Classical Islamic Paradigms of Deterrence and their Expression in ...

for members of the own group or nation, and an instinctive sense of anger and suspicion against outsiders.The mixture between abstract threat and concrete fear is often manipulated by creating a collective alteredstate of consciousness within the population that may be described as "security-phobia." A phobia ischaracterized by abstract fear (lack of security) projected on concrete matters (terrorist attacks), which inturn allows avoidance-behavior (security policies, for example deterrence) and increases the feeling ofsecurity among the population. However, this technique still does not offer any solution for a workingdefense mechanism against inner fears, and is therefore rejected by many psychiatrists in individualtreatment therapy. 53 Populations in general suffer from cultural biases that can be turned into collectivestates of fear that are phobia-like. Their senses of fear are characterized, among Westerners, for example,by the perception of Muslims as backward, fanatic, irrational terrorists. Among Muslims a perception ofdegradation, cultural and military imperialism and Jewish-Christian conspiracy against Islam prevails.Westerners are often seen as technocratic people without spiritual ideals. With its foreign policy, the U.S.further aggravates other deep seated inner fears of Muslims. Muslims fear their own cultural demise,incapability to self-organize and are searching for reasons. The U.S. presents itself as a welcome projectionsurface for the quasi-phobic fear of Muslim fundamentalists from Western cultural and military dominance.On the other hand, the enemy image of Islamism can be seen as a compensatory reaction to the lack ofideological adversaries by the West. Enemy pictures are always a welcome escape from self-reflection.Furthermore, self-victimization plays an important role in the dynamics of politico-religious conflicts anddeterrence policies. Only heroes can protect the own victimized group; yet the archetypical "hero" needs todie for the sake of the community. The hero carries the collective victimization on his shoulders. His selfsacrificialact, propagated through mythical narratives of bravery, is also supposed to have a deterringeffect on the enemy (evidence: epigraphic and medial deterrence by punishment). Martyrdom thenbecomes legitimate, if it preserves the own group. Thus, myths of victimization, heroism and self-sacrificeare inextricably connected to deterrence strategies and the build-up of fears and aggressions, finally thecohesion of groups.Common rituals, such as prayer, and talk on shared cultural values can further aggression and in-group outgroupbias, as much as they diminish in-group frictions. 54 Ritual group behavior strengthens collectiveidentity. Among jihadis, ceremonial rituals such as oaths of allegiance, eulogizing God in dialogues andsinging and war-dance rituals play essential roles for deterrence perceptions and collective identity.Empirical proves exist in jihadi reality, for example testimonies of drop-outs and captives, as well as in jihadipropaganda and discourse, which serve as social glue. An essential goal of propaganda is to address bothinternal and external fears of friend and foe. The enemy needs to be intimidated and the memberstrengthened in his conviction to fight out of fear from harm, but also out of excessive hubris. The closergroup members get, the more aggressive they become against the outside world. 55 This behavior is bornout of prehistoric instinctive patterns of socialization. 56 Fear, fright and distancing from an enemy werelearned as survival mechanisms by early hominids. The best way to keep a distance from enemies is byintimidation. Show of intimidation is best created by real preparedness to fight. The altered state ofconsciousness, which is called "battle trance," may have been first induced through ritualistic group53 Karl Peter Kisker, "Psychiatrie in der Gegenwart: Forschung und Praxis", Band 2, Teil 1, Hamburg, Springer Verlag, 1972, p. 408.54 Eugene G. D'Aquili, "Human Ceremonial Ritual and the Modulation of Aggression," Zygon-Journal of Religion and Science 20, 1985, pp.21-30.55 See for a more detailed discussion Philipp Holtmannn, "Leadership in Cyberspace: An Organizational Network Analysis and Socio-Anthropological Study of Communicative Leadership Patterns among Online-Jihadi Groups," dissertation-thesis University of Vienna,handed in August 2012.56 Richard Wrangham and Dale Peterson, "Demonic Males: Apes and the Origins of Human Violence", New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1996,pp. 194-199.17