English Language Teaching in its Social Context

BEYOND METHODS 169an essentially negative view of teachers, one which implies that since the quality of teacherscannot be guaranteed, the contribution of the individual teacher should be minimized bydesigning teacher-proof methods. The assumption that underlies general, all-purposemethods is hence essentially this:Teachers cannot be trusted to tcach well. Left to their owndevices, teachers will invariably make a mess of things. A method, because it imposes auniform set of teaching roles, teaching styles, teaching strategies, and teaching techniqueson the teacher, will not be affected by the variations that are found in individual teachingskill and teaching style in the real world.Researchers who have investigated the nature of teaching, however, have proposed adifferent view of teaching (Good 1979; Elliot 1980; Tikunoff 1985). They begin with theassumption that teachers (rather than methods) do make a difference; that teachers workin ways that are, to an extent, independent of methods; and that the characteristics ofeffective teaching can be determined. Other researchers have turned their attention tolearners and sought to determine what characterizes effective learning. This requires adifferent approach to teachng, one in which teachers are involved in observing and reflectingupon their own teaching as well as the learning behaviors of their students.The nature of effective teachingTeacher strategiesEvery teacher aims to be an effective teacher.The concept of effective teachng is a somewhatelusive one, however. Can it be determined from the teacher’s behavior, the learner’sbehavior, classroom interaction, or the results of learning? Researchers have attempted tooperationalize the notion of effective teaching by describing it as teaching that produceshigher-than-predicted gains on standardized achievement tests (Good 1979). Studies ofteacher effectiveness have dealt mainly with first language classrooms and with the teachingof reading and math. One major study has dealt with effective teachers in bilingual programs(Tikunoff et al. 1980). These studies are characterized by detailed observation of teachersperforming instructional activities in the classroom in an attempt to isolate the qualities andskills of effective teachers.In a comprehensive survey of the research on effective schooling, Blum (1984: 3-6)summarizes effective classroom practices as follows:1234S6789101 112Instruction is guided by a preplanned curriculum.There are high expectations for student learning.Students are carefully oriented to lessons.Instruction is clear and focused.Learning progress is monitored closely.When students don’t understand, they are retaught.Class time is used for learning.There are smooth and efficient classroom routines.Instructional groups formed in the classroom fit instructional needs.Standards for classroom behavior are high.Personal interactions between teachers and students are positive.Incentives and rewards for students are used to promote excellence.Several dimensions of teaching have been found to account for differences betwecn effectiveand ineffective instruction (Doyle 1977; Good 1979) .These include classroom management,structuring, tasks, and grouping.