English Language Teaching in its Social Context

62 ROD ELLISThird, the method of implementation is likely to influence to what extent an innovationtakes root. Havelock (1 971) distinguishes three basic models of innovation. The research,development and diffusion modcl views the researcher as the originator of proposals and theteachers as consumers and implementors of them. It is likely to be used in conjunction witha power-coercive strategy, whcre some authority takes a decision to adopt an innovation(e.g. a new syllabus) and then devises ways of providing teachers with the knowledge andskills they need to implement it. Innovation in this model, then, takes place top-down.Tbeproblem-solving model involves engaging teachers in identifying problems, researchingpossible solutions and then trying them out in their teaching. Innovation in this model,then, originates with the teachers. A social interaction model emphasizes the importance ofsocial relationships in determining adoption and emphasizes the role of communication indetermining uptake of an innovatory idea.To a large extent, these three models parallel thethree approaches to relating research and pedagogy discussed in the previous section. Thatis, the research development and diffusion modcl reflects the positivist, technical view; theproblem-solving model reflects the call for teacher rcscarch, while the importance placedon communication in the social interaction model mirrors that placed on discourse in criticalaction rcsearch.The fourth set of factors governing thc uptake of innovatory proposals concerns theattributes of the proposals themselves. These arc of particular interest to us because theymay provide the applied linguist with a basis for evaluating proposals emanating from SLA.The principal attributes discussed in the literature (see Kelly 1980, Rogers 1983, and Stoller1994) are listed in Table 3.1, together with brief definitions. Some of these attributes areTable 3. IAttributes of innovationAttributeInitial dissatisfactionFeasibilityAcceptabilityRelevanceComplexityExplicitnmEiabilityObservahili 9Originaliiy0wner.shipDefinitionThe level of dissatisfaction that teachers experience with some aspectof their existing teaching.The extent to which the innovation is seen as implcmentable giventhc conditions in which teachers work.The extent to which the innovation is seen as compatible with teachers’existing teaching style and ideology.The extent to which the innovation is viewed as matching the needs ofthe teachers’ students.Thc extent to which the innovation is difficult or easy to grasp.The extent to which the rationale for the innovation is clear andconvincing.The extent to which the innovation can be easily tricd out in stages.The cxtcnt to which the results of innovation are visible to others.The cxtcnt to which the teachers arc required to demonstrate a highlevel of originality in order to implement thc innovation (e.g. bypreparing special materials).The extent to which teachers comc to feel that they ‘possess’ theinnovation.