NET INJECTION BY SOURCE (2010)INSTALLED ELECTRICITY GENERATION CAPACITY (1990 - 2010)Imports70.7 GWh1.0 %2,5002,000HydroThermalThermal3,027.5 GWh41.4%Hydro4,220.9 GWh57.7 %MW1,5001,00050001990199520002004200520062007200820092010FIGURE 7: Panama: Net <strong>in</strong>jection by source <strong>in</strong> 2010;<strong>in</strong>stalled electricity generation capacity 1990-2010electricity, and the construction of a transmission l<strong>in</strong>e of 230 kV, 18,000 kilometers <strong>in</strong> length along theisthmus, which will allow the <strong>in</strong>terchange of 300 MW between countries. The MER is the seventhmarket, superimposed over the six markets or exist<strong>in</strong>g national systems, with regional regulation, <strong>in</strong>which the agents of EOR (Ente Operador Regional) make <strong>in</strong>ternational transactions of electricalenergy <strong>in</strong> the Central American region. It is expected that the SIEPAC project will beg<strong>in</strong> operat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>2013, expand<strong>in</strong>g the potential of regional energy trade and the regional development of renewablegeneration.2.2.8 Market analysisIn El Salvador, Guatemala, Nicaragua and Panama, generation costs are determ<strong>in</strong>ed by the sum of thecosts of energy production and the capacity of energy supply contracts <strong>in</strong> the long term (competitivebidd<strong>in</strong>g) and the cost of the purchas<strong>in</strong>g spot market (economic dispatch based on the cost), with somelevel<strong>in</strong>g mechanism to mitigate the volatility of generation costs.Spot prices <strong>in</strong> wholesale markets competitive <strong>in</strong> the region <strong>in</strong>creased significantly after 2004 due tosoar<strong>in</strong>g bunker prices. In Honduras and Costa Rica, generation costs used to regulate retail prices werelower and more stable than <strong>in</strong> Panama, Nicaragua and El Salvador. These three countries were facedwith a tight balance between supply and demand <strong>in</strong> 2006 and 2007. The spot price <strong>in</strong>crease was morepronounced as they were dispatched by less efficient generat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>plant</strong>s and so were more expensive; asa result, the annual average spot price <strong>in</strong>creased by approximately 140 USD/MWh (Lecaros et al.,2010).Due to the fact that most ofthe regulators <strong>in</strong> the regiondo not publish the prices oftheir contracts, this marketanalysis is based on historicalprices, statistics collectedfrom managers of thewholesale market of eachcountry as shown <strong>in</strong> Figure 8.Based on this data, <strong>in</strong> thisstudy an average price of 115USD/MWh <strong>in</strong> the wholesalemarket <strong>in</strong> the CentralAmerican countries wasestimated for year 2010 withan expected growth rate of5%.FIGURE 1: Central America: Annual energy prices <strong>in</strong> thewholesale market for years 1998-2010; Note: a) Costa Rica:average price paid to private <strong>geothermal</strong> generator Miravalles III.b) Honduras: projected short-term marg<strong>in</strong>al costs7
2.3 Corporate taxThe Central Americancountries’ tax system isbased on the territorialitypr<strong>in</strong>ciple, and all standarddeductions are allowed <strong>in</strong>determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g taxable <strong>in</strong>come.As shown <strong>in</strong> Figure 9, thecorporate tax rates <strong>in</strong> thesecountries are around 25%and 30% (Deloitte, 2010). Inthis analysis, 30% ascorporate tax is used.35%30%25%20%15%10%5%0%Costa RicaCentral American countries,with the exception of El FIGURE 9: Central American corporate tax <strong>in</strong>come rates 2010Salvador, have a commonpractice of allow<strong>in</strong>g companies to carry forward losses, although compensation rules vary from onecountry to another. Depreciation is allowed for a standard range of fixed assets and is generally on astraight l<strong>in</strong>e basis. Each country has different annual depreciation rates for the major groups, and themost similar standard rates are 5% for build<strong>in</strong>gs, 20% for mach<strong>in</strong>ery, 25% for vehicles, 25% forsoftware, and 50% for other movable assets (UNCTAD, 2010).El SalvadorCorporate Income TaxGuatemalaHondurasNicaraguaPanama2.4 Tax <strong>in</strong>centives for renewable energyIn the last decade (2000-2010), Central American countries have created public <strong>in</strong>centives regard<strong>in</strong>gthe development of renewable energy. In this section a summary is presented of the ma<strong>in</strong> laws thatsupport and promote the development of new <strong>power</strong> generation <strong>projects</strong> from renewable sources foreach country, highlight<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>come tax <strong>in</strong>centives and particular conditions.2.4.1 GuatemalaThe Law of Incentives for the Development of Renewable Energy Projects Decree 52-2003(M<strong>in</strong>isterio de Energía y M<strong>in</strong>as, 2003) establishes the exemption <strong>in</strong> customs duties for imports,<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g Value Added Tax (VAT) charges and fees on imports of mach<strong>in</strong>ery and teams. In addition,there is an exemption on <strong>in</strong>come tax for a period of 10 years. These <strong>in</strong>centives are effective from theexact date the project beg<strong>in</strong>s commercial operation.2.4.2 El SalvadorThe Law of Fiscal Incentives for the Promotion of Renewable Energies <strong>in</strong> Electricity Generation(Decreto Legislativo No. 462, 2007) states that for those <strong>projects</strong> up to 20 MW, there is an exemptionfor a period of 10 years on tariffs on imports of mach<strong>in</strong>ery, equipment, materials and supplies for thestages of pre-<strong>in</strong>vestment and <strong>in</strong>vestment <strong>in</strong> the construction of <strong>power</strong> <strong>plant</strong>s, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g subtransmissionl<strong>in</strong>es. There is an exemption on <strong>in</strong>come tax for a period of 10 years for <strong>projects</strong> up to 10MW of capacity. For <strong>projects</strong> of 10 to 20 MW, this exemption shall be for a period of 5 years. All<strong>in</strong>come derived from the disposal of primary Certified Emissions Reductions (CERs) are tax exempt.2.4.3 HondurasThe Incentives Act on Generation with Renewable Resources (Decreto No. 70-2007, 2007) establishesan exemption <strong>in</strong> import duties and taxes dur<strong>in</strong>g the period of study and construction. There is anexemption <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>come tax, solidarity contribution, temporary tax on net assets, and those related to8
- Page 1 and 2: GEOTHERMAL TRAINING PROGRAMMEHot sp
- Page 3 and 4: This MSc thesis has also been publi
- Page 5 and 6: ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSMy gratitude to the
- Page 7 and 8: TABLE OF CONTENTSPage1. INTRODUCTIO
- Page 9 and 10: PageAPPENDIX A: FINANCIAL MODEL ...
- Page 12 and 13: 1. INTRODUCTIONRecent research on r
- Page 14 and 15: 2. CENTRAL AMERICAN DATA2.1 Power p
- Page 16 and 17: 2.2.3 HondurasThe Honduran electric
- Page 20 and 21: income taxes for a period of 10 yea
- Page 22 and 23: annual temperature ranges from 17 t
- Page 24 and 25: egional reconnaissance in 1981ident
- Page 26 and 27: 4. GEOTHERMAL ELECTRICAL POWER ASSE
- Page 28 and 29: The net contribution of that power
- Page 30 and 31: Introducing , = , and , = ,
- Page 32 and 33: 9ProductionWellBoiler5Turbine~1046P
- Page 34 and 35: TABLE 3: Parameters and boundary co
- Page 36 and 37: eaches the maximum limit, and for h
- Page 38 and 39: 160180140160tc vap[i], th vap[i]120
- Page 40 and 41: average results, and combining them
- Page 42 and 43: The base cost ( ) can be calculate
- Page 44 and 45: calculation for another separator c
- Page 46 and 47: mass flow rate (kg/s) on the plant
- Page 48 and 49: Table 11 shows a summary of costs f
- Page 50 and 51: 5.6.4 Comparison of capital costs b
- Page 52 and 53: 6. FINANCIAL FEASIBILITY ASSESSMENT
- Page 54 and 55: 6.2 Model structureThe financial fe
- Page 56 and 57: CCF = EBITDA − ∆Working Capital
- Page 58 and 59: Interest on loansFleischmann (2007)
- Page 60 and 61: IRR30%25%IRR CapitalIRR Equity20%Si
- Page 62 and 63: FIGURE 42: Allocation of funds for:
- Page 64 and 65: 340IRR Free Cash Flow to Equity [ %
- Page 66 and 67: flash technology is between 0.3 and
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Energy Price Availability Factor O&
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FIGURE 50: Density and cumulative p
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In Chapter 6, Figure 44 illustrated
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The internal rate of return is offs
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Cengel, Y. and Tuner, R., 2005: Fun
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IEAb, 2011: Technology roadmap: Geo
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Salmon, J., Meurice, J., Wobus, N.,
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APPENDIX A: SUMMARY OF FINANCIAL MO
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APPENDIX C: INVESTMENT AND FINANCIN
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APPENDIX E: BALANCE SHEETBALANCE SH