English Language Teaching in its Social Context

SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION 51as any to make it so. For a theory to be of maximum use to teachers it has to take the formof praxis ~ a theory of action. This is a point that will be taken up later in this chapter.Another way of bridging the gap between SLA and language pedagogy is through whatJohnston (1 987) has called ‘a technology of teaching’. Johnston draws an analogy betweenengineering and teaching. He argues that whereas engineering has successfully defined its ownproblem space as independent from that of supporting disciplines, such as physics, languageteaching has not yet done so. This is because it lacks a sound body of practical knowledgedeveloped through experimentation in the classroom itself. Johnston distinguishes pureresearch (i.e. the research carried out by SLA researchers such as himself) and classroomresearch. He recognizes that pure research can only provide guidelines and suggestions,which have to be put to the test. For Johnston, then, the gap between SLA and languagepedagogy needs to be filled by conducting experimental studies in actual classrooms. He isoptimistic that such research will ensure that ‘the language teaching of 10 to 15 years hencewill be rather different from the hit and miss methods of today’ (ibid. : 38).There is a logical objection to Johnston’s position. If the kind of classroom researchJohnston has in mind is controlled experimentation (where the realities of the classroom haveto be manipulated to control for unwanted variables that may influence the effect ofa given treatment), there may not, in fact, be any difference between pure and classroomresearch. In this respect, Wright’s (1 992) distinction between research in classrooms andresearch on classrooms is relevant. To develop the technology of teaching that Johnstonconsiders necessary it is the latter that is required, for as Wright (ibjd. : 192) argues ‘anunderstanding of the L2 classroom might best proceed . . . from its investigation as a culturein its own right’. However, controlled experimentation may not be the best way to carry outrcsearch on classrooms.The case for basing pedagogical decisions on L2 classroom research has been advancedby a number of other researchers and language educators. Jarvis (1983: 238), for example,argues that ‘Our knowledge must come from our own research’ and laments the fact that ithas typically not done so. Long (1983b) reports the results of a survey of methods coursesin Masters programmes in TESOL in the United States and Canada. Only 18% includedreference to classroom-centred research (CCR). Long (ibid. : 284) suggests that this mayreflect the practical orientation of methods courses but he argues that classroom-centredresearch is ‘eminently practical’ because it is ‘concerned with what actually goes on in theclassrooms, as opposed to what is supposed to go on’, a point that is only true, of course, ifthe researcher accepts the realities of classroom behaviour and makes no attempt to manipulateit for research purposes. Long gives three reasons why classroom-centred researchshould be included in methods courses: it has already produced some practical information;teachers can use thc research tools that have been employed to investigate their ownclassrooms; classroom-centred research will help teachers become sceptical about relyingon single teaching methods. In a subsequent paper, Long (1990) argues the need for acommon body of knowledge which can be transmitted to teachers in much the same way asa common body of knowledge about medicine is conveyed to doctors. He suggests thatalthough L2 classroom research is limited in a number of respects it constitutes ‘a growingbody of tangible evidence about language teaching’ (ibid. : 1 16). For Long, this constituteshard evidence which is better than the prejudices and suppositions which he believescharacterize most pedagogical decision-making. Like Johnston, then, Long envisages classroomresearch as the means by which researchers can most effectively influence languagepedagogy.There are serious reasons for disputing the optimism that both Johnston, Long, andothers share regarding the effect such rcsearch will have on language pedagogy. As Stenhousc