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30AMCS Bulletin 12 — Chapter 3Cave FrequencyOur attention now turns to cave/cenote studies inYucatán, from which ideas regarding cave frequency,as well as cave function have emerged. As alreadynoted, Mercer’s investigation of nearly two dozencaves in the Puuc area remained one of the most extensivecave investigations for nearly 90 years.The Mayapan project, conducted by the CarnegieInstitution in the early 1950s, was unprecedented interms of extensive regional cave reporting. Thoughfew interpretive insights regarding cave functionand meaning arose from the project, the mapping ofcaves in relation to surface structures, as well as thefrequency of caves at the site would prove to havefar-reaching implications. Robert E. Smith publishedmany of the descriptions and illustrations of the cenotesat Mayapan (1953; 1954) and prepared the finalceramic monograph (1971). Philip E. Smith (1954;1955) briefly explored the significance of the ritualpositioning of architecture near caves at the site (e.g.Chen Mul). In total, twenty-six cenotes where identifiedwithin the site boundary (A.L. Smith 1962). Inhis report on Yucatecan ceramics, Brainerd providesmaps of Chen Mul as well as the cenotes ofTelchaquillo and Mani (1958). He also comments onthe unique character of cave pottery assemblages(Brainerd 1958:7, 21), as will be discussed in laterchapters. Strömsvik also reported on cave/cenoteswithin the vicinity of Mayapan (1953; 1954), includinga more detailed report on the cave of Dzab-Nanear Tecoh (1956).Water in the cave/cenotes of Mayapan was not asremote or inaccessible as in the Puuc region, and nodoubt accounted for much (if not all) of the site’s dailyneeds. Heavily trafficked, masonry causeways likethose found in the cenotes of Mucuyché (Stephens1843:fig. 5) and Mani (Brainerd 1958:map 12)facilitated unencumbered, routine use. In Brainerd’sillustration (1958:map 12), members of the moderncommunity are depicted collecting water from a secondaryaccess or “well” directly above the cave pool(around which collar and windlass were constructed).Despite quotidian appearances, the sacred nature ofthe cenotes at Mayapan is made obvious by offertoryfeatures like the platform in Cenote X-Coton (R.E.Smith 1953) and the modern rain ceremony at CenoteItzmal Ch’en (Shook 1952:250).The Mayapan project was particularly noteworthyin that it revealed the frequent occurrence of cavesacross the Yucatecan landscape. A more in-depth studyof the relationship between settlement and the landscapeat Mayapan was conducted by Brown (n.d.),and work by Eunice Uc González continues in the region.James Brady (personal communication 2001) hassuggested that the relatively low profile of theMayapan project (in relation to more grandioseCarnegie endeavors in the Maya area) resulted in theidea that the high frequency of caves at Mayapan wasunique or atypical. The prevalence of single-cave studieshas suggested to archaeologists that, while it ispossible to have areas with multiple caves such asMayapan, the more common situation is for caves tobe rare and widely dispersed over the landscape. Thisidea has important implications for the study of caves.First, if caves are expected to be rare, there is littleincentive to mount a search for something that maynot exist. Second, a relatively rare feature is unlikelyto be the focus of an important cultural complex sincemost communities would not have the opportunity toparticipate in it.This view has drastically changed among cavearcheologists as a result of cave surveys, which beganin the 1980s. Juan Luis Bonor Villarejo conducted thefirst recent regional survey in Yucatán during his tenurewith Proyecto Oxkintok. Bonor Villarejo recordedsome 37 caves in the Oxkintok/Calcehtok region(1987a, 1987b, 1989b, see also 1989a). Further studiesin the area were conducted by Evia Cervantes(1991) and Uc González and Canche Mazanero (1989).To the southeast, regional investigations centered atOxkutzcab revealed several new cave sites (Strecker1984, 1985; Stone 1989a; Bonor Villarejo and Sanchezy Pinto 1991). It became increasingly apparent fromthese studies that caves were both common and commonlyused throughout the Yucatán. Equally important,the focus on the singular function of water collectionbegan to broaden as a variety of features were recorded,such as painted scenes of elite activity on cavewalls, interments, and the architectural enclosure ofcave rooms. In fact, it is the very frequency of caves(i.e. the comparative investigation of multiple caves)that allowed for variability in cave function to be identifiedand assessed. Current regional surveys, like theYalahau project, suggest that caves (in relation tosettlement) are quite abundant and were readily integratedinto the cultural geography of the peninsula.More than any previous discovery in Yucatán,Balankanche expanded our appreciation for the ritualfunction of caves. Though the cave was known forsome time (Ruppert et al. 1954), the spectacular innerpassages were not revealed until 1959, when localguide José Humberto Gómez discovered a sealed entrance.The initial investigation involved severalprominent individuals, including Piña Chán, and wasreported by E. Wyllys Andrews IV (1961). The later