From poverty to power - Oxfam-Québec
From poverty to power - Oxfam-Québec From poverty to power - Oxfam-Québec
5 THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM TRADINGIn business, as in politics, size matters. In 2007, Wal-Mart’s salescame to $345bn, more than the GDP of all 49 least developed countriesput together, or of major economies such as Saudi Arabia, Poland, orIndonesia. All told, the universe of TNCs now spans some 77,000parent companies with over 770,000 foreign affiliates. In 2005, theseforeign affiliates generated an estimated $4.5 trillion in value added,employed some 62 million workers, and exported goods and servicesvalued at more than $4 trillion. 102The growth of TNCs has been driven by changes in business,technology, and politics. Improved communications and falling transportcosts have allowed firms to spread production and managementchains across countries in order to maximise profitability; meanwhilestructural adjustment and liberalisation programmes worldwide haveremoved tariff and investment restrictions and have privatisednumerous state-owned industries, often putting them into the handsof TNCs. As a result, FDI in developing countries is growing at some10 per cent a year. In 2006 it reached $368bn, more than three timesthe annual volume of aid. 103While global governance is weak or non-existent when it comes toregulating corporate behaviour, it often imposes rules on governmentsthat benefit companies, and these sometimes damage developmentprospects. TNCs have persistently and successfully lobbied for changesin national policies and in the rules of international trade and investment.In layer upon layer of bilateral, regional, and global agreements,developing-country governments have surrendered the right to regulateforeign investment in their own national interests. Investors haveincreasingly sought to use these provisions not just against expropriationby government, but against any government policy that affects theirprofitability.Corporations have always tried to influence governments, butwith increasing size has come increasing clout. The strong-arm tacticsof the pharmaceutical industry to prevent developing-countrygovernments from overriding patents in order to save lives are notorious.In the USA, pharmaceutical companies spent $759m to influence1,400 Congressional bills between 1998 and 2004, and they employ3,000 lobbyists. 104 Most of these focus on domestic legislation, butlobbyists also play a key role in shaping the US negotiating position atthe WTO and elsewhere.343
FROM POVERTY TO POWERIn the Uruguay Round of negotiations that led to the creation ofthe WTO in 1995, the pharmaceutical lobby steamrollered through anagreement on intellectual property whose implications were unclearto many of those involved. Only after it came into effect did developingcountries realise the extent to which they had signed up to a majorextension of corporate monopolies and high-priced drugs that wouldamount to a death sentence for thousands of sick and dying people.Corporate lobbyists from the financial sector also spotted anopportunity to use WTO rules to prise open new markets through a‘General Agreement on Trade in Services’ (GATS). David Hartridge,Director of the WTO Services Division, later acknowledged that‘without the enormous pressure generated by the American financialservices sector, particularly companies like American Express andCiticorp, there would have been no services agreement.’ 105On some issues, companies use their influence to press for positivechange. In the Netherlands, ABN AMRO went to the Dutch parliamentwith Oxfam Novib to argue for stronger Dutch regulations on clusterbombs. In the UK, institutional investors such as Insight have lobbiedthe British government to improve its handling of the OECD guidelineson multinational enterprises. 106 Climate change, in particular(as explained below), has seen its share of both progressive anddamaging corporate lobbying.Using their clout to promote their private interests at the expenseof the public good is only one of the worrying aspects of corporateactivity that Oxfam has found in its work with transnationals in suchdisparate fields as coffee, mining, and garments. Other issues thatpoint to the need for better governance of corporate behaviour include:• Commodity value chains: Since the days of the East IndiaCompany, monopolies and cartels have allowed large corporationsto manipulate markets. In recent years, a small number ofTNCs have come to dominate the ‘value chains’ of productssuch as coffee, tea, grains, fruit, and vegetables. The six largestchocolate manufacturers account for 50 per cent of world sales.Just three global companies control 80 per cent of the soybeancrushing market in Europe and more than 70 per cent in theUSA. 107 Such market concentration ratchets up global inequality,344
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FROM POVERTY TO POWERIn the Uruguay Round of negotiations that led <strong>to</strong> the creation ofthe WTO in 1995, the pharmaceutical lobby steamrollered through anagreement on intellectual property whose implications were unclear<strong>to</strong> many of those involved. Only after it came in<strong>to</strong> effect did developingcountries realise the extent <strong>to</strong> which they had signed up <strong>to</strong> a majorextension of corporate monopolies and high-priced drugs that wouldamount <strong>to</strong> a death sentence for thousands of sick and dying people.Corporate lobbyists from the financial sec<strong>to</strong>r also spotted anopportunity <strong>to</strong> use WTO rules <strong>to</strong> prise open new markets through a‘General Agreement on Trade in Services’ (GATS). David Hartridge,Direc<strong>to</strong>r of the WTO Services Division, later acknowledged that‘without the enormous pressure generated by the American financialservices sec<strong>to</strong>r, particularly companies like American Express andCiticorp, there would have been no services agreement.’ 105On some issues, companies use their influence <strong>to</strong> press for positivechange. In the Netherlands, ABN AMRO went <strong>to</strong> the Dutch parliamentwith <strong>Oxfam</strong> Novib <strong>to</strong> argue for stronger Dutch regulations on clusterbombs. In the UK, institutional inves<strong>to</strong>rs such as Insight have lobbiedthe British government <strong>to</strong> improve its handling of the OECD guidelineson multinational enterprises. 106 Climate change, in particular(as explained below), has seen its share of both progressive anddamaging corporate lobbying.Using their clout <strong>to</strong> promote their private interests at the expenseof the public good is only one of the worrying aspects of corporateactivity that <strong>Oxfam</strong> has found in its work with transnationals in suchdisparate fields as coffee, mining, and garments. Other issues thatpoint <strong>to</strong> the need for better governance of corporate behaviour include:• Commodity value chains: Since the days of the East IndiaCompany, monopolies and cartels have allowed large corporations<strong>to</strong> manipulate markets. In recent years, a small number ofTNCs have come <strong>to</strong> dominate the ‘value chains’ of productssuch as coffee, tea, grains, fruit, and vegetables. The six largestchocolate manufacturers account for 50 per cent of world sales.Just three global companies control 80 per cent of the soybeancrushing market in Europe and more than 70 per cent in theUSA. 107 Such market concentration ratchets up global inequality,344