English Language Teaching in its Social Context

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~ (1983)~ (1EVALUATION OF CLASSROOM INTERACTION 301We should not be afraid occasionally to provide input which is explicitly geared toward. . . the form of grammatical teaching, of correction, or otherforms Ofemphasis onparticular structures [my emphasis]; at worst, it will be ignored and at best, it may trigerchange in the acquisition system. (White 1987: 108)Bringing particular linguistic features to the class’s attention appears to be a rather valuablecharacteristic of uptake as most of the uptaken items were focused upon during instruction.The fact that most of the ‘lost’ items were error correction does not necessarily contradictthe effect of topicalisation. Learners may not be ready to internalise particular structuralfeatures despite their persistent explanation and correction. Correction is often seen, inthis study, to be provided in an erratic and confusing manner. The study revealed that whilesome uptaken featurcs were products of the teacher’s plan, others were by-products of theplan or perhaps of the classroom interaction.These uptaken items, which represent 44 per cent of the participants’ interactiveefforts, are revealed to be highly idiosyncratic. The detailed analysis of the interactiveprocesses has shown that different features of the same event have been uptaken by differentlearners. Very few items were claimed by all or even most learners. Moreover, while manyof the claims could be traced in the transcripts as having received some kind of emphasison the part of the participants, mostly of the teacher, others merely occurred as part of theclassroom interaction or did not feature at all in the text, suggesting that learners reactedwith some autonomy to what went on during the interactive event.Viewing input as co-produced by the participants has highlighted idiosyncrasy andtopicalisation as particularly relevant to evaluation studies which generally tend to assesslearning outcomes on the basis of the teacher’s objectives: these objectives are subsequentlyassumed to be learned by most learners in the class. A test based on the teacher’s objectiveswould have taken into consideration the features which the teacher planned to treat. Sucha test would, by its nature, ignore the very many other features which incidentally aroseduring the actual classroom interaction, some of which learners claimed to have bcnefitcdfrom.Because of the finding that what actually gets topicalised during the claw-oominteractive work is different from the teacher’s plan, and because uptake is stronglyidiosyncratic, it is therefore not helpful to use the teacher’s plan as a measuring rod for whathas been uptaken from the lesson. In fact, a consideration of the actual classroom interactivework which characterises second language instruction and a study of learner idiosyncrasymight help us gain a better understanding of the complexities of second language teachngand learning. This understanding might subsequently inform the improvement of evaluationsof what actually gets learned from language programmes.ReferencesAllwright, R.L. (ed.) (1975a) ‘Working papers: languagc teaching classroom rcscarch’ .Dcpartment of Language and Linguistics, University of Essex, England.Allwright, R.L. (1975b) ‘Problems in the study of the teacher’s treatment of learner error’, inBurt and Dulay: 96-109.‘The nature and function of the syllabus in languagc teaching and learning’.Unpublished mimeograph. Department of Linguistics and Modern English Language,Lancaster University.984a) ‘Why don’t learners learn what teachers teach? The interaction hypothesis’, in
~ (1~ (1~ (1~ (1~ (1982)~ (1989)The302 ASSIA SLIMANID. M. Singleton and D. G. Little (eds) Language learning informal and informal contexts, pp.3-18. Dublin: IRAAL.984b) ‘The importance of interaction in classroom language learning’. AppliedLinguistics, 52 : 156-7 1 .984c) ‘The analysis of discourse in interlanguage studies: the pedagogical evidence’, inDavies, Criper and Howatt.988) ‘Autonomy and individualisation in whole-class instruction’, in A. Brookes and P.Grundy (eds) Individualization and autonomy in language learning, pp. 3544. ELTDocuments 131. London: Modern English Publications, British Council.Brecn, M.P. and Candlin, C.N. (1980) ‘The essentials of a communicative curriculum inlanguage tcaching’, Applied Linguistics l(2): 89-1 12.Burt, M. and Dulay, H.C. (1975) On TESOL ‘75. New directions in second language, learning,teaching and bilingual education. Washington, D.C. : TESOL.Corder, S.P. (1977) ‘Teaching and learning English as a second 1anguage:Trcnds in research andpractice’, in H.D. Brown, C.A.Yorio, and R.H. Crymes (eds) On TESOL ‘77. Teaching andlearning English as a second language: trends in research and practice. Washington, D.C.:TESOL.Davies, A., Criper, C. and Howatt, A.P.R. (cds) (1984) Interlanguage. Edinburgh: EdinburghUniversity Press.Ellis, R. (1984) ‘Can syntax be taught?: a study of the effects of formal instruction on theacquisition ofWH questions by children’. Applied Linguistics S(2): 138-55.Ellis, R. and Rathbone, M. (1987) ‘The acquisition of German in a classroom context’.Unpublished report. Ealing College of Higher Education.Fanselow, J. (1977) ‘The treatment of learner error in oral work’. Foreign Language Annals 10:583-93.Krashen, S.D. (1980) ‘The theoretical and practical relevance of simple codes in secondlanguage acquisition’, in R. Scarcella and S.D. Krashen (eds) Research in second languageacqusition, pp. 7-1 8. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury Housc.981) Second language acquisition and second language learning. Oxford: Pergamon Press.Principles and practice in second language acquisition. NewYork: Pergamon.Lightbown, P.M. (1983) ‘Exploratory relationships between developmental and instructionalsequences in L2 acquisition’, in H.W. Scligcr and M.H. Long (eds) Classroom orientedresearch in second language acquisition, pp. 2 1745. Rowlcy, Mass. : Newbury House.MacFarlanc, J.M. (1975) ‘Some types of psychological discussion that help to establish theteacher’s treatment of error as a fruitful variable for investigation’, in Allwright (1975a)pp. 4-63.Morray, M. (1976) ‘INELEC: Teamwork in an EST program’, in British Council Team teaching inESP’. ELT Document 106. ETIC Publications.Rubin, J. (1975) ‘What the “good language learner” can teach us’. TESOL Quarterly 9( 1): 41-5 1.Schercr, A. and Wcrthcimer, M. (1964) A psycholinguistic experiment in.foreign language teaching.NewYork: McGraw Hill.Slimani, A. (1987) ‘The teaching-learning relationships: Learning opportunities and learningoutcomes. An Algerian case study’. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, LancasterUniversity, England.role of topicalisation in classroom language learning. .’stem 17: 223-34.Smith, P.D. (1970) A comparison .f the cognitive and audiolingual approaches to foreign languageinstruction: The fennyslvania Foreign Language Project. Philadelphia, Pcnn. : The Center forCurriculum Development.Spada, N.M. (1987) ‘Relationships between instructional differences and learning outcomes: aprocess-product study of communicative language teaching’. Applied Linguistics 8( 2):137-61.
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English Language Teaching in its So
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English Language Teaching in its So
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First published 2001by Routledge11
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IllustrationsFigures1.12.13.13.25.1
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Ac kn ow I e d g e me n t sThe edit
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xivAC I
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2 INTRODUCTIONprocess evoke and cre
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6 INTRODUCTIONcould be used by adul
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8 INTRODUCTIONkey theme in the pape
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Chapter 1Rosamond Mitchell and Flor
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SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING: CONCEPTS
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FACTORS AFFECTING SECOND LANGUAGE L
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orofFACTORS AFFECTING SECOND LANGUA
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SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION 45Many
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SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION 47neces
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SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION 55for l
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SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION 57What
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SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION 59The t
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SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION 61Innov
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SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION 65expla
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SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION 67proce
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SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION 6945678
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~ (1977)~ (1980)~ (1SECOND LANGUAGE
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Chaptev 4Pet e r S It e ha nCOMPREH
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COMPREHENSION AND PRODUCTION STRATE
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CONSTRAINTS AND RESOURCES IN CLASSR
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CONSTRAINTS AND RESOURCES I N CLASS
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~ (1CONSTRAINTS AND RESOURCES IN CL
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~ (1~ (1996b)CONSTRAINTS AND RESOUR
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aintoLANGUAGE ACQUISITION OR LANGUA
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THE SOCIAL CONTEXT FOR LANGUAGE LEA
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PART TWOStrategies and goals in the
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148 PAUL I
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~ do~ iswouldwhat156 PAUL KNIGHTLIS
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162 PAUL KNIGHT6 Raman goes to see
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~ (1~ (1~~~ (1166 PAUL KNIGHTForeig
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168 JACI< C. RICHARDSa basis for es
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170 JACK C. RICHARDSClassroom manag
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172 JACK C. RICHARDSinformation, an
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174 JACK C. RICHARDSMore recent wor
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176 JACI< C. RICHARDSsuccessful rea
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~ (1985b)178 JACI< C. RICHARDSCohen
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Chapter 10Michael H. LongFOCUS ON F
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182 MICHAEL H. LONG“interfering
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184 MICHAEL H. LONGdcvelopmcnt now
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186 MICHAEL H. LONGPavcsi’s study
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eingmore192 DAVID NUNANsense. This
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194 DAVID NUNANenable them to make
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196 DAVID NUNANExample 3Look at the
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198 DAVID NUNANConclusionIn this ch
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Chapter 12Anne BurnsGENRE-BASED APP
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202 ANNE BURNSteacher to structure
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204ANNE BURNST:L:T:L:T:L:T:LL:T:L:L
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206 ANNE BURNSSu: Oh (laughs) . . .
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Chapter 13A. Suresh CanagarajahCRIT
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ofTESOL-related macrostructures, an
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212 A. SURESH CANAGARAJAHI enjoyed
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214 A. SURESH CANAGARAJAHconducted
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216 A. SURESH CANAGARAJAHtranscende
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220 A. SURESH CANAGARAJAHdownTamil
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222 A. SURESH CANAGARAJAHearly OS),
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224 A. SURESH CANAGARAJAHthe intere
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228 J. KEITH CHICI
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232 J. KEITH CHICI
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236 J. KEITH CHICKare responsible f
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238 J. KEITH CHICI
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Chapter 15Neil MercerLANGUAGE FOR T
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LANGUAGE FOR TEACHING A LANGUAGE 24
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thecanLANGUAGE FOR TEACHING A LANGU
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Page 338 and 339: Chapter 20Joan SwannRECORDING AND T
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3INDEX 351sampling 323 4Sapir, E. 1
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