped roads, plan ditch gradientssteep enough, generally greater than 2% butless than 8%, to prevent sediment depositionand ditch erosion. The steeper gradients may besuitable for more stable soils; use the lower gradientsfor less stable soils.CROWN ROAD IS USED WHEN:• Two traffic lanes are required• Regular maintenance of ditches,crown and cross drains is possible• Single lane road on steep grade• Slippery or icy roadconditions are prevalent• Road grade is flat (crown fill)Ditch GradesTHE RIGHT AMOUNT OF DITCH GRADETOO STEEP OR NOT STEEP ENOUGH12%2%4%6%8%Level1%8-10%8% ditch gradientis too steep forunstable soils.262-6% ditch gradients are steep enough to keep watermoving to relief culverts without excessivesediments.Ditch gradients steeper than 8% give water too much momentum andcarry sediment and debris for great distances. Where the ditch levelsoff, debris drops, clogging ditches and carrying sediment into streams.

ROADSDitch Relief Culvert• Ditch relief culverts transfer waterfrom the ditch on the uphill side of theroad, under the road, releasing it ontoa stable area on the downhill side.• They prevent water from crossing theroad surface and softening the roadbed.• Ditched roads with ditch reliefculverts are wider and more costly, butthey also allow forfaster speeds andgreater safety.Rock-armored catchbasins prevent waterfrom eroding andundercutting theculvert inlet andflowing underthe culvert.#23For ditch relief culverts, constructcatch basins with stable side slopes. Protectthe inflow end of crossdrain culverts fromplugging and armor if in erodible soil. Skewditch relief culverts 20 to 30 degrees towardthe inflow from the ditch to help maintainproper function.#23Prevent downslope movementof sediment by using sediment catchbasins, drop inlets, changes in road grade,headwalls or recessed cut slopes.Culvert markersmakeinspectioneasier andreduceaccidentaldamagefrom heavyequipment.Make itpermanent.A ditch block,rock armoredand lower thanthe road shoulder,directs waterinto the culvertinlet.Protect the culvert inletfrom being covered byroad fill.Tilt the culvert 3%and at least 2%greater than ditchslope to help withself-cleaning.#23Where possible, install culvertsat the gradient of the original groundslope; otherwise, armor outlets withrock or anchor downspouts to carrywater safely across the fill slope.Drop inlet installed at a ditchrelief culvert inlet slows water,helps settle outsediment and protects theculvert from plugging.20-30ºSkewing the culvert20-30 degrees helpsimprove inlet efficiency.Prevent erosionat the outlet withrock armor.Protect theoutlet frombeing coveredby road fill.Be sureculvertoutletextendsbeyondthe roadfill.#23Provide energy dissipators (rockpiles, slash, log chunks, etc.) wherenecessary to reduce erosion at theoutlet of drainage features. Crossdrains,culverts, waterbars, dips and otherdrainage structures should not dischargeonto erodible soils or fill slopes withoutoutfall protection.CONTROLLING DRAINAGE FROM ROAD SURFACESDitch Relief Culvert InstallationEnsure proper tilt ofculvert. At least fiveinches in every ten feet.Seat the culvert on the naturalslope. Bedding material should befree of rock or debris that mightpuncture the pipe or carry wateraround the culvert.Cover with soil, using at leastone foot or one-third the culvertdiameter, whichever is greater.Avoid punctures from large rocks.Compact soil at least halfwayto prevent water seepagearound sides. Be sure outletextends beyond any fill andempties onto an apron ofrock, gravel, brush or logs.27

ROADSCONTROLLING DRAINAGE FROM ROAD SURFACESDrain Dip• Used on ditched or unditched active roads.• Preferred alternative to the traffic obstruction of a waterbar.• It is a gentle roll in the road surface, sloped to carry waterfrom inside to outside, onto natural ground.• The approach, depth and runout provide drainagewithout being a driving hazard.• Effective on roads with grades up to 10 percent.• Difficult to construct on steeper roads and difficult forlog trucks to pass. For steeper road grades consider an opentop pipe culvert.High Service Level Drain Dip(Higher speed, lower clearance)• Longer length• No skew• Deeper• Shallow approach and runoutThe drain dip bottom is sloped to carry water from insideto outside of road surface, onto natural ground.Minimum 8-12 inches deepGradual returnto road gradeRunout Graderises 2%No SkewCut SlopeApproach Gradedrops 2%50-75 feetRoad Grade10% or lessFill Slope35-50 feetArmored OutletDrain dip bottomis sloped 3 to 5%#23Properly constructed drain dips can be aneconomical method of road surface drainage.Construct drain dips deep enough into thesubgrade so that traffic will not obliterate them.Minimum 6 inches deepUse at least 50 feet for approach and runout.More on steeper road grades.Approach Gradedrops a minimumof 2% for30-50 feetLow Service Level Drain Dip(Lower speed, higher clearance)• Shorter length• Skewed• Less depth• Steeper approach and runoutRunout extendsat least 20 feetArmored OutletSkew drain bottom20-30 degrees,slope drainbottom 3 to 5%28

ROADSOpen Top Pipe Culvert• Alternative to drain dip on roadswith greater than 10% grade.• Used to control surface water onunditched roads.• Water cannot run past them aslong as they are maintained.• Constructed from both steel andwood (see below).• Steel is more resistant to damageand relatively permanent.• Can be dented by repeated trips bybulldozer cleats.• Road grader operators should liftblade when passing.A backhoe is the best choice for open toppipe culvert installation.Pipe bed must have a grade of 8%.CONTROLLING DRAINAGE FROM ROAD SURFACESSkew pipe 30-45 degrees for self-cleaning.(15-foot roadbed requires 20-foot culvert)Slots are wide enough for cleaning butdo not damage tires.Slots 3 inches wide and24 inches long, cutwith welding torch.6 inches of pipe leftbetween slots to actas reinforcement.Skew 30degrees8 inch diameter,5/16 inch thick,steel pipe.Perpendicular18 inches of solidpipe on inlet andoutlet ends.Constructedfrom logs (5-8inch diameter) ortreated timberRock riprapPerpendicularSkew 30degreesLogs or timbers,4 inches apart foreasier cleaningTreated timbersize depends onload weights. Shownwith 3x8 inch wallsand 3x12 inch base.1 inch galvanizedpipe spacer18 inchesbetweenspacersRock riprapPerpendicularSkew 30degrees6 inchesbetweenculvert endRock riprapBecause water is discharged above the road fill,protect fill with rock riprap.Double 2 x 6 inchTop plate5-8 inch 4 inchShovel5-8 inchwidth for easycleaning2 x6 inchBottom plateOpen Top WoodCulvert• Used on steep,lower standard,unditched roads.• Less expensiveand work well ifkept repaired.• Require frequentcleaning to remaineffective.• Easily damaged by logging equipment.29

ROADSCONTROLLING DRAINAGE FROM ROAD SURFACESRubber Water Diverter• Another surface water control alternative.• For steep, unditched roads.• Rubber belt fastened between timbers andburied in the road.Conveyor belts orold snowmobiletreads3 inchesexposed aboveroad surface2 x 6 inchtreatedtimberPerpendicularSkewed30-45degreesRock riprapWATER FLOW• Easily damaged by track machines and snowplows.• Expect frequent replacement on regular traffic roads.3/8 x 11 inch rubberconveyor belt3 inches3 inchesCompactedbackfill2 x6 inch treated timbersWater Bar• Small earth dam or humpbuilt into the road surface.• Used to divert road surface waterto where it will not cause erosion.• Used on inactive roadsand skidtrails.#23Design and installroad surface drainagefeatures at adequatespacing to control erosion;steeper gradients requiremore frequent drainagefeatures.• Can be constructed with a shovel,but mechanical equipment ismost common.• Spacing recommendations should bebased on soil type, topography, roaddimensions, road aspect and climate.12 inches5 feetOriginal Road Grade8-12 inchesSuggested Water Bar Intervals for Different Soils (Intervals in feet)ROADS AND LANDINGSSLOPE GRADE GRANITIC OR SANDY CLAY OR LOAM SHALE OR GRAVEL2-5% 400’ 500’ 600’6-12% 200’ 250’ 300’SKID TRAILSSLOPE GRADE GRANITIC OR SANDY CLAY OR LOAM SHALE OR GRAVEL5-10% 250’ 300’ 400’11-12% 150’ 200’ 300’over 25% 75’ 100’ 150’30

ROADSRoad GradingRoads are one of the most importantand costly features constructed onforest land. Maintenance is requiredto ensure road usefulness and value.Ignoring or delaying maintenanceoften leads to repair damage morecostly than original road construction.Road Maintenance Activities• Road grading• Culvert and ditch cleaning• Cut and fill slope inspection• Dust control• Snow removalRoads receive heavy use during logging.Be aware of early signs of damage. Seriousdamage to road surfaces starts with excesswater. Standing water is a sure sign of roaddrainageproblems. Ruts indicate that roadstrength is deteriorating.Road gradingrepairs thedrainage bysmoothingsurface rutsand potholes.ROAD GRADINGRoad Grading• Purpose is to maintain roadsurfaces, either crown, inslopeor outslope.• Maintain road surface cross-drainstructures.• Corrects road surface damageresulting from vehicle traffic andfreeze-thaw cycles that reduce drainageeffectiveness.• Timely road grading and road userestrictions during wet periods can protectdrainage on unimproved roads.#16Grade road surfaces only asoften as necessary to maintain astable running surface and adequate surfacedrainage.Road Grading Precautions:• Grading should be done when roadsare neither dusty nor muddy. Moistroads are more easily shaped andcompacted by grading machinery.• Watch for steep sections or curveswhere added wear and ruttingtakes place.#16Avoid cutting the toe of cut slopeswhen grading roads, pulling ditches orplowing snow.Avoid grading sections of road that don’t need it. This only creates an unnecessary sedimentsource from the disturbed surface. Raise the blade where grading is not needed!Grader damage to insideditch toe slopes exposesan easily erodible surfaceand is a source of sediment.What was an outsloped roadis now insloped and roaddrainage will be severelyimpairedSlow, controlled graderoperation is key to reducingculvert inlet and outlet damage.Reduce damageby keeping graders on theroad running surface. Neversidecast gravel over culvertinlets or outlets.If grading produces excessmaterial, feather it out orhaul it away. Never sidecastmaterial into streams. Avoidleaving a berm that channelswater down the road unlessit is routed into an effectivevegetation filter zone (page37) which spreads it out andremoves sediment.31

ROADSROAD MAINTENANCERoad MaintenanceCulvert and Ditch Cleaning• More culverts fail from inlet debris than from any other cause.• Debris reduces flow velocity at the culvert inlet, causing sedimentto drop and making the culvert non-functional.• Culvert inlet debris can cause water to overtop the embankment, inturn causing embankment erosion and/or flooding of land upstreamfrom the culvert.Without crossdrains,water can soak intothe road, causingsurface softening andrutting.This undersized crossdrainculvert resultedin a breached ditchblock and sedimentflowing directly intothe stream.Hand, shovel andchainsaw work areusually all thatculvert maintenancerequires. But don’tdelay! Delay in cleaninga blocked culvertor ditch can result ina damaged road thatrequires costly reconstruction.This road ditch has blown out, leaving the crossdraintoo high to move water under the road to a safedrainage area. The cause was an unstable ditch block.#16Maintain erosion-control features throughperiodic inspection and maintenance, includingcleaning dips and crossdrains, repairing ditches,marking culvert inlets to aid in location, andclearing debris from culverts.Watch for damaged culverts that need replacement.Repair work should be completed during dry weather.32Preventive maintenancecan reduce culvertplugging and the needfor culvert cleaning.In recently loggedareas, like this one,remove floatable debrisfrom drainage ditchesand seed the disturbedarea with a grass seedmixture - see page 60.

ROADSPoor roadsurfacedrainagecaused thisfill slopeerosion.Dust Control• Road dust is adriving hazardand a source ofsediment to waterbodies.• Significantamounts of roadsurface can be lostas dust.• Road surfaces canbe protected withthe use of water,chemicals or oil.• Dust abatement chemicals can decrease rutting.Chemicals used to control dust should be applied accordingto the manufacturer’s specifications.• Abatement chemicals can be pollutants, and caution shouldbe used in their application near streams or drainages.ROAD MAINTENANCESoil sloughing off a road cut.Cut and Fill Slopes• In steep terrain, ditch walls and cut-and-fillslopes can slump.• Debris collects in ditches, and vegetationmay block water flow.• Ditch inspection should be done duringstorm events when problems are most obvious.Watch for blockage and overflow problems.• Clean promptly. Move soil and debris to alocation where they will not create additionalerosion problems.• Be aware that these problems may besymptoms, indicating need for larger ditchesor more culverts.• Vegetating cut and fill slopes willreduce erosion.• Ditchline erosion may indicate a need formore or larger culverts or ditch stabilizationsuch as compacting or armoring with rock(see ditch gradients page 26).#26Haul all excess material removed bymaintenance operations to safe disposal sitesand stabilize these sites to prevent erosion.Avoid sidecasting in locations where erosionwill carry materials into a stream.Snow Removal#16When plowing snow, provide breaks in thesnow berm to allow road drainage.Snow berm breaks allow for spring drainage without damaging the road surface.They also serve as escape corridors for wildlife.33

ROAD CLOSURESROADSClosing Roads to Protect WaterQualityForest roads remain part of the landscapelong after harvest, site preparationand reforestation are completed. If accessis no longer needed, steps should be takento either temporarily close, permanentlyclose or obliterate roads.Temporary road closure is easiest.Permanent closure, or storing a road forfuture use, involvesspecific actions describedon page 35. In contrast,road obliteration, usedin some situations, isalso described.It may be necessary to physically blockroad access. Gates provide temporaryclosure along with quick access if needed.To prevent vandalism, gates and otherbarriers need to be well anchored.Alternatives to gates include large bermsor trenches, logs, stumps or rock boulders.#19Consider gates, barricades or signsto limit use of roads duringspring break up or other wet periods.Temporary Road Closure#19Avoid using roads during wet periodsif such use would likelydamage the road drainage features.#16Upon completion of seasonal operations,ensure that drainagefeatures are fully functional. Theroad surface should be crowned,outsloped, insloped or waterbarred.Remove berms from the outside edge.Traffic control is an effective way to reduceroad maintenance costs and provide protectionof other forest resources. Traffic control caninclude: full road closure, temporary or seasonalclosure, or road open but restricted to only lightuse. Whatever traffic control option is selected,all require regular maintenance inspections.Don’t let closedroadways becomestreams. When roadsbecome channels for drainage,major sediment pollutioncan result. Outslopethe surface of closed roadsand periodically inspect toavoid this problem.Road Obliteration34• Road obliteration is the unbuilding or dismantlingof a road and return to its revegetated condition.• When should obliteration be considered?• When the road no longer serves a useful purpose.• When there’s a need to eliminate or discourage access.• To reduce watershed peak flows that are the result of roads.• To reduce erosion and sedimentation.• To correct unstable road cuts and fills.• To break up compacted soil and water concentration areas.• To improve the visual quality of road corridors.• Where is road obliteration used?It may be necessary only on certain road segments,such as, recontouring a road junction and its initialstretch of road. Other segments may be stable andcan be revegetated as is.Road segmentbefore obliteration.

ROADSPermanent Road Closure• Permanent closure is more than just blockingthe road off from traffic.• Permanent closure may solve costly roadmaintenance, but it requires the mostpreparation.• Remember, water still runs on closed roads.• Road revegetation is the only way to reducerunoff, erosion and sediment from permanentlyabandoned roads.#16Leave abandoned roads in a conditionthat provides adequate drainage without furthermaintenance. Close these roads to traffic; reseedand/or scarify; and, if necessary, recontour andprovide waterbars or drain dips.It may be necessary torip or decompact boththe road subgrade andits surfacing materialbefore seeding can besuccessful.It is necessary to restoreall drainage features totheir natural condition.This includes reseedingboth the road surfaceand cut and fill slopes.ROAD CLOSURESRemoving culverts can prevent erosion problems, andwaterbars may be a solution. Space waterbars moreclosely in areas that are more likely to erode. Whenremoving culverts, stockpile earth from the removalin a safe place where it can be recovered and won’terode. Reshape banks to a stable slope.Bridges present specialroad closure problems.Unless there are regularinspections of bridgeabutments and otherstructural components,it may be best to removeall bridge structures.Excavator dismantlingthe road corridor.Obliterated road segment withlarge wood in place beforereseeding the surface with grass.35

STREAM CROSSINGSCHOOSING AND DESIGNING A STREAM CROSSINGChoosing and Designing a Stream CrossingStream crossing structures includeculverts, arches, bridges and fords.Each is designed to maintain naturalwater flow and provide a safe vehiclecrossing. Choosing the wrong streamcrossing structure can result indamage to both the immediate siteand downstream water uses.Your Choice of Stream CrossingDepends On:• Stream size. Bridges are best forstreams more than 10 feet wide andthose with high-gradients.• Is it a fish-bearing stream? Archesand bridges protect the naturalstreambed with less impact on fish.• Construction and maintenancecosts. Crossing structures ranked inorder of increasing cost are: ford,round culvert, squash culvert, bottomlessarch and bridge.• Future years of use. Culvertsprovide a smoother ride and betteraccess than fords.• Soil foundation conditions. Bedrockcrossings may require a bottomless arch,bridge or ford.• Available equipment and materials.Culverts require a backhoe or excavator,portable compactor, beddinggravel, armoring material and sedimentfilter.Bridges often require a crane, concretetruck access for abutments, piledriver, and a high service level road forsteel or pre-stressedconcrete delivery.Fords require armoring ofapproaches and stream bottom and possiblygeotextile and excavation equipment.• Permits may be required for perennialstream crossings or when the fillingof wetlands is necessary. Some crossings,especially bridges, require a qualifiedengineer. Hydrologic and fisheriesrequirements may dictate a specificstructure style.Legal and Planning andConstruction Requirements#30#2Close coordination withWyoming Department ofEnvironmental Quality (DEQ) andWyoming Game & Fish Departmentwill help with fish passage issuesand the potential need for ArmyCorps of Engineers 404 Permits, ifin-channel excavation is necessary.#15Plan construction methodsto protect the channel and streambanksduring constructionDesignConsiderations#18Design streamcrossings for adequatepassage of fish(if present), minimumimpact on water quality.Consideroversized pipe whendebris loading maypose problems. Ensuresizing provides adequatelength to allow fordepth of road fill.36#18Minimize the number ofstream crossings and choosestable stream crossing sites.Planning for a stream crossing mustinclude flood calculations. When ignored,the potential for water-quality damage isenormous. The costs of this culvert repairwill far exceed the costs of a properlyplanned installation.

37STREAM CROSSINGSVegetation Filter ZonesRoad drainage at stream crossingsneeds to be robust and drainage featuresmust have adequate filtrationzones, to allow drainage water to infiltrateand not directly enter the stream.#23Route road drainage throughadequate filtration zones or othersediment settling structures to ensuresediment doesn’t reach surfacewater. Install road-drainage featuresabove stream crossings to routedischarge into filtration zones beforeentering a stream.The Problem: Allowingditch drainage to flowdirectly into a stream is oneof the most common roaddrainageproblems. Thisditch water is on a directroute to the stream. Neverlet this happen.The Solution: Always routeditch drainage through afilter of undisturbedvegetation so sediment canbe removed before waterreaches the stream.CHOOSING AND DESIGNING A STREAM CROSSINGCross streams at right angles to the mainchannel. Road grades that drop into thestream can increase sediment in the stream.Grades that dip very gently or not at alltoward the stream deliver less sediment.Never allow road ditches or ditch reliefculvert drainage to flow into a stream.Culvert drainage and road ditches shouldalways be directed through a vegetationfilter before reaching the stream.Ditch drainage should be directedinto a vegetation filter, and notallowed to continue flowing downthe ditch and into the stream.Good location for adrain dip (page 28).

STREAM CROSSINGSSTREAM CULVERT INSTALLATIONStream Culvert Installation#27Minimize stream-channeldisturbances and related sedimentproblems during construction of roadand installation of stream-crossingstructures. Do not place erodiblematerial into stream channels.Remove stockpiled material fromhigh-water zones. Locate temporaryconstruction bypass roads in locationswhere the stream course willhave minimal disturbance. Time constructionactivities to protect fisheriesand water quality.#30When using culverts to crosssmall streams, install those culvertsto conform to the natural stream bedand slope on all perennial streamsand on intermittent streams that supportfish or that provide seasonal fishpassage. Ensure fish movement is notimpeded. Place culverts slightly belownormal stream grade to avoid culvertoutfall barriers. Do not alter streamchannels upstream from culverts,unless necessary to protect fill or toprevent culvert blockage.1Construction of culvert stream crossingshas the greatest potential to cause immediatesediment pollution. Installing culverts ismore than just placing a pipe in a stream.Complete the work promptly, at a time whenthe least damage will occur.Once the ends aresecured by backfill, thecenter of the culvert iscovered.2The temporary channel in the foregroundcarries stream water. The dewatered streamchannel is being cleared for culvertinstallation. The channel foundation andtrench walls must be free of logs, stumps,limbs or rocks that could damage the pipe.#30Install culverts to prevent erosionof fill. Compact the fill materialto prevent seepage and failure. Armorthe inlet and/or outlet with rock orother suitable material where feasible.5#28Consider dewatering streamcrossingsites during culvert installation.This can be done with a temporarydiversion channel or a sandbagdam with a pump diversion.9 10After checking to be sure the new culvert isworking, close the dewatering channel.The road approach to the new culvert isthe next phase of construction.38

STREAM CROSSINGS3The culvert bed must conform with the naturalstreambed. The bed should be either rock-freesoil or gravel. Bedding should provide evendistribution of the load over the length ofthe pipe. Countersink the culvert to allowstream gravel to deposit in culvert bottom (seedetailed diagram, page 40).4Secure each end ofthe culvert with backfill.Pour backfill materialover the top of thepipe. This allows finersoil particles to flowaround and under theculvert sides. Largerparticles roll to theoutside. Fine soilparticles, close to theculvert, compactmore easily.STREAM CULVERT INSTALLATION6 7 8Tamping fill material throughout the entirebackfill process is important. The base andsidewall material should be compacted first.This reduces any chance of water seepageinto the fill.Armor the culvert inlet and outlet. Rocks,logs or grass seeding can be used to protectthese locations against erosion. Check thearea upstream and downstream from theculvert. Clear upstream area of woody debristhat might plug the culvert.After the new culvert is opened to water,watch for the need for more rock armor.Be sure that a minimum of one foot of compactedsoil covers the top of the culvert.As a final precautionagainst sedimententering the stream,a slash-filter windrowis constructed aroundthe culvert outlet.11Layers of fill are pushed into place and carefullycompacted to build up andmaintain a consistent road grade.1239

STREAM CROSSINGSSTREAM CULVERT INSTALLATIONStream Culvert Installation Details#30Use culverts with a suitable diameter for permanent stream crossingsand make sure they will accomodate peak flows and allow for fish passage.Consult with Wyoming Game and Fish for specific fish-friendly designsROCKARMOREDINLETCulvert should becountersunk 20%.ROAD SURFACECOMPACTED CULVERT BEDCulvert slope should be less than 2% to provide fish passage.ROCKARMOREDOUTLET#30Maintain a 1-foot minimum cover for culverts15 to 36 inches in diameter, and a coverof one-third diameter for larger culverts to preventcrushing by traffic.Tamp backfillmaterial atregular intervals.At least 20% of the culvert should be countersunk. This partial burial of the culvert into thestreambed reduces water velocity in the culvert and allows gravel to deposit in the bottom.Base andsidewall fillmaterial shouldbe compactedfrom finersoil particles.ROCK-FREECULVERT BED(GRAVEL OR SOIL)ROAD SURFACEEXISTING GROUNDIncorrect alignmentof culvert with streamresults in accumulationof floating debris andeventual inlet plugging.Incorrect Culvert AlignmentCommon Culvert InstallationProblemsCulvert alignment is critical for properculvert function. Culverts set at anangle to the channel can cause bankerosion. Skewed culverts can developdebris problems. Culvert alignmentmust fit the natural stream channel.Place culverts slightly below thenatural streambed so water can dropslightly as it enters.Inlet is not deepenough, allowingwater to undercutthe culvert.Correct Culvert AlignmentOutlet set too highand water undercutsthe road filland streambed.Culverts installed at greater than stream grade canresult in the outlet becoming buried, and flow isrestricted, or steepening the stream grade makes itdifficult for fish to pass upstream.Culverts installed at less than stream grade result inthe inlet becoming buried, and flow is restricted, pondingoccurs at inlet and raised outlet results in scouringstreambed.40

STREAM CROSSINGSStream Crossings and FishThe Problem of Culverts andFish• Culverts can be a problem whenused on fish-bearing streams.• Fish move upstream to spawn,search for favorable watertemperatures and find food duringaquatic insect hatches.• Culverts can accelerate existingstream flow and make it impossiblefor fish to migrate upstream.Make It Easier for Fish• Don’t force fish to jump to enteror pass through a culvert.• Keep culvert openings freeof debris.• Be sure there’s no change inchannel slope at the culvert site.• Minimize culvert length and useculverts of adequate diameter for thestream width.• Locate culverts on a straight partof the stream.• Set culverts below stream gradeso streambed gravels can naturallyaccumulate inside.• Corrugated culverts help fish byproviding a low flow zone next to thewall where passage is easier.• Provide resting pools.Step pools at culvert outlets cansometimes correct the problem ofhanging culverts by allowing fish torest before attempting passage.Water may be too shallow forfish to swim. This is sometimesa problem created by squashpipes that are used when roadclearance over the pipe is limited.Shallow water leaves fish partiallysubmerged and unable to getmaximum thrust from tail andbody movements.There’s no poolbelow the inlet forfish to rest in orjump from.Hanging culvertscan create afall too high tojump.What’s Best for Fish Passage?Ranked from most optimum.1. Bridges2. Bottomless arches3. Countersunk corrugated pipe4. Corrugated pipe with a slope lessthan 0.5 percent.5. Corrugated pipe, with baffles orsills, on grades between 0.5 and 5.0percent. Sills are v-shaped, miniaturedams that increase flow depth duringlow flows and decrease watervelocity through the culvert.Consult with Wyoming Game &Fish for assistance with fish friendlystream crossing culvert design.Fish may not be able to swimfast enough to overcome culvertwater velocity that develops inround culverts with low crosssectionalflow area. Rule ofthumb: water moving through aculvert faster than a brisk walkingpace is potentially a fish passagebarrier.#30Ensure fish movementis not impeded.Bottomless arches leave the streambed intact,making it easier for fish to pass. Natural streambedroughness creates pockets of low watervelocity where fish can move comfortably.Bedrock or concrete footings are required.STREAM CROSSINGS AND FISH41

STREAM CROSSINGSBRIDGE CROSSINGSBridge CrossingsTips when Considering PermanentBridges• Size bridges to accommodate streamchannel width and flood risk.• Bridges and bridge approaches shouldbe constructed to minimize soil or othermaterial from reaching the stream.• Whenever possible, retain existingvegetation and organic material aroundstream crossings. It is the most effective erosioncontrol.• Abutments and wingwalls should preventmaterial from spilling into the stream.#29Advantages ofPortable Bridges• Handy forstream crossingson temporarylow-standard roads.• Useful whenshort-term accessto forest land is cutoff by a stream.• Quick, economicaland can be installedwith minimal impact.• The crossing can berestored to its originalcondition.A portable railroad flatcar provides access acrossstreams with minimal disturbance to streambanksor bed. Select locations with firm soil banks,level grade and minimal vegetation clearing.Along with its portability,this bridge is strongenough for allharvesting activities.Bridges are best for large streams and those plaguedwith floatable debris problems. Bridges and archeshave the least impact on fish.This 20-foot portablebridge was hauled intoplace on a flatbed truck,stretched across thestream and set into placein one day. The bridgecribbing is 10-foottimbers laid on theground four feet fromthe bank.A small bulldozer builtthe road approachesto the bridge. Over athree-week period, thebridge carried approximately25 truckloads oflogs.42Keep road drainageunder control.Sediment is beingcarried around thisbridge abutment anddraining directly intothe stream.When harvest wascompleted, the temporarybridge was removedand the crossing siterehabilitated. Temporarybridges can be reusedmany times and, ifcarefully installed andremoved, can leave thestream in the same conditionas it was before.

STREAM CROSSINGSFord CrossingsWhat is a Ford?A ford is a stream crossing option for low servicelevel roads that are private, gatedand have infrequent use. Access control isimportant to avoid damage to the fordapproaches when they are vulnerable toerosion. Fords seldom have year-long access.Limited traffic onthis improved fordcrossing has bothminimal impact onthe streambed andon sediment production.FORD CROSSINGSFords are the least desirable stream crossing becauseof the continued disturbance to the streambed.#29Avoid unimproved stream crossings.When a culvert or bridge is not feasible, locatedrive-throughs on a stable, rocky portion ofthe stream channel.Concrete planks,fastened togetherand stretched acrossthe streambed,provide an “improved”ford crossing.Where should a Ford beLocated?A bedrock stream bottom is ideal for aford location. Otherwise, the bottomshould be armored with suitable rockor concrete planks (pictured above).The size and shape of instreamrock can indicate the minimum sizeof armor rock required to resistdownstream movement. It shouldbe bigger than what you see in yourstream bottom. Angular rock ispreferred, because it resists movementby interlocking. Do not restrictfish passage.Gently sloping, stable streambankapproaches are preferred. Approachesshould be rocked to minimize erosionwhen driving in and out of the ford.Where practical, approaches should be at right angles to the stream.Approaches should dip into and out of the stream, creating a concaveshape that ensures the stream cannot be diverted out of its naturalchannel and down the road.Clean AggregateFORD INSTALLATIONVegetation Filter43

SOILFOREST SOILForest SoilWhat is Forest Soil Made of?• Openings, called pore space, filled withoxygen and water• Nutrients used by plants and animals• Clumps of soil called aggregates• Mineral particles• Plant and animal matter, both livingand deadSoil Pore Space is the Result of:• Tiny cracks and crevices betweensoil aggregates• Earthworm passageways• Small animal burrows• New and decaying root channels• Freeze-thaw, wetting/drying cracksTake a Look at Forest Soil ...1. Pick up a handful of forest soil. Clear away the litter anddecomposing layer and scoop up the mineral soil. Try not to squeeze it.Look closely and notice that half or more is solid material, the rest ispore space.The pore space is filled with a combination of air and waterdepending on how moist the soil is.2. Now squeeze that handful of soil.Because it’s wet, it will form a lumpin your hand. Dry soils do not forma lump.Why is Pore Space so Important?• Rain, snowmelt water and air enter thesoil through pore space.• Soil gasses escape into the atmospherefrom soil pores.• Tree roots grow through pore space,using water, oxygen and nutrients.4. Now try to pickup a handful of soilthat has been ruttedor compacted. You’llprobably have aharder time pryingloose a handful. Why?Different soil typeshave different textures.Fine texturedsoils are susceptibleto compaction, whilecoarse textured soilsare not so easily compacted.Use this basic testto determine thesusceptibility to soilcompaction.3. What was once a handful ofmoist soil is now compacted.• The solid particles of soil havebeen squeezed together.• The pore space is reduced.• If you try to pick up soil froma skidder track, you’ll find it hasalso been compacted.44

SOILSoil Erosion and Compaction#6Tractor skid where compaction,displacement and erosion will beminimized. Avoid tractor or wheeledskidding on unstable wet or easilycompacted soils.What is Soil Compactionand Rutting?Compaction is the compression orsqueezing of soil to the point thatpore space is reduced.Rutting, or displacement,refers to the depressions left in soilfrom heavy equipment.Compaction and displacementreduce the infiltration capacityof the soil and increase surfacerunoff during rain and snowmeltevents.Soil Erosion can occur whenground vegetation is disturbed duringtimber harvest and the surfaceof the soil has been displaced orcompacted. Surface runoff erodessoil particles, which can be moveddownslope and into streams.The Degree of Soil Compaction,Displacement and ErosionDepends on:• Type of soil. Compaction and displacementcan occur on all typesof soil. However, fine textured soilsare generally more susceptible thancoarse textured gravel soils.• Soil moisture. Compaction increaseswith soil wetness, but it occurswhen soils are well below saturation.• The amount of force and vibrationapplied to soil.• The number of passes made overthe soil.• The condition of existing groundvegetation.• The season of operation andweather conditions.What Influences the Potential for Erosion?Different soils have different properties and a combination of parent material andsubsequent soil particle size, shape and the way the particles are bonded togetherinfluences the risk of erosion. The type of harvest and the equipment used willinfluence how much soil disturbance and erosion will occur.Use the Soil Risk Matrix below to help you evaluate the soil erosion potentialrelative to the type of timber harvest and harvesting equipment you are planningto use (see pages 47-53).Soil Type Clearcut Partial CutSlope Soil Erosion Skid Forward Cable Skid Forward CableIndex0-10% High 2 2 N/A 2 1 N/AMedium 2 1 N/A 1 1 N/ALow 1 1 N/A 1 1 N/A10-20% High 3 2 1 2 2 1Medium 3 1 1 2 1 1Low 2 1 1 2 1 120-30% High 4 2 1 3 2 1Medium 3 2 1 3 1 1Low 2 1 1 2 1 130-40% High 4 3 2 4 3 2Medium 4 2 1 3 2 1Low 3 1 1 2 1 140% + High 5 4 2 5 4 2Medium 5 4 2 4 3 2Low 3 2 1 3 2 1Erosion Risk Matrix Legend:1=Low Risk 2-3= Moderate Risk 4-5= High RiskSoil Erosion Index from Parent Material (adapted from Pfister & Sherwood):High Moderate LowGranitics Schist Argillite/QuartziteAlluvium Soft/Hard Sediments MetamorphicLacustrine Basic IgneousHigher soil erosion risk dictates that more extensive skid trail drainageBMPs will be needed to limit erosion and sediment delivery.SOIL EROSION AND COMPACTION45

TIMBER HARVESTINGHARVEST SYSTEMS46Harvest SystemsTimber Harvest Planning#6Plan timber harvest in consideration ofyour management objectives and the following:1. Soils and erosion hazard identification2. Rainfall3. Topography4. Silvicultural objectives5. Critical components (aspect, water courses,landform, etc.)6. Habitat types7. Potential effects on water quality andbeneficial water uses8. Watershed condition and cumulative effectsof multiple timber management activities onwater yield and sediment production9. Wildlife habitatWhich Harvesting System?There are Five Different TimberHarvesting Systems:1. Cut-to-length harvesting2. Whole tree harvesting3. Hand logging4. Cable logging5. Helicopter loggingHarvest site terrain influences the choice ofa logging system. On gentle terrain, tree processorsand forwarders, tractors andskidders, and even horses can be a logicalchoice. On steep terrain, cable harvestingequipment is used. Each logging system isdescribed in the following pages.#7Use the logging system that best fitsthe topography, soil type, and season, whileminimizing soil disturbance and economicallyaccomplishing silvicultural objectives.#6Use the economically feasible yardingsystem that will minimize road densities.#17Use the logging system which integratesthe appropriate slash treatment methods toprotect water quality on the site.A timber harvest plan must consider the long-term effects ofharvesting on all forest resources. Before any timber harvest,ask the following questions:QUESTION: When combined withother harvests and road constructionin the watershed, will there be adetrimental effect on water yieldand increase in sediment?Are there soils present with a highpotential for compaction and/or erosion?QUESTION: How will theharvest affect wildlifehabitat? For example,will the alteration of elkhabitat displace elk useof the area?What accommodationshave been made toprotect wildlife habitat?QUESTION: What kindof forest will be grownafter the harvest, andhow quickly will the sitebe reforested?What kind of slashtreatment and sitepreparation will benecessary?(See pages 54-55)Do I understand the topography– slopes, drainages, streams and otherphysical features?Are there riparian and wetland plantsindicating areas that require specialattention? (See page 9)

47TIMBER HARVESTINGCut-To-Length HarvestingThe processor severs, delimbs and cuts treesinto logs that are sorted and stacked in theforest. The forwarder picks up the logs in theforest and transports them to trucks.Advantages• Leaves slash (tree branches and tops)in the forest.• Minimizes the need for access roadsand log landings.Topography Considerations• Mostly limited to terrain with less than40 percent slopes.Soil Considerations• Preferred system where soils are susceptibleto compaction.• Minimizes soil disturbance by confiningmachines to designated trails.• Slash stays in the forest and acts as fertilizer.Forest Stand Considerations• Efficient method for commercial thinning.• Moves short logs out of the forest ratherthan long logs - good for tight tree spacing.• Useful for reducing wildfire hazard.Single grip processorsreach out 30-40 feet,cut a tree, strip thelimbs, cut the stem intocomputer programmedlengths, and lay the logson the ground, all in lessthan one minute. Thesemachines travel on thecarpet of tree tops andlimbs they leave.Forwarders followbehind the harvester,using the same slashcarpet, picking up logsand delivering them tothe landing. They caneconomically travel longdistances, reducing theneed for haul roads.Logs can be offloadedfrom the forwarderdirectly to log trucks.CUT-TO-LENGTH HARVESTINGEquipment Used• Tree processor• ForwarderSlash Disposal• Slash is handled efficiently by the carpetof slash left by the processor.• Usually complies with slash hazardrequirements without additional treatment.Reforestation Considerations• Preferred in stands where additional treeseedlings are not wanted.Typical Harvest LayoutDesignated harvester/forwarder trails are approximately 60 feet apart andoften follow a parallel pattern across the harvest unit.Unit BoundaryHarvester/forwarder trailHaul roadLandingsWetlandEconomic Considerations• Fewer roads may reduce overall harvest costs.• This machinery is expensive and availabilitymay be limited, but rising fuel costs makethese fuel efficient machines a more attractiveoption.

TIMBER HARVESTINGWHOLE TREE HARVESTINGWhole Tree HarvestingA feller-buncher cuts and piles small bundlesof trees. A tractor drags the tree bundles tothe landing with limbs and tops attached tothe stem.Advantages• Slash (tree tops, limbs or rotted portions oflogs) is brought to the landing or roadsidewhere it is piled and burned.A feller bunchersevers trees andlays them in buncheswith limbs andtops attached.Bunches are orientedwith tree trunksfacing downhill.Topography Considerations• Can be used on slopes up to 50 percent.• Haul roads are usually at the bottom ofthe logging area.Soil Considerations• Potentially more soil disturbance thancut-to-length harvesting.• A greater portion of the area is covered bymachines as they cut, stack, gather and dragwhole trees to the landing or roadside.• Skid trails can become trenched andcompacted from repeated use.Forest Stand Considerations• Efficient method for stand conversionwithout clearcutEquipment Used• Feller buncher• Crawler tractor or skidder with grapple• Stroke-boom or dangle-head delimber• Log loaderSlash Disposal• Slash piles are conveniently burned ata later time.• Sometimes slash is returned to the forestand distributed (see page 55).Reforestation Considerations• Dragging tree bundles leaves a seedbed fornatural seeding.A crawler tractoror skidder with agrapple picks upbunched trees anddrags them to alanding or roadside.Some grapples canswing 180 degrees,making it easier tooperate in tight spaces.The stroke-boomdelimber operatesat the landing orroadside, removingtree limbs andtop, cutting thestem into logs andstacking them.In addition toloading log trucks,the loader is usedto pile tops, branchesand log chunksfor burning.48Economic Considerations• Operating on steeper ground raises theharvest cost.• Longer skid distances increase costs.• Bunching trees reduces costs for handlingsmall diameter trees.

49TIMBER HARVESTING#7Locate skid trails to avoid concentratingrunoff and provide breaks in grade. Locate skidtrails and landings away from natural drainagesystems and divert runoff to stable areas.#7Limit the grade of constructed skid trailson geologically unstable, saturated, highlyerosive or easily compacted soils to a maximumof 30 percent. Use mitigating measures, such aswaterbars and grass seeding, to reduce erosionon skid trails.As much as 40 percentof an area may becovered with skid trailsif they are not plannedand marked in advance.Soil disturbance canreduce the soil’s abilityto grow trees. Avoid“go-anywhere” skid trails.WHOLE TREE HARVESTING#7Tractor skid when compaction,displacement and erosion will be minimized.Avoid tractor or wheeled skidding on unstable,wet or easily compacted soils and on slopesthat exceed 40 percent unless operation canbe conducted without causing excessive erosion.Avoid skidding with the blade lowered.Suspend leading ends of logs during skiddingwhenever possible.#14Ensure adequate drainage on skid trailsto prevent erosion. On gentle slopes with slightdisturbance, a light ground cover of slash, mulchor seed may be sufficient. Appropriate spacingbetween waterbars is dependent on the soil typeand slope of the skid trails. Timely implementationis important.#14When existing vegetation is inadequateto prevent accelerated erosion before the nextgrowing season, apply seed or constructwaterbars on skid trails, landings and fire trails.A light ground cover of slash or mulch willretard erosion.Planning can help avoid steep skid trails on slopesgreater than 30 percent with highly erosive soils.Always install waterbars on skid trails as neededand use slash filters (see page 30).Typical Harvest LayoutThe main skid trails should be planned and marked in advance. As the harvestprogresses, other skid trails lead into the main skid trails, making a herringbonepattern.Unit BoundarySkid trailHaul roadLandings

TIMBER HARVESTINGHAND HARVESTINGHand HarvestingAdvantages• Adaptable to smaller harvest locations.• Generally less costly equipment.Topography Considerations• Can be used on slopes up to 50 percent.• Haul roads are usually at the bottom ofthe logging unit.Tree felling, limbingand bucking are donewith chainsaws.#8Consider the potentialfor erosion and possiblealternative yarding systemsprior to planning tractor skiddingon steep or unstable slopes.Soil Considerations• Designated skid trails confine machinesto predesigned locations and reduce soildisturbance.• Multiple trips on the same skid trail canresult in a trench.• Soil disturbance can be minimized bywidely spaced skid trails. This requires handpulling winch line to reach logs that arefurther from the skidder.Forest Stand Considerations• Gives maximum flexibility to a varietyof stand management goals.Equipment Used• Chainsaw• Log skidder• Log loaderSlash Disposal• Allows for lop and scatter of slash inthe forest.• Alternatives to lop and scatter arepile and burn or whole tree harvesting.Logs are dragged by askidder from the forestto a log landing. Rubbertired skidders or crawlertractors remain on theskid trail and winch lineand chokers pull thelogs to the machine.Limbing and buckingare done with chainsaws.Once at the landing,a self-loading log truckloads the logs for deliveryto the mill.Typical Harvest LayoutReforestation Considerations• Results in ground scarification,creating locations for naturalregeneration or hand planting.Economic Considerations• Often more labor intensive.• Generally, more roads are necessary.Unit BoundarySkid trailEnd of skid trailHaul RoadLandingsStream50#7Design and locate skid trails and skiddingoperations to minimize soil disturbance. Usingdesignated skid trails is one means of limitingsite disturbance and soil compaction.Skid trails should be planned and marked in advance. They often follow a parallelbranching pattern as shown. By winching logs from greater distance, skid trails canbe farther apart, reducing the number of designated skid trails and minimizing thesoil impact by equipment.

TIMBER HARVESTINGCable Yarding HarvestingThis system pulls logs to a log landing usinga steel cable.Advantages• Allows harvesting to occur on steep ground.• Eliminates the need for skid trails.• Haul roads are usually at the top of thelogging unit.CABLE YARDING HARVESTINGTopography Considerations• 55 percent slopes and greater.• Concave slopes allow more cable deflectionand greater system efficiencySoil Considerations• Significantly reduces soil compactionand disturbance.• All equipment is confined to roads.Forest Stand Considerations• Used in partial cuts and clearcuts.• Difficult for commercial thinning.• Difficult to reach sideways from thecable corridor.Equipment Used• Cable yarder• Log loader• ChainsawTrees are hand felled, limbed and bucked with chainsaws. A cable isstretched from the yarder to another point on the ground (stump,tractor, etc). The cable carries the logs over the terrain with eitherone end suspended or fully suspended, from where the tree is felledto the roadside or log landing. From there, logs are loaded on trucks.Yarders can reach out 1,000 to 2,500 feet.Typical Harvest LayoutSlash Disposal• More complicated than other systems.• If clearcut, may requirebroadcast burning (see page 55).Reforestation Considerations• Cable harvesting is effective inpartial cuts and clearcuts.Economic Considerations• Typically twice the cost ofground-based harvest systems.• More labor intensive.Unit BoundaryCable corridorHaul RoadLandingsWetlandStreamThis example of cable yarding shows both fanshapedand parallel corridors extending outfrom the roadside landings. Logs can be carriedover streams and canyons. Generally, logs areusually pulled uphill, but can also be moveddownhill.51

TIMBER HARVESTINGHELICOPTER HARVESTINGHelicopter HarvestingA harvest system once used exclusively forlarge, high value timber, helicopter harvestinghas now become more common for smallerlogs.Advantages• Ability to harvest visually sensitive,inaccessible areas or areas that cannot beharvested with other systems. Areas withhigh recreational use, special wildlife habitat,riparian/wetlands and geologic hazardlocations are common.• Slash (tree branches and tops) remainsin the forest.• The number of miles of roads maybe reduced.Topography Considerations• It can be used on any type of terrain.Soil Considerations• Preferred where soils are susceptible tocompaction.• Minimizes soil disturbance because logsare fully suspended.Forest Stand Considerations• Efficient, but costly, method ofcommercial thinning.• Moves short logs out of the forest ratherthan long logs due to weight limitations.• Works well to reduce wildfire hazardSlash Disposal• Typically, lop and scatter is used to reducefire hazard. If inadequate, additional methodsmay be necessary and will be very costly dueto no road access.Reforestation Considerations• Ground scarification may not be adequatefor successful regeneration.Equipment Used• Logging helicopter• Log loader• Bulk fuel handlingequipment• Maintenance supportequipmentThis KMAX Heavy Lift helicopterhas a payload capacity of 6,000pounds. Flight distances arekept to .5 to 1.5 miles. Longer distancesare more costly. Optimumpayload of each load makes theoperation economic.52Economic Considerations• Fewer roads are needed.• Sophisticated machinery used and largercrew size typically results in costs that are 3to 4 times more than ground-based systems.• High costs can make entire sales uneconomicwhen log markets take a downturn.Log landings are receiving logs every three minutes or less.Adequate space for drops is essential.

At the log landing,incoming logs arequickly trimmed andmeasured.TIMBER HARVESTING#11Minimize the size and number of landingsto accommodate safe, economical operation.Avoid locating landings that require skiddingacross drainage bottoms.#11For each landing provide and maintain adrainage system to control the dispersal of waterand to prevent sediment from entering streams.HELICOPTER HARVESTINGHelicopter service areas are located away from log landings. Operatorsare required to provide fuel truck containment in case of accidental spills.Portable water tanks and pumps are ready for fire emergencies.Typical Harvest LayoutA swing boom log loadersorts logs according to species,size and quality andloads them on trucks.Unit BoundaryFlight pathHaul RoadLandingsCliffs/sensitive soilsStreamLog pick-up pointOutgoing FlightPath .5-1.5 milesReturnFlightPathHelicopterService Area53

REFORESTATIONSLASH TREATMENT/SITE PREPARATION54Slash Treatment/Site Preparation#6Rapid reforestation of harvested areas is encouragedto re-establish protective vegetation.Why treat slash and prepare the site?• To reduce the wildfire hazard fromlogging debris.• To prepare the harvest area for a new forest.• To leave enough organic matter forthe next forest.Problems of slash treatment andsite preparation• Soil can be exposed to erosion, especiallyon steeper slopes.• Soil can be compacted and/or rutted(see page 45).• There can be loss of organic matter needed forthe next forest.Too much slash cleanup.When the forest is sweptclean, soil erosion,compaction and soildisplacement (moved andrutted soil) interfere witha successful next forest.To reduce wildfirerisk, slash is piled andburned, or otherwisetreated to reduce thefire hazard. However, thefoliage and branches leftafter a harvest are a source of organic matterand fertilizer needed for the next forest. Slashalso protects soil from erosion. A balance isrequired between the need to reduce fire hazardand the need for organic matter and soilprotection.Starting a new forest requires patches ofexposed mineral soil on the forest floor. Seedfrom nearby trees germinates best in baremineral soil. Mechanical slash treatment andsite preparation must create some bare soilwhile minimizing erosion. At the same time,heavy equipment can compact soil, especiallywet soil (see page 45).Slash Treatment/Site Preparation On Gentle TerrainHow to achieve the balance between the need for mineral soil andorganic matter while minimizing erosion and reducing fire hazard.Method 1: MachinePile and Burn SlashAfter logs are removed,excavators or tractorsequipped with a brushblade are used to pile slashfor burning. Machine pilingreduces the fire hazardand creates a seedbed forthe new forest. Some landownerslike the lookof a “cleaned-up” forest. Butthis method is expensive, notrecommended oncompactible soils, and maynot provide the next forestwith the organic matterneeded for best growth.****Minimize oreliminate elongatedexposure of soils upand down the slopeduring mechanicalscarification.****Carry out brushpiling and scarificationwhen soils are frozenor dry enough tominimize compactionand displacement.What to Avoid WhenMachine PilingWork around small trees,low brush and large logs.Stay clear of wet areaswhere compaction, soilrutting and erosioncan result.

REFORESTATION****When pilingslash, care should betaken to preserve thesurface soil horizonby using appropriatetechniques andequipment. Avoiduse of dozers withearthmoving blades- use a brush rake.Method 2: Whole Tree HarvestingWhole tree harvesting brings the entire tree, branchesand top, to the landing. There, the branches and topsare removed, piled and burned. All slash is brought toa central location, and efficiently disposed of, leaving aclean forest floor. But important soil organic matter isremoved, and the disturbed forest floor may besusceptible to erosion.Slash Treatment/Site Preparation OnSteep Terrain****Carry out scarification on steep slopes in amanner that minimizes erosion. Broadcast burningand/or herbicide application is thepreferred means for site preparation,especially on slopes greater than 40 percent.#40Limit water-quality impacts of prescribedfire by constructing waterbars in firelines, notplacing slash in drainage features and avoidingintense fires unless needed to meet silviculturalgoals. Avoid slash piles in the SMZ when usingexisting roads for landings.SLASH TREATMENT/SITE PREPARATION****Scarify the soilonly to the extentnecessary to meetthe resource managementobjectives.Some slash andsmall brush shouldbe left to slow surfacerunoff, returnsoil nutrients andprovide shade forseedlings.Method 3: Whole Tree Harvest butReturn SlashThe same machines that bring whole trees to the landingcan carry a portion of the slash back and scatter it on theforest floor. This method makes slash fertilizer availableto the next forest and keeps soils protected from erosion,especially on skid trails. The fire danger is minimalbecause the slash is crushed and close to the ground.Some landowners object to the appearance.Method 4: Lop and ScatterTree branches and top are left at the stump. To meethazard reduction standards, this material must be cutor lopped, so it lays close to the ground for rapid decay.This method protects and nourishes forest soils, butsome landowners object to the appearance, while othersclaim it inhibits livestock and wildlife movement.However, while this is an inexpensive slash treatmentfor light harvests, it can leave a fire hazard in heavyharvest areas. Lop and scatter, combined with machinetrampling, may be a remedy for heavy slash areas.Method 1: Broadcast BurningOn steep slopes, broadcast burning can be an effectivesite preparation technique, eliminating the problemof soil disturbance and controlling heavy fuels. Bycarefully monitoring moisture conditions, a fire can beset that consumes only part of the slash, leaving largematerial in place. Afterwards, the site is either plantedor allowed to regenerate naturally. Whole treeharvesting (see page 48) and air quality requirementsare making broadcast burning more rare.55

WINTER PLANNINGWINTER LOGGING PRECAUTIONSWinter Logging PrecautionsWinter logging on frozen ground isone way to avoid soil, watershed andriparian and wetland area damage.However, there are potentialproblems with winter logging.1. Failure to mark riparian andwetland areas prior to snow coverresults in damage when operatingunknowingly in these areas.2. Failure to install adequate erosioncontrol prior to spring runoff.ConductWinter Loggingwinter loggingTipsWinter freeze-up is an opportunity for low-impact logging. With properprecautions, work in sensitive areas can be done without affecting water quality.****Conduct winter logging operationswhen the ground is frozen orsnow cover is adequate (generallymore than one foot) to prevent ruttingor displacement of soil. Be preparedto suspend operations if conditionschange rapidly and when the erosionhazard becomes high.****Consult with operatorsexperienced in winter loggingtechniques.Consider snow-road construction and**** Consider snow-road constructionand winter harvesting in isolatedwetlands and other areas with highwater tables or soil erosion andcompaction hazards.****In wet unfrozen soil areas, usetractors or skidders to compact thesnow for skid road locations only whenadequate snow depth exists. Avoidsteeper areas where frozen skid trailsmay be subject to erosion the nextspring.56Compact skid trail snow before skiddinglogs. This avoids damage to soils that may bewet or not completely frozen.SMZs can be totally obscured by heavysnow. Avoid confusion by marking boundariesahead of the first snow.Winter thaws can happen. Don‘t take chanceswith soil compaction, rutting and possibleerosion. Expect to shut down temporarily.Waterbar all skid trails prior to spring runoff.If prohibited by frozen ground, install waterbarsduring dry summer months. Slash onskid trails can act as temporary erosion controluntil waterbars are installed.

WINTER PLANNINGTo provide a winterroad grade capableof heavy hauling,always remove snowcover. Deep-frozenroad surfaces havetremendous strength.Don’t let snow coverinsulate and weakenthe road. Plow duringcold weather.Winter Road and DrainageConsiderations****For road systems across areas of poorbearing capacity, consider hauling only duringfrozen periods. During cold weather, plow anysnow cover off of the roadway to facilitate deepfreezing of the road grade prior to hauling.****Before logging, mark existing culvert locations.During and after logging, makesure that all culverts and ditches are openand functional.****Use compacted snow for roadbeds inunroaded, wet or sensitive sites. Construct snowroads for single-entry harvests or for temporaryroads.****Return the following summer and builderosion barriers on any trails that are steepenough to erode.****Be prepared to suspend operations if conditionschange rapidly and when theerosion hazard becomes high.WINTER ROAD AND DRAINAGE CONSIDERATIONSSee Road Maintenance, page 32 for tips onsnow berm breaks for drainage.Road surfaces deteriorate rapidly under heavy haulingand thawing temperatures. This road surface isstarting to break up. Hauling should be suspended orlimited to colder portions of the day.Trying to rely on memory can be expensive when itcomes to culvert maintenance. Mark them before thesnow falls to avoid logging machinery damage andavoid sidecasting into streams during snowplowing.57

CLEAN-UPHAZARDOUS SUBSTANCESHazardous Substances“Hazardous or toxic material” meanssubstances which by their nature aredangerous to handle or dispose of, ora potential environmental contaminant,and includes petroleum products,pesticides, herbicides, chemicals andbiological wastes.Improper storage and handling of oilproducts and fuel can be a water-qualityhazard. Locate facilities away fromSMZs. Be prepared to clean up spills.****Know and comply with regulationsgoverning the storage, handling,application (including licensing ofapplicators) and disposal of hazardoussubstances. Follow all label instructions.Improper disposal ofoil or fuel can contaminateground water andseep into streams.When performing machine maintenance,dispose of used oils, filters and partsresponsibly by removing them from theforest.#4Develop a contingency planfor hazardous substance spills,including cleanup procedures andnotification of the state Departmentof Environmental Quality. A spill preventionand countermeasure plan isrequired by federal law for storage ofmore than 1320 gallons and state lawrequires the reporting of spills over 25gallons.****Remove all logging machinery debris toproper disposal site (tires, chains, chokers,cable and miscellaneous discarded parts).Spill kits are used to containhazardous materials.Herbicides can be used in the SMZ, eitherbefore or after a timber harvest, as long asthey are used according to label requirements.Science is improvingknowledge of and useof biological controlsin the forest. Insectlures and pheromonetraps (illustrated) arenew ways to controlpests.58Pesticides/Herbicides#35Use an integrated approach toweed and pest control, includingmanual, biological, mechanical,preventive and chemical means.****To enhance effectiveness andprevent transport into streams, applychemicals during appropriate weatherconditions (generally calm and dry)and during the optimum time for controlof the target pest or weed.Whether applied by aircraft, powersprayequipment or backpack sprayer,chemical pesticides can be used safelyaround SMZs when applicators complywith strict regulations.

FIRE SUPPRESSION AND PRESCRIBED BURNINGFirelines and Roads# 41Stabilize all areas that have significantlyincreased erosion potential or drainage patternsaltered by suppression activities by:Installing waterbars and other drainage diversionsin fire roads, firelines and other clearedareas.FIRELINES AND ROADSSeeding, planting and fertilizing to provide vegetativecover.Spreading slash or mulch to protect bare soil.Prescribed Burning and Wildfire SuppressionDuring prescribed burning and wildfire suppression operations,ground vegetation is removed by fire and the soil surface is disturbedby the construction of fire control lines.# 40Protect soil and water from prescribed burning effects, bymaintaining soil productivity, minimizing erosion and preventingash, sediments, nutrients and debris from entering surface water.Avoid intense fires which may promote water repellency.Retain or plan for sufficient ground cover to prevent erosion ofburned sites.# 42After an intense wildfire or prescribed burn, emergencyrehabilitation may be necessary to minimize the the loss of soil,prevent the deterioration of water quality and to mitigate threats tolife and property.Repairing damaged road drainage.Clearing stream channels of debris depositedby suppression activities.Scarification may be necessary to encouragepercolation on excessively burned soils.Dozers and excavators canbe used to rehabilitatefirelines and restore roaddrainage features, to safeguardwater quality andprevent erosion.Avoid excessivesoil disturbanceand scarificationwhen buildingfire control linesFor most fireline rahbilitation, some hand work will be necessaryto ensure water quality protection.59

REVEGETATION OF DISTURBED AREASSEEDING RECOMMENDATIONSRevegetation of Areas Disturbedby Harvesting Activities.On some harvest areas, it is desirableto artificially revegetate disturbed areas,to prevent soil erosion and subsequentwater quality impacts. It is also advantageousto quickly revegetate disturbedareas to prevent the germination ofany noxious weeds that may be present.The best solution of all is to allownative vegetation to recover on the site,but often, supplemental seeding is necessary.#13Establish vegetative cover ondisturbed sites to prevent erosion andsedimentation.Seed disturbed areas with an appropriateseed mix for the forest typein question. Use mixtures of quickgrowing annual grasses and perennialnative species.Apply seed to disturbed areas as soonas harvesting activites are over andbefore disturbed soil 'hardens up'.Place slash on skid trails and landingsto aid with vegetation recovery and tohelp avoid soil erosion.Consider using straw mulch and othersupplements to ensure adequate andprompt vegetation recovery aroundstreams.Use fertilizer sparingly to avoid pollutingstreams.Recommended Grass Seed Varieties (*= native) X = Suitable for Forest Zone1 2 3 4 5 6 Zone #Bannock or Critana thickspike wheatgrass* X XEphriam or Fairway crested wheatgrass XManska or Luna pubescent wheatgrass XHycrest crested wheatgrassXReliant or Oahe intermediate wheatgrass XGreenar intermediate wheatgrassXPryor slender wheatgrass*XVavilov Siberian wheatgrassXSodar streambank wheatgrass* X XTegmar dwarf intermediate wheatgrass XRosana western wheatgrass*XWhitmar beardless wheatgrass X XGoldar or Secar bluebunch wheatgrass* XDurar hard fescue X X XCover sheep fescue* X X X XKenmont tall fescue X X X XPennlawn chewings red fescueXRedondo Arizona fescue* X X XNevada bluegrass* X XSherman big bluegrass* X X XReubens Canada bluegrass X XAlpine bluegrass*XManchar smooth brome X XRegar meadow bromeXBromar mountain brome* X XGarrison creeping foxtail X X X XMeadow foxtail X X X XLatar orchardgrass X X XClimax timothy X X X XAlpine timothy* X XWhite Dutch clover X XAlsike cloverXTretana birdsfoot trefoil X XTufted hairgrass* X XAnnual wheat, Rye, or Oats should make up at least 10% of any seed mix60Contact your local ConservationDistrict or NRCS office for completedetails about appropriate seed mixesand seeding rates for your area. Thecomplete text of BMP # 13 includesmore information on seeding rates,suitable native shrubs and otheraspects of revegetation.Site Adaptation ZonesZone 1 - Dry Douglas fir, limber pine, lodgepole and ponderosa pine habitat types.Zone 2 - Moist ponderosa pine and Douglas fir habitat types.Zone 3 - Moist Douglas fir on well drained soils.Zone 4 - Subalpine fir/Engleman spruce habitat types.Zone 5 - High, cold environments and timberline habitat types.Zone 6 - Wet sites and poorly-drained soils - typically spruce and subalpine fir.