4006 Managing SK Rangeland2.indd - Saskatchewan Forage Council

Managing Saskatchewan RangelandRevised EditionPrinted March 2008This revised document, like the original, concentrates on rangeland management in Saskatchewan.The publication’s purpose is to contribute to the sustainability of the province’s rangeland resources.AcknowledgementsThis revised edition was made possible through thepartnership of the Saskatchewan Forage Council,Ducks Unlimited Canada, Agriculture and Agri-FoodCanada - Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Administration,Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture, SaskatchewanWatershed Authority and the University ofSaskatchewan.Editors:Janice Bruynooghe, Ross Macdonald.Contributors:Larry Braul, Janice Bruynooghe, Bill Claffey, AllanFoster, Todd Jorgenson, Brant Kirychuk, TrevorLennox, Ross Macdonald, Glen McMaster, Ron Moss,Steve Murrell, Daryl Nazar, Chris Nykoluk, RodPiche, Jim Romo, Jeff Thorpe, Michel Tremblay,Heather Wiebe, Jason Williams.The first edition of Managing Saskatchewan Rangelandwas published in 1990 by the Economic RegionalDevelopment Agreement (ERDA) and the AgricultureDevelopment Fund (ADF) as an initiative of the Grazingand Pasture Technology Program. The document wasrevised in 1995. The present authors recognize the vastnumber of contributors and editors of past editions ofthis publication.Funding for the revision and printing of this publicationwas provided by Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada’sGreencover Canada Program.Photos and Diagrams:Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada - Prairie FarmRehabilitation Administration, Kane Veterinary Supplies,Saskatchewan Forage Council, Janice Bruynooghe,Don Fontaine, Todd Jorgenson, Trevor Lennox, RossMacdonald, Jim Romo, Leanne Tremblay, MichelTremblay, Jason Williams.Cover Photos:Janice Bruynooghe, Don Fontaine, Ross Macdonald,Jim Romo, SIAST Beef Cattle Production.

Table of ContentsIntroduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1Grazing History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3Understanding Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7Biodiversity and Wildlife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11Natural Vegetation Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14Plant Characteristics and Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27Saskatchewan Range Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37Planned Grazing Management: Using Grazing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60Evaluation and Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70Livestock Behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74Watering Livestock on Pasture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78Fencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82Options for Managing Undesirable Plant Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90Rangeland Restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98Appendix A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100Appendix B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

Grazing HistoryOpen Range to First RanchesBefore settlement by Europeans, First Nations people had been calling the prairies “home” for atleast 12,000 years. Without the bison, it is doubtful whether humans could have existed at all onthe Great Plains. Bison were a life sustaining resource for First Nations. They followed the source oftheir sustenance in both daily and seasonal cycles - from the dry plains in summer, to the shelter ofthe Parkland and valleys in winter. It is difficult to find examples anywhere else in the world of apeople’s dependency on a single species.Photo Credit: D. Fontaine,Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture Photo Credit: Jim RomoWhen European explorers first viewed the greatbison herds that blackened the prairie, they wereaghast. They had never seen such countlessmultitudes of herbivores.BisonAcross the prairies, other animals including elk,deer and antelope, were also sustained by grazingnative rangelands and forest fringe. Rangelands werehome to a great diversity of life and also supporteda complex mix of predators and scavengers: plainsgrizzly bear, prairie wolf, coyote, swift fox, eagle,magpie and crow.Mule DeerBison numbers quickly dwindled under settlementpressures. By the mid-1870s, Saskatchewan’s lastknown herd of bison was confined to the CypressPronghornHills. Consequently, pressures on elk, antelopeand deer populations by homesteaders and railwaycrews intensified and further reduced the nativeanimal population.During the 1880s growth of plants on therange was abundant. Greater moisture levelsand destocking of native herbivores by settlersallowed the rangelands to flourish under lightuse. However, the increased needs of traders,First Nations people, settlers, North West MountedPolice, and builders of the Canadian PacificRailway all contributed to an increased demandfor livestock production. The grazing pressure onthe West’s vast sea of grass shifted from a few wildanimals to large numbers of domestic livestock andgave rise to western Plains ranching.Photo Credit: Jim Romo3

Photo Credit: Jim RomoIn 1888, the 76 Ranch was registered. The76 Ranches were comprised of ten, 10,000 acreparcels spread at intervals between Balgonie,Saskatchewan and Dunmore, Alberta. The ranchincluded a grain farm at Balgonie and sheep andcattle ranches at Rush Lake, Swift Current, GullLake, Crane Lake and Kincorth. However, capitalshortages, lack of local experience, and bad luckresulted in significant animal losses from severewinters and disease. The result was the final breakupof the 76 Ranches by 1909.In 1903 the Matador Ranch and Cattle Company Ltd.assembled 140,000 acres in the Coteau Hills northof the South Saskatchewan River. The Matador wasthe largest ranching empire in the world during itstime. The company shipped young cattle from itslarge breeding ranches in Texas and Oklahoma tosouthern Saskatchewan to mature and fatten on thenative prairie grasses. The final roundup occurredin 1921, when the Matador closed its books on theCanadian operation.Other major Saskatchewan ranches of the periodincluded the Turkey Track and the Gull LakeRanching Company. Like most other large ranchesthese were directed and funded by absenteeowners; they soon folded. Although Texas-based,the Matador was longer-lived in Saskatchewan,partly due to its resident and solid ranchmanagement experience.Between 1900 and 1905 at least 25 smaller rancheswere established south of the South SaskatchewanRiver, mostly by former employees of theselarger ranches.Early Land Administration and UseCoteau HillsIn the early ranching era, Saskatchewan rangelandadministration was handled by the Governmentof Canada. The Palliser Triangle, deemed as unfitfor farming, extended east from the Rockiesinto Saskatchewan.Initially, rangeland was theoretically completelyopen to purchase, but in actual practice land tenureexisted. In 1881, lease grants of 21 years on areasup to 100,000 acres in size were authorized. Theannual rental was one cent per acre. Settlement anduse conditions were very specific. Of note was astocking requirement of one head of livestock per10 acres. This later became one head per 20 acresand then one head per 30 acres. Initial stockingrequirements had been grossly over estimated.Once the desired stocking level was attained,usually to the detriment of range health, the lesseecould purchase up to five percent of the land attwo dollars per acre.The western land survey began in 1871, withthe base line being the meridian of longitudeimmediately west of the Red River settlementboundary. Certain lands remained with the Hudson’sBay Company, two sections were reserved pertownship as school properties, large land grantswent to the railways to encourage line construction,and homestead rights were made available.From 1896 to 1914 the Canadian Governmentallocated millions of acres of homestead land inSaskatchewan. The height of prairie settlementsubsequently occurred in 1912. In addition,railway and large land companies sold millions ofadditional acres.As settlement increased, agriculture wasinfluenced by climate, soil, topography, drainage,transportation, marketing facilities and governmentpolicy that favoured grain production. Generally,rougher land that was not easily cultivated remainedas native prairie, either as large grazing tracts or assmall areas within or adjacent to croplands.Draft horses were a major user of Saskatchewanrangelands, increasing to a high of 2,250,000 head in1926. Horse populations declined slowly until 1945,as horsepower was rapidly replaced by tractors.Overgrazing and Range ResearchLease abandonments due to overgrazing werereported as early as 1912. By 1925, rancher groupsin southern Alberta were pressing for review oftheir lease rates, arguing that the government’scarrying capacities were too high and could not besustainably achieved.After meetings between Experimental Farmpersonnel and representatives of the Stockmens’Associations, a range survey of southern Alberta andsouthwestern Saskatchewan was undertaken in 1926by L.B. Thompson and S.E. (Doc) Clark.Experiments commenced in 1927 on continuous,rotational and deferred grazing systems, cattle4

Large herbivores played a key role in the ecologicalevolution of Saskatchewan’s native grasslands. Thesenative grasslands play an important role in ourprovince’s colourful history. Today, Saskatchewanis the second largest beef producing province inCanada, and is home to about 1.5 million beef cows,representing about 30 percent of the Canadian herd.Provincial rangelands are an important economicresource for livestock producers.The information in this handbook provides thefoundation for better awareness of the principles ofsustained management of Saskatchewan’s grasslandand forested pasture resources.References and Suggested ReadingsBryan, L. 1991. The Buffalo People – Prehistoric Archaeology on the Canadian Prairies. The University ofAlberta Press. Edmonton, AB.Graber, S. 1995. The Last Roundup – Memories of a Canadian Cowboy. Fifth House Publishers. Saskatoon, SK.Hammermeister, A. M., D. Gauthier, and K. McGovern. 2001. Saskatchewan’s Native Prairie: Statistics of aVanishing Ecosystem and Dwindling Resource. Native Plant Society of Saskatchewan Inc. Saskatoon, SK.McCartney, D.H. 1993. History of grazing research in Aspen Parkland. Canadian Journal of Animal Science73:749-763.PCAP Partnership. 2003. Saskatchewan Prairie Conservation Action Plan, 2003-2008. Canadian Plains ResearchCentre, University of Regina. Regina, SK.Weekes, M. 1939. The Last Buffalo Hunter. Reprinted 1994. Fifth House Publishers. Saskatoon, SK.6

Understanding EcologyIntroductionWhen ecologically based, grazing on rangelands can be the most sustainable form of agriculture.Because range management is applied ecology, sustainable use of rangelands can only be achievedby applying principles of ecology. Range managers must understand the principles of ecology, theinteraction of ecosystem components, and how management influences ecosystems. Solutions forrange management issues or problems always involve applying principles of ecology.Ecology and EcosystemsEcology is the study of the relationships betweenorganisms and their environment. Organismsinclude all forms of life ranging from microbes inthe soil to algae on the soil surface to plants thatprovide habitats for a variety of insects and animals.Organisms also include large herbivores such aswildlife and livestock which impact other animals,plants, and soils. The environment includes thesoil and the atmosphere in which the organismsexist. Together the organization and interaction oforganisms and their environment is an ecosystem.HERBIVORESSUNPRODUCERSNUTRIENT POOLDECOMPOSERSPhoto Credit: D. Fontaine,Saskatchewan Ministry of AgricultureEcosystems are the organization and interaction oforganisms and their environmentProducers, consumers, and decomposers are vitalcomponents of all ecosystems (Figure 1). Plantsare the ultimate producers of wealth because theycapture the radiant energy of the sun and convertthis energy through photosynthesis into forms thatcan be used by consumer organisms. Consumers,such as livestock, eat this plant material andconvert it to products that are in turn used by otherconsumers, including man. Decomposers, primarilybacteria and fungi, break down and rearrange theorganic materials from plants and animals, makingnutrients available for use again.CARNIVORESFigure 1: Simplified relationships between producers,consumers, and decompsers in an ecosystemInterrupting or reducing efficiency in whichproducers capture energy reduces productivityand sustainability of all other components of theecosystem. Plants must be allowed to capture andconvert solar energy to useable energy forms at theirmaximum potential if the rangeland ecosystem isto function at its maximum. All components of therangeland ecosystem function below their potentialif production from plants is limiting.Eastern KingbirdPhoto Credit: Jim Romo7

Photo Credit: D. Fontaine,Saskatchewan Ministry of AgricultureThe Range EcosystemIn range management, the ecosystem is discussedin terms of the soil-plant-animal complex.The soil-plant-animal complex develops andfunctions within the limits that are imposed bythe environment (Figure 2). Many processesoperate within each component of the soil-plantanimalcomplex. The water cycle and nutrientcycle are always functioning as is photosynthesis,growth, reproduction, and death in plants. Themodel illustrates that soils, plants, and animals areinterdependent upon one another. The welfare ofanimals depends on the productivity of plants, andthe vigour of plants is related to the soils.EnvironmentSoilsPlantsToadthat healthy soils and plants are basic requirementsfor sustainable animal production. Animal-centeredmanagement can also fail to consider other aspectsof the ecosystem that are important to humans suchas water, wildlife and aesthetics. Soil, plants, andanimals are not isolated from one another but ratherthey interact to form rangeland ecosystems.The challenge to range managers is to developmanagement plans that minimize or eliminatepotentially negative effects of livestock on allcomponents of the soil-plant-animal system.Management plans must consider environmentallimitations and plans must be directed toward theplants in ecosystems. When an animal-centeredapproach is applied in management, rangelandecosystems function below their potential andmaximum performance and stability in livestockperformance cannot be realized. Eventually theinefficiencies in the rangeland ecosystem will rippleback through the soil-plant-animal system andimpact the manager and the bottom line.Applying Ecological Principles inPlanning and ManagementRange management that is based on ecologicalprinciples requires an inventory of all resources.Management goals can be established andsustainable management carried out with knowledgeof the resources in the soil-plant-animal complex.A management strategy can then be developed toachieve desired changes in the soil-plant-animalcomplex. Management goals should be orientedtoward maximizing and sustaining ecosystem healthover the entire range. This management approachwill also provide a buffer for all components ofthe rangeland ecosystem against environmentalvariations such as extremes in weather andinsect outbreaks.8ManagementFigure 2: The Soil-Plant-Animal complex modelAnimalsThe soil-plant-animal complex also illustrates thatinteractions in rangeland ecosystems are complexand under the direct or indirect influences ofmanagement. Management decisions impact allcomponents of the soil-plant-animal complex andthese effects eventually impact management.Evaluating the Management FocusRange management is often centered on animalmanagement, often to the detriment of plants andsoils, and the rangeland ecosystem in general.Animal-centered management fails to recognizeCause-Effect RelationshipsAll management activities cause changes in the soilplant-animalcomplex. Understanding cause-effectrelationships on rangeland is essential if successfulmanagement strategies are to be implemented.Weed infestations are often diagnosed as the causeof reduced plant and animal production on poorcondition rangeland. Invariably the cause of reducedproductivity in forages is not weeds. Undesirableplants are often symptoms of improper grazingmanagement that has weakened the desired foragespecies and given weeds the opportunity to thrive.Long-term progress toward restoring or maintainingproductivity is made only when managementfocuses on growth requirements of desired forages.Grazing can either promote the health or conditionof rangeland ecosystems or it can deplete resources.

Photo Credit: Jim RomoPhoto Credit: Jim RomoFor example, grazing can be used to maintain orpromote development of a high producing MixedGrass Prairie in Saskatchewan or grazing can causedeterioration and development of a weedy, lowproducing and frequently drought stricken range.Improper grazing management can cause deterioration of rangeVigorous and high producing Mixed Grass PrairieGrazing can cause indirect consequences inrangeland ecosystems. Removing plant litter ordead plant material by severely grazing Mixed GrassPrairie reduces productivity because of modificationsto the environment in which plants must grow.This change in production reflects the complexresponses of rangeland ecosystems to changes inthe environment.Improper grazing management is often the causeof problems in rangeland ecosystems, yet propergrazing management is also one of the mosteconomical and ecologically sound techniques topermanently remedy problems.Successional ConsiderationsWhether management actions give the desiredresults or not depends on the state of the rangelandecosystem, the understanding of the soil-plantanimalcomplex, and the way in which ecologicalprinciples are applied. The following factors must beconsidered when developing a management plan topromote healthier rangeland.Rangelands are composed of many ecosites orecological sites. Ecosites are characterized by soil,landform, and climate. Different ecosites are capableof supporting a particular plant community andeach ecosite has unique management needs becausethey do not respond identically to management.Range ecosites are fundamental units for inventory,planning, managing, and monitoring on rangelands.Every ecosite has a carrying capacity or a maximumlevel of use that is possible and allows sustainedproduction or improvement in vegetation and soils.Carrying capacity is based on the proper level ofgrazing and the ability of the ecosite to tolerate thatuse. Plant community response to managementis not the same on an ecosite with loamy soils inthe Black versus Brown soils. Likewise, the plantson a particular ecosite respond differently tocattle or sheep grazing. Rangeland ecosystems arecomposed of many ecosites and each needs specificmanagement plans.Ecological Principles at theManager’s DisposalFrom a management perspective, disturbance is themost important ecological principle to understandbecause managers can apply this principle to directplant community development. Disturbance ofplant communities may occur in different forms andincludes grazing, use of fertilizers or herbicides,mechanical treatments, prescribed burning or thecombination of these disturbances. Past disturbancedetermines the present health, condition andcomposition of rangeland ecosystems, and presentdisturbance shapes the future composition andproductivity of the range.Range management involves applying disturbance or managementactivities to achieve a predetermined goalManagement impacts on the rangeland ecosystemare expressed immediately and for as long as ittakes ecosystems to recover. Rangeland ecosystemsthat are heavily impacted by disturbance requiremore time to return to a situation similar to thatoccurring before it was damaged. The time neededfor recovery is strongly influenced by environmentalconditions and conditions on the surroundingarea. The return to potential productivity willPhoto Credit: Jim Romo9

Photo Credit: Jim Romogenerally be more rapid in years of favourableenvironmental conditions than in years of less thanoptimal conditions.Range management involves applying disturbance ormanagement activities to achieve a predeterminedgoal. Managers can control when the disturbanceis applied, how often it is applied, how long it isapplied, and to what degree it is applied. Thesefactors must be tailored to suit each rangelandecosystem, the present state of that ecosystem, andmanagement objectives. All range managementplans must be customized for the resources, localconditions, and the desired goals of the manager.Managers can vary disturbance to either encourageor hinder the competitive ability, reproduction ordemise of a particular species or group of plants.Rangeland ecosystems tend to respond todisturbance in ways that minimize the effects ofdisturbance. This ecosystem buffering allows rangeto adjust and support a variety of plants that are bestadapted to thrive under the particular combinationsof time, frequency, intensity, and duration ofdisturbance. To illustrate, overgrazing leads to plantcommunities that are composed of low producingplants that avoid or tolerate grazing pressure.Another better-adapted group of plants will developif grazing pressure is further increased or if grazingpressure is relieved.The time that disturbance is applied to rangelandecosystems is a major consideration in management.Soils and plants are more vulnerable to disturbancesat certain times of the year than at other times. Claysoils are prone to compaction by grazing animalswhen they are wet, but they are less susceptibleto compaction when dry. Similarly, plant speciesvary in their sensitivity to a disturbance, such asgrazing, burning or herbicides. Stage of growth alsoinfluences plant sensitivity to these disturbances.Controlling disturbance is an important management toolThe frequency, or how often a rangeland ecosystemis disturbed, is also important. Some rangelandecosystems require disturbance to be maintained.For example, plant succession naturally proceedstoward forest in the Aspen Parkland region. Fires,herbicides, mechanical means, or grazing arerequired for maintaining grassland in the forestlikeenvironment of the Aspen Parkland. However,burning or grazing too frequently will convertFescue Prairie to an ecosystem that resembles thedrier Mixed Grass Prairie.The duration of ecosystem disturbance can alsoinduce major changes. For example, recovery ofplants will be longer for grazed plants that haveendured 90 days versus 10 consecutive days withreduced leaf area. Longer duration of disturbancecan always be expected to produce greater changesthan a disturbance of shorter duration. This conceptis one of the most important grazing managementconsiderations.The intensity or severity of disturbance required tochange plant communities varies with the state ofthe plant community. Suppose, for example, thata rangeland ecosystem is in poor range conditionand stocking rates are based on the maximum orpotential forage production. Furthermore, assumethe management goal is to achieve excellent rangecondition. A positive change in range conditionwill probably require major adjustments inmanagement, stocking rates, and periods of restbecause production is much less than the potential.By comparison, major changes in managementwould not be required if this same range was ingood condition.SummaryRange management can either be proactiveor reactive. One of the challenges of rangemanagement is to promote positive reactionsin rangeland ecosystems. Developing andimplementing range management plans that arebased on ecological principles improves theefficiency of the processes and increases thelikelihood of favorable outcomes in the soil-plantanimalcomplex.Functioning of the soil-plant-animal complex inrangeland ecosystems is orderly. Soils and plantsare required to support livestock. Attempts tomaximize livestock production without concernfor the welfare of soil and plants are not effectiveor sustainable. Range management must begeared toward maximizing the health of rangelandecosystems. Animal products are most likely to bemaximized and sustained in rangeland ecosystemsthat are properly managed and healthy. Rangelandecosystems can provide resources indefinitely whenmanagement is based on ecological principles.10

Natural Vegetation ZonesEcoregion ClassificationThe first step in range ecosite classification is to divide the province into ecological regions orecoregions. Ecoregions are broad classes that are determined mainly by climate. The composition andproductivity of rangeland will be different in a moist climate compared to a dry climate, even if thesoil type is the same. Classification of range ecosites must be nested within the broader ecoregions.The original range site classification by Abouguendia(1990) used the Brown, Dark Brown, and Blacksoil zones as regions. In the driest of these, theBrown soil zone, a “Dry Brown” subzone wasseparated by the level of annual precipitation.Since Abouguendia’s guide was published, Padburyand Acton (1994) developed a standard ecoregionclassification for the province, integrated withCanada’s national ecological land classification.Growing degree days 1 generally decrease from southto north, but are also lower at higher elevations(Figure 4). In the Cypress Hills, precipitationincreases and growing degree days decrease withrising elevation (Figures 4 and 5).Photo Credit: Jim RomoThese ecoregions are closely related to thesoil zones:• Aspen Parkland (Fescue Prairie) – similar to Blacksoil zone• Moist Mixed Grassland – similar to Dark Brownsoil zone• Mixed Grassland (Mixed Grass Prairie) – similar toBrown soil zone• Cypress Upland – local area with strong elevationchanges, rising from Brown to Dark Brown toBlack soilsBoth soil zones and ecoregions reflect patterns ofclimate across the province. Annual precipitationtends to be lowest in Mixed Grassland and increasesthrough Moist Mixed Grassland to Aspen Parkland(Figure 4).Mixed Grass PrairieFescue PrairieThe moisture available for plant growthdepends partly on inputs from precipitation,but is also affected by losses to evaporation. Amoisture index that takes both precipitation andevaporation into account usually shows a closerrelationship to resultant vegetation patterns thanprecipitation alone.Cypress HillsPhoto Credit: Jim Romo Photo Credit: Jim Romo1 Growing degree days express the amount of heat available during the growing season. They are calculated by summing the amount bywhich daily mean temperatures exceed a base of 5°C.14

a specific potential natural community and specificphysical site characteristics, differing from otherkinds of land in its ability to produce vegetation andto respond to management.”Figure 7: Modified ecoregion map used for classification ofSaskatchewan range ecositessummarized in Table 1. Within these ecologicalregions, rangeland is divided into ecological sites orecosites, which are defined by more local factors.The Society for Range Management defines anecological site, or ecosite, as: “A kind of land withWithin a local area such as a ranch or a communitypasture, it can be assumed that the climate is moreor less uniform. Therefore, the main way thatrangelands are split up is by ecosites. Differencesin physical site factors, such as landform, soilparent material, and soil profile developmentcreate different environments for plant growth. Forexample, part of a pasture may be mostly madeup of rolling hills with well-drained, loam-texturedsoils. The potential plant community 3 on this landis grassland dominated by western porcupine grassand northern wheatgrass. However, depressionsbetween the loamy hills may have moist to wetsoils that support sedge meadows. Another part ofthe pasture may be a sand plain with lower waterholdingcapacity, on which the potential communityis dominated by needle-and-thread and sand reedgrass. The loamy upland, the wet meadows, and thesand plain are different ecosites: they have differentphysical site factors, and they support differentpotential plant communities.Table 1. General differences among the ecoregions used in the classification of Saskatchewan range ecositesEcoregion Dry Mixed Grassland MixedGrassland(also applies to drierparts of Moist MixedGrassland, and lowerelevations in CypressUpland)AspenParkland(also applies to moisterparts of Moist MixedGrassland)CypressUpland(higher elevations)Moisture index less than -325 mm -325 to -225 mm -225 to 0 mm -225 to 0 mmZonal soils Brown Chernozems Brown and some DarkBrown ChernozemsDark Brownand Black ChernozemsDark Brown andBlack ChernozemsReference communityon Loam Ecositenorthern wheatgrassneedle-and-threadwestern porcupine grassnorthern wheatgrassplains rough fescuenorthern wheatgrassplains rough fescuePotentialproduction onLoam Ecosite500 to 1000 kg/ha 1000 to 1500 kg/ha 1500 to 2500 kg/ha 1500 to 2500 kg/ha3 The potential plant community is defined by The Society for Range Management (1989) as: “The biotic community that wouldbecome established on an ecological site if all successional sequences were completed without interferences by man under the presentenvironmental conditions.” This is usually interpreted to be the community that develops under ungrazed to lightly grazed conditions.16

Photo Credit: Jim RomoPhysical site factors create different environments for plant growthComplexes exist in localized areas whereenvironmental conditions cause significantdifferences in vegetative cover. Sandhill,wetland, valley and saline complexes are themost common. Vegetation also varies with sitedrainage characteristics.Mixed Grass PrairieThe Mixed Grass Prairie covers a large area ofthe north central region of North America. InSaskatchewan, Mixed Grass Prairie occupies a largearea of the southwestern part of the province,bordering with the Fescue Prairie to the northand east. In southeast Saskatchewan, elementsof Mixed Grass, Tall Grass and Fescue Prairiescombine along transition zones occurring betweengrassland associations.The Mixed Grass Prairie present in Saskatchewanhas five community types.Photo Credit: Jim RomoAbouguendia (1990) presented the classificationof range sites that has been used in recentdecades. The classification of range ecositesused in more recent publications, is basedon Abouguendia’s classification, withsome modifications (Thorpe, 2007).Climate and VegetationTwo main climatic types are present in southernSaskatchewan. A cold semi-desert climate dominatesthe southwestern region. Semi-arid conditionsprevail because potential evaporation is greater thanthe precipitation received. Grassland vegetation andsoils are associated with this climate.The grassland area is divided into two types orassociations: Mixed Grass Prairie and Fescue Prairie.Aspen groves occur in Fescue Prairie and in easternportions of Mixed Grass Prairie. A cold forest climateoccurs north of the cold semi-desert climate zone.Subhumid conditions in this and other areas, suchas the Cypress Hills, allow the growth of aspengroves and forest vegetation. Forest vegetation iscomprised primarily of trembling aspen, jack pineand white spruce. Forest types include Aspen Grove,Cypress Hills Forest, Moose Mountain Forest andMixedwood Forest.CouleeBlue Grama/WheatgrassThis community is common in the southwesterncorner of the province on solonetzic soils. Thesesoils are comprised of thin glacial deposits rangingfrom light loam to clay loam texture that arerelatively impermeable. This characteristic, as wellas the proximity of the area to the drier part ofthe Brown soil zone, causes solonetzic soils to bedrought prone. Blue grama is the dominant grassover most of the area. The co-dominant, westernwheatgrass, is most prevalent in eroded depressionscalled “burnouts” or “blowouts”. Each of thesespecies contributes equal amounts to forage yields.However, blue grama occupies about three to fourtimes the ground area of western wheatgrass.The proportion of blue grama to western wheatgrassremains relatively stable with abundant moistureand moderate grazing pressure. Periods of droughtand/or heavy grazing result in a blue grama increaseand a decrease in wheatgrass. This compositionchange dramatically affects landscape appearance,with the community taking on a shortgrass look.However, the shortgrass vegetation type only occursin Saskatchewan as a disclimax caused by poorgrazing management.Some other principle grasses and sedges present areneedle-and-thread, June grass, Sandberg’s bluegrass,plains reed grass, thread-leaved sedge, and lowsedge. Loamy sites tend to favour needle-and-threadwhile eroded sites favour thread-leaved sedge.Dense clubmoss may occupy up to 30 percent of theground cover in well managed areas.Forbs and shrubs represent a small part of the totalvegetation, with pasture sage the most abundantforb. Prickly-pear cactus and moss phlox are two of17

Photo Credit: D. Fontaine,Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculturethe more common forbs. The most prevalent shrubis silver sagebrush. Winterfat and Nuttall’s saltbush,two valuable shrubs, also occur in the area. Theseplants can provide late grazing, but require carefulmanagement to maintain productivity.Prickly-pear cactus is common on sandy sites in theblue grama/wheatgrass communityNeedlegrass (Needle-And-Thread)/Blue GramaThis community occurs in the drier part of theBrown soil zone. Medium-textured soils, developedfrom glacial deposits, and coarse-textured soils,developed from glacial and alluvial deposits,characterize this type. The dry climate and droughtsusceptible soils inhibit midgrass growth.Blue grama is the dominant grass, occupyingabout three times as much area as needle-andthread.However, due to the taller growth form ofneedle-and-thread, it contributes almost as muchto total forage yields as blue grama. Together thesetwo grasses represent about 70 percent of theplant cover.Other principle grasses and sedges in order ofimportance are low sedge, June grass, northernwheatgrass, western wheatgrass, thread-leaved sedgeand western porcupine grass. The secondary grassesand sedges are Sandberg’s bluegrass, plains reedgrass, plains muhly and sun-loving sedge. Sand grassand sand dropseed are abundant in localized areaswith coarse soil. Dense clubmoss is not as abundantas in the blue grama/wheatgrass type, covering lessthan 10 percent of the ground surface.Forbs and shrubs furnish approximately 15 percentof the community’s composition. Pasture sage, theprinciple forb, contributes about 75 percent of thisamount. Moss phlox is the second most abundantforb. Shrubs are more common in this type thanthe blue grama/wheatgrass community. The mostcommon shrub is silver sagebrush, accounting for90 percent of this component.Overgrazing reduces midgrasses and increases lowgrowinggrasses and sedges. Productivity declines asthe midgrasses disappear, followed by increases ofweed species. This community, like the blue grama/wheatgrass type, is often incorrectly referred to as aShortgrass Prairie when overgrazed.Response to GrazingDecreasers Increasers Invadersneedle-and-thread blue grama Russian thistlewheatgrasses Sandberg’s bluegrassJune grassplains reed grasswestern porcupine plains muhlygrasssand dropseed pasture sagesand grassmoss phloxthread-leaved sedge dense clubmosswinterfatscarlet mallowNuttall’s saltbush broomweedsilver sagebrushrose, cactusNeedlegrass/Blue Grama/WheatgrassThis community occurs in the Brown soil zoneand the drier parts of the Dark Brown soilzone. Associated soils are generally of mediumtexture, loam to sandy loam, and developed fromundifferentiated glacial till. This type is also foundon soils developed from glacial outwash withundulating topography.Two needlegrasses, needle-and-thread and westernporcupine grass, dominate this community. Needleand-threaddominates on drier sites, while porcupinegrass is prevalent on moister sites. The co-dominantgrasses, blue grama and wheatgrasses, also sharean inverse relationship with available moisture.Soils that retain moisture will support westernporcupine grass and wheatgrasses, while driersoils support needle-and-thread and blue grama.In hilly topography, knolls and upper slopes aredominated by blue grama and needle-and-thread.Mid-slopes support needle-and-thread, blue grama,and wheatgrasses. Western porcupine grass andwheatgrasses occupy lower slopes.Annual precipitation variations can dramaticallychange this community’s appearance, with periodsof drought causing a shift in species composition.Mixed Grass Prairie, Matador PasturePhoto Credit: Jim Romo18

Favourable moisture conditions enable midgrassesto flourish, almost entirely masking the forbs. Forbsbecome very noticeable as the midgrass culmsshorten or disappear.Needlegrass, the dominant producer, producesfrom 35 to 40 percent of forage yields. Together,needlegrass and the co-dominant grasses andlow sedge represent more than 50 percent of thecommunity’s composition. Several other grassspecies are present in this community.Northern wheatgrass and June grass are found onmoister sites with heavier soils. Coarse-texturedsoils in the area’s drier part favour Sandberg’sbluegrass and plains reed grass. Plains muhly andthread-leaved sedge are common where erosionhas removed part of the topsoil layer. Speciesassociated with more moist, sheltered sites (northernslopes) include rough fescue, Hooker’s oatgrass andgreen needlegrass.Dense clubmoss occupies between five and 10percent of the soil surface. Pasture sage and mossphlox make up the bulk of the forbs. Some of themore common forbs include scarlet mallow, crocus,goldenrod, broomweed, spiny ironplant, silverleafpsoralea and skeletonweed. Shrubs grow inlocalized areas where moisture is available. Westernsnowberry, rose and wolfwillow are most common,while silver sagebrush occurs in drier areas.Response to GrazingDecreasers Increasers Invadersrough fescue blue grama Russian thistlewestern porcupine Sandberg’s dandeliongrassbluegrasswestern wheatgrass June grass Kentuckybluegrassgreen needlegrass plains reed grassnorthern wheatgrass plains muhlyneedle-and-thread sedgespasture sagemoss phloxdense clubmossscarlet mallowcrocusWheatgrass/June GrassbroomweedThis community is located in the moister part ofthe Brown soil zone, as well as the drier part ofthe Dark Brown zone. Associated soils are typicallyuniform lacustrine clays, deposited in glacial lakes.Due to its high value for annual crops, most of thistype has been destroyed through cultivation.Soil uniformity combined with a relatively lowspecies diversity gives this grassland a very evenappearance. The dominant grasses cover nearly 75percent of the area. The wheatgrass componentalone furnishes almost half the cover, of which over80 percent is northern wheatgrass.All species present are midgrasses, with northernwheatgrass the most abundant. June grass occursmore frequently in this type than elsewhere,contributing nearly 25 percent of the cover. Westernwheatgrass supplies only five to seven percent to thecommunity’s composition. Green needlegrass, theonly other major important grass, represents about10 percent of the plant cover. Thread-leaved sedgeis the only component of the grassland’s lower layer,providing between 10 and 15 percent of the cover.Sandberg’s bluegrass, early bluegrass, and plainsmuhly occur as secondary grasses.Forbs are less frequent than in any other MixedGrass Prairie types. Pasture sage and moss phloxrepresent approximately 75 percent of the forbcomponent. Other forbs include aster and yarrow.Dense clubmoss is not present in any appreciableamount. As in most fine-textured soils, the shrub,winterfat, is present.Overgrazing of these areas results in decreasedamounts of winterfat and an increase of speciesusually associated with loamy soils. Severeovergrazing eventually leads to a dramatic increasein prickly-pear cactus.Response to GrazingDecreasers Increasers Invadersnorthern wheatgrass blue grama Russian thistlewestern wheatgrass June grass smooth bromegrassgreen needlegrass Sandberg’sbluegrasswestern porcupine early bluegrassgrassplains muhlythread-leaved sedgepasture sagewinterfatmoss phloxasteryarroweverlastingprickly-pear cactusrosesilver sagebrush19

Photo Credit: Jim RomoThe soluble salts concentration and floodingfrequency determine the vegetation present.Hydrophytic plants occur on areas experiencingperiodic flooding. Halophytic species grow in dryareas where water does not accumulate on thesurface. Salinity is often less in the former becauseperiodic flooding flushes salts away.Saline complexes are common in SaskatchewanDistinct vegetation zones are found in salinecomplexes. In saline sloughs, the deeperdepressions that retain water most of the growingseason are dominated by prairie bulrush, sedgesand rushes. Highest salt concentration occurs in theadjacent area, which is often bare. Red samphire,sea-blite, saline goosefoot and sea-milkwort canall survive in this region. The surrounding areais dominated by desert salt grass, foxtail barley,Nuttall’s salt-meadowgrass, slender wheatgrass,arrowgrass, alkali cord grass, canby bluegrass andperennial sowthistle. Also present in less-saline areasare tufted hair grass, western wheatgrass, mat muhlyand northern reed grass.The response of these species to grazing variesaccording to the available moisture. Nutall’s saltmeadowgrassand slender and awned wheatgrassare decreasers at all sites. Western wheatgrassincreases on sites with abundant moisture. Matmuhly, canby bluegrass and foxtail barley areincreasers. Continuous heavy grazing leads to acommunity dominated by foxtail barley.Wetland ComplexesMost of Saskatchewan’s prairie region is dotted withnumerous shallow depressions, or sloughs. Sloughsare recharged each spring from adjacent uplandsand overflowing streams. Wetland drainage has alarge effect on existing vegetation. Wetlands thatdo not overflow, or closed drainage basins, tend toaccumulate salts and are associated with salt-tolerantvegetation. Overflowing depressions regularlysupport freshwater vegetation.Both freshwater and saline wetlands displaydistinct vegetation zones as the moisture gradientchanges. Cattail and bulrush are common deepmarsh emergents in freshwater wetlands. Reed grassand bulrush are also common in the deep marshzone. Shallow marsh regions are often inhabitedby creeping spike-rush, awned sedge, whitetop,smartweed, water parsnip, reed grasses, and tallmanna grass. Plants found in the outer margin ofthe wetlands or wet meadow are marsh reed grass,tufted hair grass, baltic rush, sweetgrass, cattail andcanby bluegrass. These margins are often lined witha shrub fringe, usually willows in the moister areasand western snowberry in the drier regions.Wetlands provide water, grazing and coverfor livestock and wildlifeChanging water depth, grazing, mowing, and fireare among several factors that can alter vegetation.As the water depth changes so does the vegetation,resulting in some basins being entirely dominated bycattails, bulrushes, whitetop, smartweed or willows.Grazing and mowing encourage spike-rush andwhitetop dominance. Burning weakens cattails andbulrushes and in drier years, allowing expansion ofspecies like whitetop.Saline wetlands are characterized by dense stands ofcoarse emergents like bulrush. The saline mud flatscontain the greatest salt concentration, supportingonly the most salt-tolerant vegetation such assea-blight, saline goosefoot and sea-milkwort.The outer zone vegetation is the same as that insaline complexes.Although wetlands can produce much forage,careful management is necessary to sustain yield.Because soils are often marginally saline, continuousand heavy grazing can change the communitycomposition to domination by foxtail barley.Photo Credit: Jim Romo22

Photo Credit: Jim RomoValley ComplexesGlacial drainage channels eroded through the plainprovide a range of habitats from badlands to floodplains. Valley vegetation varies with degree andaspect of slopes and available moisture. North-facingslopes provide more favourable growing conditionsthan the prairie above. Species not commonlyfound in the area can exist on these shelteredslopes. Western snowberry, wolfwillow, willowand aspen are common here. Southern exposuressupport drought-tolerant species. Valley bottomsare wetland, saline or flood plain complexes. Thewetland and saline complexes are similar to thosepreviously described.Big Muddy valleyFlood plains occur in valleys with a permanentwatercourse. Soils in these areas are constantlyeroded and deposited. The local vegetation varieswith flooding frequency.These landforms are often seen as “oases” of nativehabitat diversity within the vegetation zones theyare found. This diversity is reflected in the numberof wildlife species that inhabit these areas. Manyunique, and in some cases, rare birds, mammals,reptiles and game species are found.Trembling aspen dominates groves in moist, welldrainedsites, in association with fescue grasslandin the west and needlegrass/wheatgrass in theeast. Balsam poplar occupies localized areaswhere moisture is plentiful. A shrub transitionzone between the grove and grassland exists withwestern snowberry, wolfwillow, rose, raspberry andbuffaloberry being the most common species.Where trembling aspen dominates, commonunderstorey shrubs include rose, Saskatoon, westernsnowberry, wolfwillow, chokecherry, twininghoneysuckle and narrow-leaved meadowsweet.Common forbs include asters, bedstraw, bunchberry,sarsaparilla, American vetch, peavine, two-leavedSolomon’s seal and star-flowered Solomon’sseal. Dominant grasses include purple oatgrass,wheatgrasses, reed grass, Canada and hairy wildryeand fringed bromegrass.Understorey shrubs associated with balsam poplaron wetter sites are red-osier dogwood, willowspecies and currant. Common forbs in thesesites include horsetail, coltsfoot, bedstraw andbishop’s-cap. The grass component consists mainlyof reed grass, bluegrasses and wheatgrass.Cypress Hills ForestA lodgepole pine/rough fescue association, thisforest occurs on Black and Dark Brown soils atelevations greater than 900 metres above sea level.Lodgepole pine and trembling aspen dominatewell drained upland sites, while white spruce andbalsam poplar are common in moist areas. Theunderstorey of pine stands is sparse, with shinyleavedmeadowsweet and bearberry the mostcommon species. A rich understorey is presentwhere trembling aspen is more abundant. Roughfescue dominates well-drained level uplands, withoatgrasses and shrubby cinquefoil common.Forested RangelandsAspen ParklandThe Aspen Parkland area is climatically andecologically a transition zone between grasslandsand Boreal Mixedwood Forest. The AspenParkland occurs primarily in the Black soil zoneand in eastern Saskatchewan in a portion of theDark Brown soil zone. It is characterized byChernozmic soil; aspen groves are interspersedwith open grassland and shrub communities.Prairie fire suppression since settlement has causedthe southward expansion of these groves intothe grasslands.The Aspen Parkland is a broad transition zone, between thegrasslands in southern Saskatchewan and northern MixedwoodForest, which supports substantial cattle herdsPhoto Credit: Jim Romo23

Moose Mountain ForestAn aspen forest with interspersed wetlands andmoist meadows, this area’s soils are Black and DarkGray, originating from glacial till. Trembling aspendominates the area, with occurrences of birch,balsam poplar and green ash. Willows surroundmoist low areas. Common understorey speciesare fringed bromegrass, bluegrass, sarsaparilla,beaked hazelnut, rose, red-osier dogwood,Saskatoon, gooseberry, raspberry, wolfwillow, andwestern snowberry.Slough complexes are dominated by sedges,bulrushes, cattails and reed grasses. Grass-coveredupland areas are few, with the most commonspecies present being western porcupine grass,wheatgrasses, rough fescue, and needle-and-thread.Mixedwood ForestThe Boreal Mixedwood forest in Saskatchewanextends from the southeast to the northwest and isthe transition area between the forests of the BorealUpland to the north and the agriculturally developedAspen Parkland to the south, varying in width from30 to 130 km. It is dominated by trembling aspenstands on moderately moist, moderately well drainedorthic and Dark Gray luvisolic soils, however, alarge number of differing tree and understoreyplant communities are found. These vegetationtypes and their associated understorey speciesare best described based on the site moistureregime. In general, the characteristic forest of welldraineduplands is a mixture of aspen, birch andwhite spruce. Balsam fir and balsam poplar occurlocally on moist sites with balsam poplar foundto be dominant on valley alluvium soils. Jackpinedominates on well-drained, sandy sites, but alsooccurs with aspen and birch on some of the driertill-derived soils. Poorly drained sites and peatlandssupport black spruce and tamarack.Response to GrazingDecreasers Increasers Invadersfringed bromegrass hairy wildrye rough hair grassreed grass sheep fescue Kentuckybluegrassslender wheatgrasssmooth bromegrassawned wheatgrassrice grasspeavine dewberry silverweedvetch baneberry Canada thistleshowy aster sarsaparilla sow-thistlebunchberry dandelionpussytoeabsinthyarrowSaskatoonbearberryred-osier dogwoodalderchokecherrysnowberryhazelnuttwining honeysuckleDetailed descriptions of Saskatchewan rangeplants, are available in a subsequent chapter of thispublication or in field identification guides, as listedin the References section.Photo Credit: Jim Romo24

ReferencesAbouguendia, Z. 1990. Range Plan Development - A Practical Guide to Planning for Management andImprovement of Saskatchewan Rangeland. New Pasture and Grazing Technologies Project. Regina, SK. 52p.Banfield, A.W.F. 1974. The Mammals of Canada. University of Toronto Press. Toronto, ON.Beckingham, J.D. 1991. Grazing in the Boreal Mixedwood Ecoregion of Alberta. Literature Review. AlbertaForestry, Lands and Wildlife. Edmonton, AB.Budd, A.C., and K.F., Best. 1969. Wild Plants of the Canadian Prairies. Canada Department of Agriculture, Publ.No. 989. Ottawa, ON.Corns, I.G.W., and R.M. Annas. 1986. Field Guide to Forest Ecosystems of West-Central Alberta. Canada ForestService. Edmonton, AB.Coupland, R.T. 1950. Ecology of Mixed Prairie in Canada. Ecological Monographs 20:271-315.Coupland, R.T. 1961. A reconsideration of grassland classification in the Northern Great Plains of NorthAmerica. Journal of Ecology 49:135-167.Coupland, R.T., and T.C. Brayshaw. 1966. The Fescue grassland in Saskatchewan. Ecology 49: 958-968.Ecological Stratification Working Group. 1996. A National Ecological Framework for Canada. EcologicalStratification Working Group. Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada and Environment Canada. Ottawa, ON.Ehlert, G., and D. Downing. 1994. Managing Aspen Rangelands in Alberta’s Boreal Mixedwood Ecoregion:The Northeast Region Benchmark Program Range Notes. Issue No. 17. Alberta Agriculture, Food andRural Development. Edmonton, AB.Godfrey, W.E. 1986. The Birds of Canada. National Museum of Canada. Ottawa, ON.Hammermeister, A.M., D. Gauthier, and K. McGovern. 2001. Saskatchewan’s Native Prairie: Statistics of aVanishing Ecosystem and Dwindling Resource. Native Plant Society of Saskatchewan Inc. Saskatoon, SK.Harris, W.C. 1980. Guide to Forest Understorey Vegetation in Saskatchewan. Tech. Bull. No. 9. SaskatchewanDepartment of Tourism and Renewable Resources, Forestry Branch. Regina, SK.Hogg, E.H. 1994. Climate and the southern limit of the western Canadian Boreal forest. Canadian Journal ofForest Research 24:1835-1845.Hulett, G.K., R.T. Coupland, and R.L. Dix. 1966. The vegetation of dune sand areas within the grassland regionof Saskatchewan. Canadian Journal of Botany 44: 1307 - 1331.Kabzems, A., A.L. Kosowan, and W.C. Harris. 1976. Mixedwood section in an ecological perspective. Tech.Bull. No. 8. Saskatchewan Tourism and Renewable Resources, Forestry Branch. Regina, SK.Millar, J.B. 1976. A guide to marshes and shallow open water wetlands in the grasslands and parklands of thePrairie Provinces. Canadian Wildlife Service Report Series Number 37.Padbury, G.A., and D.F. Acton. 1994. Ecoregions of Saskatchewan. Poster map at 1:2,000,000. SaskatchewanProperty Management Corporation. Regina, SK.Peterson, R.T. 1969. Field Guide to Western Birds. Houghton Mifflin Company. Boston, MA.Richards, J.H., and K.I. Fung. 1969. Atlas of Saskatchewan. University of Saskatchewan. Saskatoon, SK.Rose, J.S. 1959. Forest Regions of Canada. Canadian Forestry Branch. Bulletin No. 123. Department of theEnvironment. Ottawa, ON.Saskatchewan Forage Council. 2007. Field Guide: Identification of Common Range Plants of NorthernSaskatchewan, Compiled by Alicia N. Hargrave. 63p.25

Saskatchewan Forage Council. 2007. Field Guide: Identification of Common Riparian Plants of Saskatchewan,Compiled by Alicia N. Hargrave. 59p.Saskatchewan Forage Council. 2007. Field Guide: Identification of Common Range Plants of SouthernSaskatchewan, Compiled by Alicia N. Hargrave. 59p.Smoliak, S., M.R. Kilcher, R.W. Lodge, and A. Johnston. 1982. Management of Prairie Rangeland. AgricultureCanada. Ottawa, ON.Smoliak, S., W.D. Willms, R.A. Wroe, B.W. Adams, and G. Ehlert. 1988. Range Pasture of Alberta Agriculture.Agdex 134/14-8. Edmonton, AB.Society for Range Management. 1998. Glossary of Terms used in Range Management. Fourth Edition. Societyfor Range Management. Denver, CO.Stewart, R.E., and H.A. Kantrud. 1972. Vegetation of prairie potholes, North Dakota, in relation to quality ofwater and other environmental factors. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 585-D.Thorpe, J. 2007. Saskatchewan Rangeland Ecosystems, Publication 1: Ecoregions and Ecosites. SaskatchewanPrairie Conservation Action Plan. Saskatchewan Research Council Pub. No. 11881-1E07. Saskatoon, SK.Walker, B.H., and R.T. Coupland. 1968. An analysis of vegetation-environment relationships in Saskatchewansloughs. Canadian Journal of Botany 46: 509-522.Walker, B.H., and R.T. Coupland. 1970. Herbaceous wetland vegetation in the Aspen Grove and grasslandregions of Saskatchewan. Canadian Journal of Botany 48:1861-1878.26

Plant Characteristics and ProcessesIdentificationPlant identification on rangelands is one of the most important skills required to determinerangeland health, range condition, and to develop management plans. Learning to recognizerange plants and the roles they play in a functioning ecosystem is a cornerstone of sustainablerange management. More than 1,500 species of native plants have been identified in the prairieprovinces. All of these native range plants fulfill a function in the ecosystem. Some of the benefits theyprovide are: food for herbivores, habitat for wildlife, stabilizing watersheds, protecting soil, operatingas carbon sinks, providing recreational opportunities, and enhancing landscape beauty. About150 species of the 1,500 found on the prairies are considered important livestock forage.Several plant keys are available to help identifyplants using characteristics of the leaves, stems, partsof the flowers, and seed heads. The use of a plantkey is discussed later, while several helpful relatedpublications are listed at the end of this chapter.Photo Credit: Saskatchewan Forage Council Photo Credit: Jim RomoLiliesLearning to identify range plants is essential tobeing able to to assess rangeland. Many books andfield guides are available describing plants foundin Saskatchewan. Line diagrams, descriptions andkeys assist in identifying plants. Consulting one ofthe many agrologists and enthusiasts trained in plantidentification is also a good way to identify plants.Plant identification is an important skill in rangeassessment and managementSpecimens can be compared to labelled collections.Gathering specimens for comparison with knownsamples provides not only plant names but apermanent collection that can be referred to yearafter year. Dried plant collections (herbaria) arelocated at the University of Saskatchewan and theUniversity of Regina.Range Plant CategoriesRange plants are grouped by life form, life span,origin, growth season, and response to grazing.Life FormFour broad groups of range plants are easilyrecognized: forbs, woody plants such as shrubs,grass-like plants, and grasses (Figure 8).Forbs have non-woody stems and broad leavesoften with net-like veins. They are herbaceousand generally die back every winter. Manycolourful wildflowers belong to this group. Prairieconeflower, golden bean, and yarrow are somecommon examples.Shrubs resemble trees, but have no definite trunk.They are woody plants that tend to branch out nearthe base and they are shorter than trees. Shrubleaves are broad and net-veined, usually droppingin fall. Winterfat, rose, and western snowberry arecommon examples.Grass-like plants resemble grasses, but have longsolid stems which are either three-sided (sedges)or round (rushes). They have no visible stem jointsand their leaves have parallel veins. Sedge leaves arethree-ranked (on all three sides of the stem), whilerushes have two-ranked leaves. Male and femalefloral parts are usually found in separate florets.Sedges are usually associated with moist or wetareas, but some species are found on drier uplands.Baltic rush and sun-loving sedge are examples ofrushes and sedges.27

Source: Adapted from Holechek et al. 1989.Figure 8: The four range plant groupsGrasses have jointed stems which are usuallyhollow. Their slender leaves, which have parallelveins, alternate in two rows on the stem. They havesmall green flowers that are usually complete. Maleand female parts are present on the same flower.Plains rough fescue, northern wheatgrass, andneedle-and-thread grass are common examples.Life SpanThe life span of range plants can be classed intothree categories: perennial, biennial, and annuals.Perennials live three or more years, biennials twoyears, and annuals one year or less. Shrubs andtrees are always perennials. Grasses, sedges andrushes are mostly perennials or annuals; however,there are a few species that are biennials.OriginThe origin of plants growing in Saskatchewan areeither classified as native or introduced. Introducedplants have been, and continue to be, brought intoNorth America from other continents or regions.Most seeded pastures contain introduced species.The majority are valuable as forage plants, butsome have become troublesome weeds in nativerangelands. Examples of introduced forage grassesinclude smooth bromegrass and crested wheatgrass.Growth SeasonCool-season plants complete most of their growthin spring before temperatures increase. They maygrow again in fall, if moisture is available. Coolseasonplants dominate and produce most of theforage in Saskatchewan. Examples include northernwheatgrass and western wheatgrass.Warm-season plants begin growth when soiltemperatures rise in late spring and grow mainlyin the summer. They are well adapted to warmsites, such as south facing slopes, where they canphotosynthesize at higher temperatures than coolseasonplants. Only a few warm season speciesgrow in the province, and they contribute a smallamount to total forage production. Examples arelittle bluestem and blue grama.Plant CharacteristicsBasic PartsThe basic parts of any plant are the roots, crown,stem, leaves and flowers. Plant parts have distinctiveshapes, sizes and textures which differ accordingto the species. A magnifying glass is often neededto examine these parts, but plant recognitionis simple once one becomes familiar with thevarious components.Photo Credit: Jim RomoGrassesMost grasses look alike to the casual observer.However, different grass species have characteristicsthat set them apart.28Cattle grazing crested wheatgrass

To identify grasses it is necessary to look closely atdifferences in height, leaf shape, stems, hairinessand seed heads. The above-ground parts of grassplants can be divided into categories: floweringand vegetative.Vegetative PartsVegetative parts include stems and leaves (Figure 9).Grass stems are hollow, jointed and compressed, orround. The joints, called nodes, are usually swollen.A leaf originates at each node. A plant that isflowering will have a seed head that is also made upof distinct parts.Leaves can be either on alternate or opposite sidesof the stem (Figure 9). Leaves have two parts, theblade and the sheath. The blade is the portionthat extends away from the stem. Leaf bladeshave distinctive shapes and textures which helpto identify the species. The sheath is the portionwrapped around the stem.The point where the sheath and blade join is calledthe collar (Figure 10). Here, a small membrane-likeprojection, the ligule, extends from the sheath. Insome species the ligule is covered with a tuft of hair.Finger-like appendages, called auricles, may alsowrap around the stem at the collar.Flowering PartsFlowering parts, known as the inflorescence,include the male and female floral parts and alltheir appendages. There are three main types ofgrass inflorescence: panicle, raceme and spike(Figure 11). The most common type of inflorescenceis the panicle. Within the panicle the inflorescenceshave spikelets that are borne on branched stalks(pedicels). The panicle can either be closed orspreading. Kentucky bluegrass and needlegrasseshave panicles.Figure 11: Examples of a panicle, raceme and spike inflorescenceSource: Stubbendieck, J., et. al. 1982.Source: Stubbendieck, J., et. al. 1982.Figure 9: Grass partsRacemes have spikelets that are borne on pedicelsattached to the main axis. Little bluestem has araceme inflorescence.Spike inflorescences have the floral parts attacheddirectly to the main axis or rachis. Wheatgrasses andblue grama grass have spike inflorescences.Within the inflorescence there are smaller unitscalled spikelets (Figure 12). Spikelets are composedof florets, the flower unit of a grass plant. The grassflower is not showy or coloured, and has no scent,because it is wind pollinated and does not requireinsects for pollination. The number of florets in asingle spikelet varies from one, as in tickle grass,to 30 or more. At maturity each floret, if fertile,produces a seed.Figure 10: Leaf partsFigure 12: Spikelet29

Each seed is surrounded by two leaf-like bractscalled the lemma and the palea (Figure 13) Thesebracts may have hairs that allow the seed to cling toclothing or livestock, to aid in dispersal. An exampleof a grass with hairy lemmas is northern wheatgrass.Lemmas or glumes can have sharp projectionscalled awns which assist in seed dispersal or “dig”itself into the ground. An example is westernporcupine grass.Forbs and ShrubsShrubs and forbs with large, colourful flowers areoften easier to identify than grasses. Color and shapeof flowers, as well as leaf and growth characteristics,are often sufficient for identification.Leaves of broadleaved forbs and shrubs are usuallydeciduous (falling off at the end of the growingseason), or evergreen.Broadleaf species are usually characterized by leafshape and arrangement on the stem. An oppositearrangement refers to leaves growing opposite eachother at a node. An alternate arrangement has leafattachment points offset along the stem. If leaves arewhorled, there are three or more leaves growing atone node (Figure 15).Figure 13: Floret (seed)Roots and CrownsThere are three different types of grass root systems(Figure 14): fibrous (ie. “bunch grasses” like needleand-thread),rhizomatous (ie. smooth bromegrass),and stoloniferous (buffalo grass). Roots anchor theplant and extract water and nutrients from the soil.The crown is near the soil surface and producesnew roots and shoots.Figure 15: Leaf arrangementsLeaves are simple or compound. A simple leafhas only one distinct segment between the stemand the blade end (Figure 16). A compound leafhas distinctive segments, or leaflets. They may bepinnately (featherlike) or palmately (hand-shaped)compound (Figure 17).Source: Looman, J. 1982.Figure 14: Types of grass rootsFigure 16: Simple leaf30

Plant NamesAll plants have only one correct botanical (scientific)name, but may have several common, localizednames. Botanical names allow universal reference toa particular species. Plants are classified according tofamily, genus, species, and sometimes sub-species,or varieties. Each plant’s botanical name reflects itsgenus and species.Source: Stubbendieck, J.,et. al. 1982.Figure 17: Compound leavesThe size, shape, color, hairiness and veinarrangement (venation) of a leaf blade arecharacteristics to note when identifying forbsand shrubs.Figure 18: A complete flowerParts of a complete flower (Figure 18) are arrangedin a circle. The most colourful and conspicuous ringis called the corolla, which consists of segmentscalled petals. Below the corolla is a ring of cuplikesepals, known as the calyx. The calyx is usuallygreen and protects or encloses the bud petals. Thecalyx and corolla surround the male reproductiveorgans (stamens) and the female reproductiveorgans (pistils).Examples of three common plant familiesCollectionsOne of the best ways to learn to identify plants isto collect, press and name specimens for referenceyear after year. Such a collection becomes a naturallibrary of the species in a pasture.Plants can be collected and pressed when theopportunity occurs, and identified at a later date.Plants should be gathered when they have producedseed heads, and before they begin to dry outand lose color. Select an average plant that is arepresentative sample, or collect several specimensshowing the range of variation.Each specimen should include some of the rootsystem, flowering parts and fruit. Collecting flowersand fruit may require more than one specimen.Because plants differ in their growth seasons,collecting specimens can last from May until August.After every field trip, remove any soil from roots,and arrange each specimen between newspapersor blotting paper. (Wilted or dried plants donot press well). Fold large plants to fit yourequipment, making sure to display all parts. Includea note detailing the collection date, site, andassociated species.When the plants are secured between the papers,place specimens in a plant press. Commercialmodels are available, but two pieces of plywoodbound together with straps, with cardboard sheetsbetween, work well. If plants are not pressedimmediately, place them in a black plastic bag toprevent them from wilting.Family Tribe Genus Species Common Name VarietyPoaceae Triticeae Agropyron smithii western wheatgrass Walsh(Grass) Agropyron cristatum crested wheatgrass FairwayStipeae Stipa comata needle-and-threadRosaceae Rosa woodsii wild rose(rose) Prunus virginiana chokecherryFabaceae Medicago sativa alfalfa Beaver(legume) Oxytropis campestris locoweed31

Most plants dry within a week and can then beglued to a permanent background. Choose aconvenient size suited to your purposes. Once theplant is affixed to its background, label the specimenand record collection details for future use.Plant KeysA plant key is used by plant taxonomists to identifyplants and includes a series of questions that theobserver asks to compare and contrast similaritiesand differences about the structure and appearanceof plants. Using a plant key requires a workingknowledge of plant part terminology. A microscope(to help see the small parts of a plant), dissectingtools, and ruler are very helpful in separating andidentifying the various plant parts.Think of a plant key in terms of travelling a roadthat is a series of well-marked Y intersections. Fromeach pair of statements in the key, first choosethe one that applies to the plant in question. Thenproceed to the next appropriate paired statementsand so on until the specimen is identified.Two opposing characteristics are always given.Always choose the one that best describes thespecimen. Read to the end of the line to determinethe next set of characteristics or the name ofthe plant.Do not skip down the key. Take each contrastingpair of statements in order. When a specific namefor the specimen is pinpointed, check the selectionwith the description and illustration in the text toverify your findings.A specimen used for keying should have all its partsif possible, including roots, stem leaves, flowers andfruit. While plant keys rely heavily on reproductiveparts, some keys identify common grasses byvegetative characteristics (Figure 19).Plant GrowthGrass is the stockgrower’s crop. Livestock, thesaleable product, is a means of harvesting that crop.An understanding of plant growth is key tosuccessful livestock production. Only then cangrazing animals be used to manipulate plants toachieve economic goals.Grazing management practices should be based onknowledge of plant physiology and morphology.Both physiological (functional) changes andmorphological (external structural) changes affectsforage quality and/or survival of plants.Paired True and False Statements:1. Sheath split and/or overlapping If sheath is split down front, go to pairedstatement 2.1. Sheath not split, notched near top downy brome If grass sheath is closed down the front, this isthe answer. No need to proceed further2. Auricles present westernwheatgrass2. Auricles absent Go to pairedstatement 33. Leaves folded in shoot at emergence Go to pairedstatement 43. Leaves rolled in shoot at emergence Go to pairedstatement 54. Ligule membranous, fringed June grasswith coarse hair on margin4. Ligule a fringe of hair inland salt grass5. Ligule membranous, very needle-and-threadconspicuous, spilt or fringed,to 4 mm long5. Ligule a dense fringe of hair, less blue gramathan 0.5 mm longFigure 19: An example of a vegetative key for six common grasses32

are due to continued root respiration with reducedsupplies of carbohydrates being directed to theroots because of the loss of leaf area, rather thanroot reserves being moved elsewhere. Observationsof total energy in plants and the rate of plantrecovery are not always consistent. Some species,with relatively high carbohydrate concentrations,recover more slowly than species with relatively lowconcentrations. These new findings indicate that:• stored energy in the form of carbohydrates playsa small role in the ability of a plant to recoverafter grazing;• energy reserves do not move around the plantas much as previously thought;• plants hold a relatively small amount ofcarbohydrates in reserve – only as much as canbe produced in a few days of photosynthesis;• there is considerable difference in how energy isallocated among species;• estimating carbohydrate reserves levels is not areliable indicator of ability of a plant to recoverfrom grazing, as there are many energy storagecompounds present in a plant;• photosynthesis in remaining green tissue aftergrazing is the major contributor to the energyneeded to develop new leaves after grazing;• recovery of plants after grazing is thus related totheir opportunity or ability to photosynthesize.It appears previous interpretations of energydynamics and the role of carbohydrates in plantrecovery from grazing were oversimplified.Stored carbohydrates have a significant role inproviding energy to the plant during times oflow photosynthetic capacity (winter dormancy).Environmental limitations or removal of excessiveleaf material will slow recovery.Most often, grazing on rangelands occurs whenproduction and forage quality are optimal. Thisperiod also usually coincides with favorable growingconditions. The favourable growing conditionswill vary with the forage species being grazed.Grazing during this period will allow for high ratesof photosynthesis in plant material remaining aftergrazing and will assist the plant in recovering rapidlyfrom defoliation. Ensuring that plants can maintainenergy levels and recover quickly from grazing canbe accomplished by:• grazing during the optimal growth period forthe species being grazed;• leaving more leaf area remaining after grazingallows the plant to recover more quickly becausethere is more residual tissue to provide energy todevelop new leaves;• maintaining litter - an indicator of appropriatelevels of use.Grass MorphologyMorphological changes occur in the grass plantthroughout its development. These changes areeasy to see and coincide with certain physiologicalchanges that are impossible to detect visually.Morphological characteristics can be very usefulwhen making grazing management decisions.Grass TillersVegetative reproduction of perennial grasses takesplace through production of new shoots or tillers.Each grass tiller arises from a growing point and hasthe potential to mature as an individual plant.The growing point is where new cells develop.(Trees, shrubs and some forbs have growing points atthe outer tips of their branches).Growing points on grasses are present just above thelast completed joint or node of each stem. In younggrasses and in new growth of perennial grasses, thejoints are compressed together near the soil surface.A leaf extends from each of these joints. There maybe 10 to 15 joints in the first inch of the stem.All grass tillers begin growth with a growing pointdeveloping from a dormant bud. Provided tillers arevegetative, they have the potential to produce newleaves. A tiller that has become reproductive can nolonger develop new leaves.Internode ElongationAs the growing season progresses, hormonal changesin the tiller cause the stem to extend upward. Thefirst growth of tillers is vegetative because no seedhead is evident. As the stem grows the distancebetween the joints (nodes) increases. The areabetween the nodes is called the internode. Elongationis often a transitional stage between the vegetativeand reproductive stages of plant growth. In somegrasses, tillers remain in the elongated vegetativestage because the seedhead either never develops oraborts at a very young stage.Continued GrowthSeed production does not mean the grass plant stopsgrowing. Each tiller has dormant (inactive) budslocated at the base of the tiller (basal buds), on thestem (aerial buds), and at the nodes on the stolonsor rhizomes. Dormant buds can produce a new tillerwith a new growing point.34

Basal, rhizome, and stolon buds are generally thefastest source of regrowth. While active on somegrasses such as reed canary grass, aerial buds areusually the least productive of the new buds.Removing an elongated tiller’s growing point breaksthe dormancy of the dormant buds associated withthe tiller. Growth of new leaves from an activatedgrowing point can then occur, if environmentalconditions are conducive to growth. New tillers maynot be formed until the next growing season.Buds that remain dormant must survive the winterand produce tillers the next year. A tiller developingfrom a dormant bud in the spring can be comparedto an annual plant developing from seed.Perennial grasses must be allowed to manufactureand store sufficient energy to develop buds that arevigorous enough to survive the winter and beginspring growth. Buds for next year’s tillers developlater in the growing season. Consequently, severegrazing near the end of the growing season maycause a decline in forage output the following year.Grazing And Tiller GrowthEarly in the growing season all grass growing pointsare close to the soil surface. Because livestockcannot physically graze any closer than aboutan inch from the ground, there is no danger ofremoving the growing point at this time. Althoughplants are grazed, each grazed tiller continues toproduce new leaf material. However, reproductivetillers that will eventually have internode elongation,may have the growing point removed duringgrazing. If the growing point is removed, new leafmaterial must come from tillers that develop fromdormant buds (Figure 22), which may not happenuntil the next growing season.Because a bud developing into a new tiller has noleaves, it must depend on recently captured energyprovided by remaining leaves.If grazing is not severe and sufficient leaf materialremains, new tiller growth receives energymanufactured by the remaining leaves.Elongation TimingThe timing of internode elongation is importantbecause the amount of vegetative material plantsproduce is dependent on when internode elongationoccurs. Once internode elongation has occurred, theplant may be in a transitional stage from vegetativeinto reproductive development. Once this transitionhas occurred, no new leaf initiation will occur. Areproductive tiller that is defoliated will not producenew leaves. New growth must then develop fromdormant buds. Delaying grazing on reproductiveFigure 22: Regrowth from intact growing points versusregrowth from basal budsplants until internode elongation occurs willmaximize vegetative growth.Kentucky bluegrass, June grass, red top, and manyother grasses do not raise growing points until justbefore entering the reproductive phase. Growingpoints are maintained close to or below groundlevel for most of the growing season and are difficultto remove by grazing animals. These grasses aremore resistant to close grazing.Grasses such as smooth bromegrass, westernwheatgrass and Canada wildrye elevate growingpoints early in their development. Smoothbromegrass, reed canary grass and westernwheatgrass may have elevated growing pointswithout seed head development at certain times ofthe year. These species are more productive, but areless resistant to grazing.Proper DefoliationDefoliation factors such as time, intensity, frequency,and duration can influence the impact on plantproduction. Studies indicate that most native grassseed production is typically low and often erratic.Thus, vegetative reproduction (tillering) playsa major role in native grass survival. New tillersreceive support from the original plant until theirown root systems develop, minimizing adverseenvironmental effects on reproductive success.However, plants may die because of drought andother stresses, and in the long-term, seeds play arole in producing new plants.Root GrowthRoots and underground stems account for more thanhalf of a grass plant’s total mass. Roots anchor plantsin the soil, absorb water and nutrients, and allowplants to compete with others. Underground stems,or rhizomes, enable plants to reproduce vegetatively.Source: Waller, S.S. et. al. 1985.35

36Healthy root systems are vital for healthy plants.Grazing management, therefore, involves managingroot systems in pastures and rangeland.Root ReplacementStudies show that grass roots have relatively shortlives. Because root replacement occurs rapidly,organic matter is constantly added to the soil.Canada wildrye roots, for example, live no longerthan three years. Only 45 percent of blue grama rootssurvive over three years.Thus, except for large shrub roots, roots are notpermanent structures and must be replaced regularly.Replacement rate varies with species, but ranges from20 to 50 percent of the total root system each year.Leaf Removal and Root GrowthGrazing intensity and frequency directly affects rootdevelopment of all grasses.Plants respond to defoliation by first stopping rootand rhizome elongation. If grazing continues, plantsreact by reducing root numbers and diameter,branching and depth. The amount of reductiondirectly relates to defoliation severity and frequency.Root growth is diminished because less energyis available due to a reduction in plants ability tophotosynthesize efficiently.A plant that has lost a majority of its root system isvery susceptible to environmental factors such asdrought. It can be replaced by less desirable, lowerproducing species.One study showed root growth stopping within 24hours after removing at least 40 percent of the leafarea. Another study showed that clipping 80 percentof the leaf area stopped root growth for 12 days,while removing 90 percent halted growth for 18 days.These roots did not resume growth until the leavesgrew again.Removing 60 percent of leaves stopped growth ofhalf of the roots. At 50 percent removal, almost allroots continued to grow.This study was conducted under good growingconditions. Unfavourable soil moisture conditionsafter defoliation may interrupt root growth until thefollowing year.The amount of defoliation is usually more harmful toroot growth than grazing frequency. Taking a little ofthe plant more often is a better management strategythan taking all of the plant only once.Because perennial plants are most common inSaskatchewan, the consequences of overgrazing arecarried over from season-to-season. Similarly goodmanagement is beneficial in the following years.Rough fescue sod clipped in the greenhouse at variousheights every four weeks for five months. Left to right:not clipped, clipped to 12.5, 7.5 and 3.8 cm. Decreasein root volume is evidentContinued overgrazing reduces the number, sizeand extent of underground plant parts and it causeschanges in species composition that ultimately leadto poor pasture productivity.ReferencesHolechek, J.L., R.D. Pieper, and C.H.Herbel. 1989.Range Management Principles and Practices.Department of Animal and Range Sciences, NewMexico State University. Las Cruces, NM. 501p.Johnston, A. 1961. Comparison of lightly grazedand ungrazed range in the fescue grassland ofsouthwestern Alberta. Canadian Journal of PlantScience 41: 615-622.Looman, J. 1982. Prairie Grasses Identified andDescribed by Vegetative Characteristics. AgricultureCanada. Ottawa, ON. 244p.Stubbendieck, J., S.L. Hatch, and K.J. Kjar. 1982.North American Range Plants. University ofNebraska. Lincoln, NE. 464p.Vavra, M., W.A. Laycock, and R.D. Pieper (eds.). 1994.Ecological Implications of Livestock Herbivory inthe West. Society for Range Management Press.Denver, CO. 297p.Waller, S.S., L.E. Moser, P.E. Reece, and G.A. Gates.1985. Understanding Grass Growth: The Keyto Profitable Livestock Production. Kansas City,MO. 20p.White, L. 1973. Carbohydrate reserves of grasses: Areview. Journal of Range Management. 26:13-18.Source: Johnston, A. 1961.

Saskatchewan Range PlantsGRASSESNorthern Wheatgrass or Thickspike WheatgrassAgropyron dasystachum (Hook.) Scribn.,Elymus lanceolatus (Scrin. and Smith) GouldLife Span:Origin:Season:Auricles:Ligule:Leaf blade:Sheath:perennialnativecool2 mm long, often claw-like, clasping the stem, lightgreen colouredinconspicuous6 mm wide to 20 mm long, flat to rolled, ridged,slightly rough above and smooth below, light greencollar divided and light greenround, split, smooth or slightly rough to the touch,margins overlappingNorthern wheatgrass is an erect rhizomatous plant reaching heightsof 40-70 cm. It is a major component of the Mixed Grass Prairie andParkland region of the prairie provinces of Canada, and is one ofthe most common wheatgrasss on the prairies. This grass grows withwestern wheatgrass and needle-and-thread on clay and loam soils andoccasionally in nearly pure stands on sandy sites. Northern wheatgrassgrows with western porcupine grass in xeric communities on midtoupper slopes on coarse-textured soils. It is best adapted to clay,sandy loam and loamy soils. This grass produces few seed heads andis drought resistant. A very dense, shallow root system penetratingdepths of about 25 cm takes advantage of surface moisture, while afew deeper feeding roots reach depths of about 50 cm. Tufted basalleaves (persistent old leaf sheaths), lighter green color and pubescentlemmas distinguish it from western wheatgrass. Palatable forage for alllivestock classes, the protein content of northern wheatgrass decreasesfrom 16 percent in early May to about 4 percent by October.Digestible energy remains high at 45 percent from emergenceto maturity.Northern WheatgrassPhoto Credit: Jim Romo37

Western Wheatgrass or Blue JointAgropyron smithii Rydb.,Pascopyrum smithii Rydb. (Love),Life Span:Origin:Season:Auricles:Ligule:Leaf Blade:Sheath:perennialnativecooloften claw-shaped, usually clasping the stem,purplish colourinconspicuousflat, prominently veined, very rough on uppersurface, blue green colored, leaves grow at 45degree angles from the stem. Collar light greenand not well definedSplit, strongly veined, often brownish or purplishat baseWestern WheatgrassPhoto Credit: D. Fontaine,Saskatchewan Ministry of AgricultureWestern wheatgrass is erect and sod-forming with long slenderrhizomes. A drought tolerant perennial, it grows in fairly dense standson clay soils in association with green needlegrass, on saline soilswith salt tolerant grasses and greasewood, and in sparse stands amongblue grama and needle-and-thread on upland sites. Rarely producingseeds, it spreads by rhizomes. Western wheatgrass is fair yielding,palatable, nutritious, digestible and cures well on stem. Proteincontent averages 18 percent in the spring, dropping to 3-4 percent inthe fall.Slough GrassBeckmannia syzigachne (Steud) Fern.Life Span:Origin:Season:Auricles:Ligule:Leaf Blade:Sheath:annual or biennialnativecoolabsent10 mm long, pointed, maybe split when mature,membranous12 mm wide, 20 cm long, wide, flat, light green,rough above smooth below. Collar inconspicuouscross-veined, hairless, split, margins overlappingand translucentWestern WheatgrassPhoto Credit: Jim RomoSlough grass is an erect, tufted grass forming large bunches fromshallow fibrous roots. It is common in shallow sloughs and marshes,preferring clay soils covered with a shallow layer of organic matter.A stout plant with shallow roots supporting a leafy stem, it can reach1 m in height. The branched head is a closed panicle with seeds thatare sickle-shaped and hard-coated. This plant is palatable to cattle andhorses from early growth until seed is nearly ripe. Nutrients are wellbalanced, with seasonal protein concentrations constant, but slightlylower than upland grasses. Hay is light but of good quality.Slough GrassPhoto Credit: D. Fontaine,Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture38

Blue GramaBouteloua gracilis (H.B.K.) Lag. Ex Steud.Life Span:Origin:Season:Auricles:Ligule:Leaf Blade:Sheath:perennialnativewarmabsentfringe of hairsflat to loosely inrolled, sparsely hairy on uppersurface, short and curlyround, split, margins, without hairs or if hairspresent, very sparseBlue grama is low growing and densely tufted, often forming mats.It is most abundant in the southern regions of the province. Flowerstalks reach 50 cm and usually carry two dark brown, sickle-shapedspikes with all flowers clustered along one side. It starts growth late inthe season (early May in southwestern Saskatchewan) and nearly twoweeks later further north. Blue grama is highly digestible, producinggood forage for all livestock classes, but has low forage productivity.Drought tolerant and resistant to grazing, it increases under heavygrazing and drought.Marsh Reed GrassCalamagrostis canadensis (Michx.) Beauv.Life Span:Origin:Season:Auricles:Ligule:Blade:Sheath:perennialnativecoolabsentprominent, pointed, often irregular or splitwide (6-10 mm), flat, lax, with a prominent mid ribrounded and split with pale margins, usuallywithout hairs, yellowish at the baseMarsh reed grass is tall, erect, tufted and is the most widespread ofthe reed grasses. It is a moisture-loving plant that grows in marshes,along streams, and in moist, shaded draws. Nearly pure stands areoccasionally found in shallow, northern sloughs. Creeping rootstocksgive rise to many coarse stems that may reach 1.5 m. Stems producerough, lax leaves that may be 30-60 cm long. It develops noddingseed heads with upright branches close to the central column thatcontains numerous small seeds surrounded by a dense ring of hairsgrowing from the base of the seed. Palatability varies, however itmakes good hay if cut early in July.Blue GramaMarsh Reed GrassPhoto Credit: Jim Romo Photo Credit: D. Fontaine,Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture39

Sand Grass or Prairie SandreedCalamovilfa longifolia (Hook.) Scribn. var. longifoliaLife Span:Origin:Season:Auricles:Ligule:Blade:Sheath:perennialnativewarmabsentfringe of hairscoarse, flat, without hairs, light green, wide at basetapering to long fine pointround, pillose (hairs 2-3 mm long) at the throat andcollarSand grass is a tall, erect grass with sharp, long, scaly rhizomes thatgrows on sandy prairie, sand dunes, along lakeshores, and in openforests. One of the most important species in the Great Sand Hills, itis common in association with Indian rice grass and sand dropseed.Roots extend to 1.5 m, but most found within 50 cm of surface.Surface roots dense, wiry and well adapted to hold sandy soil.Harsh basal leafage surrounds coarse, leafy stems which may reach2 m. Palatable during first month of growth and after curing. Seedsare eaten in autumn, while stems are rarely eaten. Despite heavyroots, sand grass is susceptible to trampling and it disappears wherelivestock congregate. Protein drops from 12 percent in May to about4 percent in November, but available carbohydrates increase from 45percent in May to 55 percent in October. This plant provides goodwinter pasture for maintenance of livestock.Sand GrassPhoto Credit: Jim RomoTimber OatgrassDanthonia intermedia Vasey var. cusickii WilliamsLife Span:Origin:Season:Auricles:Ligule:Blade:Sheath:perennialnativecoolabsentfringe of hairsflat or inrolled, often pubescent on lower surfaceround, split, with thin, transparent marginsprominently veined, very pubescentTimber oatgrass is a short, tufted grass with fibrous roots. Mostcommon of the five Danthonia species, it occurs in the prairiesgrowing in meadows and the upland prairie close to the tree line andfavorable sites within the spruce and pine zones. It is common in theWood Mountain, Cypress Hills, and southernmost Parkland areas. Arelated species, Parry’s Oatgrass (Danthonia parryi), is found only inthe Cypress Hills. Timber oatgrass produces an abundance of basalleaves and short, numerous stems. It has 4 to 12 purplish spikeletsthat form a closed panicle which clusters to one side. Floweringoccurs in August with seed shatter in early September. It is grazed bydomestic livestock, deer and elk during spring growth. In overusedFescue Prairie it may form a solid stand after rough fescue has beengrazed out, indicating that livestock prefer other grasses more thantimber oatgrass.Timber OatgrassPhoto Credit: Jim Romo40

Tufted Hair GrassDeschampsia caespitosa (L.) P. Beauv.Life Span:Origin:Season:Auricles:Ligule:Blade:Sheath:perennialnativecoolabsentvery prominent, sharp pointedto 5 mm wide, contracted at collarcompressed, keeled, margins transparent andoverlapping, prominently veinedTufted hair grass is an erect, densely tufted bunchgrass with fibrousroots. It is widespread and abundant throughout Canada and growssparsely in marshes or around shallow sloughs in drier prairie areas.This is an important species in permanently moist sites in the CypressHills and seldom grows under trees. Dense, shallow roots supporta mass of deep-green leaves. Folded leaves swell where sheath andblade join. The seed head is a feathery panicle with branches growingin whorls and usually contains 2 seeds per spikelet. Tufted hair grasshas good to excellent forage value for all livestock classes and fair togood value for wildlife. The protein content is as high as 18 percentin May decreasing to 7 percent by August. It is generally considereda valuable range grass. Plants may be short-lived and may reproduceonly from seed so it is important to allow the plants to set seed.Tufted Hair GrassPhoto Credit: Jim RomoSalt Grass or Desert Salt GrassDistichlis stricta (Torr.) Rydb.Life Span: perennialOrigin: nativeSeason: warmAuricles: absentLigule: fringe of hairs, fused at baseBlade:stiff, rather short, somewhat awl-shaped, leaf collarsbunched along stem and appear oppositeSheath: round, split, usually without hairs, basal sheathsusually yellowishSalt grass is an erect, short, sod-forming grass with extensive scalyrhizomes. Habitat includes moderately saline or alkaline soils,particularly around wetlands and saline flats. Male and femaleflower heads are on different plants, but both usually occur in thesame clump. Palatability is low, with plants grazed only when morepalatable grasses are not available. Well-balanced nutrient compositionsupports fair to good livestock gains. This is an important grass for theprevention and control of saline soil erosion in Saskatchewan.Salt GrassPhoto Credit: D. Fontaine,Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture41

Canada WildryeElymus canadensis L.Life Span:Origin:Season:Auricles:Ligule:Blade:Sheath:perennialnativecoolto 2 mm, claw-like, and often clasping the stemshort, not conspicuousvery wide (1-2 cm), flat, rough on upper surfaceround, split, prominently veined, green or bluishgreen, purplish at the base, margins overlapping,inner margin thin transparent, outer margin hasfringe of hairsCanada wildrye, a tall, erect bunchgrass with short rhizomes, grows insparse stands on sandy soils, in woods, along river banks, roadsides,and other disturbed ground in the prairies. Considerable basal leafageand tall stems leaf out from base to spike. Nodding spikes, about 15cm long, have two spikelets at each node, a characteristic of wildryes.It is usually eaten in spring but is not very palatable. Forage valuedecreases sharply when mature.Canada WildryePhoto Credit: Jim RomoPlains Rough FescueFestuca hallii (Vasey) PiperLife Span:Origin:Season:Auricles:Ligule:Blade:Sheath:perennialnativecoolabsentmembranous, short fringednarrow, rough, flat to tightly rolledround, ridged, split, rough to the touch,thin marginsPlains rough fescue, an erect grass with short rhizomes, grows ondeep sandy loam soils in the Dark Brown and Black soil zones.Dense, gray-green, rough and basal leaves provide most of theforage. Individual plants spread from tufts growing at the edge of thecrown. It is very palatable and it is readily grazed out, particularlywith repeated heavy spring usage. Plants are replaced by northernporcupine grass, needle-and-thread, or weedy species. Proteinconcentrations in spring are approximately 12 percent. It cures wellwith digestiblity remaining high at all times; however, it is best usedas summer and winter range.Plains Rough FescuePhoto Credit: Jim Romo42

Hooker’s OatgrassHelictotrichon hookeri (Scribn.) Henr.Life Span:Origin:Season:Auricles:Ligule:Blade:Sheath:perennialnativecoolabsentconspicuous, large, pointedsomewhat short, firm, to 5 mm wide, keeled with aboat-shaped tipcompressed, keeled, split, prominently veined, thintransparent marginsHooker’s oatgrass, a densely tufted, smooth-leaved grass with fibrousroots, grows east of the Rockies from Alberta to Manitoba. It growsonly where moisture is plentiful in open grasslands occurring in theCypress Hills and Parkland areas. This species seldom occurs in solidstands, rather, single plants are scattered among associated speciesand rarely accounts for more than 5 percent of a stand. It is denselybunched with a shallow root system and flat leaves. The awnedseed head is a panicle with erect branches clinging closely to centralcolumn containing glumes that appear shiny. Hooker’s oatgrassprovides palatable forage.Hooker’s OatgrassPhoto Credit: Jim RomoJune GrassKoeleria cristata Pers.Koeleria macrantha (Ledeb.) Schult.Life Span:Origin:Season:Auricles:Ligule:Blade:Sheath:perennialnativecoolabsent1 mm, truncate and raggedflat or inrolled, soft, sometimes pubescentround, split, rough to the touch, often pubescent,prominently veinedJune grass, a long-lived bunchgrass grows throughout open prairieand Parkland regions but less common in open bush areas. It oftengrows as single plants in mixed communities rather than dense stands.The shallow, densely rooted plants rely on surface moisture and dieback when subsurface moisture disappears. The leaves are short, flat,dark green and distinctly veined, sometimes with a few fine hairs nearthe stem. Almost leafless, the flower stalks usually reach 20-30 cm. Itsclosed-panicle seed head resembles a small wheat or barley spike andproduces abundant seed. June grass is palatable in spring, decliningin the summer; however, it is preferred in late fall after curing. Theprotein content is 20 percent during early spring decreasing rapidlyto a low of 4 percent by November. This native grass is common, butcontributes little to total forage production. June grass increases in faircondition range, but declines as condition becomes poor.June GrassPhoto Credit: Jim Romo43

Indian Rice GrassOryzopsis hymenoides (Roemer & J.A. Schultes) Ricker ex Piper,Achnatherum hymenoides (Roemer & J.A. Schultes) BarkworthLife Span:Origin:Season:Auricles:Ligule:Blade:Sheath:perennialnativecoolabsentconspicuous, long, tapered to a pointlong, slender, inrolled, smoothround split, very prominently veined, smooth orslightly rough, margins overlapping, outer marginoften with a fringe of hairsIndian rice grass is a tall, tufted, wiry grass with fibrous roots,common on sandy soils and abundant in the Great Sand Hills. Oldleaf sheaths located at base help protect numerous, long, deep green,folded basal leaves. Its open, feathery panicle is white due to lightcolored chaff. The panicle always splits in two. Mature seed is blackand surrounded with white silky hair. The awns readily break awayfrom the tips. This is one of the most palatable native grasses. It cureswell, providing nutritious forage.Indian Rice GrassPhoto Credit: Jim RomoKentucky BluegrassPoa pratensis LLife Span:Origin:Season:Auricles:Ligule:Blade:Sheath:perennialintroduced from Europecoolabsentmembranous, to 1 mm long, truncate, entireleaf tips are boat shaped, somewhat keeled, andnarrowcompressed but not sharply keeled, split, distinctlyveined, transparent marginsKentucky bluegrass grows abundantly in moist northern andeastern parts of Saskatchewan. It has invaded many grasslands andis a common lawn species. With boat-shaped tips, the leaves aremostly basal deep blue-green, folded or flat and slightly keeled.The mid-vein appears as a double line or railroad track. Seeds arenumerous with cobweb-like hairs at the base of the florets. Palatableand nutritious in early spring, the protein content drops after seedheads form. A rhizomatous growth form and good seed productionmake it a strong competitor. Under poor pasture managementit tends to invade. Unless irrigated, it is not high yielding inSaskatchewan. Pastures become less productive as Kentucky bluegrassincreases in abundance.Kentucky BluegrassPhoto Credit: Jim Romo44

Sandberg’s BluegrassPoa sandbergii Vasey.Poa secunda J. PreslLife Span:Origin:Season:Ligule:Blade:Sheath:perennialnativecoolprominent, pointed4 to 12 mm long, flat or folded with boat-shapedtipscompressed, pale to purplish at base, marginsoverlappingSandberg’s bluegrass, a small, erect bunchgrass with shallow fibrousroots, grows throughout the prairies but it is rarely abundant. Theleaves are numerous, fine, folded and mostly basal. Its seed head is aclosed panicle that is straw coloured and shiny when mature. One ofthe first grasses to grow in spring, it usually matures by early July withleaves withering into white clumps. Because of its drought resistance,it may spread during dry years as other less tolerant species die.Livestock avoid this species after mid-June as it is not very palatable.Sandberg’s bluegrass is easily pulled from the soil by cattle.Sandberg’s BluegrassPhoto Credit: Jim RomoLittle BluestemAndropogon scoparius Michx.Schizachyrium scoparium (Michx.) NashLife Span:Origin:Season:Auricles:Ligule:Blade:Sheath:perennialnativewarmabsentmembranous (1-3 mm), truncate, ciliate3-8 mm wide, short leaves along the stem, rough onupper surface, smooth belowcompressed, keeled, open in older leaves, purplishat baseLittle bluestem is a bunchgrass producing many pith-filled stems.This perennial grows up to 60 cm tall in dense stands from theInterlake area of Manitoba to Saskatchewan. Small, sparse standsoccur throughout the balance of the prairies on sandy and gravellysoils with shallow water tables or where snow accumulates. Plants arefairly common in most localities in the Great Sand Hills, throughoutthe Missouri Coteau, along the South Saskatchewan and FrenchmenRivers, and Swift Current Creek. It is palatable to all livestock classes.After seed heads shatter, the plants provide fair to good forage forcattle and horses. Plants often look ungrazed because livestock pulltender leaves out from around the bunch edge. A single, branchedpanicle tops each stem and produces the characteristic fluffy haircoveredawned seed. Plants develop a distinctive red tinge after frost.Little BluestemLittle BluestemPhoto Credit: Jim Romo Photo Credit: D. Fontaine,Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture45

Western Porcupine GrassStipa spartea Trin. Var. curtiseta Hitch,Stipa curtiseta HitchHesperostipa curtiseta (Hitchc.) BarkworthLife Span:Origin:Season:Auricles:Ligule:Blade:Sheath:perennialnativecoolto 10 cm, bent twice when mature, coarseto 3 mm, with a depression in centreto 5 mm, flatround, split, often purplish at base, margins thin,transparent, outer margin with a fringe of hairsWestern porcupine grass is an erect bunchgrass and usually thedominant species on loam soils in the Dark Brown soil zone. Arelated species, porcupine grass (Stipa spartea), grows in southeastSaskatchewan and in Manitoba. Roots of western porcupine grassextend to depths of 1 m. Flowering stems are tall (40-60 cm),producing up to 30 sharp-pointed seeds in a feathery panicle. Matureseeds (12-15 mm long) have a 5-9 cm coarse awn which is benttwice. It is palatable except between seed production and dropping.Nutritive and curing properties are lower then needle-and-thread,but higher than porcupine grass. Under similar conditions, westernporcupine grass is more palatable than needle-and-thread.Western Porcupine GrassPhoto Credit: Jim RomoGreen NeedlegrassStipa viridula Trin.Nassella viridula (Trin.) BarkworthLife Span:Origin:Season:Auricles:Ligule:Blade:Sheath:perennialnativecoolabsent2 mm membranous, hairs on outside marginsup to 5 mm wide, flat, shiny on undersideround, prominently veined, long hairs at the throat,margins overlappingGreen needlegrass is a tall, erect bunchgrass with a dense root systemextending to depths of 2-3 m. It grows throughout the prairies, butseldom occurs in dense stands and grows best on heavy clay soilswith western wheatgrass. The leaves are long, green and mostlybasal. Seed stalks can reach 1.25 m tall producing an abundance ofsmall, black, hairy seeds that lack the sharp-pointed callus of otherneedlegrasses. The weak awn is 2-3 cm long. The most palatable ofthe needlegrasses, it is sought by livestock all season long. Springprotein content exceeds 20 percent, while protein content in fallis about 8 percent. Tolerant to drought, it is moderately resistantto grazing.Green NeedlegrassPhoto Credit: Jim Romo47

SEDGES AND RUSHESAll species listed are perennial, native and cool season plantsAwned SedgeCarex atherodes Spreng.Awned sedge is one of the most important plants growing in freshto brackish marshes and shallow sloughs across most of NorthAmerica. Strong rootstalks give rise to numerous three-angledleafy stems. Dense masses of short hairs cover underside of soft,three-ranked leaves. Male flower heads grow at stem tips; femalespike develops among upper leaves. Stands yield up to 4 tonnesper hectare of palatable, nutritious hay if protected from grazingand flooded until early July. Awned sedge provides good qualityforage for cattle and sheep, but does not tolerate heavy grazing.Often occurring with non-palatable water sedge (Cares aquatilis),awned sedge is preferred by grazing animals.Awned SedgePhoto Credit: Gary Larson @ USDA-NRCS PLANTSDatabase / USDA SCSThread-Leaved SedgeCarex filifolia Nutt.Thread-leaved sedge is a common grass-like plant growing in theMixed Grass Prairie. While dominant in a few areas, it is usuallysubdominant with blue grama, needle-and-thread and June grass.It grows 8 to 25 cm high, producing leaves that are 3 to 15 cmlong. Densest stands occur on sandy flats and exposed gravellyridges, or on shallow or infertile soil. Leaves are fine, threadlike,upright, deep-green, rolled and glossy. Chestnut-brown,dead sheaths and female flowers are on the same spike. Oftenmore palatable than surrounding grasses, thread-leaved sedgemay contain higher protein and phosphorus concentrations andlower crude fibre. It withstands grazing and trampling better thanassociated grasses.Thread-Leaved SedgePhoto Credit: Jim Romo48

Beaked SedgeCarex rostrata StokesBeaked sedge is an important species of marshes and wetlands in theSaskatchewan Parkland and further north. Soft, hair-free leaves growin whorls of three. Male flowers grow near stem tips; female spikesdevelop among leaves. The seed ends in a distinctive curved beak.It provides similar yield, protein content, and tolerance to haying asawned sedge. Beaked sedge maintains 18 percent crude protein untilmid-summer and is readily grazed by cattle. It produces low qualityhay because cutting rarely occurs at optimum time and it often growswith other vegetation of poor forage quality.Beaked SedgePhoto Credit: USDA-NRCSPLANTS DatabaseLow SedgeCarex stenophylla Wahlenb. ssp. eleocharisLow sedge is one of the most common dryland plants of the interiorplains. It grows throughout the prairies, with dense stands occurringon overgrazed or eroded rangelands. It is the smallest of the drylandsedges having shallow rootstalks that send up single plants 3 to 10 cmapart. Plants have a central three-edged (or triangular shaped) seedstalk and either 3 or 6 leaves, which grow up to 2 mm wide and 3 to10 cm long. Seed matures in early June, with brown heads and dryingleaves that are distinctive when grasses are green (not to be confusedwith grass carry-over). Heavy stands indicate overgrazed pasture.Two other dryland sedges are palatable but neither produces muchforage. Sun-loving sedge (Carex pensylvanica) has wider, glossier andmore numerous leaves, and more than one flower cluster on its seedbearingstem. Blunt sedge (Carex obtusata) produces seeds which arenearly black when mature.Low SedgePhoto Credit: Jim RomoBaltic RushJuncus balticus Willd.Baltic rush is a species found on a wide variety of sites, but prefersrich soils with high water tables. A well-developed, horizontalrootstock combines with extensive and deep fibrous roots. Stemsarise at intervals from the rootstalk. Leaves are basal and scaly. Brownflower clusters develop below stem tips. The crude protein is 16percent in spring, dropping to 9 percent by late summer. It is grazedreadily while green and growing, but palatability declines as plantsage. If cut at the right time, it provides suitable hay.Baltic RushPhoto Credit: Jim Romo49

FORBSCommon YarrowAchillea millefolium (ssp. lanulosa) L.Life span: perennialOrigin: nativeSeason: coolCommon yarrow is an erect forb growing up to 70 cm tall, fromextensive rhizomes. It grows throughout the prairies in moistmeadows, woods and open grasslands on various soils. The leavesare hairy, aromatic, deeply divided and fern-like. Numerous, smallwhite (rarely pinkish) flowers form compact, flat-topped clusters.The forage value is poor, with only flower heads usually grazed. Anabundance of yarrow indicates a heavily grazed pasture.Everlasting or Pussy ToesAntennaria ssp.Life span:Origin:Season:perennialnativecoolEverlasting is a woolly, mat-forming, often stoloniferous forb. Thereare over 10 species common on the prairies. Leaves are mostly inbasal rosettes and usually woolly or hairy. White or rose flowers incompact heads resemble the toes of a cat’s paws. It propagates byseed, rhizomes and stolons. Everlasting increases to form groundcover on overgrazed ranges, but it is not normally abundant.Everlasting offers little forage value although flowers are sometimesgrazed.Common YarrowEverlastingPhoto Credit: Jim Romo Photo Credit: Jim RomoFireweedEpilobium angustifolium (L.) HolubLife span:Origin:Season:perennialnativecoolFireweed, an erect and stout plant with alternate, very short-stalked,entire leaves, is very common in woodlands, forest edges andburned-over forest, and occasionally along roadsides and moistplaces in the Prairie region. It grows from long creeping root stalks toheights of 1.2 m. Flowers are pink to purple and appear in July andAugust. Forage value is good for sheep, fair for cattle, and sometimesused by horses, deer, and elk. It is a good source of honey nectar.FireweedPhoto Credit: L. Tremblay50

GumweedGrindelia squarrosa (Pursh) DunalLife span: biennial or perennialOrigin: nativeSeason: coolGumweed is a coarse, erect, branched forb that grows from ataproot throughout the prairies on roadsides, moist, saline sites andheavily impacted sites. Leaves are thick, sticky and hairless withtoothed margins. A sticky resin covers numerous, showy yellowflowers. It is unpalatable to livestock or big game, but upland gamebirds utilize its fruits. Gumweed increases in abundance on heavilygrazed pastures.Hairy Golden AsterHeterotheca villosa (Pursh) ShinnersChrysopsis villosa (Pursh) Nutt. ex DC.Life span:Origin:Season:perennialnativewarmHairy golden aster, a many branched, tap-rooted and, hardy plantis common on dry sandy prairie and hillsides. It is less commonin the Parkland. Leaves are numerous, gray-green, alternative andcovered with short stiff hairs. Hairy stems grow 15 to 60 cm high.Bright yellow flowers are usually solitary on the stem. The deeptaproot penetrates to 2.4 m. It reproduces from seed. The growthform varies greatly and this forb generally has low palatability forlivestock and wildlife. Cattle will selectively graze the flowers. Anabundance of hairy golden aster indicates range deterioration.Purple Vetchling or PeavineLathyrus venosus Muhl. Ex Willd WhiteLife span:Origin:Season:perennialnativecoolPurple vetchling has a climbing, four-angled stem that extends froma woody root. This palatable forbs grows in forested areas. Leaveshave 4 to 6 pairs of smooth, oval leaflets with tendrils at the tips.This plant produces a purple flower. Young leaves can reach as highas 30 percent crude protein, however, it does not cure well and frostgreatly reduces nutritive quality. Often selected by livestock, it is adecreaser plant. The roots persist for many years and under propergrazing management and fire, it will grow back.GumweedHairy Golden AsterPurple VetchlingPhoto Credit: Jim Romo Photo Credit: Jim Romo Photo Credit: Jim Romo51

Moss PhloxPhlox hoodii RichardsLife span: perennialOrigin: nativeSeason: coolMoss phlox, a low, cushion-like, mat-forming plant with coarsewoody roots is common on open prairie and less common inparklands. The leaves are numerous, small and needle-like. This plantproduces white-blue flowers that are showy, small, and fragrant. It isa conspicuous and very early flowering plant, forming large masses ofwhite on overgrazed areas and eroded hillsides. It is generally avoidedby livestock because of its prickly foliage and low growth form. Thematted nature of the plant helps protects the soil from erosion. Mossphlox increases as range deteriorates.Dense ClubmossSelaginella densa RydbLife span:Origin:perennialnativeDense clubmoss, a compact, low-growing, densely matted plant, iscommon on drier and open prairies; however, it also grows in theAspen Parkland of the province. Usually it occupies medium-texturedsoils, but is plentiful on drier, light, and eroded soils. The leaves arelance-shaped, tiny, and arranged in four ranks to form square, rod-likebranches. Plants are usually less than 1.5 cm tall, with stems rootingalong entire length helping stop erosion. The plant has a shallow (lessthan 8 cm deep) and extensive root system. Clubmoss provides noforage value and increases with overgrazing.Moss PhloxDense ClubmossPhoto Credit: Jim Romo Photo Credit: Jim RomoGolden BeanThermopsis rhombifolia (Nutt. Ex. Pursh) Nutt. Ex RichardsLife span:Origin:Season:perennialnativecoolGolden bean, an erect, branched forb, usually grows in largepatches from rhizomes throughout the grasslands and in sandyAspen Parkland areas. Leaves are alternate and are numerous withthree leaflets. Large stipules develop at the junction of stem. Theconspicuous flowers bloom early, producing a bright golden yellowthat develops a seed pod that is curved in a semi-circle. It provideslittle forage value. The fruit may cause severe sickness in children.Golden BeanPhoto Credit: D. Fontaine,Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture52

American VetchVicia americana Muhl. Ex WilldLife span:Origin:Season:perennialnativecoolTwo varieties of this legume are common: a low-growing varietyoccurs in moist grassland and another variety growing as a forestunderstorey climber. The four-angled stems are easily broken.Leaves are compound with 6 to 12 pairs of leaflets. One or moretendrils grow at leaflet tips. Blue-purple flowers grow in leaf axilsand produce flat seed pods that break open easily. Plant roots havenodules containing rhizobia that fix nitrogen. The plant contains about20 percent protein in summer, and is low in crude fibre. Americanvetch disappears with heavy grazing.American VetchAmerican VetchPhoto Credit: M. Tremblay,Saskatchewan Ministry of AgriculturePhoto Credit: Jim RomoSHRUBSSilver Sagebrush or Hoary SageArtemisia cana PurshLife span: perennialOrigin: nativeSeason: coolSilver sagebrush, a many-branched shrub with gnarled, twistedstems, and shredded bark is very common on lighter soils, but rare inParkland areas. The largest stands occur in the Great Sand Hills. Theseshrubs have a deep taproot and the shrub can form extensive coloniesby rhizomes. Silver leaves (up to 40 mm long) have hairs on bothsides and are occasionally toothed at the end. It is not classified aspalatable, but is often browsed. Protein is approximately 20 percent insummer, dropping to 10 percent in fall. Silver sagebrush increases inabundance under cattle grazing, but decreases with sheep browsing.This plant is an important winter browse for pronghorn antelope andis critical for sage grouse habitat.Silver SagebrushPhoto Credit: Jim Romo53

Pasture Sage or Fringed SagebrushArtemisia frigida Willd.Life span: perennialOrigin: nativeSeason: coolPasture sage is a very hairy, silver-gray half-shrub growing froma woody base. The plant dies back to ground level every yearbur resprouts from the crown the following year. The leavesdivide 2 or 3 times into linear segments. Small yellow flowersbloom from July to early September. Handling leaves releases adistinct, camphor-like odour. The nutritive value of this plant ishigh, however it is unpalatable for cattle. This plant decreasesunder sheep grazing. Heavy stands indicate overgrazing.Numerous viable seeds, drought tolerance, and low palatabilityallow this plant to thrive on heavily used rangelands.Pasture SagePhoto Credit: M. Tremblay,Saskatchewan Ministry of AgricultureNuttall’s SaltbushAtriplex nuttallii S. WatsonAtriplex gardneri (Moq.) D. Dietr.Life span:Origin:Season:perennialnativewarmNuttall’s saltbush, a low-growing, gray-green, many branchedshrub with a woody base, grows in southern Saskatchewan onmoderately saline soils in association with western wheatgrass,and on shallow soils with blue grama. Its branches may beprostrate, reaching 70 cm long and producing leaves that arealternate, long-oval, short-stalked or stalkless, grayish-green andfine-scaly. Male and female flowers are on separate plants. Deeproots enhance drought tolerance, but new stems grow slowlyafter being grazed. It is palatable to all livestock classes and ispreferred during autumn and winter (providing over 10 percentprotein in late autumn), but can be grazed anytime. It containslow crude fibre and high ash. Nuttall’s saltbush requires carefulmanagement to maintain productivity.Nuttall’s SaltbushPhoto Credit: Jim Romo54

WinterfatEurotia lanata (Pursh) Moq.Ceratoides lanata (Pursh) J.T. HowellKrascheninnikovia lanata (Pursh) A. Meeuse & SmitLife span:Origin:Season:perennialnativecoolWinterfat, a silver-gray, tap-rooted shrub, grows up to 50 cm tallon well-drained soils, but may also occur on shallow, eroded sitesand saline soils. Fine star-like white hairs cover plants and reddenwith age. Male and female flowers are separate on the same plant.The long, silky, white hairs that cover the female seed heads makeplants very conspicuous. This plant is extremely palatable withgood nutritive balance and contains high protein and phosphorousconcentrations into late fall. Winterfat is grazed out on many ranges.Maintaining plants is possible when associated grass managementproduces an average carryover of about 50 percent and if grazing isdelayed until fall or winter.WinterfatPhoto Credit: D. Fontaine,Saskatchewan Ministry of AgricultureWolfwillow or SilverberryElaeagnus commutata Bernh. Ex Rydb.Life span:Origin:Season:perennialnativecoolWolfwillow, a shrub, grows 2 to 5 m high with brown, scaly twigs andis present throughout the Aspen Parkland and prairie areas on lightersoils where moisture is plentiful. Silvery, oblong, alternate leavesare scurfy on both sides. Dense clusters of yellow flowers in leafaxils produce silver berries. Flowering period produces a distinctivefragrant smell. The root nodules on this plant fix nitrogen. It is avaluable plant in well-managed pastures, but can spread and create agrazing barrier for livestock in overgrazed pastures.Broomweed or Broom SnakeweedGutierrezia sarothrae (Pursh) Britt. & RusbyXanthocephalum sarothrae (Pursh) ShinnersLife span:Origin:Season:perennialnativecoolBroomweed, a bushy, many-branched half-shrub grows from a deep,woody taproot in dry areas and hillsides throughout the prairie andAspen Parkland regions. The plant produces numerous clusters ofyellow heads at its branch ends. It is unpalatable and poisonousto sheep and cattle, causing death and abortions. Broomweed isextremely drought-tolerant with deep roots and narrow leaves. Itincreases on poorly managed rangelands.WolfwillowBroomweedPhoto Credit: Jim Romo Photo Credit: M. Tremblay,Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture55

GreasewoodSarcobatus vermiculatus (Hook.) Torr.Life span: perennialOrigin: nativeSeason: coolGreesewood is a thorny, free-branching shrub that grows aroundsaline sloughs and flats throughout the Brown soil zone. Thesmooth stems are covered with white, easily shredded bark thatturns gray with maturity. Thorns and branches grow at 90 degreeangles to the stem. Leaves are linear, fleshy and yellow-green. Itis a valuable winter browse for livestock and is important foodfor wildlife such as porcupines, jack-rabbits and prairie dogs.Greasewood is poisonous to sheep if eaten in large amounts,especially during spring and summer; however cattle are rarelypoisoned. It contains high sodium and potassium concentrations,particularly in dry years.Western Snowberry or BuckbrushSymphoricarpos occidentalis Hook.Life span:Origin:Season:perennialnativecoolWestern snowberry is an erect, broad-leaved shrub with a creepingroot system and is one of the most widespread and commonshrubs. It can form dense stands in open prairies, ravines, couleesand woodland. Snowberry traps snow well. Old growth hasshredded brown bark. Pink flowers open in late June, eventuallyforming white, waxy berries by late August. This plant spreads bycreeping roots and it can increase on overgrazed pastures. Plantscan also expand into vigorous grasslands. Palatability varies withlocality, but plants are usually left ungrazed. An important browsespecies for mule deer.GreasewoodWestern SnowberryPhoto Credit: Jim Romo Photo Credit: D. Fontaine,Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture56

POISONOUS PLANTSAll species listed are native, cool season perennials.MilkvetchAstragalus ssp.Milkvetches are legumes that grow from woody taproots, have pinnateleaves with 3 to many leaflets and are common across the prairieson native grasslands and woodlands. Two species are potentiallypoisonous due to selenium accumulation: Narrow-leaved milkvetch(A. pectinatus) grows in dry prairie on light and medium-texturedsoils, while two-grooved milkvetch (A. bisulcatus) grows on heaviertextured soils in moist habitats. Poisonings are rare, occurring mostoften in late summer or fall on overgrazed ranges that have littlepalatable forage available. These plants have a strong odour arisingfrom the selenium they accumulate.Narrow-Leaved MilkvetchTwo-Grooved MilkvetchPhoto Credit: Jim RomoPhoto Credit: Jim RomoWestern Water HemlockCicuta douglasii (DC.) Coult. & RoseWarning:Contact with this plant’s root can cause deathin humans.Western water hemlock is the most toxic plant of the North Temperatezone. It grows in wetlands, meadows, wet draws and stream banksin grasslands and forests. A tall (up to 2 m) erect forb with a hollowstem produces leaves that are twice-divided and leaflets of 5 to8 cm long with toothed margins. Flowers are small and white in anumbrella-shaped head. Hollow chambers divide horizontal crosssections of the thick stem base. Short, tuberous rootstalks emit ayellow, aromatic, extremely poisonous oil. Oil is concentrated inroots, but young shoots contain troublesome amounts. A single rootcan kill a cow. Less can kill a human. Symptoms include frothing atthe mouth, uneasiness, pain and then violent convulsions. Treatmentis not usually possible. Plants are easily pulled out of wet ground bygrazing livestock. Avoid confusing plants with the non-poisonous cowparsnip (Heracleum lanatum), which has once-divided leaves withlarge leaflets.Western Water HemlockPhoto Credit: D. Fontaine,Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture57

Low LarkspurDelphinium bicolour Nutt.Low larkspur occurs in the Wood Mountain and Cypress Hills regionsof southern Saskatchewan, growing in sheltered open places, incoulees, lower slopes of hills, and particularly on heavier soils. Blueflowers bloom in May-June, are spurred and resemble domesticDelphinium plants, but this plant only grows 20-50 cm tall. Leaves aremostly basal, clefted and dissected and are covered with fine hairswhich give them a grayish appearance. The plant is very poisonousto cattle in spring, but is not known to be poisonous to sheep.Avoid poisonings by delaying grazing until the mature plants dry inearly July.Low LarkspurPhoto Credit: Jim RomoEarly Yellow LocoweedOxytropis ssp.Early yellow locoweed is a legume that grows from a taproot with noapparent stem. Early yellow locoweed (O. sericea) and late yellowlocoweed (O. campestris) are common in dry and moist prairie,respectively. Two other species, O. lanmbertii and O. splendens withpurple flowers are less common. Pinnately compound leaves produceodd-numbered, silky or short-haired leaflets. The exact nature of thetoxic substance (locoine) is not known. Locoweed has low palatability,but it is grazed if other forage is scarce, especially in spring. Whilepoisonings rarely occur, extensive grazing induces chronic andaddictive illness and prolonged consumption can cause death. If plantsare numerous, exclude already addicted animals from ranges.Early Yellow LocoweedPhoto Credit: D. Fontaine,Saskatchewan Ministry of AgricultureSeaside ArrowgrassTriglochin maritima L.Seaside arrowgrass is a grass-like plant with solid, leafless stemsgrowing from deep rhizomes. It grows in salt marshes and salinesloughs throughout western Canada. Leaves are basal, spongy andcrescent-shaped in cross section. Hydrocyanic acid (prussic acid) isproduced in the plant’s fresh or dried leaves by mixing two usuallyseparate non-poisonous substances. Drought, frost, grazing, andtrampling cause the poison to develop. Foliage is readily eaten iflivestock are hungry, thirsty, or if they need salt. Consumption of aslittle as 5 percent of animal body weight can be fatal. Asphyxia orrespiratory paralysis causes death. Symptoms usually progress toorapidly for treatment. Avoid infested areas. Herbicides for selectivecontrol are not available. Non-selective herbicides are not effective.Seaside ArrowgrassPhoto Credit: D. Fontaine,Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture58

Death CamasZygadenus gramineus Rydb.Death camas grows in early spring in draws, low-lying areas,and lower coulee slopes. The plant grows from south centralSaskatchewan west throughout southern Alberta. The foliage andflowers of death camas arise from a bulb about 10 cm deep in theground. The leaves are grasslike, but are thicker and V-shaped,growing up to 15 cm long. A single flowering stem grows up to 50 cmtall and bears an elongated raceme with many small, yellowish-whiteflowers. All parts of death camas are poisonous, especially the bulb.The bulb can be easily pulled out in wet conditions in spring. Mostdangerous to sheep, but cattle can be affected also, particularly whenstands are thick and other forage is not readily available.Death CamasPhoto Credit: Jim RomoReferences and Suggested ReadingsBedunah, D.J., and R.E. Sosebee (eds.). 1995. Wildland Plants: Physiological Ecology and Developmental Morphology. Societyfor Range Management. Denver, CO.Dietz, H. E. 1989. Grass: The Stockman’s Crop: How To Harvest More Of It. Sunshine Unlimited Inc. Lindsborg, KS. 16p.Gates, George A. (ed). 1985. Understanding Grass Growth: The Key To Profitable Livestock Production. Trabon Printing Co.Kansas City, MO. 20p.Looman, J., and D. F. Best. 1987. Budd’s Flora of the Canadian Prairie Provinces. Agriculture Canada. Ottawa, ON. 863p.Looman, J., W. Majak, and S. Smoliak. 1983. Stock Poisoning Plants of Western Canada. Agriculture Canada. Ottawa, ON. 36p.Looman, J. 1982. Prairie Grasses Identified and Described by Vegetative Characteristics. Agriculture Canada. Ottawa, ON. 244p.Looman, J. 1983. 111 Range and Forage Plants of the Canadian Prairies. Agriculture Canada. Ottawa, ON. 255p.Moss, E. H. 1983. Flora of Alberta. Revised by J. G. Packer. University of Toronto Press. Toronto, ON. 687p.Saskatchewan Forage Council. 2007. Field Guide: Identification of Common Range Plants of Northern Saskatchewan, Compiledby Alicia N. Hargrave. Saskatoon, SK. 63p.Saskatchewan Forage Council. 2007. Field Guide: Identification of Common Riparian Plants of Saskatchewan, Compiled byAlicia N. Hargrave. Saskatoon, SK. 59p.Saskatchewan Forage Council. 2007. Field Guide: Identification of Common Range Plants of Southern Saskatchewan, Compiledby Alicia N. Hargrave. Saskatoon, SK. 59p.Schuster, J. L. 1964. Root development of native plants under three grazing intensities. Ecology 45: 63-70.Sindelar, B. W. 1988. Opportunities for Improving Grass Reproductive Efficiency on Rangelands. In: Achieving Efficient Use ofRangeland Resources. R. S. White and R. E. Short (eds). Montana Agriculture Experiment Station. Bozeman, MT. 132p.Sosebee, R. E. (ed). 1977. Rangeland Plant Physiology. Range Science. Series No. 4. Society for Range Management. Denver,CO. 290p.Stoddart, L. A., A. D. Smith, and T. W. Box. 1975. Range Management. Third Edition. McGraw-Hill. New York, NY. 532p.Stubbendieck, J., S.L. Hatch, and L.M. Landholt. 2003. North American Wildland Plants: A Field Guide. Sixth Edition. Universityof Nebraska Press. Lincoln, NE. 506p.The Great Plains Flora Association. 1986. Flora at the Great Plains, University of Kansas Press. Lawrence, KS. 1392p.University of Saskatchewan. 2000. Plant Ecology 434.3: Rangeland Ecosystems and Plants. http://www.usask.ca/agriculture/plantsci/classes/range/Vance, F. R., J. R. Jowsey, and J. S. McLean. 1984. Wildflowers Across the Prairies. Western Producer Prairie Books. Saskatoon,SK. 337p.59

Planned Grazing Management: UsingGrazing SystemsTo meet management goals and maintain the condition of range, managers must evaluate thestrengths and weaknesses of many grazing systems. It is useful to understand and apply the principlesof grazing management when developing a customized grazing system. Grazing management must betailored to match available resources, maximize energy capture and flow, balance forage productionand consumption by animals, optimize forage yield and livestock performance, prevent overgrazing,optimize ecosystem functions, and be economically and ecologically sustainable.Photo Credit: T. Lennox,Saskatchewan Ministry of AgricultureA well designed grazing system allows the range to improve while it is being usedPhoto Credit: T. Lennox, SaskatchewanMinistry of AgricultureDeveloping Grazing SystemsGrazing systems are intended to allow use of foragesby grazing animals while improving or maintainingsoil and plant resources. Grazing systems arecustomized for the local climatic conditions, soils,landscape, vegetation, kind of animals or class ofstock grazing, and the objectives, interest, abilitiesand knowledge of managers.Sustainable grazing systems maximize energycapture and flow, maintain or improve the chemicaland physical properties of soils, maintain or enhancenutrient cycling, optimize the hydrologic cycle,control which plants grow on the range, and meetthe physiological needs of animals. These goalsare achieved by alternating periods of grazing withperiods of rest or non-use.Photo Credit: Jim RomoCattle grazing Fescue PrairieClipping to determine forage supplyPhoto Credit: Jim Romo60

All sustainable grazing systems recognize that foragesupply must exceed or equal the amount of foragerequired to meet the needs of animals. Potentialforage supply varies with range ecosites and rangehealth. Forage supply is determined by inventoryingthe ecosites and the relative amounts of differentplants on each ecosite. After determining rangecondition, stocking rates for each ecosite and thetotal amount of forage supply can be determined.As a rule it is recommended that range be stockedat about 80 percent of the forage supply or carryingcapacity to provide a buffer for drought. Thisbuffering is extremely important in Saskatchewanas precipitation is less than average on rangelandsmore than 50 percent of the time.The amount of forage each animal is expected toconsume during the grazing season is the demand.The size of animals must be taken into account asdifferent classes of animals need different amountsof forage. A balanced monthly and yearly budgetmust be developed after the animal and forageinventory is completed.Producing ForageThe amount of animal production that can beproduced from range is closely linked to the amountof forage produced by plants and efficiency ofconverting forages into animal products by grazinganimals (Figure 23). Stable and optimum productionof animal products cannot be expected if forageproduction is limiting. If the goal is to sustain andoptimize forage and animal production then plantsFigure 24: Rangeland energy flowmust capture maximum amounts of solar energy(Figure 24), or energy must be supplied from anothersource (Figure 25), and forage must be convertedefficiently to animal products.If managerial goals include maximizing forage yieldon an acre-by-acre basis, it is necessary to maximizeenergy capture through photosynthesis by forageplants. Therefore, when considering grazing systemsevaluating the effectiveness of plant energy captureand conversion into forage is essential.Source: Heitschmidt and Stuth 1991.Figure 23: Livestock production per individual animal andper unit area originate from the combined effectsof efficient solar energy capture, forage harvestefficiency, and conversion efficiency in response tograzing intensityFigure 25: Rangeland energy flow with external inputs tothe systemAll rangelands have environmentally controlled upperlimits on energy capture and flow. The proximityto the upper limit of energy capture is regulatedprimarily by managerial decisions. The key toachieving maximum energy capture is providing plantswith periods of high quality rest of adequate durationafter grazing.61

Overgrazing is simply caused by not providing plantswith enough rest after grazing (Figure 27). The lackof rest after grazing causes many effects on range.Photo Credit: Jim RomoPlant material remaining after grazing has many benefitsPlant Recovery After GrazingPlant grazing creates an energy deficit for the plant.In addition, their ability to capture additional solarenergy through photosynthesis is reduced aftergrazing. However, if plants are rested and allowedto re-grow, they will regain their potential to captureenergy through photosynthesis (Figure 26).Figure 26: Plants NOT Under Rested and NOT OvergrazedGrazing accentuates environmental stresses, whichaffects photosynthesis in plants. For example, insouthern Alberta, removal of dead plant materialreduces forage production by more than 50 percent,presumably because soil water deficits are created.Therefore, it is critical to leave live and dead plantmaterial after grazing in water-limited environmentssuch as on rangelands in Saskatchewan.Plant functions impaired by grazing is likely themost important consideration when developinggrazing systems. Fortunately, the impacts of grazingare eliminated when plants are given ample rest andtime to repair the consequences of grazing. Recoveryfrom grazing takes time - time with favourableconditions for plant growth - and time in whichplants are not further affected by grazing.Figure 27: Under Resting - Overgrazing of PlantsRest periods must be provided during the growingseason. Most forage production takes place inabout a 60 day period of early- to mid-summer inSaskatchewan. Therefore, plants must be restedduring this time or they will not completely regaintheir vigour. It may be necessary to rest plants theyear after grazing if they cannot grow after thegrazing period.Animal ProductionManagers have the option of maximizing animalproduction per acre or maximizing gain per animal.In some cases managers may wish to optimizeboth. At low stocking rates, gain per animal will begreatest; however, animal production per acre will below (Figure 23). As stocking rates are increased, gainsper animal decline slightly, but animal productionper acre increases. Further increases in stocking ratewill reduce gain per animal and gain per acre. Underhigh stocking rates neither gain per acre nor gain peranimal will be near the long term potential. Betweenthese extremes in stocking rates, it is possible toachieve a sustainable balance in gain per animaland gain per acre. Stocking rates that allow the bestof gain per animal and gain per acre vary with soilzone, ecosite, and ecological condition of the range.Sustainable GrazingThe key to making grazing sustainable is toidentify sustainability as a management goal and todevelop grazing systems within the constraints ofthe biological and physical resources of the range.Providing plants with periods of high quality rest ofadequate duration after grazing will go a long waytoward reaching this goal.Understanding and applying grazing principlesdictate the success of grazing systems. Applying thebasic principles of grazing systems allows managers62

Photo Credit: Jim Romoto develop grazing systems that are user friendly,simple, and practical. In the end, each grazingsystem must be customized for sustainable use ofnatural resources upon which we all depend.All grazing systems are based on a similar set ofprinciples. Some grazing systems are more effectivethan others at allowing use of forage resources whilemaintaining or improving condition of rangelandresources. Each manager must apply set principlesof grazing management to meet the unique needsof the soils, environment, conditions of the range,plants, and management.The following checklist can be used to help evaluatewhether a sustainable grazing management systemhas been developed.• Planning and implementation of the grazingsystem fits the soil and plant resources;• Energy capture and flow are maximized;• Nutrient cycling is not impaired;• The water cycle is functioning properly;• Rangeland health is improving or beingmaintained in a high state;• Overgrazing is not occurring--periods ofgrazing and rest are alternated, and rest isprovided during the growing season;• Livestock are uniformly distributed inpaddocks, and selective grazing has beenreduced;• Livestock demands are balanced with foragesupply, and physiological needs of animalsare met;• Livestock production per acre, gain peranimal, or both are being optimized in thelong term, and;• The grazing system is user friendly, practical,simple, and flexible.Animal production should be based upon sustainablegrazing management strategiesIt is likely that a sustainable grazing system has beendeveloped when all of these principles have beenincorporated and are being met. If one or more ofthese conditions are not being met, it is likely thatthe grazing system can be improved. Understandingthe principles of grazing systems allows oneto evaluate the strengths and opportunities forimprovement in a livestock operation.Grazing System ‘Tools’Land managers have various ‘tools’ that can be usedto accomplish specific goals. To improve animaldistribution, some of the tools that can be employedare cross-fencing, water development, herding,and salt/mineral placement. More management bythe producer can significantly improve the degreeof success.MisconceptionsTwo common misconceptions about grazingsystems include:1. A universal best grazing system exists.Grazing systems must be developed for eachsituation. Grazing systems must be tailoredfor unique resources and goals. Managers cancombine traits from more than one grazingsystem to develop one that suits particularneeds and goals.2. Specialized systems allow managers to ignoreother range management principles.Successful grazing systems rely on rangemanagement principles such as properstocking, incorporating short periods ofgrazing, promoting plant rest during thegrowing season, grazing during the properseason, and improving livestock distribution.Grazing systems each have distinct characteristics,advantages, and disadvantages. Some grazingsystems are not universally applicable and are onlysuccessful in certain environments. For example,grazing systems which strive for multiple periods ofgrazing during the year may not be suited to areaswith short growing seasons, harsh environments,and slow growing plants. Grazing systems thatmake use of different areas of a pasture at differenttimes of the year may complement or compete withSalt and mineral placement help improve livestock distributionPhoto Credit: T. Lennox,Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture63

various wildlife species. For example, sharp-tailedgrouse and dabbling ducks nest in taller grasses.Deer prefer the cover of the dense undergrowthin aspen groves or wetland margins for birth andresting of fawns in early summer.Year 1AGrazeearlyBGrazelateCommon Grazing Management SystemsContinuous (season long)Livestock are turned onto a grazing allotmentat the beginning of the grazing season andremain there until the season ends. This systemis popular because it does not require a highlevel of management skill and it requires fewerimprovements and less monitoring than othersystems. Stocking rates should be moderateand based on a proper use factor of 50 percent.Continuous systems do little to control livestockdistribution or eliminate localized overgrazing. Manywell-documented cases of range deterioration can beattributed to overstocking and continuous grazing.However, if a range is in good condition and itcontinues to be grazed moderately, this systemcan work.Deferred GrazingA deferred grazing system delays grazing onspecified pastures until the key forage speciesproduce seeds. This deferment reduces the lengthof the grazing period for deferred pastures and maylead to reduced palatability of forage plants. On thepositive side, deferment provides rest for valuabledecreaser species, and leads to higher foragequality in the remaining forage, and allows plantsopportunity to reproduce and sustain production.Stocking rates are usually based on a predeterminedproper use factor.Two-Paddock SwitchbackThe range is divided into two paddocks byconstruction of a single crossfence. Fencing allowsthe manager to concentrate use on one paddock,while resting the other. Livestock may be grazedon the unit for a predetermined length of time oraccording to growing conditions.For example, livestock may graze paddock A forthe first half of the grazing season, then A is resteduntil the following year. Pasture B would be grazedduring the latter part of the grazing season duringyear one, as well as the early part of the seasonduring year two (Figure 28).Year 2Deferred-Rotation GrazingThis grazing system defers grazing on severalpasture units in a planned rotation. A minimum ofthree paddocks are required, making additionalfencing and water development necessary.Producers must also spend more time monitoringand moving livestock.In year one a paddock is grazed early until apredetermined proper use factor is reached. Duringyear two grazing is deferred until seed ripens toallow trampling of seed into the ground. In yearthree grazing is deferred to allow new seedlings toestablish (Figure 29).Figure 29: Deferred-rotation grazing systemReduced selective grazing and less selectiveovergrazing is achieved by concentrating morelivestock on a smaller area and encouragingconsistent utilization. Range condition oftenimproves over time with this system, but individualanimals may gain less than with other systems butoverall gain/acre is greater.Rest-RotationAGrazelateBGrazeearlyFigure 28: Two-paddock switchback grazing system1st Year2nd Year3rd YearDeferred – rotation treatmentsGrazingFlowering timeGrazing SeasonSeed ripe timeResting64Rest-rotation grazing is similar to deferred-rotationgrazing, but it has the addition of a yearlong restperiod for at least one pasture during a grazingcycle. This yearly rest period allows the opportunityfor establishment of new grass seedlings andallows for plants to recover from previous grazing

(Figure 30). A minimum of four paddocks is requiredfor rest-rotation, thus this grazing system requiresmore development than deferred-rotation grazing.Rest-rotation grazing has the same advantages anddisadvantages as deferred-rotation grazing. In casesof severe over utilization, one year of rest may not besufficient to allow plant recovery.Rest – rotation treatments(Figure 31). The basic premise of intensive grazingis that livestock are grazed at relatively high stockdensity, but not necessarily a high overall stockingrate. Livestock are rotated through paddocks basedon plant growth and recovery time after grazing.The goal is to distribute livestock use evenly overthe pasture, reduce re-grazing of individual plantsthrough short grazing periods, and provide long restperiods after grazing.1st Year2nd YearSeed ripe time3rd Year4th YearFlowering timeGrazing SeasonGrazingRestingPhoto Credit: T. Lennox,Saskatchewan Ministry of AgricultureFigure 30: Rest-rotation grazing systemsComplementaryComplementary grazing is one of the most commongrazing systems in western Canada. Nearly allproducers utilize complementary grazing systems.Complementary grazing systems, which manageand use different forages ina complementary manner,have been successful inCanada. For example, crestedwheatgrass provides early,highly nutritious forage at atime when native range ismost vulnerable to grazing.Crested wheatgrass can begrazed from late April toabout mid-June. LivestockMeadow bromegrass iscommonly used for grazingthen graze native range untilmid-September. Russianwildrye can be grazed frommid-September until freeze-up, and Altai wildrye isgrazed through early winter.In areas with greater available moisture, meadowbromegrass is used rather than crested wheatgrassor Russian wildrye. Meadow bromegrass is easyto establish, is competitive, and provides excellentearly spring and fall grazing. It is more versatile thancrested wheatgrass because it has a wider season ofappropriate use than does crested wheatgrass.Intensive Grazing Systems‘Intensive Grazing’ refers to systems that focus onhigh management inputs and increased stock control.Intensive grazing generally involves many pasturesFigure 31: An example of intensive grazing divisionsfrom Voisin (1959)Following grazing, plant growth is slow. Plants thengrow rapidly, and growth slows again as leaves die.Timely rainfall speeds growth or regrowth, reducingthe required recovery time. Grazing intervals andrest periods must be altered according to the growthrate of plants.Livestock should return to paddocks only afterplants have adequately recovered from previousgrazing. Determining how much forage to removefrom a paddock is important, as residual plantmaterial is important for regrowth of plants. A goodgoal to aim for would be to leave between four andsix inches of standing residue behind.Electric fencing and water development are important tools forintensive grazingPhoto Credit: T. Lennox,Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture65

Table 2. Comparison of selected grazing systemsA. Grazing System RequirementsGrazing Minimum Number Relative Level New Water Labour &System of Pastures of Investment Needs SkillsContinuous 1 low none lowDeferred 1 moderate none lowLight 1 low none lowComplementary 2 moderate moderate-high lowDeferred-rotation 2 moderate moderate moderateSwitchback 2 moderate moderate highRepeated seasonal 3 moderate-high moderate-high moderateRest-rotation 4 high high highH.I.L.F.* 8 very high very high very highSD/TC* 8 very high very high very highB. Management ConsiderationsGrazing Animal Handling Suitability for Potential for ImprovingSystem Requirements Improvement Practices Range ConditionContinuous low low lowDeferred low low moderateLight low low moderateComplementary low-moderate low-moderate moderateDeferred-rotation low-moderate low-moderate moderateSwitchback low low-moderate lowRepeated seasonal moderate low-moderate low-moderateRest-rotation high high very highH.I.L.F.* very high very high lowSD/TC* very high very high lowC. Potential Gain/RiskGrazing Relative Gain Relative Gain Risk of Plant & AnimalStrategies Per Animal Per Acre Soil ImpactContinuous high low-moderate lowDeferred moderate moderate lowLight very high low-moderate very lowComplementary moderate-high very high lowDeferred-rotation low-moderate moderate-high lowSwitchback nd* nd ndRepeated seasonal moderate moderate low-moderateRest-rotation low-moderate moderate lowH.I.L.F.* very low high very highShort duration low high very-highTime Controlled low high high* H.I.L.F.: high-intensity low-frequency grazingSD: short-duration grazingTC: time-controlled grazingnd: limited data66

Intensive grazing systems have been referred to asSavory grazing, cell grazing, etc. Often these grazingsystems are grouped under three main types: highintensitylow frequency grazing, short-durationgrazing and time-controlled grazing. These grazingsystems, by definition, have varying paddocknumbers, stock densities, length of grazing andrest periods. It is somewhat difficult to differentiatebetween these grazing systems because they differonly by degrees - there is a continuous gradationfrom one type to another. Intensive grazing systemsrequire greater management skills than other grazingsystems. Strong time and financial commitmentfrom the producer is required for successfulimplementation of intensive grazing systems.One of the cornerstones of successful grazingsystems is flexibility. All grazing systems should beflexible enough to allow for adjustments to grazingperiods, rest periods, stocking rates and densities,to match the current growing conditions. Simplyadding crossfences does not necessarily make agood grazing system. Concentrating livestock intosmaller pastures may be detrimental to both plantand animal growth if the principles of grazingmanagement are ignored.A land manager must work within the productivitylimitations for a specific tract of land. No matterwhat grazing system is used, stocking rate has alarge impact upon plant health and overall rangecondition. There is an upper limit on the potentialproductivity for a site and productivity will notincrease by putting in additional water sourcesand fences.Management of Special AreasRiparian AreasRiparian areas are the transition zones betweenupland and aquatic environments, and form narrowstrips along rivers, streams, lakes and other bodiesof water.or prevent overuse of riparian areas and reducedeposition of animal excrement in or near waterbodies. Possible management options for drawingcattle away from riparian areas include:1) clean water and shade made available awayfrom riparian areas; rubbing posts, feed, andsupplements placed away from the riparianzone;2) riding and herding; (research conducted byBailey (2003) indicates that herding has greatpromise for protecting riparian areas);3) seeding complementary pastures;4) fencing;5) restricted or reinforced access points;6) strategic change in location and timing;7) season of grazing.Uneven grazing distribution can occur in riparianareas because most cattle prefer to spend time nearthe water and do not graze upland areas intensively.Range managers use grazing systems for maintainingand improving the condition and functioning ofriparian ecosystems. The value of grazing systemsfor improving a degraded riparian zone is rankedbased on observation of several operations usingeach system:• high value (setting aside a specific riparianpasture, corridor fencing),• good value (deferred, deferred rotational,rest-rotation, seasonal), or• low value (continuous season-long,short duration).Timing, duration and intensity of grazing areparticularly important in riparian areas (Table 3).Domestic livestock are generally attracted to riparianareas, which provide them with water, feed andshelter. Proper distribution of livestock can reduceSome examples of riparian areasPhoto Credit: T. Lennox,Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture67

Table 3. Relative success of some grazing management strategies in riparian ecosystems (Adapted from Kinch. 1989.)Relative Success of ManagementGrazing Management Strategy Successful UnsuccessfulRest period following grazing long shortDuration of use short longDuration of use in fall short longYears with fall use few manyMaintenance of plant coverthrough rest and regrowth periods many fewConclusions• Long rest periods least damaging• Short grazing periods least damaging• Short periods of fall grazing least damaging to ecosystem• Infrequent fall grazing least damaging• Maintaining residual cover is criticalForested AreasSaskatchewan’s forested areas support many usessuch as grazing, wildlife habitat, logging, tourism,and recreation. Grazing management can havedirect or indirect impacts on other land uses due tochanges in vegetation and soils caused by livestock.Reaching a balance between livestock grazing andecological sustainability is of prime importanceand is realistically attainable. Grazing managementpriorities should be:• maintaining litter;• minimizing soil compaction; and• maintaining a healthy and desirablecomposition of understorey plants.Stocking rates and season of use are key tools formanaging grazing forested areas. Many of the foragespecies in forest range do not have the regrowthpotential that prairie grasses possess. It is best todelay grazing in forests at least until early Junewhen plants have made significant growth and aregrowing quickly.Overstocking and overgrazing forests compactssoils, reduces the humus layer, and changes speciescomposition. Overgrazed forest range will have lessstructure or variety in understorey plants. Variousplant layers such as tall and low shrubs and forbsare reduced with overstocking and overgrazing.Continued overgrazing eliminates the variousplant layers and causes a shift to a simple groundlayer of low producing weeds and grasses such asbluegrasses. At this stage, ecological functioningof the forest is severely impeded and recovery tohealthy condition is slow.Photo Credit: T. Lennox,Saskatchewan Ministry of AgricultureWhitebeech community pasture in northeast SaskatchewanPhoto Credit: T. Lennox, SaskatchewanMinistry of Agriculture68

ReferencesAbouguendia, Z. 1991. Livestock Grazing and Riparian Areas: A Literature Review. Grazing and PastureTechnology Program. Regina, SK.Abouguendia, Z. 1990. Range Plan Development - A Practical Guide to Planning for Management andImprovement of Saskatchewan Rangeland. New Pasture and Grazing Technologies Project. Regina, SK. 52p.Abouguendia, Z.M., and T.O. Dill. 1993. Grazing Systems for Rangelands of Southern Saskatchewan.Saskatchewan Stock Growers Association and Agriculture Development Fund. Grazing and PastureTechnology Program. Regina, SK.Abouguendia, Z., and T. Dill. 1995. Planning Aids For Balancing Forage Supply And Demand. SaskatchewanStock Growers Association. Grazing and Pasture Technology Program. Regina, SK. 10p.Archer, S., and D.A. Pyke. 1991. Plant-animal interactions affecting plant establishment and persistence onrevegetated rangeland. Journal of Range Management 44:558-565.Bailey, D. W. 2003. Integrating Management Practices to Improve the Uniformity and Sustainabiltiy of Grazing.Proceedings of the Nashville Grazing & Livestock Conservation Initiative. Nashville, TN.Bailey, D. W., D. D. Kress, D. C. Anderson, D. L. Boss, and E. T. Miller. 2001. Relationship between terrain useand performance of beef cows grazing foothill rangeland. Canadian Journal of Animal Science 79:1883-1891.Dusch, G.L. 1975. Range relations of mule deer and cattle in prairie habitat. Journal of Wildlife Management.39:605-616Ehrhart, R.C., and P.L. Hansen. 1997. Effective cattle management in riparian zones: a field survey andliterature review. United States Department of Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Montana State Office.Missoula, Montana. Riparian Technical Bulletin No. 3. Missoula, MT. 92p.Grazing Systems for Alberta. Alberta Agriculture Agdex 134/14. Edmonton, AB.Heitschmidt, R.K., and J.W. Stuth. (eds.). 1991. Grazing Management – An Ecological Perspective. TimberPress. Portland, OR.Kinch, G. 1989. Riparian area management: Grazing management in riparian areas. U.S. Dept. Of InteriorBureau of Land Manage. Technical Reference 1737-4. 44 pp.M c Cartney, D.H. 1993. History of grazing research in the Aspen Parkland. Canadian Journal of Animal Science73: 749-763.Romo, J.T. 1989. Ecological Effects of Grazing. pp. 35-41. In: Reid Communications (compilers and eds.) Proc.Grazing Management, It’s More Than Grass! New Grazing and Pasture Technology Program. Saskatoon, SK.Romo, J.T. 2006. Resting Forage Plants - A Beneficial Grazing Management Practice On Native Rangeland.Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada’s Greencover Canada Program. 12 pp.Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture. 1990. Intensive Management of Livestock Grazing. Regina, SK.Sindelar, B.W. 1989. Myths in Grazing Management. pp. 1-23. In: Reid Communications (compilers andeds.) Proc. Grazing Management, It’s More Than Grass! New Grazing and Pasture Technology Program.Saskatoon, SK.Vallentine, J.F. 1990. Grazing Management, Academic Press. San Diego, CA.Voisin, A. 1959. Grass Productivity. Reprinted in 1988 by Island Press. Covelo, CA.Wambolt, C.L. 1979. Range Grazing Systems. Cooperative Extension Service, Montana State University.Bozeman, MT. 13p.Willms, W.D., S. Smoliak, and A.W. Bailey. 1986. Herbage production following litter removal on Alberta nativegrasslands. Journal of Range Management 39:536-540.Willms, W. 1995. Grazing Management – A Balancing Act? pp. 39-42. In: Z. Abouguendia (ed.). Proc.Total Ranch Management in the Northern Great Plains. Grazing and Pasture Technology Program.Swift Current, SK.69

Evaluation and MonitoringRange Ecosite ConceptEffective evaluation of the health or condition of Saskatchewan’s rangelands begins with anunderstanding of the range ecosite concept. Range ecosites divide rangeland into basic ecologicalunits for study, evaluation, and management. Several range ecosites exist within an ecoregion.Saskatchewan’s ecoregions are described in the Natural Vegetation Zones section of this publication.A range ecosite is a distinctive area of rangelanddiffering from others by its ability to produce acharacteristic plant community. It is the productof all environmental factors responsible for itsdevelopment. The major factors that interact toproduce a distinctive climax plant community areclimate, soil and topography.The climax community is a relatively stable balanceof plant species having evolved in the absence ofabnormal disturbance. These species are adaptedto their surroundings and survive within theenvironmental limitations of the area. Generally oneor two species dominate and this does not vary fromyear to year.Mineral recycling in a climax community is atmaximum level and dominant plant speciesreproduce forever. Production may fluctuate yearlywith climatic differences, but species compositionchanges very little.Several range ecosites may exist within onemanagement unit. Or depending on fence lineplacement, a range ecosite may be divided betweentwo management units - part on one side of thefence, part on the other side.Range ConditionRange condition indicates the status or compositionof the present plant community in relation to thepotential, or climax and expresses changes invegetation composition, productivity, and landstability. Condition is divided into four classes:Excellent, Good, Fair, and Poor, depending on howfar the present plant community status or compositionof is from its potential. These ratings are not the sameas forage values and do not necessarily indicate theyield, nutritive value or palatability of species presenton a range site.Range ecosites are distinguished by significantdifferences in the kinds or proportions of plantsmaking up the climax community, significantdifferences in productivity, or both. Significantdifferences refer to requirement in changes inindividual management factors such as stocking rate.70Boundaries between range ecosites may be distinctwhere changes in soil, topography, or moisture areabrupt, but generally are less distinct along boardersof environmental gradients.Detailed information regarding the classificationof range ecosites in Saskatchewan is available inthe publication titled, Saskatchewan RangelandEcosystems, Publication 1: Ecoregions and Ecosites(Thorpe, 2007).Range Ecosite Versus Management UnitRange ecosites should not be confused withmanagement units. A management unit is createdby fencing a field or pasture. Management decisionsconcerning that particular parcel of land can bemade regardless of what is happening acrossthe fence.Figure 32: Relation of decreasers, increasers and invaderson rangelandsThe relative contribution of each of the three plantcategories (decreasers/increasers/invaders) to thecomposition of the range ecosite determines itspresent condition rating (Figure 32).Many influences can modify or temporarily destroyvegetation, but do not necessarily eliminaterecovery of the potential plant community. Unlessthe disturbance is particularly severe or prolonged,the site potential is not permanently affected andthe site itself remains capable of supporting theclimax community.

Range in Saskatchewan is often considered in poorcondition due to drought. This is an inaccurateassessment because range does not decline incondition quickly. Forage production may betemporarily less due to drought, but the rangecondition is not changed and the plant communitycomposition is likely not altered.Range condition is a component of rangelandhealth, not its annual production. Annualproduction can be estimated through conducting arange inventory.Deterioration Signs of Native RangePlant vigour decline and loss of surface litter arethe first warning signs of range deterioration. Thisis followed by a shift in species composition,the change most easily measured and the maincontributing factor to other changes in the site.Deterioration of the plant community causes lossof organic matter, soil fertility, ability of the soilto absorb and retain water, as well as exposureof surface stones. This deterioration reduces theopportunities for establishing the original plantcommunity and productive capacity of the site.Severe deterioration may significantly alter thepotential productivity and plant community.Eventually other site characteristics deteriorate.Erosion becomes evident, the soil absorbs andretains less water, and site fertility drops.Range HealthThe concept of range health builds on the traditionalrange condition approach, but adds new indicatorsof important natural processes and functions – thingsthat producers can observe and that are easier tomeasure than plant community alone. Range healthrefers to the ability of rangelands to perform certainnatural functions like:• produce plant biomass including forage forlivestock and wildlife;• maintain and protect the soil from erosion;• beneficial capture and release of water;• cycle nutrients and energy;• maintain biological diversity.A range health assessment will provide a moredetailed snapshot in time of management impactson a given site. A guide to Saskatchewan grasslandand forest range health assessment methodologiesis available (Saskatchewan PCAP GreencoverCommittee, 2008).Photo Credit: Jim RomoMonitoring helps determine changes in the plant communityTame PasturesIn tame pastures where the native vegetation hasbeen removed, traditional rangeland assessmentcannot be used to rate condition. However, there aresigns that indicate deterioration of tame grass stands.The natural tendency in any plant community is tomove towards a higher successional stage. Natureattempts to replace tame forages with either weedyor native species adapted to the site.Reduced productivity, increased bare ground orthe formation of dense sod are the first visual signsof tame stand deterioration. Replacement andencroachment by increaser and invader species soonfollow. Crested wheatgrass may be replaced by anincreaser such as pasture sage or an invader likeRussian thistle.Using Range Ecosite and ConditionInformationRange ecosite and condition information areuseful when developing an inventory for rangemanagement purposes.The inventory of available resources is a simple, butoften overlooked aspect of the planning process.Whether on public or private land, this inventory isthe basis for developing and applying managementdecisions.Decisions to maintain, improve or, in rare cases,degrade the present range condition are based onoverall objectives. Areas to reseed, rest, burn, orfertilize are mapped out. Stocking rates, season ofuse, and kind and class of grazing animals are toolsused to achieve objectives based on the site andcondition inventory.Range trend information is also useful. While rangecondition reflects the plant composition of the rangeat any point in time, trend measures change inrange condition over time and is measured throughperiodic determination of range condition on thesame area. Range condition trend is referred to asimproving, declining or stable.Range condition trend provides a basis formanagement adjustment. If range condition is71

not moving in the desired direction, managementneeds to be altered. Continued evaluations ofrange condition trend are used to measure theeffectiveness of applied management.List physical improvements such as fences, handlingfacilities, dugouts, wells and equipment. Markfences, salting areas and water sites on a map oraerial photo.List all equipment including age, condition andreplacement value.List manpower availability and identifytraining needs.The following three tables provide importantinformation for completing an inventory of forageresources and animal demand. Reductions in carryingcapacity must be taken into account for slope anddistance to water (Tables 4 and 5) and forage demandmust allow for species, weight and age differencesusing Animal Unit Equivalencies (Table 6).Use of air photos facilitates the planning process greatlyThe InventoryTaking stock of the land base and determining itspotential as compared to actual production is thefirst step in developing an inventory on which tobase management decisions.An inventory of the forage resource baseshould include:1. A pasture map showing vegetationboundaries and soil types;2. Range condition and forage production ofnative units;3. Species, age, and production of native units;4. Topographic features;5. A record of past use including season of useand stocking rates;6. Potential problem areas (weedy andpoisonous plants);7. Areas requiring special treatment because ofwildlife or watershed concerns;8. Hay production;9. Crop aftermath.Tally livestock numbers, classes and foragerequirements to determine forage demand for eachyear. Compare them to actual amounts of forageproduced through the year, this should includecarry-over hay, to help determine where shortagesare. In many cases, livestock production is severelyrestricted by shortages during critical periods, whileapparent forage surpluses occur at other times.Table 4. Suggested reduction in cattle carrying capacityaccording to percentage slope% Slope % Reduction in Carrying Capacity0 – 10 No Reduction11 – 30 3031 – 60 60over 60 100(ungrazable)Table 5. Suggested reduction in carrying capacity according todistance from waterDistance from %Water (km)Reduction InCarrying Capacity0 - 1.5 None1.5 – 3 503 100(ungrazable)Table 6. Animal Unit Equivalences for species on a bodyweight basisForage DryAnimal Weight AUM Matter No. PerSpecies (lbs) Equiv. (daily lbs) AUMCow 1000 1.0 26.0 1.0Cow 1500 1.5 39.0 0.7Heifer 700 0.7 18.0 1.4Bull 1500 1.5 39.0 0.7Horse 1400 2.0 52.0 0.5Sheep 120 0.2 5.2 5.0Antelope 120 0.2 5.2 5.0Deer 160 0.25 6.5 4.0Bison 1500 1.5 39.0 0.70Elk 600 0.7 18.0 1.4Gopher 1 0.0006 0.16 177.0Jack rabbit 7 0.024 0.6 42.072

ReferencesAbouguendia, Z., and T. Dill. 1995. Planning Aids for Balancing Forage Supply and Demand. SaskatchewanStock Growers Association. Grazing and Pasture Technology Program. Regina, SK. 10p.Abouguendia, Z.M., J.P. Thorpe, and R.C. Godwin. 1990. An Assessment Procedure for SaskatchewanRangeland. Saskatchewan Research Council Publication No. E-2520-2-E-90. Saskatoon, SK.Adams, B.W., W.D. Willms, S. Smoliak, and R.A. Wroe. 1986. Range, Its Nature and Use. Alberta Forestry, Landsand Wildlife, Public Lands Division. Edmonton, AB.Daubenmire, R. 1968. Plant Communities: A Textbook of Plant Synecology. Harper and Row, Publishers. NewYork, NY. 300p.Lacey, J., and C. Marlow. Forage Planning Guide. Montana State University. Bozeman, MT.Public Lands, Alberta Sustainable Resource Development. Range Health Assessment Field Worksheet forGrasslands. Edmonton, AB.Saskatchewan PCAP Greencover Committee. 2008. Rangeland Health Assessment: Native Grassland and Forest.Prairie Conservation Action Plan. Regina, SK.Shiflet, T.N. 1973. Range Sites and Soils in the United States. In Hyder, D.N. (ed), Arid Shrublands.Proceedings of the 3rd Workshop of the US/Australia Rangelands Panel. Society for Range Management.Denver, CO. pp. 26-32.Society for Range Management. 1986. Range Research: Basic Problems and Techniques. C. Wayne Cook andJames Stubbendieck (eds.). Denver, CO. 317p.Thorpe, J. 2007. Saskatchewan Rangeland Ecosystems, Publication 1: Ecoregions and Ecosites. SaskatchewanPrairie Conservation Action Plan. Saskatchewan Research Council Pub. No. 11881-1E07. Saskatoon, SK.Wilm, H.G., D.F. Costello, and G.E. Klipple. 1944. Estimating forage yield by the double-sampling method.Journal of American Society of Agronomy 36:194-203.Workman, J.P. 1979. Range Economics. Department. Of Range Science, Utah State University. Logan UT.Wroe, R.A., S. Smoliak, B.W. Adams, W.D. Willms, and M.L. Anderson. 1988. Guide to Range Conditions andStocking Rates for Alberta Grasslands. Alberta Forestry, Lands and Wildlife. Edmonton, AB.73

Livestock BehaviourGrazing PatternsFree-ranging livestock exhibit behaviour that differs with each season, each individual, and type ofanimal. Understanding these differences is important to developing and implementing a managedgrazing plan.Most activities that occur on pastures influencegrazing animal behaviour. Fencing, water, mineralplacement, industrial activity such as oil and gas,topography, vegetation, animal density, and animalhandling all play a role in animal behaviour.Range improvements and grazing systems attemptto influence livestock behaviour. Fencing, salting,herding, and water development can lead to moreuniform livestock distribution. Systems can bedesigned to control timing, intensity, and frequencyof grazing on individual plants, avoid sensitive areas,and enhance wildlife habitat.mouths select larger bites of food. By comparison,species with smaller mouths such as sheep,antelope, and deer, are more selective in whatthey eat.Often, domestic livestock will not travel farfrom water or graze rugged terrain. This lack ofmovement can be remedied by selecting animalsthat will readily graze rugged areas while meetingproduction goals. Selection for these traits can occurwithin herds, between breeds, within age classes(cows vs. yearlings) and between species (cattlevs. sheep).Cattle reluctantly graze slopes exceeding 15 percentand they rarely feed at elevations greater than70 metres (230 feet) above water. They are alsolimited by horizontal distance from water, rarelygrazing more than 2.5 kilometres (1.5 miles) from it.Greater travel distances cause an increase in energyexpenditure.Photo Credit: J. BruynoogheLocation of watering sites influences livestock behaviour anddistribution patternsGrazing Animal Type and GrazingPatternsAll grazing animals are not created equal. Cattle,horses, sheep, goats, bison, elk, antelope, anddeer all exhibit different grazing patterns. Species,age, prior exposure to different foods, breedtype,and physiology may influence grazingbehaviour. Understanding grazing animalreaction to management is essential in evaluatingmanagement success.There are distinct differences in forage selectionamong the various herbivore species. Generallycattle, horses, and elk prefer grass. Sheep andantelope find forbs more palatable, whereas goatsand deer prefer shrubs. Animals which have largerTopography and distance to water affects grazing behaviourSheep utilize rugged terrain better than cattle butshow more reluctance to graze areas having naturalpredator cover, such as bush or topographic relief.They will walk from three to five kilometres (1.8 to3 miles) for water, but as with cattle, travel distancehas a significant influence on production.Livestock seek shade during hot summer periods,resulting in excessive usage of forest and riparianareas. Livestock usually overuse dry southernexposures early in spring and then use riparianand shaded areas during hotter periods of the year.North facing slopes are usually grazed less or mayeven remain entirely ungrazed on larger pastures.Photo Credit: D. Fontaine,Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture74

Younger animals travel more often and further thanolder animals and those with a calf, colt, or lambat side.Palatability and Forage SelectionLivestock select foods which have the mostpleasing texture and are familiar. Green material ispreferred over dry material, and leaves over stems.Palatability is affected by fibre content, bitternessor sweetness, water content, and plant abundance.Diet selection can be modified by the presenceof secondary compounds (phenols, volatile oils),plant morphology, (thorns, thick cuticles), and pastgrazing experience.Forage selection is a function of past experience andgrazing selectivity, and is an acquired ability whichoccurs at an early age. Dietary training is possible.Recently, cattle have been trained to eat leafyspurge, Canada thistle, and spotted knapweed.Diet composition changes seasonally as grasses,forbs, and shrubs change in palatability andnutritional status. Range management techniquescan be used to improve the palatability of forages.For example, burning usually increases short-termforage palatability. Controlled burning and rotationalgrazing may allow the manager to provide grazinganimals with more palatable forages during keyproduction stages such as lactation.Grazing DurationSeveral factors affect foraging time of grazinganimals. Cows that are pregnant or lactating requiremore energy than animals which are not. Theymust therefore spend more time grazing to meettheir nutritional needs. To meet their requirements,calves spend more time grazing as their dam’s milksupply declines.Preferred food location and volume also affect timespent grazing.Cattle use their tongues to gather forage beforebiting the plants. As forages get shorter, cattle mustwork harder to gather a mouthful. Horses can bitecloser to ground level.Forage height affects the grazing efficiencyCattle experience peak grazing efficiency whenforage is about 15 centimetres (6 inches) high,eating three percent of their body weight on a dryweight basis. An animal on poor range with shortand widely spaced forage plants must take morebites, travel farther, and graze longer to meet itsdaily requirements. In doing so, it uses more energyto acquire food. If forage is only five centimetreshigh, daily intake can be reduced by 75 percent. Acow takes between 30 and 90 bites per minute, andby moving her head from side to side in an arc, canbite continuously for up to 30 minutes.Cattle rarely graze for more than nine hours in a 24hour period. Depending on the fibre content of theforage, cattle ruminate from five to nine hours perday. Rumination evolution has been attributed topredator evasion. Animals could lie and ruminatewhen they felt safe from predators. Rumination isbelieved to create a sense of well-being in cattle.Photo Credit: Jim RomoPhoto Credit: D. Fontaine,Saskatchewan Ministry of AgricultureGrazing PeriodsLivestock exhibit distinct periods of grazing,ruminating, resting, standing, and watering.If one becomes familiar with these periods,livestock moves can often be planned to minimizedisturbance of their feeding cycle.Livestock also adjust their grazing periods accordingto day length and weather conditions. Most grazingoccurs around dawn and dusk.Forage selection differs with age and experience of animals75

Spells of extreme cold or heat may cause animals toalter their activities. They may seek shelter or shadeto maintain their body temperatures, with the leastpossible stress.Cattle may graze through the night during full moonperiods. At higher, cooler latitudes grazing maycontinue all day as daylight hours shorten. On theother hand, livestock in warmer climates may feedat night to avoid midday heat.Changes from normal grazing behaviour can alertthe producer that something is wrong.Livestock that crop grass very closely and grazeduring midday probably lack adequate forage interms of quantity or quality, or both.Livestock often change their behaviour when placedin large herds or onto new range. They tend todisperse and move through a new pasture rapidlyas they investigate all of the available food choices.They are also competing for forage with otheranimals in the herd which can lead to better overallutilization. Experience by AAFC-PFRA CommunityPasture staff indicates that it may take up to twoyears for livestock originating from open rangelandsto become habituated to forested range.Taking the TimeExamine the behaviour of grazing animals andconsider the effects that management changeswill have.Key Questions:Which species and type of animal will best fitrangeland management goals?What types of grazing experiences have theselivestock had in the past?What tools are available to influence animalbehaviour?Are there individuals that require culling because oftheir undesirable foraging behaviour, realizing thatthis behaviour will be passed on to their calves?What impact will the fencing, topography,water, salt, fire, herding, movement routines,shelter, season of use, forage availability, grazingintensity, or my own behavior have on grazinganimal behaviour?If livestock are disturbed by dogs, predators orunfamiliar people, normal activity patterns maybe disrupted.Photo Credit: D. Fontaine, Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture76

References and Suggested ReadingsBailey, D.W. 2005. Identification and creation of optimum habitat conditions for livestock. Rangeland Ecologyand Management 58: 109-118.Blaxter, K.L. 1977. Environmental factors and their influence on the nutrition of farm livestock.In: W. Hearesign, M.H. Swan, and D. Lewis, (e.d.), Nutrition and the Climatic Environment.Butterworth, London.Collier, R.J., and D.K. Beede. 1985. Thermal stress as a factor associated with nutrient requirements andinterrelationships. p. 59. In: McDowell, L.R., (e.d.), Nutrition of Grazing Ruminants in Warm Climates,Academy Press. New York, NY.Clapperton, J.L. 1961. The energy expenditure of sheep in walking on the level and on gradients. Proceedingsof the Nutrition Society 20:31-32.Graham, N.M. 1962. Energy costs of feeding activities and energy expenditure of grazing sheep. AustralianJournal of Agricultural Research 15: 969-973.Launchbaugh, K.L., J.C. Mosley, and K.D. Sanders. 1999. Grazing Behaviour of Wildlife and Livestock; PacificNorthwest short course. Idaho Forest, Wildlife and Range Exp. Stn Bltn 70. Moscow, ID.Launchbaugh, K.L., and L.D. Howery. 2005. Understanding landscape use patterns of livestock as aconsequence of foraging behaviour. Rangeland Ecology and Management. 58: 99-108.Moen, A.N. 1968. Wildlife Ecology, An Analytical Approach, W.H. Freeman and Co. San Francisco, CA. 458p.Osuji, P.O. 1974. The physiology of eating and the energy expenditure of the ruminant at pasture. Journal ofRange Management 27:437-443.Vavra, M. 2005. Livestock grazing and wildlife: developing compatibilities. Rangeland Ecology andManagement. 58: 128-134.Voisin, A. 1988. Grass productivity. Island Press Edition. Washington, D.C. 353p.Voth, K. 2007. Livestock for Landscapes. http://www.livestockforlandscapes.comVoth, K. 2007. Principles for Using Livestock Behaviour on Your Operation (DVD). Department of Forestry,Range and Wildlife, Utah State University. Logan, UT.Webster, A.J.F. 1974. Heat loss from cattle with particular emphasis on the effects of cold. p. 205. In: Monteith,J.L. and L.E. Mounts (eds.), Heat Loss from Animals and Man. Butterworth, London.Webster, A.J.F. 1976. Principles of Cattle Production. p. 103. In: Swan, H. and W.H. Broster, (eds.).Butterworth, London.77

Watering Livestock on PastureLivestock watering methods on pasture change and evolve. The benefits of a reliable, good qualitywater source are being increasingly realized. Remote watering reduces stress on pastured animals,reduces physical damage to sensitive areas and increases the life span of the water source. A goodstock water source can also benefit wildlife habitat and production. Agriculture is an industry, and assuch is expected to be environmentally proactive.Adapted from: The MerckVeterinary Manual, 1998.Water Requirements for Livestockon PastureDaily water consumption will depend on manyphysiological and environmental factors. Some ofthese are:• Size and type of animal;• Amount and type of feed consumed. Drydiets induce more water consumption thanmoist diets such as silage or lush pasture.Generally, animals require 2-3 litres (0.4-0.7gallons) of water per kilogram (2.2 pounds)of dry feed consumed;• Physiological state (i.e. pregnant, lactating,growing). For every kilogram (2.2 pounds) ofmilk produced, 0.87 kilogram (1.9 pounds) ofwater is required. During the last four monthsof pregnancy water use increases 30-50percent above maintenance;• Activity level (more active animals requiremore water);• Climatic conditions (approximately 1 litre/day (0.2 gallons/day) for each degreeabove 0 o C);• Water quality and temperature (palatability,salt, and warm water will affectconsumption);• Trough space (total water trough spaceshould allow at least ten percent of the herdto drink at one time).The range of daily water requirements for commonlivestock species are given in Table 7.Table 7. Ranges of daily water requirements for livestockImperial Gallons/Species Litres/Head/Day Head/DayBeef Cattle 25-75 6-17Dairy Cattle 35-150 8-33Horses 30-45 7-10Sheep & Goats 5-12 1-3Many factors affect water consumption, including,temperature, body weight, stage of production,activity, and wool/hair covering. The following tableoutlines water requirements for cattle as influencedby temperature.Table 8: Water requirements for cattle as influencedby temperatureAir temperatureWater Requirements(L water/kg dry matterfeed intake)> 35°C 8 - 1525-35°C 4-1015-25°C 3-5-5-15°C 2-4

Table 9: Water constituents affecting beef cattle performanceReducedConstituent Performance UnsuitableSulphates (ppm) 500 - 3300 >3300Total dissolvedsolids/salinity (ppm) 3000 - 7000 >7000Nitrates (ppm) 450 - 1300 >1300Iron (ppm) 4 - 12 >12Bacteria, Virusesand Parasites Varies VariesBlue-Green Algae(Cyanobacteria) Unknown UnknownSulphates affect trace mineral metabolism resulting incopper, zinc, iron, and manganese deficiency. Highsulphate levels are usually related to high salinitygroundwater, however, during droughts, highsulphate levels may also occur in dugouts.Total dissolved solids (TDS), or salinity refers to themineral content of the water. If it is great enough,cattle will refuse to drink the water. The type ofminerals in the water determines the level of effecton the cattle.Nitrates affect the oxygen carrying capacity of theblood. They are found in groundwater contaminatedby manure or fertilizer, however, rarely found atsignificant levels in dugouts. Feed can contain highlevels of nitrates and the contribution from both feedand water must be considered.Water with high iron levels reduces waterconsumption by cattle. Only groundwater has ironlevels high enough to affect water consumption.Iron in the water also precipitates in pipelines andcan cause blockages.Pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, and parasitescan cause a variety of different symptoms andproduction loss. Introduction of uncommonpathogens is usually more of a concern than theactual number of pathogens. Preventing inflow ofmanure and restricting entry of cattle into waterbodies is the easiest way to minimize pathogens inthe water.Blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) blooms are commonin nutrient-rich dugouts. Toxins produced by theMicrocystis species causes liver damage in cattle.Prevention measures include limiting the inflow ofnutrients and using a remote watering system.Several studies have shown that improving drinkingwater quality may improve animal productivity upto 30 percent. Aeration and restricting cattle accessto the water source will provide up to 20 percentincrease in cattle weight gain.Pasture Watering TechniquesTraditional methods of supplying water to livestockon pasture enable livestock free access to whateverwater supply is available. With increased livestocknumbers, a growing concern about environmentaldamage and new knowledge about animal healthand water quality, producers have developed manyways to supply water to livestock, while protectingthe water source. “Remote” watering strategieshave been developed to reduce direct livestockcontact with the water supply, implement beneficialmanagement practices for the environment, andpromote livestock herd health. Livestock access to asurface water body can be reduced 75 to 90 percent,by providing properly located alternative watersources. Legislative restrictions regarding directaccess to water supplies apply in many cases andbeing aware of the requirements ahead of time maysave money and time.Cattle Watering PointsProducers can provide healthy, economical, andefficient water supplies for their herd in manyways. These methods may also provide benefitsto riparian areas around the water supply and tothe environment in general. While exclusion ofthe animal from the water supply is key to thismanagement practice, there are some cases whereit may not be practical, and this possibility may bedealt with through the use of access ramps.Access RampsWhile access ramps allow some direct contact withthe water supply, good management and restrictingaccess to the rest of the water supply may be aviable option for producers who are not able toregularly monitor a “mechanical” system. Theconstruction of ramps is fairly straight forward. Themain criteria are to provide firm footing, either byusing solid materials at the site or by installationof Geotextile webbing for stability, and keepingthe slope of the ramp at about 6:1 or less, to alloweasy access and departure from the watering point.By using fencing to restrict access around the restAccess ramps may provide some environmental benefitsPhoto Credit: AAFC-PFRA79

Photo Credit: AAFC-PFRAof the water supply, some environmental benefitis provided. Maintenance of the ramp and barrierfencing, combined with regular manure removal willimprove the function of this system.Livestock Powered Systems“Nose pumps” are operated by the actions of theanimal. Animals use their nose to operate a leverwhich provides about a quart (1.1 litres) of water foreach push of the lever. The water is delivered to abowl under the lever and the animal will continueto push the lever until its requirements are met.Power is not required, the cost is relatively low, andthe unit can be moved easily from place to place(although they must be securely anchored whenin use). However, only one animal can water at atime, requiring a pump every 20-25 animal units. Itis important to note that lift from the source can notexceed six metres (20 feet).Young calves are not able to use the pump andsome cattle are unable to learn how to operate thesystem. Livestock species that do not use their headsto push, such as sheep, cannot use the pump at all.It is also important to ensure that during hot weatheror periods of increased water demand, all livestockare able to access adequate water supply whenusing a nose pump system.Nose pumps are operated by the actions of the animalSolar and Wind Powered SystemsA solar or wind powered system can be used insteadof electric or gas pumps to move the water from thesource to trough. It is important to select a systemthat is suited to the application and is sized to meetthe requirements of the herd. Reservoir storage isrecommended, with the system being designed topump to a larger reservoir, then gravity fed to thetrough system and equipped with a shut-off device.By utilizing a reservoir, some extra water capacity isguaranteed in the event of equipment failure or highwater demands during heavy watering periods.Solar PumpsA solar system can be used anywhere that a watersupply system is required. Several factors shouldbe considered when choosing a system. The mainconcern is that the system be sized to suit therequirements of the herd. Use of secondary storage,such as a reservoir, is also highly recommended. Asolar panel converts sunlight to DC power, whichdrives a DC pump for water supply, as well as tocharge batteries which provide power storage fortimes of peak demand, panel malfunctions or lowsunlight conditions.Solar systems provide another option when pumpingwater at a remote locationMajor improvements have been made in thistechnology and these systems are now consideredvery reliable and can be sized to meet therequirements of virtually any herd. Initial capitalcosts rise as the size of the herd increases or asthe lift required to move water from the source toa trough becomes greater. Regular maintenance isrecommended as with any other mechanical watersupply system.Wind Powered PumpsThese systems have been used for centuries to pumpwater from wells and dugouts. While some of theolder systems may no longer be as efficient, recentdevelopments have improved the technology. Thereare now pumps that use compressed air generatedby a diaphragm on an elevated windmill to pumpwater from a floating pump to smaller herds.These units are able to supply about 540 litres (120gallons) an hour with a wind speed of 16 kilometresper hour (10 miles per hour). Bigger windmills arealso available and these can supply water to largerherds. Several important factors must be consideredwhen choosing wind powered systems, the mostcritical being the water requirements of the herdand the need for additional storage in the form ofa reservoir. The windmill must be placed far fromand higher than trees or buildings if possible. Theefficiency of the system decreases with the lift, soplacement of the system is important. As most of thesmaller windmills are not fitted with a shutoff andPhoto Credit: AAFC-PFRA80

will pump continuously when the wind is blowing,troughs should be fitted with some type of a returnpipe that will allow excess water to go back into thesource once the trough is full.Photo Credit: AAFC-PFRAVarious forms of wind powered systems are availablefor use in remote locationsPasture PipelinesShallow buried, or “pasture” pipelines, havebecome a popular method of supplying water tolivestock. The benefits of these systems are many,as the source supply is usually the home yard orsomewhere that the supply is reliable, sufficient andof good quality. The pipelines can literally be runanywhere, and many are over three kilometres (twomiles) in length. Points of delivery can be chosenwith the best grazing plan in mind. These pipelinesare generally 26 millimetres (1 inch) or larger,usually High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) andburied 0.3 to 0.5 metres (12 to 18 inches) deep. Atthe delivery point, troughs or watering bowls can beShallow buried pipelines can be used to supply reliable,sufficient and good quality waterused and there are many storage designs to choosefrom. The cost benefits of this type of system are amajor selling point, as it is nearly always cheaperto install a pipeline from a known source than it isto develop a new source when the cost of powerinstallation and a second supply system is factoredin. Some care must be taken with this system, as theperiod of use is from late spring to late fall and theyare not designed for winter use. Evacuation of thewater in the troughs, including fittings and parts thatmay be damaged by frost, is required each fall. TheHDPE line is resistant to frost damage, however manyproducers evacuate the water in the lines with a largecompressor because this will allow earlier use thenext spring. Caution must be taken to bury the linesat a depth that will ensure that what ice has formedmelts as early as possible, but deep enough toprevent damage by vehicle or equipment crossings.Photo Credit: AAFC-PFRAReferences and Suggested ReadingsBraul, L., and B. Kirychuk. 2001. Water Quality and Cattle. Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada. Ottawa, ON.Ducks Unlimited Canada. 2007. Livestock Watering Systems in Saskatchewan: Producer Experiences.Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada’s Greencover Canada Program. Regina, SK. 46p.Looper, M.L., and D.N. Waldner. 2002. Water for Dairy Cattle. New Mexico State University, CooperativeExtension Service. Las Crusces, NM.Merck & Co., Inc. 1998. The Merck Veterinary Manual. Eighth Edition. Duluth, GA. ISBN Number0-911910-50-6National Research Council, Subcommittee on Environmental Stress. 1981. Effect of Environment on NutrientRequirements of Domestic Animals. National Academies Press. 168p.Prairie Agricultural Machinery Institute. 1997. The Stockman’s Guide to Range Livestock Watering from SurfaceWater Sources. Canada-Manitoba Agreement on Agricultural Sustainability (CMAAS), Saskatchewan Ministryof Agriculture. Humboldt, SK. 36p.81

FencingApplicationsFencing is an important range management tool, facilitating the regulation of grazing use,rest, stocking rates, stocking density, and animal husbandry. Fences control livestock movementand distribution.Boundary fences prevent livestock from trespassingon neighbouring properties. Drift fences keeplivestock from moving off or onto a range, orconfine herds to specific elevations. Crossfencesare used to subdivide rangelands into smallermanagement units, and can provide enclosures orexclosures for special uses.The ideal fence combines low capital cost, easeof construction, and a long lifespan. It also mustbe livestock proof. Although fences simplifylivestock containment, they can also lead to lesseffective management of grazing resources. Fences,along with water development, can allow theestablishment of permanent confines.Unless proper range management principles areapplied, grazing resources may deteriorate.Primary fence lines should follow land contoursand boundaries of ecosites to separate uniquemanagement units. Fence hillsides separately fromvalley bottoms, and bush apart from grasslands.Fence native grasslands separately from tamepastures, and different tame species apart from eachother. Paddocks need not be square and fencesneed not be permanent. Temporary fencing canbe used to subdivide fields on a short-term basis.Animals can be temporarily confined to achievebrush control. Confining livestock at night is alsopossible with temporary barriers. Part of a pasturemay be reserved for hay production using temporaryfencing.It is also extremely important to consider animalmovement within the fenced area. Consideringtopography and animal behaviour when choosinga location for fences increases their effectiveness.These considerations may allow easier animalmovement and reduce possible fence damage.There is no universally ideal fencing design.82Photo Credit: R. MacdonaldFencing plays a vital role in the range planning processUsing Fences EffectivelyA properly located fence is a powerful tool whenused in a well-planned grazing system.Livestock will graze selectively if areas of differingslope, soil and forage type are fenced together.Selective grazing may lead to over-utilization andunder-utilization in the same pasture. This can beremedied by creating pastures that are as uniform invegetation type and ecosite as possible.Some areas are best fenced out of the grazingsystem altogether. For example, weigh the potentialfor erosion on fragile soils against any economicgains or the use of areas which make livestockhandling difficult.Available resources and management goalsdetermine pasture size and shape. Different sizedpastures accommodate a variation in grazing period.Fencelines do not need to be straight provided thatchanges in direction are properly braced accordingto the force placed on the materials. Although astraight fence is shorter, it is more efficient in thelong-term to follow the contours of landforms andvegetation types.Existing FencesAlthough many existing fences can be used ina grazing plan, always consider best use of theland resources first. Do not let existing fencinglimit planning.The repair of existing fences is an importantconsideration. If major repairs or replacementare necessary, evaluate the current location andconstruction. A change in placement and technologymay lead to improved management.

Conventional Wire FencesBuilt for durability, the lifespan of a well-constructedbarbed wire fence is 25 to 40 years. Choice ofmaterials and design are important considerationsfor fenceline longevity.PostsWood posts are used extensively due to availability,ease of handling and low cost.Steel posts can be easier to work with, but aremore costly than wooden posts. Concrete postscan be formed on the ranch or farm, but must beadequately reinforced with steel. They are heavyand difficult to handle.To minimize maintenance costs, treat wooden posts.Untreated wood in contact with the soil decays inthree to twelve years. Pressure-treated wooden postsare usually better than those treated with a nonpressureprocess as the preservative is forced intothe wood to a greater depth. Pressure treating canadd up to 25 percent to the fence cost but it extendspost life by 20 years.Barb Wire FencesBarbed wire is available in two types - doublestrand and single strand. Single strand is lighter andstronger, has more barbs per metre and is less costly.Double strand must be stretched, while single strandneeds only to be pulled taut. However, repairingsingle strand barb-wire can be more difficult.StaplesThe recommended staple is galvanized, 1 3/4 inchesx 9 gauge with slash-cut points.Wire StaysStays are used to keep wires properly spaced whenposts are located at a distance greater than 5 to 7metres (16 to 22 feet). Two types are available. Onepiecestays consist of a wire formed into a doublespiral one metre (40 inches) long. It is installed bytwisting the stay on to the barbed wires starting atthe top wire continuing down over the remainingwires, maintaining the spacing between the wires.Two-piece stays have a single spiral and a straightwire one metre (40 inches) long. They are installedby placing the spiral wire on one side of the barbedwire and inserting the straight wire through thespiral wire, locking the barbed wire into place.ConstructionBrace and corner assemblies are the foundation ofa conventional fence. Braces determine structuralsoundness and longevity. Corners are braceslocated where fence direction changes. If any braceor post fails, there is a loss of wire tension andfence effectiveness.The horizontal brace is widely accepted as thestandard fence brace. It is structurally sound andappropriate for most fences (Figure 33).Photo Credit: R. MacdonaldBarbed wire remains the most common type of range fenceAppropriate sizes of pressure treated postsFigure 33: Horizontal gate or fence end strainerPost Use Length Top Diameter Approximate Burial Depth(ft) (m) (in) (cm) (ft) (m)Corner, end, and draw posts 8 2.4 5-6 13-15 4 1.2Corner, end, and draw braces 7 2.1 4-5 10-13 3 0.9Line posts 7 2.1 3-4 8-10 3 0.96 1.8 3-4 8-10 2 0.66 1.8 2-3 5-8 2 0.683

The diagonal brace is structurally equal to thehorizontal brace, and is eight percent more resistantto overturn and 25 percent less expensive to buy andinstall (Figure 34). Be sure the end of the diagonalbrace which contacts the ground is free to moveforward, and that it is not blocked by a stake or post.The diagonal brace should be as long as possible.Figure 34: Diagonal gate or fence end strainerHorizontal and diagonal braces can be used togetherto hold in soft soils. (Figure 35).Figure 35: Use of strainers for holding in soft soil. Top: twodiagonal strainers. Above: one horizontal and onediagonal strainerLine posts are used to suspend the fence wire.Posts can be 6 to 10 centimetres (2.5 to 4 inches)in diameter and 1.8 to 2.1 metres (6 to 7 feet) long.They are usually set 0.6 to 0.8 metres (2 to 2.5 feet)into the ground at spacing of 5 to 7 metres (16 to22 feet). Shorter posts are used for low fences anddeeper-set posts for soft ground.Reduce post spacing where terrain is uneven or aparticularly strong fence is needed. Increase postspacing on flat terrain or where livestock crowdingis not a factor.The intended use of the fence determines wirespacings (Figure 36). To install barbed wire, unroll,stretch and fasten one line at a time starting with thetop strand.To counteract the forces acting on wires, drivestaples at an upward angle into posts on rises. Donot use the staple to pull the wire to the post. Holdthe wire against the post when stapling.Unroll the wire on the livestock side of the posts.Tension wires up to 45 kilograms (100 pounds)before stapling line posts.Never drive staples all the way ‘home’ on lineposts. Leave a space of approximately 3 millimetres(1/8 inches) between the post and wire to allowmovement of the wire through the staples.Otherwise, fence impacts are absorbed between thetwo line posts rather than being distributed evenlybetween brace assemblies.If a barb is located within 2.5 centimetres (1 inch) ofthe staple, clip off the barb.To prevent pull-out, use the recommended staplesand drive them properly. Straddling the wood grainof the post prevents splitting which reduces thestaple’s holding capacity (Figure 37 and 38).Figure 36: Wire spacing and line post sizes84

Semi-Suspension FenceThis construction is an adaptation of the suspensionfence. It is used where terrain is gently rolling.The semi-suspension fence does not have the liveaction of a true suspension barricade. It has postsspaced 6 to 14 metres (20 to 45 feet) apart.Figure 37: Staple fastening methodsElectric FencingElectric or “Power” fencing as it is commonlyreferred to, took years to catch on in westernCanada. However, in recent years has progressed toone of the cattleman’s greatest management tools.Developed and perfected in New Zealand, powerfencingproducts are now used and producedworld-wide. This management tool can reduceyardage and wintering costs and make such use ofpreviously ungrazed areas.Figure 38: Correct staple driving methodSlash-cut points act as wedges to force the staplelegs to curve away from the flat surfaces of the pointas the staples are driven into the wood. To achieveoutward curvature, rotate the staple slightly (15 to 30degrees off vertical) away from the flat surface of thepoint on the upper leg.Suspension FencesSuspension fences were originally developed in Texasas interior or cross-fences. They are not suited to hillyor steeply rolling land.In contrast to conventional fences which use thebarricade principle to stop livestock, the suspensionfence functions as a series of panels with resilienceand a whip-like action. When pressure is exerted onthe top wire, the bottom wire moves in the oppositedirection. A cow attempting to reach over the topwire is struck on the leg by the bottom wire. Thistype of fence tends to sway in the wind, discouraginglivestock from attempting to break through.Fewer posts are used compared to conventionalconstruction, lowering costs. The quality and settingof corner and brace posts is particularly importantwith the suspension fence.Vertical wire spacing is similar to standard barbedwire fences. The fence loses its effectiveness if thebottom wire or the ends of the wire stays drag onthe ground or brush. Wires are fastened to lineposts with staples or metal clips. Heavy line postsare spaced from 15 to 50 metres (50 to 160 feet)apart depending upon land contour. Wire stays atintervals of 3 to 6 metres (10 to 20 feet) are used tomaintain wire spacing. Wires should not have morethan 7.5 centimetres (3 inches) sag per 30 metres(100 feet) span.TheoryElectric fencePower fencing is used as a “mental barrier” to keeplivestock inside a specific area, and often to keeppredators out. Animal perception that the fence willhurt enables control of stock distribution.The “shock” that an animal feels from the fence is asharp pinching sensation, lasting approximately 1/3of a second. Animals quickly associate these feelingswith the fence, and will learn to avoid pushing-onor touching fences in the future. That being said, ifthe initial “shock” is not strong enough, or not feltoften enough, animals will continue to push theboundaries of their confinement. Fencers should notbe turned off for long periods and no section of thefence should be without power.Physical barriers definitely have their place. Steelpanels, wooden rails, and barbed wire are stillneeded in the management of livestock. They tooare designed to confine or separate animals andare perfect materials for working pens and corrals.Photo Credit: Jason Williams85

86The major downfalls with using these products forperimeter and cross fencing are the higher costs andthe time and work involved in construction.ComponentsThe three major components to any successfulpower fence system are – grounding, energizer, andthe physical structure.GroundingThe grounding portion of any fencing system is themost important. Western Canada is a very difficultarea to achieve a ground for any energizer, so caremust be taken to build this portion properly.An energizer needs to be well grounded so that themaximum voltage available can be put onto thefence. Electricity will always take the path of leastresistance. If there is insufficient grounding, thepulse goes to the ground rods not down the fence.Adding more ground rods makes it easier to pushpower to the fence where it flows until an animalmakes contact.When an animal touches the wire, the pulsetraveling down the wire goes through the animalinto the soil. From the soil under the animal, thepulse then runs through the earth back to theground rods. This completes the electrical circuitand causes the animal to back off the fence.Ground rods should be positioned at least 18 metres(60 feet) from other ground fields, well casings,hydrants etc. If too close, electrical interference mayoccur or stray voltage may affect animals in barns orat watering bowls.One ground rod should be used for every 3 joulesof stored power in the energizer with a minimum ofthree rods recommended to achieve proper ground.One continuous piece of insulated undergroundcable should run from the negative terminal onthe fencer to all ground rods. Galvanized groundrods can be round or T-shaped and from six to tenfeet long and ten feet apart in a location that willnot harm the animals. Rebar is a poor product fora ground rod as it is made of mixed metals. Rebarrusts very quickly, reducing electrical conductivity.EnergizersThe heart of a fence system is the energizer – this isthe source for the shock or pulse that is producedand pushed onto the fence. This is also where thesignals are sent to from a remote control to turnon and off the unit for servicing or repairing thefence. Some energizers may not have a remotecontrol capability.Energizers are available in both 110V plug-in(mains) and 12V (battery) styles. Mains are lessexpensive and always more reliable because of theconstant power source. The largest 110V energizerswill use an amount of power similar to a 5W lightbulb. Battery energizers allow for electrified fencesin remote areas where 110V power is not an optionor in small paddocks.A minimum of 3000 volts on the fence should beacceptable for cattle, with sheep requiring around5000 volts. Five thousand volts are required forproper predator control.All high quality energizers are rated in joules ofavailable power as a measure of the strength behindthe pulse. Energizers are tested in volts or KV, butit is the joule that makes the voltage emerge furtherdown the fence. Some of the smallest energizershave a high voltage reading near the source but theyquickly lose power on long fences or those that aregrown over with plant material. Higher joules ensurethat the shock will be felt at the end of fences.A joule is the amount of energy required to produce1 watt for 1 second. (Watts x Seconds = Joules)A watt is a flow of 1 amp at a pressure of 1 volt.(Amps x Volts = Watts)Avoid costly down time by making sure a localdealer can repair a chosen energizer. Also, comparewarranties for coverage of lightning damage andproduct malfunctions.Fence StructureFence structure includes the posts, wire, insulators,and all other accessories.Because animals are not pushing on or through anelectrified fence, it is possible to space perimeterline posts further apart than with a traditional barbedwire fence. Distances of 11-15 metres (35-50 feet)are becoming more common, allowing the hightensile wire to flex if wildlife run through it or thewire needs to be lifted, while also providing costsavings over barbed wire fences. If the topographyallows – expand the distance between posts.Fewer posts and the lighter weight of 12.5 gaugehigh tensile wire, make it very easy to constructcross-fence. Cross-fencing can be done with onestrand of wire and with posts spaced 18-24 metres(60-80 feet) apart for convenience. To allowmaximum movement without breaking, allow 15to 20 centimetres (six to eight inches) of wire sagbetween posts.Eight foot (2.5 metres) posts are recommended forcorners and braces should be adequate to bear theload of the fence. Brace posts should be twice as

wide as the height of posts out of the ground (i.e.,posts that are four feet deep need a brace post 2.5metres (eight feet) out from the corner).Twelve and a half (12.5) gauge wire isrecommended for permanent perimeter fencingand permanent cross fencing. High tensile wire isextremely strong yet flexible enough not to break ifanything pushes through it. The larger the diameterof the wire, the easier it is to push power along.Sixteen gauge wire is less costly but does not standup over time, is hard to see, and is less conductivethan 12.5 gauge.Designed to prevent a voltage leak through postsand to hold wire off the ground, insulators areneeded to ensure enough power stays on the fence.Proper corner insulators are made from glass filledpolyester to ensure the pulse will not trickle throughto corner posts. This material is also extremelystrong and will not crack or break under the strainfrom high tensile wire.Wire can be joined together by tying the ends in afigure eight knot, a simple square knot or by theuse of crimping sleeves. Crimping sleeves work wellas long as adequate numbers are used to ensurethat they do not become loose under strain (Figure39). Proper wire knots ensure adequate contactpoints, without putting a kink in the wire (Figure40). Twisting wires together as you would withbarbed wire causes kinks in 12.5 gauge high tensilewire and will likely break at that spot when tensionis applied.Photo Credit: KaneVeterinary SuppliesHigh strain insulatorFigure 39: Crimping sleevesPost insulators are available in an assortment ofstyles to accommodate a wide variety of posts. Manycompanies manufacture insulators from varioustypes and qualities of plastic. Products made fromvirgin polymers, containing high amounts of UVstabilizers are the best choice. These products lastthe longest and are not affected by weather, suchas extreme cold or bleaching by the sun. Insulatorsmust provide ample distance between the wireand posts. This will eliminate the chance of powerleaking through to the post and draining voltage.Photo Credit: KaneVeterinary SuppliesElectrified spring gates (available up to 24 feet long)and poly-tape gates allow for gate construction toany width, usually within a few minutes; and theseoptions are very cost efficient. If using a traditionalsteel or barbed wire gate, keep in mind to route thepower under the gateway via underground insulatedcable. This will ensure power is maintained onboth sides of the gateway even as vehicles or stockpass through.Wood post insulatorFigure 40: KnotsConstructionWhen constructing fence, aerial photos,topographical maps, or even a hand drawn layoutcan assist in the planning process. Answeringthe following questions will help ensure that asuccessful fencing project is completed:• What will the power source be?• Where are watering sites located?• How many gates are needed?• How will cross-fencing be integrated?87

• Is any adjoining land a future considerationfor fencing?• What type or class of animal will be managed?• Will the land be cultivated and farmed in thefuture?• Is there an adequate supply of components toelectrify what is currently being constructed?• Will the power supply need to cross a road orother barriers?• Is this new construction or integrating withexisting fence?Be sure to only string as much wire as what canbe easily hung and electrified that day; wildlife willplay havoc with wire that is not energized. It is alsorecommended to release tension from wires beforewinter to absorb shrinkage due to cold weather andreduce potential wildlife damage.MaintenancePower fences require regular attention to most ofthe components. Each portion should be monitoredbefore animal turn-out and regularly after that.A good digital voltmeter or a fault finder with builtin voltmeter is a necessity for any type of fencemaintenance. Initial voltage should be measuredat least 30 metres (100 feet) from the energizerand then at various points down the fence. Byutilizing cut-out switches sections of the fence canbe isolated, making it easier to find any troublespots. Common causes of power losses include poorgrounding, lush growth on low wires, branches ortree limbs, submersion under water or an underpoweredenergizer.SafetyPhoto Credit: KaneVeterinary SupplyKeep in mind that fencers are a powerful tool and ifnot handled properly can become dangerous.• Never connect power to barbed wire;• Install energizers inside a building;• Do not use household or shop ground rods;• Avoid running wires parallel to overheadpower;• Never hook two energizers to the same wire;• Affix warning signs to electrified fences.Seek out suppliers who can provide trainingsessions for working with power fencing productsand high tensile wire. Fence training days provideopportunities to discuss management techniquesand ideas.Photo Credit: Kane Veterinary Supplies88

References and Suggested ReadingsCanada Plan Service, Barbed Wire Field Fencing. Plan M-8366.Karsky, R. (project leader). 1988. Fences. USDA Forest Service Technology and Development Program.Missoula Technology and Development Center. Missoula, MT. 210p.McKenzie, D.W., and W.F. Currier. 1984. Low-cost Diagonal Fence Strainer. American Society of AgriculturalEngineer. St. Joseph, MI. Paper 84-1624.Porter, G. 1983. High-Tensile Smooth Wire Fencing. British Columbia Ministry of Agriculture andFood. Victoria, BC.Porter, G. 1983. Electric Fencing Manual. British Columbia, Ministry of Agriculture and Food. 83-2.Victoria, BC.Quinton, D.A. 1983. High-Tension High Tensile Fencing. Agriculture Canada. Kamloops, BC. Publication1983-22E.Skinner, J., R. Rae, and R. Kapty. 1980. Farm Pasture Fencing. Canada Department of Agriculture. Ottawa, ON.Publication 1568.Vallentine, J.F. 1971. Range Development and Improvements. Brigham Young University Press. Provo,UT. 516p.van Dalfsen, K.B., L. Brown, and J.W. Aahradnik. 1982. Improved Rangeland Fencing Methods. Province ofBritish Columbia Engineering Notes. Victoria, BC. Agdex 724.Wasylik, L. 1985. Electric Fencing Manual for Alberta. Engineering Branch, Alberta Agriculture. Edmonton, AB.Agdex 724-4.89

Options for Managing UndesirablePlant SpeciesA growing problem on Saskatchewan rangeland is the invasion and spread of undesirable plants.These plants contribute to unhealthy ranges and animals, and can interfere with planned land use.Undesirable plants can be native or introducedgrasses, trees, shrubs, or forbs. Some are poisonous.All compete with desirable species for water,nutrients and sunlight, potentially decreasingproduction of desired forage plants.A weed can be defined as any plant growing outof place. Many plants considered undesirable arepart of the natural ecosystem, but their presenceor abundance can be changed by inappropriatemanagement. They are not weeds, but should beconsidered indicators of overuse.“True” range weeds are not a natural part of theecosystem and they invade rangelands. Many ofthese species are designated noxious and theircontrol is legislated by the Noxious Weeds Act.Determine the names and characteristics ofundesirable plants and watch for new species. It isless costly and easier to manage small infestationsearly than treating large ones later.Evaluate the nature and background of theundesirable plant problem before undertaking anycontrol measures. Is the presence of this plant asymptom of inappropriate land management? Thecontrol method and results will be affected by thebiology of the plant and past land use.Collect samples of unknown plants and have themidentified. The Saskatchewan Ministry of AgricultureCrop Protection Lab, Agriculture and Agri-FoodCanada Centres and universities can provideassistance with plant identification.Native Undesirable SpeciesWith the advent of ranching and other agriculture,livestock foraging habits combined with firesuppression, and their interactions, are believed tofavour increases in woody plants.Western snowberry and trembling aspen are twoof the most widely distributed woody plants onSaskatchewan rangelends. Western snowberry canbe an increaser on many productive range sites, yetit can be a decreaser on other ecosites. Tremblingaspen is the climax species of the Aspen Parkland,and eventually forms forests in the absence of fireand/or grazing.Trembling aspenWestern snowberryAt limited levels neither plant poses a seriousproblem because each provides food and cover forwildlife and aids many ecosystem processes suchas snow trapping and nutrient cycling. However,control may be necessary when pastures andrangeland become dominated by these species.Aspen expands at a slow, but ever increasingpace. Existing clones expand their area based onclimate and insect populations. Clones expandPhoto Credit: D. Fontaine,Saskatchewan Ministry of AgriculturePhoto Credit: Jim Romo90

y sending out new shoots or suckers. Droughtand heavy insect infestations kill aspen whilefavourable growing conditions facilitate rapidexpansion. Management practices that increasecompetition for the suckers or increase browsingwill limit expansion.Activities that remove or damage the existing topgrowth will cause a flush of suckers. It is commonto see several new suckers establish at the baseof a killed aspen. In the year following treatmentof an aspen stand there will be a much greaterdensity of stems than before treatment. Thissuckering necessitates follow up management afterany treatments.Aspen trees grow in separate groups of geneticallyidentical clones connected through a root system.They regenerate by seed and by shoots or rootsuckers. Seedlings need very precise growingconditions and little competition to survive, andthus they do not account for a significant amountof aspen expansion. Suckers are supported byestablished trees and have good survival if notstressed significantly in early years.Apical dominance can inhibit suckering when theplant hormone auxin is translocated to the rootsfrom growing shoots and leaves. Disturbances thatdamage, cut or kill stems will reduce the flow ofauxin into the roots and allow aspen regeneration.The optimal time to manage aspen is when suckersare one to two years old. Keeping brush short isthe key to controlling woody plants because manymethods can be applied.There are different strategies when it comes tobrush management. Complete removal of treesreduces wildlife habitat, aesthetics, biodiversityand greenhouse gas sequestration. But the lossof grazing capacity as trees expand onto opengrassland must be considered. An approach tomanage for all of these objectives is to keep treecover comparable to that which existed beforesettlement.Many techniques are available for managingaspen, including:• intensive livestock grazing;• fire;• mechanical (ie. scraping, mowers, or rollerchoppers/drum rollers);• herbicides.To be successful, these options must be usedin combination because no single treatment issuccessful in the long term. Choices should bemade based on a combination of cost, equipmentavailability, skills, safety, impact on brush, andimpacts on non-target species.Pasture sage, a native half-shrub grows throughoutSaskatchewan grasslands and the Parkland. Thisplant is the most abundant broadleaf plant in theNorthern Mixed Grass Prairie. It is present at lowlevels in rangeland in excellent condition. It is aproblem when it begins to dominate a range. Thereason for it’s abundance should be evaluatedbefore control occurs.Pasture sageImproper grazing management and drought promotethe increase of pasture sage. An unpalatable plantfor cattle, it has a competitive growth advantageover grazed species. Pasture sage is reduced withsheep grazing.Foxtail barley, a native grass, will quickly move into occupy gaps in a plant community. Because itis salt tolerant, it increases on saline soils duringwet years. Poor drainage, above normal moisture,cool temperatures, and poor grazing managementcontributes to it increase.The forage quality of foxtail barley approaches 20percent crude protein before it produces seed heads.Thus, it can provide valuable grazing if livestockgrazing can be concentrated onto the affected area.Palatability of foxtail barley declines once its stiffawns are produced. Adjacent forbs and grasses arethen consumed, giving a competitive advantage tofoxtail barley.Eventually measures may be required to reduceamounts of pasture sage and foxtail barley.Addressing the original problem of improper grazingmanagement must accompany any control measures.Photo Credit: D. Fontaine,Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture91

Photo Credit: D. Fontaine,Saskatchewan Ministry of AgricultureIntroduced Undesirable SpeciesNon-native, alien, or exotic plants are plantsintroduced into Saskatchewan from foreigncountries. Some non-native plants are consideredInvasive Alien Species (IAS) when they are welladaptedto our conditions and spread throughoutthe province. Canada thistle, Russian knapweed,leafy spurge, absinthe, baby’s breath and toadflaxare persistent perennials that were introduced toSaskatchewan. Annual or biennial invasive alienspecies include downy brome, burdock and bullthistle. Other plants in neighbouring provinces andstates that may also invade Saskatchewan includespotted knapweed, yellow star-thistle, commoncrupina and hound’s-tongue.Leafy spurge on rangeIn native rangeland, certain tame forages such ascrested wheatgrass, smooth bromegrass, and sweetclover were also introduced from foreign countries,and may be considered invasive alien species bythose trying to preserve the natural landscape andnative plant diversity.All plant species in a natural ecosystem arecontinually impacted by animals, insects or diseasesthat have evolved to utilize them as a food source.These impacts keep an ecosystem in a balancedstate. Many invasive alien species have a competitiveadvantage over desirable native plants becausethey have been introduced in an ecosystem inwhich there are no natural predators to reduce theirrelative vigour. This lack of natural predators canallow these plants to dominate permanent pastureand rangeland, thereby excluding desirable grassesand forbs. Although large tracts of land can beinfested with these weeds, they are usually foundin localized areas. They will continue to spread ifnot controlled.Early detection and control are necessary to avoidthe establishment of unwanted weeds. Onceunwanted plants become established, measures mustbe taken to prevent their spread. It is important todefine a boundary, outside of which new plantswill be eradicated, while taking integrated controlmeasures within the boundary. Keep a record ofwhen and what measures were taken in response toinvasive plants. Visit the site every year to evaluatethe treatment and retreat any areas when necessary.Control Measure DefinitionsEradication is the complete kill or removal ofundesirable plants, including the elimination ofsexual and vegetative reproductive structures. It isdifficult and nearly impossible to eradicate plantson a large scale. Small-scale infestations may beeradicated at early stages, provided that the sites arevisited yearly, and any additional growth is treatedas it appears.Control is manipulation and management designedto achieve a reduction in the number and theoverall impact of undesirable plants. The degree ofreduction can vary from slight to nearly complete,and involves keeping undesirable plant numbers at alevel that minimizes loss of desirable forage. Controlis the most common treatment and is often the onlypractical management for widespread and wellestablishednative and introduced undesirable plants.Prevention refers to preventing an initial infestationby keeping undesirable plants out of an area.Purchase only clean forage seed and hay from areasthat are known to be free from undesirable plants.Ensure that preventative approaches are taken toprevent seed and hay that may contain undesirablespecies from escaping during transport. Tarpingopen topped trucks is the most common form ofcontainment during transport, but other methodssuch as self contained panel trucks, and use ofpoly bale wrapping are other good methods touse. Cleaning equipment thoroughly before leavingfields, avoiding driving vehicles through infestedareas, and watching for ‘hitch hikers’ on clothingand livestock are good prevention methods. Alsobe aware of prevailing winds and waterways thatcan transport seeds. A percentage of foxtail barley,common tansy and scentless chamomile seed remainin the inflorescence through the winter and as thewind buffets the dead stalks, seeds are shed andmoved in or on snow. Leafy spurge propels its seedsup to five metres (15 feet) from the parent plantafter it sets seed, while it and scentless chamomileseeds travel easily in water. When prevention isneglected, control and eradication costs are high.Control MethodsControl of undesirable plants on rangeland requiresgood vegetation management. Success is based ontwo principles: competition and succession.92

The competitive ability of an undesirable plantmust be reduced for plant community successionto proceed in a desired direction. These goals canbe achieved by choosing the most appropriate mixof control methods for each situation. The controlmethods should not conflict with each other.Several methods are available for controllingundesirable plants. To determine which method orcombination of methods may fit a specific situation,contact your local Rangeland Agrologist.Manual ControlManual control involves pulling, digging, andcutting individual plants. These techniques arehighly selective but slow, costly, and in the case ofdeep-rooted perennial plants, ineffective, thereforemanual controls are usually limited to small areas.Manual control is most useful for removing invadingplants in the initial stages of infestation and cleaningup after other methods have been used. It can beused to remove undesirable plants from aroundcorrals, small pastures and along fencelines. Do notgive plants an opportunity to set seed.GrazingControl by grazing may involve use of acombination of animal species that each hasdifferent dietary preferences. Control can sometimesbe achieved by changing the time a particular fieldis grazed. For example, sheep or goats may be usedto effectively control leafy spurge while goats canalso be utilized to keep brush in check.Some recent and promising work undertaken atUtah State University involves training young cattleto eat weeds such as Canada thistle, leafy spurgeand spotted knapweed. Key considerations includeproper use of supplements to reduce the toxiceffects of these plants, and creating a taste for theplant through careful training of the animals.Delaying grazing on native range will allowdesirable plants to increase in vigour and this willgive them a competitive advantage over undesirableplants. Through early use of tame pasturescontaining species such as crested wheatgrass, anddeferred rotational grazing strategies, native pasturescan be used later in the season.Seeding competitive tame species such as crestedwheatgrass or smooth bromegrass on weedycultivated land can provide good weed control.Care should be taken not to seed them too close toexisting native rangelands because they may invade.Good grazing management can be an effective wayto keep smooth bromegrass out of native rangelandbecause smooth bromegrass is palatable to livestockin early spring and summer.Controlled grazing is one of the cheapest ways tocontrol aspen suckers because the producer alreadyhas access to cattle and there is an economic return.Current year’s growth of poplar stems are readilygrazed by livestock, whereas older aged stems maybe too tough to break. However, with intensivegrazing cattle trample and rub on older suckers,causing some damage. Target areas for brushmanagement should be grazed by livestock everyyear. Twice over systems that allow browsing andlivestock impacts in the early and late summer canbe most effective. Late summer grazing limits theamount of root reserves in plants, thus enhancingwinterkill of the suckers. Grazing must occur duringthe growing season to reduce suckers.Grazed aspen rose complexYoung poplar is palatable and nutritious for cattle.In early July, the protein content is about 22percent, declining to about 13 percent by earlySeptember - greater than most grasses. Given thechoice, conditioned cattle will readily browse brushas the grazing season progresses into August andSeptember. Browse species can compose up to 30percent of cattle diets. Unconditioned animals thatare not familiar with browsing woody species mayrequire up to two years of grazing experience tobecome habituated to it.The key to using livestock to manage woodysuckers is to maintain a high stocking density onthe target area for a short period of time. Livestockmust be monitored closely to ensure that the desiredoutcome is being achieved. Using electric fence andstock water to concentrate cattle in specific areaswill improve success.Grazing management of forested pastures shouldconsider where capital developments are beingmade in relation to the capability of livestock tograze areas. Water developments and strategic saltplacement can be used to increase the amount ofbrowsing on brush. A rotational grazing plan whichPhoto Credit: T. Jorgenson,Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture93

Photo Credit: AAFC-PFRAincludes the entire land base, and allows for highdensity grazing in brush control areas is critical.Biological ControlBiological control is the control of species bytheir natural enemies (predators, parasites andpathogens). Undesirable native plants have anarray of organisms that have evolved in the samehabitat and attack on a continual basis. When usedappropriately, these natural enemies will only targeta single species, avoiding damage to the associatedplant community. This selectivity is particularlybeneficial on rangeland where a mixture of grassesand forbs occur and when herbicides are notselective enough.Chemical ControlChemical control uses herbicides to disrupt thebiological processes of undesirable plants sothat they are killed or their competitive ability isreduced. Herbicides have several advantages as acontrol method. They require a minimum amount oflabour, they can be effectively used on steep slopesand stony terrain where mechanical equipmentcannot operate, and they can be easily targeted tosmall specific areas if need be. The costs of theseapplications are usually less than mechanical controltreatments.Non-selective herbicides have negative impacts onall plants. They control a broader range of targetweeds, but will also damage desirable forage speciesif indiscriminately applied. To minimize damage todesirable species, non-selective herbicides shouldonly be used:• as an alternative to complete standreplacement;• as a spot treatment to a small area whereother management practices are not effective;• in a situation where the desirable plantsmay be protected from the non-selectiveherbicide, such as with wick typeapplications on tall weedy plants, or whencover of the undesirable species is complete.Aspen sucker control with a wiper – note undamagedherbaceous plants in backgroundSelective herbicides have a narrower range ofplants that they control. Regardless of options,selective herbicides are preferred over non-selectiveherbicides as total elimination of vegetation mayresult in soil erosion. After treatment with selectiveherbicides, vegetation and litter covers the soil,reducing the risk of water and wind erosion. Using aselective herbicide to remove undesirable plants canincrease production of desirable plants.There are some disadvantages to using herbicides:• some undesirable plants cannot be effectivelycontrolled with the selective herbicidesavailable;• some desirable forbs and shrubs may betemporarily injured or killed in the process ofremoving the undesirable broadleaf weed;• depending on the herbicide used, the costof control may exceed the value of expectedforage increase;• improper use can damage non-targetvegetation and/or contaminate theenvironment.Before applying herbicides, check product labels forprecautions, grazing and feeding restrictions, generaluse information and specific application instructions.This information will determine the appropriateherbicide to use in each situation. Recommendationsfor specific problem plants and herbicide selectioncan be found in the Saskatchewan Ministry ofAgriculture publication ‘Guide to Crop Protection’published annually.FirePrescribed fire has been used to manipulatevegetation on the Canadian prairies for thousandsof years. It is low cost and effective provided thatproper precautions are taken. Burning is an effectivetool for removing brush from large areas providedthere is enough fuel to carry the fire. A minimum of1000 kg/ha (lbs/ac) of fine fuel (dry grass, forbs andleaves) must be present to carry a fire. Larger treesand more mature stands are difficult to burn becausefine fuels are usually inadequate.Early spring and late fall burning when grasses aredormant are the best times to control brush whilemaintaining forage productivity. Burns should beconducted while forage species are dormant soforage productivity is not reduced.Planning for a burn is critical. Planning should begina year in advance to have enough fuel. In mostareas of the Black soil zone pastures must be restedfrom grazing for at least half of the growing season.Resting pastures to accumulate fine fuels may take94

Source: Adapted from Bailey, A.W. 1988.longer in degraded pastures, during dry years,or on light-textured soils. When it comes time toconduct the burn ensure that enough personnel toignite, patrol and fight the fire are present. Desiredequipment includes ATV and truck mounted firefighting tanks and pumps, back pack sprayers,possibly foamers, radios for communicating with thecrew, and drip torches.The first step is to ensure that the perimeter isprotected and that the fire cannot escape. Afireguard must be made if the field is not protectedfrom other land by cultivated land or a road. Oneof the most effective ways to make a wide fireguardis to backfire (burn into the wind) a safe width andthen put the fire out on both sides. At least a 30metre (100 foot) fireguard is required, but safety isincreased with wider fireguards.The fire must be ignited so it builds enoughmomentum to kill the trees but still remains undercontrol. An effective method is the strip headfiretechnique. This technique requires that a narrowheadfire immediately adjacent to the down windfireguard (with the wind) be ignited. Headfiresare lit to follow this one up. Generally three tofour headfires is an acceptable target dependingon the size of the area being burned. This waythe fireguard is effectively becoming wider,and the momentum of the fire is also kept at amanageable rate.Weather requirements are the most important factorsto consider for a successful and safe burn. Highertemperatures, lower humidity, and greater windspeed are better for burning brush but the dangerof escape also becomes greater. The following tableillustrates the optimum combination of weatherfactors for both control and safety.Fuel Minimum Wind Maximum DryingType Temp Speed RH % Dayso C km/hr after Snowgrassland 7 3 – 20 62 1 – 3deciduous 13 3 – 20 50 3 – 5shrublanddeciduous 18 6 – 20 30 8 – 10forestDo not consider burning any areas unless followup brush management will occur. The use offire requires a long term commitment to brushmanagement because burning will promote vigoroussprouting of aspen, snowberry and many otherbrush species. Resultant sprouting can promotean effective follow-up control of brush in the longterm, whether repeated fire or other methods usedin combination. The new growth after a fire is alsovery palatable to livestock and this tool can be usedto attract livestock to access previously ungrazedareas of a pasture.Fire crew burning a “backline” fireguard before the actualprescribed fire takes placeAspen suckering after a hot prescribed burnPrescribed burn to control aspen – note the backfire and headfireSuccessful burnProper training on the use of fire for controllingbrush is important to achieve success atminimal risk.Photo Credit: AAFC-PFRA Photo Credit: AAFC-PFRAPhoto Credit: AAFC-PFRA Photo Credit: AAFC-PFRA95

Mechanical Renovation or ReseedingMechanical control measures can be implementedto control undesirable plant species on rangelands.Mechanical methods need to be carefully plannedprior to implementation.Determine whether the returns will pay for the costsincurred. Comparison of all alternatives allows for adecision on the most efficient method. Consider allalternatives before renovating any existing pastureas well as seeding new pasture. For example, if anexisting pasture contains adequate grass cover andsome legumes are present, the use of improvedgrazing management with extended rest periodscan return the forage stand to adequate production.Fertilizer use enhances this process in many cases,but tame pasture species may be more responsive tofertility management than native species.The following variables have a major impact onconversion costs and returns on renovating existingtame pasture and new seedings:• Landform, including amount of stones. Stonesmay break or wear machinery rapidly;• Soil characteristics, including salinity.Cultivation may bring shallow salt depositsto the surface or may dilute surface depositsthrough the tillage layer enough to allowcover to establish. Tillage can also leave soilsprone to wind and water erosion or allowinvasive species an opportunity to increase;• Amount and quality of water, for livestockand vegetation;• Type and amount of both woody andherbaceous vegetation. Existing vegetationmay be difficult to kill and will reestablishquickly from seed and roots stored in thesoil. Land which has been growing annualcrops for many years does not usuallycause major difficulties when converting toforage crops;• Current custom breaking costs. Tree andbrush removal is expensive.Mechanical control of aspen stands andencroachment is often practiced in the transitionzones of the province.Bark scrapers are effective for managing aspenwhen tree diameter is small and the stem densitylow. The method is relatively simple to implement,however the following drawbacks should be noted:• a repeat treatment is required because plantswill sucker, but likely not to the extent ofother treatments;• the remaining trees will be at a 30 to 60degree angle to the surface, which can be“spear like” to cattle and horses.Roller chopper in useRoller choppers or drum rollers can be usedin aspen that is either too tall or large to use aherbicide wiper or bark scraper. This equipmentknocks trees to the ground where they can beburned or left to decay. The subsequent evenagedsuckers can then be dealt with more easily,through either intensive livestock grazing or with aherbicide wiper, or ideally both. The new suckersare palatable to livestock if they are the currentyear’s growth. A drawback to this method is greaterexpense especially if used with herbicides. This dualapproach is very effective in controlling aspen.Costs Versus ReturnsFertilizer application can be used instead ofbreaking and re-seeding on some pastures. If brushregrowth is extensive, fertilizer application may notbe appropriate. Other alternatives include changein the timing or intensity of grazing, change in thespecies of animals grazing the area, bark scraping,herbicides, and fire. The criteria used to determinewhich methods should be used include cost andwhat the expected return on investment will be.Nitrogen is often the limiting factor in forageproduction, especially if no legumes are in thesward. Fertilizing tame forage with nitrogen almostalways increases production even in dry years. Asoil test is recommended to determine fertilizerrequirements. The increased grass and undesirableplant production usually does not equal fertilizerand application costs. Consider the cost ofalternative pasture and expected beef productionbefore applying fertilizer.Photo Credit: AAFC-PFRA96

References and Suggested ReadingsAbouguendia, Z. 1998. Nutrient content and digestibility of Saskatchewan range plants. AgricultureDevelopment Fund Technical Report 94000114. Regina, SK.Bailey, A.W. 1988. Understanding fire ecology for range management. p. 527-557. In: Tueller, P.T. (ed.).Vegetation science applications for rangeland analysis and management. Kluwer, Dordrecht.Bowes, G. 1996. Aspen Sucker Control with Herbicides. Summary Report. Saskatoon Research Centre.Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada. Saskatoon, SK.Bowes, G. 1996. Bark Scrape to Manage Aspen. Final Report. Saskatoon Research Centre. Agriculture andAgri-Food Canada. Saskatoon, SK.Bowes, G. 1994. Western Snowberry Control. Saskatoon Research Centre. Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada.Saskatoon, SK.Bowes, G. 1996. Wiper Applied Herbicides to Manage Brush. Final Report. Saskatoon Research Centre.Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada. Saskatoon, SK.Looman J., W. Majak, and S. Smoliak. 1983. Stock-poisoning Plants of Western Canada. Agriculture CanadaPublication 1982-7E. Ottawa, ON.Manitoba Forage Council. 2008. An Integrated Guide to Brush Management on the Western Canadian Plains.Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada’s Greencover Canada Program. ISBN 978-00980961-0-8.Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture. (Annual). Saskatchewan Forage Crop Production Guide. Crop DevelopmentBranch. Regina, SK.Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture. (Annual). Guide to Crop Protection. Crop Development Branch.Regina, SK.Stearman, W.A. 1988. Controlling Brush in Alberta. Alberta Agriculture. Edmonton, AB. Agdex 643-2.Vallentine, J. 1989. Range Development and Improvements. Third Edition. Brigham Young University Press.Provo, UT.97

Rangeland RestorationThe fundamental definition of rangeland restoration is to return disturbed rangeland or sites to predisturbanceconditions.98Photo Credit: T. Jorgenson,Saskatchewan Ministry of AgriculturePhoto Credit: T. Jorgenson,Saskatchewan Ministry of AgricultureDevelopments such as gas lines require restorationSite specific restoration is often required becauseof man-made disturbances. Developments suchas oil and gas, sand and gravel, pipelines, roadsand utilities often involve the complete removalof vegetation and associated soil profile. Thesedisturbed sites often require reseeding as acomponent of restoration depending on the level ofdisturbance. It is unrealistic to expect a restorationeffort to immediately replace lost native speciesand ecological functions. It is, however, an attemptto help speed up natural regenerative processesinherent in native rangeland. Seeding native plants isnot sufficient to recreate pre-disturbance conditions.The seeded plant community does, however,provide the structural environment for successionto occur and allow for many species to colonize thesite on their own.Well siteSuccession is the process by which species in acommunity change over time. Following disturbance,an ecosystem generally progresses from a simplelevel of organization with a few dominant species toa more complex community or “climax” community.Every ecosite has the potential to support a differentclimax plant community. Most rangelands inSaskatchewan have the ability to recover followingmild natural disturbances. An ecosite that hasexperienced more severe disturbance, such as soilstripping for an oil well, requires more extensiveefforts to promote natural succession.Ecosystem function describes the basic processesof a natural system such as energy flow (ultimatelyfrom the sun), the hydrologic cycle, and nutrientcycling. These are the main, essential componentsof an ecosystem. In late successional or “climax”communities these functions are generally stableand limited by the biophysical characteristics ofthe ecosite. A functional ecosystem that is selfperpetuatingshould be the end result of restorationefforts. Succession occurs over time so monitoringand ongoing management are needed for the longtermstability of a disturbed ecosite.Fragmentation of Saskatchewan’s rangeland is anongoing concern. Land-use changes have dissectedmany larger tracts of rangeland into smaller parts.These smaller parts then support smaller speciespopulations rendering them more vulnerable toenvironmental stresses and ultimately extirpationor local extinction. Habitat along the edge of afragment typically has different environmentalconditions and supports different species. Nonnativespecies can invade from road allowancesinto adjacent rangelands. Restoration projects canincrease the effective size and stability of rangelandby establishing corridors that link isolated fragmentstogether. The use of designated corridors forutilities and pipelines will minimize the effects offragmentation. Designated corridors are based onthe premise that one larger disturbance or corridoris better than dissecting the rangeland with manysmaller corridors. The use of designated corridorsrequires extensive planning and consultation withstakeholders before any development occurs.Mitigating the effects of fragmentation is a primarygoal of restoration ecology.In Saskatchewan, an array of environmentallegislation regulates developers such as the oil andgas industry. Typically these requirements apply to

Photo Credit: T. Jorgenson,Saskatchewan Ministry of AgricultureDevelopments such as gas lines require restorationCrown Land, but also may include private lands.Most major projects occurring on Saskatchewan’srangeland require an Environmental Protection Plan(EPP) or an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA).An EPP will outline all potential development sites,provide a pre-site assessment of the rangelandand outline any mitigation measures that may beneeded. An EIA is required where there is a highdegree of stakeholder concerns and/or the proposeddevelopment is within an ecologically sensitiveor unique area. An EIA involves public and/orstakeholder consultation and issue resolution whilean EPP does not. Developers work with governmentstaff from various departments through the EIA andEPP process to ensure all environmental as wellas socio-economic concerns are addressed. Bothrequirements place emphasis on thorough planningprior to any actual development. There may beadditional requirements placed on developersthat specifically address restoration requirements.One example is the requirement for a restorationplan on all agricultural Crown rangeland. Thisrequirement applies to seismic operations, oil or gaswell sites and associated facilities, sand and gravelremoval, coal or oilsands development, pipelinedevelopment, utility development, and roads.The restoration plan must include all proposeddevelopment and site restoration methods suchas native seed mixtures or other re-vegetationtechniques, topsoil stripping and stockpiling,minimum surface disturbance methods, weedcontrol, rare or endangered species mitigationmeasures, and a monitoring plan. The developeris responsible for ensuring proper restorationtechniques are used. A site will not be released froma developer by the government agency until it meetsstandard criteria for native vegetation, soils, andlandscape. The main measure for these restorationcriteria are the pre-development site conditions, i.e.,a comparison of restoration efforts to the naturalecosystem before development.Site restoration methods may include seedingwith native seed mixturesRestoration criteria are based on pre-development site conditionsIt should be noted that owners of private rangelandcan request that developers take the same planningand restoration measures as on Crown rangeland.Photo Credit: T. Jorgenson,Saskatchewan Ministry of AgriculturePhoto Credit: T. Jorgenson,Saskatchewan Ministry of AgricultureReferences and Suggested ReadingsPrairie Conservation Action Plan (PCAP). 2005. Oil and Gas Exploration and Development on SaskatchewanAgricultural Crown Lands. Regina, SK.Saskatchewan Environment. 2007. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Process. Regina, SK.Saskatchewan Environment. 2007. Environmental Protection Plan (EPP) Process. Regina, SK.Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture. 2005. Crown Land Conditions: Seismic Exploration. Regina, SK.Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture. 2005. Restoration of Saskatchewan’s Agricultural Crown Rangelands.Guidelines and Procedures for Developers. Regina, SK.Saskatchewan Petroleum Industry / Government Environmental Committee. 1999. Restoration of Spill Sites onSaskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture and Pasture Lands. Regina, SK.99

Appendix ACommon & Latin* Names of Saskatchewan Range PlantsCommon NameLatin NameCommon NameLatin NameGRASSESAlkali Cord GrassAwned/Bearded WheatgrassBig BluestemBlue GramaBuffalo GrassCanada BluegrassCanada WildryeCanadian Rice GrassCanby BluegrassCrested WheatgrassSalt GrassFowl BluegrassFowl Manna GrassFoxtail/Wild BarleyFringed BromegrassGreen FoxtailGreen NeedlegrassHairy WildryeHooker’s Oat GrassIndian Rice GrassJune GrassKentucky BluegrassLittle BluestemMarsh Reed GrassMat MuhlyMeadow BromegrassNarrow Reed GrassNeedle-and-ThreadNorthern Awnless BromegrassNorthern Reed GrassNorthern Rice GrassNorthern WheatgrassNutall’s Alkali GrassParry Oat GrassPine GrassPrairie MuhlyPlains Reed GrassSpartina gracilisAgropyron subsecundumAndropogon gerardiiBouteloua gracilisBouteloua dactyloidesPoa compressaElymus canadensisOryzopsis canadensisPoa canbyiAgropyron cristatumDistichlis strictaPoa palustrisGlyceria striataHordeum jubatumBromus ciliatusSetaria viridisStipa viridulaElymus innovatusHelictotrichon hookeriOryzopsis hymenoidesKoeleria macranthaPoa pratensisAndropogon scopariusCalamagrostis canadensisMuhlenbergia richardsonisBromus biebersteiniiCalamagrostis neglectaStipa comataBromus pumpellianusCalamagrostis inexpansaOryzopsis pungensAgropyron dasystachyumPuccinella nuttallianaDanthonia parryiCalamagrostis rubescensMuhlenbergia cuspidataCalamagrostis montanensisPlains Rough FescuePorcupine GrassPrairie Cord GrassPrairie Drop SeedPurple Oat GrassQuackgrassReed Canary GrassRichardson’s NeedlegrassRough FescueRough Hair GrassSand DropseedSand Reed GrassSandberg’s BluegrassSheep FescueSide-Oats GramaSlender WheatgrassSlender Wood GrassSlough GrassSmooth BromegrassSweet GrassSwitch GrassFestuca halliiStipa sparteaSpartina pectinataSpartina heterolepisSchizachne purpurascensAgropyron repensPhalaris arundinaceaStipa richardsoniiFestuca scabrellaAgrostis scabraSporobolus cryptandrusCalamovilfa longifoliaPoa sandbergiiFestuca saximontanaBouteloua curtipendulaAgropyron trachycaulumCinna latifoliaBeckmannia syzigachneBromus inermisHierochloe odorataPanicum virgatumTimber/Intermediate Oat Grass Danthonia intermediaTall Manna GrassTufted Hair GrassWestern Porcupine GrassWestern Wheatgrass/Blue JointWhite-Grained Rice GrassWhitetop SpangletopGrasslike PlantsAwned SedgeBaltic RushBeaked SedgeCotton GrassGraceful SedgeHay SedgeLow SedgeGlyceria grandisDeschampsia caespitosaStipa curtisetaAgropyron smithiiOryzopsis asperifoliaScolochloa festucaceaCarex atherodesJuncus balticusCarex rostrataEriphorum spp.Carex praegracilisCarex siccataCarex stenophylla vareleocharis100

Common Name Latin Name Common Name Latin NameNorthern Bog SedgeSprengel’s SedgeSun-loving SedgeThread-leaved SedgeFORBSAbsinthAmerican HedysarumAmerican VetchArrow-Leaved Colt’s FootBaneberryBiennial WormwoodBlue-eyed GrassBroomweed(Broom Snakeweed)BunchberryCactusCanada ThistleCanada AnemoneColorado RubberweedCow ParsnipCream-Coloured VetchlingCrocusCurled DockDandelionDiffuse KnapweedDotted Blazing StarEarly Yellow LocoweedFairybellsField BindweedField ChickweedFireweedGaillardiaGoatsbeardGolden BeanGumweedHairy Golden AsterHarebellHoary CressIndian BreadrootIndian PaintbrushKochiaLeafy SpurgeLindley’s AsterLittle ClubmossCarex gynocratesCarex sprengelliCarex pensylvanicaCarex filifoliaArtemisia absinthiumHedysarum alpinum var.americanumVicia americanaPetasites sagittatusActaea rubraArtemisia biennisSisyrinchium montanumGutierrezia sarthraeCornus canadensisOptuntia spp.Cirsium arvenseAnemone canadensisHymenoxys richardsoniiHeraceleum lanatumLathyrus ochroleucusAnemone patensRumex crispusTaraxacum officinaleCentaurea diffusaLiatris punctataOxytropis sericeaDisporum trachycarpumConvolvulus arvensisCerastium arvenseEpilobium angustifoliumGaillardia aristataTragopogon dubiusThermopsis rhombifoliaGrindelia squarrosaChrysopsis villosaCampanula rotundifoliaCardaria spp.Psoralea esculentaCastilleja spp.Kochia scopariaEuphorbia esulaAster ciliolatusSelaginella densaLow Everlasting/Pussy ToesLow GoldenrodMany-Flowered AsterMeadow RueMilkweedMoss PhloxNarrow-Leaved MilkvetchNorthern BedstrawNorthern Bog VioletAntennaria apricaSolidago missouriensisAster ericoidesThalictrum spp.Asclepias spp.Phlox hoodiiAstragalus pectinatusGalium borealeViola cucullataPale Comandra/Comandra umbellataBastard Toad FlaxPasture Sage/Fringed Sagebrush Artemisia frigidaPerennial Sow ThistleSonchus arvensisPhiladelphia Fleabane Erigeron philadelphicusPoverty WeedIva axillarisPrairie CinquefoilPotentilla pensylvanicaPrairie ConeflowerRatibida columniferaPrairie SageArtemisia ludovicianaPurple Prairie CloverPetalostemon purpureumPurple Vetchling/Peavine Lathyrus venosusRed SamphireSalicornia rubraRough CinquefoilPotentilla norvegicaRussian KnapweedCentaurea repensScarlet GauraGaura coccineaScarlet MallowMalvastrum coccineumScentless ChamomileMatricaria maritimaSilverleaf PsoraleaPsoralea argophyllaSkeletonweedLygodesmia junceaSmooth AsterAster laevisSmooth Sweet CicelyOsmorhiza aristataSnakerootSanicula marilandicaSpiny IronplantHaplopappus spinulosusSpreading DogbaneApocynumandroaemifoliumStar-Flowered Solomon’s Seal Hedysarum spp.Sweet BroomSmilacina stellataTansyTanacetum vulgareTall Lungwort/Bluebell Mertensia paniculataTall Meadow RueThalictrum dasycarpumThree-Flowered Avens Geum triflorumThree-Toothed Cinquefoil Potentilla tridentataToadflaxLinaria vulgarisTufted FleabaneErigeron caespitosusTwo-Grooved Milkvetch Astragalus bisulcatusTwo-Leaved Solomon’s Seal Maianthemum canadenseWestern Canada Violet Viola rugulosa101

Common NameLatin NameCommon NameLatin NameWhite Prairie AsterWild LicoriceWild PeavineWild SarsaparillaWild StrawberryYarrowYellow AvensShrubs and TreesAlderBalsam FirBalsam PoplarBeaked HazelnutBearberryBlack SpruceBog/Dwarf BirchCanada BlueberryCanada BuffaloberryChokecherryCreeping JuniperDewberryDry Ground CranberryGooseberryGreasewoodGreen AlderGreen AshHawthornHigh-Bush CranberryJack PineLabrador TeaLodgepole PineLow-Bush CranberryNutall’s SaltbushNorthern GooseberryPincherryPrickly RoseRabbitbrushRed Osier DogwoodSaskatoonShrubby CinquefoilSilver SageSkunkbushTamarackAster falcatusGlycyrrhiza lepidotaLathyrus venosusAralia nudicalisFragaria virginianaAchillea millefoliumGeum aleppicumAlnus spp.Abies balsameaPopulus balsamiferaCorylus cornutaArctostaphylos uva-ursiPicea marianaBetula glandulosaVaccinium myrtilloidesShepherdia canadesisPrunus virginianaJuniperus horizontalisRubus pubescensVaccinium vitis-idaeaRibes spp.Sarcobatus vermiculatusAlnus crispaFraxinus pennsylvanicaCrataegus spp.Viburnum opulusPinus banksianaLedum groenlandicumPinus contortaViburnum eduleAtriplex nuttalliiRibes oxyacanthoidesPrunus pensylvanicaRosa acicularisCrysothamnus nauseoususCornus stoloniferaAmelanchier alnifoliaPotentilla fruticosaArtemisia canaRhus trilobataLarix laricinaThorny BuffaloberryTrembling AspenTwinflowerTwining HoneysuckleShepherdia argenteaPopulus tremuloidesLinnaea borealisLonicera glaucescensWestern Snowberry/Buckbrush SymphoricarposoccidentalisWhite SpruceWild Black CurrantWild Red RaspberryWillowWinterfatWolfwillow/SilverberryWood’s RosePoisonousSeaside ArrowgrassDeath CamasHorsetailLeafy SpurgeLocoweedNarrow-Leaved MilkvetchSilvery LupineTwo-Grooved MilkvetchWater HemlockPicea glaucaRibes americanumRubus idaeusSalix spp.Eurotia lanataEleaegnus commutataRosa woodsiiTriglochin maritimaZygadenus gramineusEquisteum spp.Euphorbia esulaOxytropis spp.Astragalus pectinatusLupinus argenteusAstragalus bisulcatusCicuta virosa* The grouping of plants is continually changing withongoing taxonomy research. Re-grouping often requiresa scientific/Latin name change. The names listed inthis publication match those in the Saskatchewan FieldIdentification Guides (Saskatchewan Forage Council,2007). For updated Latin/scientific names, the followinginternet links may be helpful:Tropicos Nomenclatural database:http://biodiversity.uno.edu/delta/grass/index.htmWorld grasses database:http://www.rbgkew.org.uk/herbarium/gramineae/wrldgr.htmGrass genera of the world:http://biodiversity.uno.edu/delta/grass/index.htmUnited States Department of Agriculture, National ResourcesConservation Service, Plants Database:http://plants.usda.gov102

Appendix BConversion Factors for Metric SystemApproximateImperial units conversion factor Results in:LINEARinch x 25 millimetre (mm)foot x 30 centimetre (cm)yard x 0.9 meter (m)mile x 1.6 kilometre (km)AREAsquare inch x 6.5 square centimetre (cm 2 )square foot x 0.09 square metre (m 2 )acre x 0.40 hectare (ha)VOLUMEcubic inch x 16 cubic centimetre (cm 3 )cubic foot x 28 cubic decimetre (dm 3 )cubic yard x 0.8 cubic metre (m 3 )fluid ounce x 28 millilitre (ml)pint x 0.57 litre (L)quart x 1.1 litre (L)gallon x 4.5 litre (L)bushel x 0.36 hectolitre (hl)WEIGHTounce x 28 gram (g)pound x 0.45 kilogram (kg)short ton (2000 lb) x 0.9 tonne (t)TEMPERATUREdegrees Fahrenheit ( o F -32) x 0.56or ( o F -32) x 5/9 degrees Celsius ( o C)PRESSUREpounds per square inch x 6.9 kilopascal (kPa)POWERhorsepower x 746 watt (W)x 0.75kilowatt (kW)SPEEDfeet per second x 0.30 metres per second (m/s)miles per hour x 0.75 kilometres per hour (km/h)AGRICULTUREgallons per acre x 11.23 litres per hectare (L/ha)quarts per acre x 2.8 litres per hectare (L/ha)pints per acre x 1.4 litres per hectare (L/ha)fluid ounces per acre x 70 millilitres per hectare (ml/ha)tons per acre x 2.24 kilograms per hectare (kg/ha)ounces per acre x 70 grams per hectare (g/ha)plants per acre x 2.47 plants per hectare (plants/ha)103

GlossaryThese definitions are compiled from the Society for Range Management publication Glossary of Terms Used inRange Management. Fourth Edition 1998, Society for Range Management Policy Statements 2008 and NorthAmerican Range Plants. Third Edition. 1986.104Abbreviationscf. – confer, compare this definition with thedefinition of words that follown. – Nounv. – Verbadj. – AdjectiveAbiotic. Non-living components of an ecosystem.Acute. A grass blade or ligule which is abruptly sharppointed.Animal-Unit (AU). Considered to be one mature cowof about 1,000 pounds (450 kg), either dry or withcalf up to 6 months of age, or their equivalent,consuming about 26 pounds (12 kg) of forage onan oven-dry basis.Animal-Unit-Equivalent (AUE). A number relating theforage dry matter intake of a particular kind orclass of animal relative to one A.U.Animal Unit Month (AUM). The amount of dry foragerequired by one animal unit for one month basedon a forage allowance of 22 pounds per day. Notsynonymous with animal-month.The term AUM is commonly used in three ways: (a)Stocking rate, as in “X acres per AUM”; (b) forageallocations, as in “X AUMs taken from unit B”; (c)utilization, as in “X AUMs taken from total unitsavailable”.Auricle. An ear-like lobe or claw-like appendage atthe base of the leaf blade of certain grasses.Awl-shaped. Narrow and sharp pointed.Browse. The parts of shrubs, woody vines and treesavailable for animal consumption.Bunchgrass. A graminoid growth habit forming abunch or a clump.Carrying Capacity. A measure of an ecological site’ssustained forage yield. Carrying capacity is basedon a safe utilization level based on mean annualforage production and the plant community’stolerance of grazing pressure. Carrying capacitydoes not fluctuate yearly in response to forageproduction and stocking rates, but does fluctuatewith weather conditions.Ciliate. Fringed with hairs on margin.Climax. (1) the final or stable biotic community ina successional series which is self-perpetuatingand in dynamic equilibrium with the physicalhabitat; (2) the assumed end point in succession.Decreaser. Plant species of the original or climaxvegetation that will decrease in relative amountwith continued disturbance.Defoliation. The removal of plant leaves by grazingor browsing, cutting, or natural phenomenasuch as hail, fire or frost.Degree of Use. The proportion of a current year’sforage production that is consumed and /ordestroyed by grazing animals.Ecology. The study of the interrelationships oforganisms with their environment.Ecological Site (Ecosite). A kind of land with aspecific potential natural community and specificphysical site characteristics, differing from otherkinds of land in its ability to produce vegetationand to respond to management.Ecoregion. Broad classes that are determinedmainly by climate. Within these ecologicalregions, rangeland is divided into ecologicalsites or ecosites, which are defined by morelocal factors.Ecosystem. Organisms together with their abioticenvironment, forming an interacting system,inhabiting an identifiable space.Ecotone. A transition area of vegetation betweentwo communities, having characteristics ofboth kinds of neighbouring vegetation as wellas characteristics of its own. Varies in widthdepending on site and climatic factors.Ecotype. A locally adapted population within aspecies which has certain genetically determinedcharacteristics.Edaphic. Refers to the soil.Environment. The sum of all external conditionsthat affect an organism or community toinfluence its development or existence.

Extensive Grazing Management. Grazing managementthat utilizes relatively large land areas per animaland a relatively low level of labour, resources, orcapital. cf. intensive grazing management.Forage. (n.) Browse and herbage which is availableand may provide food for grazing animals orbe harvested for feeding. (v.) to search for orconsume forage.Forage Inventory. An estimate of available foragein each pasture and for the operating unit as awhole; used to project stocking rates and feedrequirements for specific time periods.Grazing Capacity. The maximum stocking rate thatwill achieve a target level of animal performancein a specified grazing method, based on totalnutrient resources available, that can be appliedover a defined period without deterioration ofthe ecosystem. A description of grazing capacityshould include stocking rate, grazing method,targeted animal performance and non-grazednutrient resources.Grazing Cell. An area of land planned for grazingmanagement purposes.Grazing Management. The manipulation of animalgrazing in pursuit of a defined objective.Grazing System. A specialization of grazingmanagement which defines the periods of grazingand non-grazing or rest.Herbivore. An animal which feeds on plantsIncreaser. Plant species of the original vegetation thatincrease in relative amount, at least for a time,under overuse.Intensive Grazing Management. Grazing managementthat attempts to increase production or utilizationper unit area or production per animal through arelative increase in stocking rates, stocking density,forage utilization, labour, resources, or capital. cf.extensive grazing management.Introduced Species. A species not part of the originalfauna or flora of the area in question. cf.native species.Invader. Plant species that are absent in undisturbedportions of the original vegetation of a specificrange site and will invade or increase followingdisturbance or continued overuse.Ligule. The appendage, membrane or ring of hairs atthe junction of the leaf sheath and blade.Membranous. Thin, opaque, not green; like amembrane.Native Species. A species which is part of theoriginal fauna or flora of the area in question. cf.introduced species.Obtuse. Blunt or rounded at the end.Overgrazing. Occurs when a plant is grazed beforeit has completely recovered from a previousdefoliation event; continued grazing whichexceeds the recovery capacity of the plantscauses range deterioration.Paddock. A division of land within a grazing cell.Palatability. The relish with which a particularspecies or plant is consumed by an animal.Pasture. (1) A grazing area separated fromother areas by fencing or other barriers; themanagement unit for grazing land. (2) Forageplants used as food for grazing animals. (3) Anyarea devoted to the production of forage, nativeor introduced, and harvested by grazing.Pastureland. Grazing lands, planted primarily tointroduced or domesticated native forage speciesPhenology. The study of periodic biologicalphenomenon such as flowering and seed-set,especially relating to climate.Phenotype. The physical appearance of an individualas contrasted with genetic makeup or genotype.Preference. Selection of certain plants, or plant parts,over others by grazing animals.Proper Use Factors (PUFs). The percentage ofutilization (for a forage species or range type)deemed as acceptable to improve or maintainrange condition.Pubescent. Covered with short, soft hairs.Quadrat. In strict terms, a square sample unit orplot. In practical terms, quadrats vary in size andshape according to the plant community beingsampled.Range. (n.) Land supporting native vegetation thateither is grazed or that has the potential to begrazed, and is managed as a natural ecosystem,including grassland, forests, and shrubland. Rangeis not a use. (adj.) Modifies resources, products,activities, practices and phenomena pertaining torangeland. cf. rangeland.105

Rangeland. Rangelands, a broad category of landcomprising more than 40 percent of the earth’sland area, are characterized by native plantcommunities, which are often associated withgrazing, and are managed by ecological, ratherthan agronomic methods. The term “range”can also include forestlands that have grazingresources, or seeded lands that are managed likerangeland. Range resources are not limited to thegrazable forage, but may include wildlife, waterand many other benefits.Range Condition. The composition of range plantcommunities relative to the kinds and relativeamounts of plants that range is naturally capableof supporting.Range Health. A term used to describe net primaryproductivity, maintenance of soil/site stability,capture and beneficial release of water, nutrientcycling and energy flow, and functional diversityof plant species on rangeland.Range Improvement. Any activity or programdesigned to improve production of forage, changevegetation composition, control patterns of use,provide water, stabilize soil and water conditions,or provide habitat for livestock and wildlife.Range Inventory. A list of resources of a managementarea, including ecosites, range condition andtrend, degree of use, stocking rates, physicalimprovements and natural features.Range Management. A distinct discipline founded onecological principles and dealing with the useof rangelands and range resources for a varietyof purposes. These purposes include use aswatersheds, wildlife habitat, grazing by livestock,recreation, and aesthetics, as well as otherassociated uses.Range Readiness. The defined stage of plant growthat which grazing may begin under a specificmanagement plan without permanent damage tovegetation and or soils.Range Site. Synonymous with ecological site. Akind of land with specific physical characteristicswhich differs from other kinds of land in itsability to produce distinctive kinds and amountsof vegetation and in its response to management.Range sites can support a characteristic plantcommunity under its particular combination ofenvironmental factors, particularly climate, soils,topography and associated native biota.Range Trend. The direction of change in rangecondition, whether improving, deteriorating orremaining stable.Reclamation. Restoration of a site or resource toa desired condition to achieve managementobjectives or stated goals.Rhizome. An underground stem with nodes, scalelikeleaves and internodes.Riparian Zone or Riparian Area. Referring to orrelating to areas adjacent to water or influencedby free water associated with streams or rivers.Ruminant. A hoofed mammal that chews a cud andhas a four-chambered stomach.Sod Grass. Stoloniferous or rhizomatous grass whichforms a sod or turf.Stipules. Leaf-like appendages occurring in pairs oneach side of the leaf base in forbs and shrubs.Stocking Density. The number of animals on a givenarea of land at any moment in time. For example,an acre of land grazing 50 cows for one dayeach year would have a stock density of 50 headper acre.Stocking Rate. The number of animal units on a unitarea of land for a specified time period. This isusually expressed in AUMs/acre or acres/AUM.For example, 160 acres of rangeland on which 10cows graze for four months has a stocking rate of0.25 AUMs/acre or 4 acres/AUM.Succession. The progressive replacement of plantcommunities on a site which leads to thepotential natural community.Transect. A line across and area used as a sample forrecording, mapping or studying vegetation.Truncate. Ending abruptly; appearing to be cut off atthe end.Watershed. A total area of land above a given pointon a waterway that contributes run-off to thewater flow at that point. A major subdivision of adrainage basin.106

Project PartnersFunding for this publication provided byAgriculture and Agri-Food Canada’s Greencover Canada Program.