English Language Teaching in its Social Context
English Language Teaching in its Social Context
English Language Teaching in its Social Context
Create successful ePaper yourself
Turn your PDF publications into a flip-book with our unique Google optimized e-Paper software.
42 PATSY M. LIGHTBOWN AND NINA SPADAMany people conclude on the basis of studies such as those by Patkowski or Newportand Johnson that it is better to beg<strong>in</strong> second language <strong>in</strong>struction as early as possible.Yet itis very important to bear <strong>in</strong> m<strong>in</strong>d the context of these studies. They deal with the highestpossible level of second language skills, the level at which a second language speaker is<strong>in</strong>dist<strong>in</strong>guishable from a native speaker. But achiev<strong>in</strong>g a native-like mastery of the secondlanguage is not a goal for all second language learn<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>in</strong> all contexts.When the objective of second language learn<strong>in</strong>g is native-like mastery of the targetlanguage, it is usually desirable for the learner to be completely surrounded by the languageas early as possible. However, early <strong>in</strong>tensive exposure to the second language may entail theloss or <strong>in</strong>complete development of the child’s first language.When the goal is basic communicative ability for all students <strong>in</strong> a school sett<strong>in</strong>g, andwhen it is assumed that the child’s native language will rema<strong>in</strong> the primary language, itmay be more efficient to beg<strong>in</strong> second orforeign language teach<strong>in</strong>g later. When learnersreceive only a few hours of <strong>in</strong>struction per week, learners who start later (for example, atage 10, 1 1 , or 12) often catch up with those who began earlier. We have often seen secondor foreign language programs which beg<strong>in</strong> with very young learners but offer only m<strong>in</strong>imalcontact with the language. Even when students do make progress <strong>in</strong> these early-startprograms, they sometimes f<strong>in</strong>d themselves placed <strong>in</strong> secondary school classes with studentswho have had no previous <strong>in</strong>struction. After years of classes, learners feel frustrated by thelack of progress, and their motivation to cont<strong>in</strong>ue may be dim<strong>in</strong>ished. School programsshould be based on realistic estimates of how long it takes to learn a second language. One ortwo hours a week will not produce very advanced second language speakers, no matter howyoung they were when they began.SummaryThe learner’s age is one of the characteristics which determ<strong>in</strong>e the way <strong>in</strong> which an <strong>in</strong>dividualapproaches second language learn<strong>in</strong>g. But the opportunities for learn<strong>in</strong>g (both <strong>in</strong>side andoutside the classroom), the motivation to learn, and <strong>in</strong>dividual differences <strong>in</strong> aptitude forlanguage learn<strong>in</strong>g are also important determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g factors <strong>in</strong> both rate of learn<strong>in</strong>g and eventualsuccess <strong>in</strong> learn<strong>in</strong>g.In this chapter, we have looked at the ways <strong>in</strong> which <strong>in</strong>telligence, aptitude, personalityand motivational Characteristics, learner preferences, and age have been found to <strong>in</strong>fluencesecond language learn<strong>in</strong>g. We have learned that the study of <strong>in</strong>dividual learner variables isnot easy and that the results of research are not entirely satisfactory. This is partly becauseof the lack of clear def<strong>in</strong>itions and methods for the <strong>in</strong>dividual characteristics. It is also dueto the fact that these learner characteristics are not <strong>in</strong>dependent of one another: learnervariables <strong>in</strong>teract <strong>in</strong> complex ways. So far, researchers know very little about the nature ofthese complex <strong>in</strong>teractions.Thus, it rema<strong>in</strong>s difficult to make precise predictions about howa particular <strong>in</strong>dividual’s characteristics <strong>in</strong>fluence his or her success as a language learner.Nonetheless, <strong>in</strong> a classroom, a sensitive teacher, who takes learners’ <strong>in</strong>dividual personalitiesand learn<strong>in</strong>g styles <strong>in</strong>to account, can create a learn<strong>in</strong>g environment <strong>in</strong> which virtually alllearners can be successful <strong>in</strong> learn<strong>in</strong>g a second language.