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E-governance and Citizen Information 38 Theoretical Framework. The Network Administration2.4. Administration and CitizensPolitical science literature has provided empirical proof during the last few decades of the growinglack of interest and trust of citizens towards political parties and institutions (Huse, 2003; Clift,2000; Carnoy, 2001; Hague and Loader, 1999; Castells, 2001; OCDE, 1991). This can be seenin the decrease of traditional political participation, the low credibility of political representativesand the new forms of participation that are not channelled through political parties(Clift, 2001; Hayan, 1997; Inglehart and Clark, 1998).Citizens' indifference towards political institutions has extended to the running of public bureaucracy,so that the growing distance between citizens and the Administration is clearerthan ever. In 2002, a study showed that almost 59.3% of the Catalan population did notagree with the statement “citizens can influence the Government's decisions”. Similarly, approximately69.4% of the population believed that “it is impossible to exert our influence onthe decisions of politicians” (Castells et al., 2003).As we will see later on, this scenario is leading to a crisis in the legitimacy of the operationof states' administrative systems and the political system of representative democracy.2.4.1. Crisis in the Traditional Political Participation MechanismsFirstly, among the indicators of crises in democracies, we can see a constant decrease inthe participation in political elections in Western democracies since the late 1970s. In particular,participation in US presidential elections dropped from 62.8% in 1960 to 48.9% in1996 (Putnam, 2002). Likewise, the average participation in Europe dropped from 84% duringthe 1970s to 75% during the 1990s (Anduiza and Bosch, 2004). According to these authors,this phenomenon is closely linked to the decrease in the affiliation of politicalorganisations in parties and syndicates. This is further demonstrated by new forms of participationthat were not included in traditional representation systems (Inglehart and Clark,1998) and by citizens who are losing interest in political processes (an aspect that, accordingto some authors, is linked to the generalised trivialisation of politics by the media [Blumlerand Gurevitch, 1995]).Finally, empirical evidence shows a constant decrease in the trust in political representatives,parties and government institutions, with a persistent bad reputation given to the politicalclass in general (Putnam, 2002; Gibson et al., 2003).http://www.uoc.edu/in3/pic
E-governance and Citizen Information 39 Theoretical Framework. The Network AdministrationThe widespread use of ICTs throughout the 1990s created the possibility of significantlytransforming the relationship between citizens and political institutions, both in terms of politicalparticipation and in the delivery of public services. Therefore, the idea that ICTs and,particularly the Internet, represented a possibility to overcome the said crisis started to gainimportance. The Internet was seen as the ideal channel to improve democracy, providingspace to new channels for citizens' participation in public matters and communicating withtheir governments (Gibson et al., 2003; Clift, 2000). Various theoretical proposals wereborn, including the improvement of democracy under the umbrella of the so-called “e-democracy”.Out of these theories, we currently find different experiences that include new forumsand chats for political debate on the Internet, as well as the possibility of electronicvoting. 6 However, for the time being, these experiences are not very widespread internationally(Virapatirin and Peixoto, 2006; Trechsel et al., 2003).2.4.2. Crisis in the Operation of Public BureaucraciesThe crisis in the legitimacy of political institutions is similarly extended to the ordinary operationsof administrations (Gibson et al., 2003; Norris, 2000). Citizens do not trust bureaucraticstructures, and many believe that they are inefficient, complex, obsolete and costly. The highand persistent level of organisation into a hierarchy and compartmentalisation of the administrativeunits, with the resulting difficulties in communication and cooperation, being subject toinflexible regulations and norms or the traditional identification between aims and resourcesthat results in the sustainable growth of the Administration's volume (Jain, 2004; Benveniste,1984; OCDE, 1991) are perceived as characteristics of the same essence in bureaucratic organisations.The discrediting of political institutions is explained by the fact that these elementshinder the consolidation of the relation between citizens and the Administration.These criticisms have led authors to rethink the organisational approach of the administrationand its more immediate objectives. Various research projects state that the changesthat will improve the perception of the Public Administration should be implemented in theareas that are directly linked to citizens and the quality of public services offered (OCDE,1996; Spears et al., 2003; Gil and Casamayor, 2003). In short, in the areas where there isa closer relation between the public sector and citizens. In parallel, and in the same way inwhich ICTs have been viewed as an opportunity for new methods of political participation,they have also been considered within this context as the ideal instrument to carry out thesetransformations since, in theory, they facilitate proximity, accessibility, customisation, transparency,etc.6. To provide a preliminary image of these situations in Spain, see Borge, 2005.http://www.uoc.edu/in3/pic
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