The Dove Campaign for Real Beauty - Pearson

Part 1 Marketing nowA heavily promoted brand ofaspirin sells for much morethan a virtually identical nonbrandedor store-brandedproduct. Critics charge thatpromotion adds only psychologicalvalue to the productrather than functional value.detergents, toiletries – include promotion and packaging costs that can amount to 40 per cent ormore of the manufacturer’s price to the retailer. Critics charge that much of the packaging andpromotion adds only psychological value to the product rather than real functional value.Marketers respond by saying that advertising does add to product costs, but it also adds valueby informing potential buyers of the availability and merits of a brand. Brand name productsmay cost more, but branding gives buyers assurances of consistent quality. Moreover, consumerscan usually buy functional versions of products at lower prices. However, they want and arewilling to pay more for products that also provide psychological benefits – that make them feelwealthy, attractive or special. Also, heavy advertising and promotion may be necessary for a firmto match competitors’ efforts – the business would lose ‘share of mind’ if it did not matchcompetitive spending. At the same time, companies are cost-conscious about promotion and tryto spend their money wisely.Excessive mark-upsCritics also charge that some companies mark up goods excessively. They point to the drugindustry, where a pill costing 5 cents to make may cost the consumer €2 to buy. They point to thepricing tactics of perfume manufacturers, who take advantage of customers’ ignorance of thetrue worth of a 50 ml bottle of Chanel perfume, while preying on their desire to satisfyemotional needs.Marketers respond that most businesses try to deal fairly with consumers because they wantto build customer relationships and repeat business. Most consumer abuses are unintentional.When shady marketers do take advantage of consumers, they should be reported to industrywatchdogs and to other consumer-interest or consumer-protection groups. Marketers also stressthat consumers often don’t understand the reason for high mark-ups. For example, pharmaceuticalmark-ups must cover the costs of purchasing, promoting and distributing existingmedicines, plus the high research and development costs over many years of formulating andtesting new drugs.Deceptive practicesMarketers are sometimes accused of deceptive practices that lead consumers to believe they will getmore value than they actually do. Deceptive marketing practices fall into three groups: deceptive68

Chapter 2 Sustainable marketing: marketing ethics and social responsibilitypricing, promotion and packaging. Deceptive pricing includes inflationary price comparisons where‘factory’ or ‘wholesale’ prices are falsely advertising a large price reduction from a falsely high retaillist price. Deceptive promotion includes practices such as misrepresenting the product’s features orperformance, or ‘bait and switch’ where customers are lured to the store for a bargain that is out ofstock, then sold a higher-priced item. Deceptive packaging includes exaggerating package contentsthrough subtle design, not filling the package to the top, using misleading labelling or describingsize in misleading terms. To be sure, questionable marketing practices do occur, as in the followingexample.DFS sell well-designed sofas and armchairs at competitive prices. It has long been seen asone of the UK’s most reliable financial performers in the retail sector, the retail sector’slargest spender on advertising and the country’s largest furniture retailer. Its advertising isbland, consistent and discount oriented. In spring 2007 DFS promoted ‘50% off the Eclipsecollection’; ‘designer sofas half price’; ‘Bex, previous price £1698, half price £798; Opus, previousprice £1155, half price £498’. Of course, not all the products on sale are half price, but there willbe an equally generous-looking offer advertised all year round. As well as being well stockedwith sofas, the warehouse-sized stores have enthusiastic salespeople who eagerly pounce oncustomers entering the store and are usually able to offer enticing financial deals to help thembuy their living room suite. It is all legal but . . . . 3Deceptive practices have led to legislation and other consumer-protection actions, as in thefollowing example.European Council Directive 93/35/EEC paves the way for far-reaching changes to cosmeticslaws. The legislation controls the constituents of cosmetic products and accompanyinginstructions and warnings about use. It also specifies requirements for marketing of cosmeticproducts, including product claims, labelling, information on packaging and details about theproduct’s intended function. Where a product claims to remove ‘unsightly cellulite’ or make theuser look ‘20 years younger’, proofs must be documented and made available to the enforcementauthorities. These laws also require clear details specifying where animal testing occurred on boththe finished product and its ingredients. In recognition of the increased public resistance to animaltesting, a limited EU ban on animal testing for cosmetic ingredients has been in force since 1998.Despite regulations, some critics argue that deceptive claims are still the norm. The toughestproblem is defining what is ‘deceptive’. For instance, an advertiser’s claim that its powerfullaundry detergent ‘makes your washing machine ten feet tall’, showing a surprised home-makerwatching her appliance burst through her laundry room ceiling, isn’t intended to be takenliterally. Instead, the advertiser might claim, it is ‘puffery’ – innocent exaggeration for effect.One noted marketing thinker, Theodore Levitt, claims that some advertising puffery is boundto occur – and that it may even be desirable:There is hardly a company that would not go down in ruin if it refused to provide fluff,because nobody will buy pure functionality ....Worse,it denies ...people’s honestneeds and values. Without distortion, embellishment and elaboration, life would bedrab, dull, anguished and at its existential worst. 469

Part 1 Marketing now“There is hardly a company that would not go down in ruin if it refused toprovide fluff.“However, others claim that puffery and alluring imagery can harm consumers in subtle ways,and that consumers must be protected through education. Lane Jennings talks of ‘Hype, Spin,Puffery and Lies’:The real danger to the public . . . comes not from outright lies – in most cases facts canultimately be proven and mistakes corrected. But . . . advertising uses [the power ofimages and] emotional appeals to shift the viewer’s focus away from facts. Viewers whodo not take the trouble to distinguish between provable claims and pleasant but meaninglessword play end up buying ‘the sizzle, not the steak’ and often paying high prices.The best defense against misleading ads . . . is not tighter controls on [advertisers], butmore education and more critical judgment among . . . consumers. Just as we train childrento be wary of strangers offering candy, to count change at a store, and to kick thetyres before buying a used car, we must make the effort to step back and judge the valueof . . . advertisements, and then master the skills required to separate spin fromsubstance. 5Marketers argue that most companies avoid deceptive practices because such practices harmtheir business in the long run. Profitable customer relationships are built upon a foundationof value and trust. If consumers do not get what they expect, they will switch to more reliableproducts. In addition, consumers usually protect themselves from deception. Most consumersrecognise a marketer’s selling intent and are careful when they buy, sometimes to the point ofnot believing completely true product claims.High-pressure sellingSalespeople are sometimes accused of high-pressure selling that persuades people to buy goodsthey had no thought of buying. It is often said that cars, insurance and home improvement plansare sold, not bought. Salespeople are trained to deliver smooth, canned talks to entice purchase.They sell hard because commissions and sales contests promise big prizes to those who sell themost.Interested in buying a conservatory, a consumer contacted several local suppliers andAnglian Home Improvements, the market leader, who was promoting ‘up to 25 per cent offconservatories plus free solar roof’. All the suppliers sent someone to discuss the project,sometimes the owner of the business. The local suppliers all supplied a plan and an estimatewithin a few days. Anglia sent a salesman who worked out an estimate on the spot, offered a loanat 1 per cent and tried to get a close. He even rang his boss, talking in a loud voice so that allcould hear, to get a special deal if the customer’s house could be a show house. The customerdid not agree to buy on the spot and never did so because even with the ‘25 per cent off’ the pricewas well over £20,000 (€30,000) while all the other estimates were well below that figure.In most cases, marketers have little to gain from high-pressure selling. Such tactics may workin one-time selling situations for short-term gain. However, Anglian is the market leader. 6Consumers are particularly vulnerable when making expensive purchases.70

Chapter 2 Sustainable marketing: marketing ethics and social responsibilityHoliday timeshare is one area. There are many reputable companies in this sector, such asSunterra, that offer good-value products but still use high-pressure selling to achieveclosure. The European Commission estimates holiday property rip-offs cost Europeanconsumers over €7bn a year and is extending the law protecting timeshare owners. The industryalso wants political help in policing the sector. Sandy Grey, of the Timeshare Consumers’Association, says ‘Nobody wants to buy because the reputation of the industry is so bad.’ 7As these examples show, high-pressure selling abounds when selling high-cost services tovulnerable people. It also damages the prospects for legitimate marketers. Fortunately, mostselling involves building long-term relationships with valued customers. High-pressure or deceptiveselling can do serious damage to such relationships. For example, imagine a Unilever accountmanager trying to pressure a Tesco buyer, or an IBM salesperson trying to browbeat a Siemensinformation technology manager. It simply would not work.Shoddy, harmful or unsafe productsAnother criticism concerns poor product quality or function. One complaint is that, too often,products are not made well and services are not performed well. A second complaint is thatmany products deliver little benefit, or that they might even be harmful. For example, manycritics have pointed out the dangers of today’s fat-laden fast-food. McDonald’s recently faced aclass-action lawsuit charging that its fast food meals have contributed to the obesity epidemic.Who’s to blame for the nation’s obesity problem? And what should responsible food companiesdo about it? As with most social responsibility issues, there are no easy answers. McDonald’shas worked to improve its fare and make its menu and its customers healthier. However, otherfast feeders seem to be going the other way. Burger King launched its Enormous Omelet breakfastsandwich, packing an unapologetic 47 grams of fat. Are these companies being sociallyirresponsible? Or are they simply serving customers choices they want? 8Once we laughed at the US as being the fast food nation. Now Europe is catching up. ‘Thelast three decades have seen the levels of overweight and obesity in the EU population risedramatically, particularly among children, where the estimated prevalence of overweight was30 per cent’, says Markos Kyprianou, the European Union health commissioner. He explainedthat in most EU countries more than half the adult population was either overweight or obeseand ‘today’s overweight children will be tomorrow’s heart attack victims’.Governments in some countries have already acted. In some European countries, junk food isbanned in schools and marketing restrictions are imposed on food companies, with the UKrestricting television advertisements of junk food. Half the products of one in three European foodcompanies had been ‘reformulated’ to make them healthier. Industry had also accepted voluntarycurbs on advertising and modified their marketing to avoid further regulation. Soft drinks companiesand some food companies are stopping advertisements to children under the age of 12.The voluntary steps taken by the industry had persuaded the European Commission to giveself-regulation a chance. Beuc, the European Consumers’ Association, thinks the Commissionhas failed to tackle what the Commissioner himself called a ‘top public health priority’. Beucattacked the Commission’s policy paper as a ‘disappointing, unambitious and minimalistresponse to the problems of obesity and diet-related diseases’. 9 71

Chapter 2 Sustainable marketing: marketing ethics and social responsibility2.1The Dove Campaign for Real BeautyUnilever’s Dove brand is on a mission. The Dove Campaign for Real Beauty aims to changethe traditional definition of beauty.In a year when both ‘skinny chic’ and the size 00 – the waist of a typical sevenyear-old– was the height of fashion, Ana Carolina Reston’s death was poignant. Shewas the second model during 2006 to die from an eating disorder. In August, at afashion show in Uruguay, 22-year-old Luisel Ramos suffered a heart attack thoughtto be the result of anorexia. Although anorexia is not the preserve of the fashionindustry, it is not surprising that Reston’s death has spotlighted how the fashionbusiness treats its models and how destructive our current perception of femalebeauty can be.How do you define beauty? Open the latest copy of a fashion magazine and checkout the ads for cosmetics and beauty-care products. Look at the models in thoseads – the classic beauties with incredibly lean, sexy figures with flawless features.Does anyone you know look like the women in those ads? Maybe not. They aresupermodels, chosen to portray ideal beauty. The ads are aspirational. But realwomen, who compare themselves to these idealised images day in and day out, toooften come away feeling diminished by thoughts that they could never really looklike that.▼73

Part 1 Marketing now…2.1Unilever’s Dove brand is on a mission to change all of this. Its Campaign forReal Beauty hopes to do more than just sell Dove beauty creams and lotions. Itaims to change the traditional definition of beauty – to ‘offer in its place a broader,healthier, more democratic view of beauty’. It tells women to be happy just the waythey are. ‘In Dove ads,’ says one advertising expert, ‘normal is the new beautiful.’It all started with a Unilever study that examined the impact on women of asociety that narrowly defines beauty by the images seen in entertainment, inadvertising and on fashion catwalks. The startling result: only 2 per cent of 3,300women and girls surveyed in 10 countries around the world considered themselvesbeautiful. Unilever’s research revealed that among women ages 15 to 64 worldwide,90 per cent want to change at least one aspect of their physical appearanceand a staggering 67 per cent withdraw from some life-engaging activities becausethey are uncomfortable with their looks.Unilever concluded: ‘It is time to redefine beauty!’ ‘We believe that beautycomes in different shapes, sizes and ages,’ says Dove marketing director PhilippeHarousseau. ‘Our mission is to make more women feel beautiful every day bybroadening the definition of beauty.’ Unilever launched the Dove Campaign forReal Beauty globally in 2004, with ads that featured candid and confident images ofreal women of all types (not just actresses or models) and headlines that promptedconsumers to ponder their perceptions of beauty. Among others, it featured fullbodiedwomen (‘Oversized or Outstanding?’), older women (‘Gray or Gorgeous?’;‘Wrinkled or Wonderful?’) and a heavily freckled woman (‘Flawed or Flawless?’).In 2005, the campaign’s popularity skyrocketed as Dove introduced six new ‘realbeauties’ of various ethnicities and proportions, in sizes ranging from 6 to 14.These women appeared in magazines and on billboards wearing nothing but theirunderwear and big smiles, with headlines proclaiming, ‘Let’s face it, firming thethighs of a size 2 supermodel is no challenge,’ or ‘New Dove Firming: As Tested onReal Curves.’In 2006, Unilever took the Dove campaign to a new level, with a ground-breakingspot in the mother of all ad showcases, the US Super Bowl. This ad did not featurecurvy, confident women. Instead, it presented young girls battling self-esteemissues – not models but real girls picked from schools, sports leagues and GirlScout troops. In the ad, one dark-haired girl ‘wishes she were a blond’. Another‘thinks she’s ugly’. A pretty young redhead ‘hates her freckles’. The ad alsopromoted the Dove Self-Esteem Fund, which supports, among other causes,the Girl Scouts’ Uniquely Me programme. It urged viewers to ‘get involved’ at thecampaignforrealbeauty.com website.74

Chapter 2 Sustainable marketing: marketing ethics and social responsibility‘We want to raise awareness of self-esteem being a real issue [for a young girl],’says Harousseau. ‘Every single one of us can get engaged and can change the way weinteract with her to increase self-esteem.’ As the campaign has taken off, so havesales of Dove products. And calls to Unilever’s consumer call centre have surged, ashas traffic to the campaignforrealbeauty.com website. Women, girls and even menpraise Dove for addressing a too-long-ignored social issue.Debora Boyda, managing partner at Ogilvy & Mather, the ad agency that createdthe campaign, received a phone call from an emotional father. His teenage daughterhad just recovered from a four-year battle with anorexia. The father thanked her andstressed how important he thought the ad was. ‘That to me was the high point of whatthe ad achieved,’ says Boyda.In addition to the positive reactions, however, the Dove Campaign for Real Beautyhas also received criticism. Critics argue that the ‘real women’ in the Dove ads arestill head turners, with smooth skin, straight teeth and no cellulite. Although theseunretouched beauties are more realistic than supermodels, they still represent a loftystandard of beauty. Fans of the campaign counter that, compared with typical adindustryportrayals, the Dove women represent an image of beauty that is healthy,constructive and much closer to reality. For example, after seeing a Dove billboard,one young woman gushed, ‘Most girls don’t have that (supermodel) type of body andthey know they won’t get to that. But seeing this [Dove ad] they say, “I can do that.”’Other critics claim that the campaign is hypocritical, celebrating less-than-perfectbodies while at the same time selling products designed to restore them, such asfirming lotions.‘Any change in the culture of advertising that allows for a broader definition ofbeauty and encourages women to be more accepting and comfortable with theirnatural appearance is a step in the right direction,’ says noted psychologist andauthor Mary Pipher. ‘But embedded within this is a contradiction. They are stillsaying you have to use this product to be beautiful.’ Still, she concedes, ‘It’s betterthan what we’ve had in the past.’Yvonne, a woman featured in one of the Dove ads, takes issue with the criticism.‘That’s like saying, why be into fashion? Women are women. We love to be the best wecan be. It’s not contradictory; it’s just taking care of yourself.’ Ad executive Boyda alsodefends Unilever’s intentions: ‘We are telling [women] we want them to take care ofthemselves, take care of their beauty,’ she says. ‘That’s very different from sendingthem the message to look like something they’re not.’Still others criticise Unilever for capitalising on women’s low self-esteem just tomake a buck. But the company responds that it has created a lot more than just a…2.1▼75

Part 1 Marketing now…2.1series of ads. It is promoting a philosophy, supported by a substantial advertisingbudget, the Dove Self-Esteem Fund and a website full of resources designed to buildthe self-esteem of women and young girls.Certainly, Unilever does have financial objectives for its Dove brand – mostconsumers understand and accept that. If women are not buying the message ofDove about the nature of real beauty, then they aren’t buying its products either. Butthe people behind the Dove brand and the Campaign for Real Beauty have noblemotives beyond sales and profits. According to Fernando Acosta, Dove vice-presidentof brand development, the bold and compelling mission of the Dove brand to redefinebeauty and reassure women ranks well beyond the issues of money: ‘You should seethe faces of the people working on this brand now,’ he says. ‘There is a real love forthe brand.’SOURCES: Theresa Howard, ‘Dove ad gets serious for super bowl’, USA Today (23 January 2006), accessed atwww.usatoday.com; Don Babwin, ‘Dove ads with “real” women get attention’, Associated Press Financial Wire(29 July 2005); Theresa Howard, ‘Ad campaigns tell women to celebrate how they are’, USA Today (7 August2005), accessed at www.usatoday.com; Pallavi Gogoi, ‘From reality TV to reality ads’, BusinessWeek Online(17 August 2005), accessed at www.businessweek.com; ‘Positioning: Getting comfy in their skin’, Brandweek(19 December 2005), p. 16; Patricia Odell, ‘Real girls’, Promo (1 March 2006), p. 24; ‘Beyond stereotypes:Rebuilding the foundation of beauty beliefs’ (February 2006), accessed at www.campaignforrealbeauty.com;Jeani Read, ‘Women modeling for Dove love challenging skinny stereotypes’, The Calgary Herald (15 May2006), p. C3; and information found at www.campaignforrealbeauty.com, December 2006; Tom Phillips,‘Everyone knew she was ill . . .’, The Observer (14 January 2007).In order to persuade customers to buy their brand rather than any other, manufacturerssometimes make claims that are not fully substantiated.The recent spate of food scares and the increasing popularity of functional food productsthat claim to have beneficial effects on consumer health have spurred the EuropeanCommission into action. Planned legislation would ban companies from using claims ‘thatmake reference to general, non-specific benefits to overall good health, well-being and normalfunctioning of the body’. So, slogans such as ‘90 per cent fat-free’ and ‘strengthens your body’snatural defences’ would be prohibited. According to the European Commission there is a need toensure that consumers are not fooled by information provided on the products. A fundamentalrequirement is that consumers are protected. The food industry is less than enthusiastic. Theywelcome regulations that would allow companies to use the same labelling across the EU, butfear that the Commission may be overstepping the mark. It may be easy to see why. The newregulations would mean that Nestlé LCI yoghurts, Danone Actimel drinkable yoghurt range andUnilever’s Latta margarine would not be able to claim to stimulate, help or strengthen yourbody’s natural defences. Neither would Kellogg’s be allowed to use the little symbols to indicatethe health benefits that it puts on cereals in its range. 1076

Chapter 2 Sustainable marketing: marketing ethics and social responsibilityA third complaint concerns product safety. Product safety has been a problem for severalreasons, including manufacturer indifference, increased production complexity, poorly trainedlabour and poor quality control. Consider the following cases of costly and image-damagingcrises brought upon several car manufacturers:In 2004 Mercedes-Benz’s quality image took a battering when it recalled almost one inthree of the 4 million cars it had sold in the previous four years to fix electronic problems.Mercedes are far from alone among car makers in making recalls. VW recalled 350,000 of itsmodels worldwide because of a potentially faulty electric cable, as well as some 950,000 Golfs,Jettas, Passats and Corrados because of problems, including a cooling system fault, which couldpotentially damage engines and injure passengers. In the same year Jaguar had to recall its topof-the-rangecar after the manufacturer discovered the automatic gearbox could switch intoreverse without warning. Such defects and recalls are an inevitable feature of mass-producingproducts as complicated as a car. The real issues occur when manufacturers resist or ignoreproblems. Ford and Firestone blamed each other for accidents following blowouts on their FordExplorers Sports Utility Vehicle that were claimed to have caused 271 deaths and more than 800injuries. And in Japan, Toyota executives faced a criminal investigation for failing to recall thecompany’s Hi-Lux minivans for years. 11For years, consumer protection groups or associations in many countries have regularly testedproducts for safety, and have reported hazards found in tested products, such as electricaldangers in appliances, and injury risks from lawnmowers and faulty car design. The testing andreporting activities of these organisations have helped consumers make better buying decisionsand have encouraged businesses to eliminate product flaws.Marketers may sometimes face dilemmas when seeking to balance consumer needs and socialresponsibility. For example, no amount of test results can guarantee product safety in cars ifconsumers value speed and power more than safety features. Buyers might choose a less expensivechain-saw without a safety guard, although society or a government regulatory agency mightdeem it irresponsible and unethical for the manufacturer to sell it.“No amount of test results can guarantee product safety.However, most responsible manufacturers want to produce quality goods. The way a companydeals with product quality and safety problems can damage or help its reputation. Companiesselling poor-quality or unsafe products risk damaging conflicts with consumer groups and regulators.Moreover, unsafe products can result in product liability suits and large awards fordamages.More fundamentally, consumers who are unhappy with a firm’s products may avoid futurepurchases and talk other consumers into doing the same. Thus, quality missteps can have severeconsequences. Today’s marketers know that customer-driven quality results in customer valueand satisfaction which, in turn, creates profitable customer relationships.Planned obsolescence“Critics have charged that some producers follow a programme of planned obsolescence, causingtheir products to become obsolete before they should need replacement. For example, considercomputer printer companies and their toner cartridges:Planned obsolescence—Astrategy of causing productsto become obsoletebefore they actually needreplacement.77

Part 1 Marketing nowComputer printer makers use a ‘lamp and oil’ pricing strategy adopted by Standard Oil tostimulate oil sales in the nineteenth century. Their Mei Foo, ‘beautiful and trustworthy’,lamp was sold very cheaply or given away with kerosene by the millions. Computer printermakers make their profits on ink cartridges that customers need to make the printer work.Kodak estimates that, as a consequence, consumers pay $4,000 per US gallon (about €800 perlitre) for their ink. Not surprisingly, this high margin has attracted retailers, from local shops tolarge big-box stores, to now offer toner cartridge refill services. However, printer companieswould prefer to sell their cartridges for €50 or more, rather than allow someone to refill one forhalf the price. So they make it hard for refill operations by continually introducing new modelsand tweaking inkjet cartridges and laser toner containers to make refillable ones obsolete. Thisleaves refill parts manufacturers struggling to keep up, jockeying with the printer companies thatare working to thwart them. 12Critics charge that some producers continually change consumer concepts of acceptable stylesin order to encourage more and earlier buying. An obvious example is constantly changingclothing fashions. Other producers are accused of holding back attractive functional features,then introducing them later to make older models obsolete. Critics claim that this practice isfrequently found in the consumer electronics and computer industries. For example, Intel andMicrosoft have been accused in recent years of holding back their next-generation computerchips or software until demand is exhausted for the current generation. Consumers have alsoexpressed annoyance with kitchen appliances, cameras and consumer electronics companies’policy of rapid and frequent model replacement. Rapid obsolescence has created difficulties inobtaining spare parts for old models. Moreover, dealers refuse to repair outdated models andplanned obsolescence rapidly erodes basic product values. Still other producers are accused ofusing materials and components that will break, wear, rust or rot sooner than they should.Marketers respond that consumers like style changes; they get tired of the old goods and want anew look in fashion or a new design in cars. No one has to buy the new look, and if too few peoplelike it, it will simply fail. For most technical products, customers want the latest innovations, even ifolder models still work. Companies that withhold new features run the risk that competitors willintroduce the new feature first and steal the market. For example, consider personal computers.Some consumers grumble that the consumer electronics industry’s constant push to produce‘faster, smaller, cheaper’ models means that they must continually buy new machines just to keepup. Others, however, can hardly wait for the latest model to arrive.Thus, companies rarely design their products to break down earlier, because they do not wantto lose their customers to other brands. Instead, they seek constant improvement to ensure thatproducts will consistently meet or exceed customer expectations. Much of so-called plannedobsolescence is the working of the competitive and technological forces in a free society – forcesthat lead to ever-improving goods and services.In addition, if exploited to excess consumers rebel and market opportunities arise. Miele, the topof-the-rangeGerman kitchen appliance manufacturer, now offers a free 10-year warranty with itswashing machines, and Kodak is launching computer printers that use inexpensive ink cartridges.Poor service to disadvantaged consumersFinally, marketing has been accused of serving disadvantaged consumers poorly. Critics claimthat the urban poor often have to shop in smaller stores that carry inferior goods and chargehigher prices. Others, particularly those in the countryside, are in retail deserts without access to78

Part 1 Marketing nowBusinesses within immigrantcommunities often start byserving their own community.There are a range of ethniccompanies supplying theAsian market – some fromIndia and some from England.False wants and too much materialismCritics have charged that the marketing system urges too much interest in material possessions.People are judged by what they own rather than by who they are. To be considered successful,people must own a large home or smart-looking apartment in a prime residential area,80

Chapter 2 Sustainable marketing: marketing ethics and social responsibilityexpensive cars, the latest (or best) designer clothing and high-tech gadgets. This drive forwealth and possessions hit new highs in the 1980s and 1990s, when phrases such as ‘greed isgood’ and ‘shop till you drop’ seemed to characterise the times. In the current decade, manysocial scientists have noted a reaction against the opulence and waste of the previous decadesand a return to more basic values and social commitment. However, our infatuation withmaterial things continues.Between 1960 and 2007 real GDP (inflation adjusted Gross Domestic Product) grew 400 percent in the EU15 and close to 500 per cent in the US. The size of the typical new house hasmore than doubled. A family owning a car was once a goal, now it is hard to know where to putthe multiple cars that families own. Designer everything, personal electronics and other itemsthat didn’t even exist a half-century ago are now affordable. Although our time spent shoppinghas dropped in recent years to just three hours a week, our rate of spend in that short time hasexploded. 16The critics do not view this interest in material things as a natural state of mind, but rather asa matter of false wants created by marketing. Businesses spend huge sums of money to hireadvertising agencies to stimulate people’s desires for goods, and advertisers use the mass media tocreate materialistic models of the good life. People work harder to earn the necessary money.Their purchases increase the output of the nation’s industry, and industry, in turn, uses theadvertising industry to stimulate more desire for the industrial output. Thus marketing is seen ascreating false wants that benefit industry more than they benefit consumers.These criticisms overstate the power of business to create needs. People have strong defencesagainst advertising and other marketing tools. Marketers are most effective when they appeal toexisting wants rather than when they attempt to create new ones. Furthermore, people seekinformation when making important purchases and often do not rely on single sources. Evenminor purchases that may be affected by advertising messages lead to repeat purchases only if theproduct delivers the promised customer value. Finally, the high failure rate of new productsshows that companies are not able to control demand.On a deeper level, our wants and values are influenced not only by marketers, but also byfamily, peer groups, religion, ethnic background, education and deep-seated needs that pre-datethe modern age. The pre-industrial age 1660–69 diaries of Samuel Pepys, the writings ofDr Johnson (1709–84) and Jane Austen’s (1775–1817) novels are littered with products thatwere desired and bestowed status. Also within Bronislaw Malinowski’s seminal work on fieldanthropology is the realisation that people’s status was based on jewellery traded across thePacific islands. The roots of our modern materialistic societies are much deeper than businessand mass media could produce alone. Dr Johnson even decoded and classified ‘puff’, meaningexaggeration, in advertising and selling. 17Too few social goodsBusiness is accused of overselling private goods at the expense of public goods. As private goodsincrease, they require more public services that are usually not forthcoming. For example, anincrease in car ownership (private good) requires more roads, traffic control, parking spaces andpolice services (public goods). The overselling of private goods results in ‘social costs’. For cars,the social costs include excessive traffic congestion, air pollution, fuel shortages and pedestrianinjuries from car accidents.81

Part 1 Marketing nowA way must be found to restore a balance between private and public goods. One option isto make producers bear the full social costs of their operations. Governments are also requiringcar manufacturers to build cars with even more safety features and better fuel efficiency. TheEuropean Commission’s end-of-life vehicles (ELV) directive already makes manufacturerspay for the cost of scrapping the cars they make. Car makers raise their prices to cover extracosts. If buyers found the price of some cars too high, however, the production woulddecline, and demand would move to those producers that could support both the privateand social costs.A second option is to make consumers pay the social costs. For example, highway authoritiesaround the world are starting to charge ‘congestion charges’ in an effort to reduce trafficcongestion.Countries such as Norway, the UK, France, Singapore and the US are managing traffic withvarying tolls. For example, to unclog its streets, the city of London now levies a congestioncharge of £10 (€15) per day per car to drive in an eight-square-mile area downtown. Thecharge has not only reduced traffic congestion by 30 per cent, it raises money to fund London’spublic transportation system. In southern California drivers are being charged premiums totravel in under-used car pool lanes. For example, San Diego has turned some of its HOV(high-occupancy vehicle) lanes into HOT (high-occupancy toll) lanes for drivers carrying toofew passengers. Regular drivers can use the HOV lanes, but they must pay tolls ranging from$0.50 (€0.37) off-peak to $4.00 (€3) during rush hour. Peak surcharges are being studied forroads around other American cities. Economists point out that traffic jams are caused whendrivers are not charged the costs they impose on others, such as delays. If the costs ofdriving rise high enough, consumers will travel at non-peak times or find alternativetransportation modes. In Singapore, drivers are charged for every move they make in thecity state’s central business district and the licence to buy a car on taxes makes the cost ofcar ownership several times European levels, yet people still drive classy Mercedes. ‘Make’em pay’ is part of making car drivers pay their full social cost but, whatever the price, peopledrive on. 18Cultural pollutionCritics charge the marketing system with creating cultural pollution. Our senses are assaultedconstantly by advertising. Commercials interrupt serious programmes; pages of ads obscureprinted matter; billboards mar beautiful scenery; spam fills our e-mail inboxes. These interruptionscontinuously pollute people’s minds with messages of materialism, sex, power or status.Children’s constant exposure to advertising, the protectionists argue, creates mercenary kids,experts in ‘pester power’, who force their downtrodden and beleaguered parents into spendingenormous sums of money on branded goods and the latest crazes. Although not everyone mayfind advertising overly annoying (some even think it is the best part of television programming),a recent study noted that 65 per cent of consumers feel bombarded with too many marketingmessages, and some critics call for sweeping changes. 19Marketers answer the charges of ‘commercial noise’ with these arguments. First, they hopethat their ads reach primarily the target audience. But because of mass-communication channels,some ads are bound to reach people who have no interest in the product and are therefore bored82

Chapter 2 Sustainable marketing: marketing ethics and social responsibilityor annoyed. People who buy magazines slanted towards their interests – such as Vogue, Bliss,Loaded, Heat or Fortune – rarely complain about the ads because the magazines advertise productsof interest to them.As for TV advertising’s influence on children, free marketers point to European research thatshows that parents and peers influence children more than advertising. Children are not emptyvessels helplessly vulnerable to marketers’ wiles. They are capable of absorbing and assimilatingadvertising messages, approaching commercials with a critical mind and drawing their ownverdict. 20 Moreover, advertisers argue that parents are responsible for managing their children’sexposure to marketing. Although children are hedonists, inclined to make impulse buys and lesslikely to make educated purchasing decisions, they have to start learning to distinguish truthfrom spin in advertising. Nevertheless, responsible marketers recognise that however hedonisticor naive they may be, children have long memories – deceive them and lose them as customersforever.Second, ads make much of television and radio free, keep down the cost of magazines andnewspapers and the cost of any place where advertising is allowed. Most people think commercialsare a small price to pay for these benefits. Finally, consumers have alternatives: they canzip and zap TV commercials or avoid them altogether on many cable and satellite channels.Thus to hold consumer attention, advertisers are making their ads more entertaining andinformative.Excessive political powerAnother criticism is that business wields too much political power. ‘Oil’, ‘tobacco’, ‘pharmaceuticals’,‘financial services’ and ‘alcohol’ have the support of important politicians who look after anindustry’s interests against the public interest. Advertisers are accused of holding too much powerover the mass media, limiting their freedom to report independently and objectively.“‘Oil’, ‘tobacco’, ‘pharmaceuticals’, ‘financial services’ and ‘alcohol’ have thesupport of important politicians who look after an industry’s interests againstthe public interest.“The aerospace industries showed their particular cosiness to politicians when Tony Blair’sgovernment prematurely terminated a UK Serious Fraud Office investigation into allegationsthat BAE might have bribed officials in Saudi Arabia to secure defence contracts. Britishpoliticians were shocked and Washington issued a formal protest. However, the intensity of USscrutiny only increased after BAE boosted its US profile with the $4.1bn (€3bn) purchase ofArmor Holdings – for the biggest maker of armour for Humvee transport vehicles. The scope ofthis investigation shows how many governments may be mixed up in dodgy arms deals. The USCongress is looking at the sale of two A-4N Skyhawk aircraft to the German Air Force, anagreement to upgrade Australian F/A-18 fighter jets, and an agreement between BAE andJapanese companies to make transporters. Swiss prosecutors are also investigating allegedmoney laundering relating to BAE Systems’ Saudi Arabia arms sales, and the UK’s Serious FraudOffice is still investigating the sale of BAE Hawk trainer aircraft and Saab Gripen fighters toSouth Africa.83

Part 1 Marketing nowBAE extricated themselves from troubled Airbus, but the French and German governmentsare at loggerheads over troubled EADS – Airbus’s maker. Nicolas Sarkozy launched hispresidency with a friendly dinner in Berlin with German chancellor Angela Merkel. According tothe Financial Times, it went well until the new French president served up the tricky subject ofEADS. Mr Sarkozy wants to resolve the infighting between the French and German camps at theEuropean aerospace group. He appeared ready to talk tough to the Germans and unlikely toaccept any more diplomatic dithering. The French themselves helped create the current crisis atEADS and its Airbus affiliate. The scandal surrounding the disgraced former French boss ofEADS and Airbus – Noël Forgeard – was largely due to Paris political interference. 21Industries and other pressure groups have a right to representation in Parliament and themass media, although their influence can become too great. Fortunately, many powerful businessinterests once thought to be untouchable have been tamed in the public interest. For example, inthe EU and the US, consumerism campaigns have resulted in legislation requiring the carindustry to build more safety into its cars and cigarette and food companies to put health warningson their packages. Also, because the media receive advertising revenues from many differentadvertisers, it is easier to resist the influence of one or a few of them. As with politics, freedom ofthe press is an essential counterweight to powerful organisations. In a free society, too muchpower tends to result in counter-forces that check and offset these powerful interests.Let us now take a look at the criticisms that business critics have levelled at companies’marketing practices.Marketing’s impact on other businessesCritics charge that marketing practices can harm other companies and reduce competition.Three problems are involved: acquisition of competitors, marketing practices that create barriersto entry, and unfair competitive marketing practices.Critics claim that firms are harmed and competition reduced when companies expand byacquiring competitors rather than by developing their own new products. The large numberof acquisitions and the rapid pace of industry consolidation over the past two decades havecaused concern that vigorous young competitors will be absorbed and that competition will bereduced. In virtually every major industry – retailing, financial services, utilities, transportation,motor vehicles, telecommunications, entertainment – the number of major competitors isshrinking.Consider the recent feeding frenzy of acquisitions in the food industry – Unilever’s buyingBestfoods, Philip Morris’s snatching Nabisco, Nestlé buying Gerber, Danone buying 49 percent of Denmark’s Aqua d’Or and declaring it is placing ‘more emphasis on acquisitions as away of growing faster’. 22Acquisition is a complex subject. Acquisitions can sometimes be good for society. Theacquiring company may gain economies of scale that lead to lower costs and lower prices.84

www.pearson.co.uk/kotlerChapter 2 Sustainable marketing: marketing ethics and social responsibilityA well-managed company may take over a poorly managed company and improve its efficiency.An industry that was not very competitive might become more competitive after the acquisition.But acquisitions can also be harmful and are therefore closely regulated by some governmentsand competition (or mergers and monopolies) commissions. Badly implemented, they can alsodamage the reputation of a well-respected company and write off a huge amount of wealth, asdid the Daimler Chrysler merger. 23Critics have also claimed that marketing practices bar new companies from entering anindustry. The use of patents and heavy promotion spending can tie up suppliers or dealers tokeep out or drive out competitors. Those concerned with antitrust regulation recognise thatsome barriers are the natural result of the economic advantages of doing business on a largescale. Other barriers could be challenged by existing and new laws. For example, some criticshave proposed a progressive tax on advertising spending to reduce the role of selling costs as asubstantial barrier to entry.Finally, some firms have in fact used unfair competitive marketing practices with the intentionof hurting or destroying other firms. They may set their prices below costs, threaten to cut offbusiness with suppliers, or discourage the buying of a competitor’s products. Various laws workto prevent such predatory competition. It is difficult, however, to prove that the intent or actionwas really predatory.Recently, Microsoft felt the impact of EU antitrust regulators seeking to balance theinterests of their scale and influence. The EU threatened Microsoft Corporation with fines ofup to €3m a day, claiming the software giant had failed to live up to promises for providinginformation that could help rivals make servers compatible with Windows. 24Although competitors and governments charge that the actions of companies are predatoryand illegal, others question whether this is unfair competition or the healthy competition of amore efficient company against the less efficient ones. 25Citizen and public actions toregulate marketingKEY CONCEPTBecause some people view business as the cause of many economic and social ills, grassrootsmovements have arisen from time to time to keep business in line. The two main movementshave been consumerism and environmentalism.Consumer movementsWestern business firms have been the targets of organised consumer movements on three occasions.The first has its origins in the early 1900s, fuelled by rising prices and Upton Sinclair’s 1906novel, The Jungle, that was an exposé of the dreadful conditions in the Chicago meat industry thatprovide branded canned food across the world. A drug scandal and price increases during the1930s Great Depression sparked the second consumer movement. The third began in the 1960s.Consumers had become better educated, products had become more complex and potentially85

Part 1 Marketing nowhazardous, and people were unhappy with Western institutions. Ralph Nader appeared on thescene in the 1960s to force many issues, and other well-known writers accused big business ofwasteful and unethical practices. President John F. Kennedy and other Western politiciansdeclared that consumers have the right to safety and to be informed, to choose and to be heard.The consumer movement has spread internationally and has become very strong in Europe. 26Consumerism—Anorganised movement ofcitizens and governmentagencies to improve therights and power ofbuyers in relation tosellers.“. . . equating personal happiness with purchasing material possessions andconsumption.But what is the consumer movement? Karl Marx and Thorstein Veblen used consumerismto describe the effects of equating personal happiness with purchasing material possessions andconsumption. Consumerism is now more often used to describe an organised movement ofcitizens and government agencies to improve the rights and power of buyers in relation tosellers. Traditional sellers’ rights include:●●●●●The right to introduce any product in any size and style, provided it is not hazardous topersonal health or safety; or, if it is, to include proper warnings and controls.The right to charge any price for the product, provided no discrimination exists amongsimilar kinds of buyer.The right to spend any amount to promote the product, provided it is not defined as unfaircompetition.The right to use any product message, provided it is not misleading or dishonest in contentor execution.The right to use any buying incentive schemes, provided they are not unfair or misleading.Traditional buyers’ rights include:●●●The right not to buy a product that is offered for sale.The right to expect the product to be safe.The right to expect the product to perform as claimed.Comparing these rights, many believe that the balance of power lies on the sellers’ side. True, thebuyer can refuse to buy. But critics feel that the buyer has too little information, education andprotection to make wise decisions when facing sophisticated sellers. Consumer advocates call forthe following additional consumer rights:●●●The right to be well informed about important aspects of the product.The right to be protected against questionable products and marketing practices.The right to influence products and marketing practices in ways that will improve the‘quality of life’.Each proposed right has led to more specific proposals by consumerists. The right to be informedincludes the right to know the true interest on a loan (truth in lending), the true cost per unit of abrand (unit pricing), the ingredients in a product (ingredient labelling), the nutrition in foods(nutritional labelling), product freshness (open dating) and the true benefits of a product (truth inadvertising). Proposals related to consumer protection include strengthening consumer rights incases of business fraud, requiring greater product safety, ensuring information privacy and givingmore power to government agencies. Proposals relating to quality of life include controlling theingredients that go into certain products and packaging, reducing the level of advertising ‘noise’ andputting consumer representatives on company boards to protect consumer interests.Consumers have not only the right but also the responsibility to protect themselves instead ofleaving this function to someone else. Consumers who believe that they got a bad deal have“86

Chapter 2 Sustainable marketing: marketing ethics and social responsibilityseveral remedies available, including contacting the company or the media, contacting governmentor private consumer-interest/protection bodies or agencies, going to small-claims courts, ororganising consumer boycotts.Thomas Clarkson, a founder of the Society for Effecting the Abolition of Slavery in 1787,organised what was probably the first ever consumer boycott. It was against slave-grownsugar and aimed to bring home to Britons that they were paying a dreadful price in humancruelty for indulging a sweet tooth. At one time more than 300,000 people joined the boycott thatwas also designed to hit the profits of the plantation owners. It inspired a parliamentarymovement against slavery, recruiting William Wilberforce, who brought bills before Parliament toabolish the slave trade until one was passed in 1807.Over 200 years later Nike faced an anti-sweatshop protest. They initially denied responsibilityat contractors’ factories, but subsequently became a leader in an attempt to establishindependent factory monitoring and promote labour rights, including the freedom for its 800,000workers worldwide to form and join trade unions. Other companies, including Reebok and LeviStrauss, have since followed Nike’s lead. 27The advent of electronic communication has made it possible for consumers to gain masssupport and time their intervention powerfully. So powerful can these movements be thatcompanies have rated reputation loss as the greatest risk they face. 28EnvironmentalismWhereas consumerists consider whether the marketing system is efficiently serving consumerwants, environmentalists are concerned with marketing’s effects on the environment and thecosts of serving consumer needs and wants. Environmentalism is an organised movement ofconcerned citizens and government agencies to protect and improve people’s living environment.Environmentalists are not against marketing and consumption; they simply want people andorganisations to operate with more care for the environment. They assert that the marketingsystem’s goal is not to maximise consumption, consumer choice or consumer satisfaction, butrather to maximise life quality. ‘Life quality’ means not only the quantity and quality ofconsumer goods and services, but also the quality of the environment. Environmentalists wantenvironmental costs to be included in both producer and consumer decision making.The first wave of modern environmentalism was driven by fringe environmental groups, suchas Greenpeace, and concerned consumers in the 1960s and 1970s. They were concerned withdamage to the ecosystem caused by strip mining, forest depletion, acid rain, loss of the atmosphere’sozone layer, toxic wastes, whaling and landfills. They were also concerned with the loss ofrecreational areas and with the increase in health problems caused by bad air, polluted water andchemically treated food.The second wave was driven by governments, which passed laws and regulations during the1970s and 1980s governing industrial practices impacting the environment. This wave hit someindustries hard. Chemical and steel companies and utilities had to invest in pollution-controlequipment and costlier (but cleaner) fuels. The car industry had to introduce expensive emissioncontrols in cars. The packaging industry has had to find ways to reduce litter. These industriesand others have often resented and resisted environmental regulations, especially when they havebeen imposed too rapidly to allow companies to make proper adjustments. Many of thesecompanies claim they have had to absorb large costs that have made them less competitive.Environmentalism—Anorganised movement ofconcerned citizens andgovernment agencies toprotect and improvepeople’s livingenvironment.87

Environmental campaigns are gaining popularity. This campaign urges the British public to make the effort to recycle their glass bottles andjars by disposing of them at bottle banks.SOURCE: Advertising Archives.88

Chapter 2 Sustainable marketing: marketing ethics and social responsibilityThe first two environmentalism waves have now merged into a third and stronger wave inwhich companies are accepting responsibility for doing no harm to the environment. They areshifting from protest to prevention, and from regulation to responsibility. More and morecompanies are adopting environmental sustainability. Simply put, environmental sustainabilityis about generating profits while helping to save the planet. However, sustainability is a crucialbut difficult goal.Environmental sustainability—Amanagementapproach that involvesdeveloping strategies thatboth sustain the environmentand produce profitsfor the company.Aviva make themselves moreattractive by ‘becoming thefirst insurer to go carbonneutral worldwide’. It is goodbusiness logic ‘to make surethere is a future’ to dobusiness.89

Part 1 Marketing nowJohn Browne, chairman of giant oil company BP, asked this question: ‘Is genuine progressstill possible? Is development sustainable? Or is one strand of progress – industrialisation –now doing such damage to the environment that the next generation won’t have a world worthliving in? Browne sees the situation as an opportunity. BP broke ranks with the oil industry onenvironmental issues. BP once stood for British Petroleum. That changed to Beyond Petroleum.‘There are good commercial reasons to do right by the environment,’ says Browne. Under hisleadership, Beyond Petroleum has become active in public forums on global climate issues andhas worked to reduce emissions in exploration and production. It has begun marketing cleanerfuels and invested significantly in exploring alternative energy sources, such as photovoltaicpower and hydrogen. At the local level, BP recently opened ‘the world’s most environmentallyfriendly service station’. 29Some companies have responded to consumer environmental concerns by doing only what isrequired to avert new regulations or to keep environmentalists quiet. Enlightened companies,however, are taking action not because someone is forcing them to, or to reap short-run profits,but because it is the right thing to do – both for the company and for the planet’s environmentalfuture.Figure 2.1 shows a grid that companies can use to gauge their progress towards environmentalsustainability. At the most basic level, a company can practise pollution prevention. This involvesmore than pollution control – cleaning up waste after it has been created. Pollution preventionmeans eliminating or minimising waste before it is created. Companies emphasising preventionhave responded with ‘green marketing’ programmes – developing ecologically safer products,recyclable and biodegradable packaging, better pollution controls and more energy-efficientoperations.Figure 2.1 The environmentalsustainability gridSOURCE: Harvard BusinessSchool Publishing. Reprinted bypermission of Harvard BusinessReview, figure of TheSustainability Portfolio, from‘Beyond Greening: strategies fora sustainable world’ by StuartHart, Jan–Feb 1997. Copyright© 1996 by the Harvard BusinessSchool Publishing Corporation;all rights reserved.90

Chapter 2 Sustainable marketing: marketing ethics and social responsibility●Ricoh is aiming at zero waste in their plant and has cut waste to landfill by over92 per cent since introducing a waste management system in 2001. Wastemanagement costs fell by over 62 per cent, despite increases in landfill taxand waste carriage charges.●●Nike produces PVC-free shoes, recycles old sneakers and educates young people aboutconservation, reuse and recycling.VW is investing in low-emission diesels. Already their new Polo BlueMotion diesel modelemits less carbon dioxide per kilometre than Toyota’s top-selling Prius hybrid and costs alot less to make. 30At the next level, companies can practise product stewardship – minimising not just pollutionfrom production but all environmental impacts throughout the full product life cycle, and all thewhile reducing costs. Many companies are adopting design for environment (DFE) practices,which involve thinking ahead in the design stage to create products that are easier to recover,reuse or recycle. DFE not only helps to sustain the environment; it can be highly profitable forthe company:●Xerox Corporation’s Equipment Remanufacture and Parts Reuse Programme convertsend-of-life office equipment into new products and parts. Equipment returned to Xeroxcan be remanufactured reusing 70 to 90 per cent by weight of old machine components,while still meeting performance standards for equipment made with all new parts. Theprogramme creates benefits for both the environment and the company. It preventswaste from entering landfills and reduces the amount of raw material and energyneeded to produce new parts. Energy savings from parts reuse total an estimated320,000 megawatt hours annually – enough energy to light more than 250,000 homesfor a year.●Among many other actions, the Tesco supermarket chain aims to give consumers clearinformation about the carbon cost of each product it sells – looking at its complete life cyclefrom production through distribution to consumption. 31At the third level of environmental sustainability, companies look to the future and plan fornew environmental technologies. Many organisations that have made good headway in pollutionprevention and product stewardship are still limited by existing technologies. To develop fullysustainable strategies, they will need to develop new technologies. For example, detergent manufacturershave developed laundry products for low-temperature washing. Some have embarkedon a ‘wash right’ campaign which promotes the virtues of low-temperature washing by emphasisingthe benefits to the clothes as well as energy savings.91

Part 1 Marketing nowWal-Mart is doing this too. It recently opened two experimental superstores designed to testdozens of environmentally friendly and energy-efficient technologies: 32A 143-foot-tall wind turbine stands outside one Wal-Mart Supercenter. Incongruous as itmight seem, it is clearly a sign that something about the store is different. On the outside,the store’s façade features row upon row of windows to allow in as much natural light aspossible. The landscaping uses native, drought-tolerant plants cutting down on watering,mowing, and the amount of fertiliser and other chemicals needed. Inside the store, an efficienthigh-output linear fluorescent lighting system saves enough electricity annually from this storealone to supply the needs of 52 single-family homes. The store’s heating system burns recoveredcooking oil from the deli’s fryers that is mixed with waste engine oil from the store’s Tire andLube Express. All organic waste, including produce, meats and paper, is placed in an organicwaste compactor, which is then hauled off to a company that turns it into garden mulch. Wal-Mart’s environmental goals are to use 100 per cent renewable energy, to create zero waste, andto sell products that sustain its resources and environment. Moreover, Wal-Mart is eagerlyspreading the word by encouraging visitors – even from competing companies: ‘This is notsomething we’re keeping to ourselves. We want everyone to know about it.’Finally, companies can develop a sustainability vision, which serves as a guide to the future. Itshows how the company’s products and services, processes and policies must evolve and whatnew technologies must be developed to get there. This vision of sustainability provides a frameworkfor pollution control, product stewardship and environmental technology.●Tesco aims to be leader in helping to create a low-carbon economy. Sir Terry Leahy,Tesco’s CEO, champions a sustainable vision: ‘I listen when the scientists say that, if wefail to mitigate climate change, the environmental, social and economic consequenceswill be stark and severe. This has profound implications for all of us, for our children,and for our children’s children.’●BSkyB decided to become carbon neutral in January 2007 and succeeded within six monthsthrough an effort across the whole organisation. But like Tesco, their aim is to educate as wellas act: ‘We saw the policy as part of a push to educate customers to reduce their impact onthe environment.’ Once sceptical Rupert Murdoch, chairman and chief executive of NewsCorporation which owns BSkyB, says that the rest of his media empire will now followBSkyB’s lead.However, most companies today still focus on the lower-left quadrant of the grid in Figure 2.1,investing most heavily in pollution prevention. Some forward-looking companies practise productstewardship and are developing new environmental technologies. Few companies have welldefinedsustainability visions. Emphasising only one or a few cells in the environmental sustainabilitygrid in Figure 2.1 can be shortsighted. For example, investing only in the bottom half of thegrid puts a company in a good position today but leaves it vulnerable in the future. In contrast, aheavy emphasis on the top half suggests that a company has good environmental vision but lacksthe skills needed to implement it. Thus, companies should work at developing all four dimensionsof environmental sustainability.92

Chapter 2 Sustainable marketing: marketing ethics and social responsibilityAlcoa, the world’s leading producer of aluminium, is doing just that. For two yearsrunning, it has been one of three companies singled out by Global 100 for superior sustainabilityexcellence:Alcoa has distinguished itself as a leader through its sophisticated approach to identifyingand managing the material sustainability risks that it faces as a company. From pollutionprevention via greenhouse gas emissions reduction programs to engaging stakeholders overnew environmental technology, such as controversial hydropower projects, Alcoa has thesustainability strategies in place needed to meld its profitability objectives with society’s largerenvironmental protection goals . . . . Importantly, Alcoa’s approach to sustainability is firmlyrooted in the idea that sustainability programs can indeed add financial value. Perhaps the bestevidence is the company’s efforts to promote the use of aluminum in transportation, wherealuminum – with its excellent strength-to-weight ratio – is making inroads as a material ofchoice that allows automakers to build low-weight, fuel-efficient vehicles that produce fewertailpipe emissions. This kind of forward-thinking strategy of supplying the market with theproducts that will help solve pressing global environmental problems shows a company that seesthe future, has plotted a course, and is aligning its business accordingly. Says CEO Alain Belda,‘Our values require us to think and act not only on the present challenges, but also with thelegacy in mind that we leave for those who will come after us . . . as well as the commitmentsmade by those that came before us.’ 33Environmentalism creates special challenges for global marketers. As international tradebarriers come down and global markets expand, environmental issues will continue to have anever-greater impact on international trade. Global companies have to operate in accordance withstringent environment regulations that are being developed in countries across North America,Western Europe and other developed regions.For example, the EU has ‘end-of-life’ regulations affecting cars and consumer electronicsproducts, and the EU’s Eco-Management and Audit Scheme provides guidelines for environmentalself-regulation. However, environmental policies still vary widely from country tocountry and uniform worldwide standards are not expected for many years. The EU wants toincrease recycling, with landfill disposal 25 per cent lower in 2010 than it was in 1995 and 65 percent lower by 2020. Across Europe the level of compliance varies hugely. The Netherlands issuper-clean in already recycling more than 60 per cent of household waste, but Portugal andGreece manage less than 10 per cent. 34Although countries such as Denmark, Germany and Japan have fully developed environmentalpolicies and high public expectations, major countries such as China, India, Brazil andRussia are only in the early stages of developing such policies. Moreover, environmental factorsthat motivate consumers in one country may have no impact on consumers in another. Forexample, PVC soft-drink bottles cannot be used in Switzerland or Germany. However, they arepreferred in France, which has an extensive recycling process for them. Thus, internationalcompanies are finding it difficult to develop standard environmental practices that work aroundthe world. Instead, they are creating general policies, and then translating these policies intotailored programmes that meet local regulations and expectations.Marketers’ lives will become more complicated. They must raise prices to cover environmentalcosts, knowing that the product will be harder to sell. Yet environmental issues have become soimportant in our society that there is no turning back to the time when few managers worriedabout the effects of product and marketing decisions on environmental quality.93

Part 1 Marketing nowLaw of UnintendedConsequences—Therecognition that almost allhuman actions haveunforeseen outcomes.Unforeseen consequencesThe Law of Unintended Consequences encapsulates the recognition that almost all humanactions have at least one unintended consequence. With its origins in the Scottish Enlightenment,it is not a law in the legal sense but the realisation that each cause has more than one effect,including unforeseen consequences. Global warming is an unforeseen consequence of ourlifestyle – central heating, air-conditioning, lighting our homes, leaving electrical appliances onstandby, gap years in Australia . . .“Global warming is an unforeseen consequence of our lifestyle.“Our environment is complicated, so any intervention often has consequences we do not like.Early Australian settlers introduced rabbits to the continent as a familiar food source where theflora and fauna were unfamiliar. With no natural predators, rabbits multiplied uncontrollably andcreated deserts where they overgrazed on local plants. In response the settlers introduced foxes tokeep down the rabbit population. Unfortunately the European fox found Australian marsupials easiermeat than rabbits so, as the rabbit and fox populations soared, local plant and animal life declined.It looked like a great improvement when, in the 1930s, it was realised that non-toxic, nonflammablechlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were a substitute for the deadly refrigerants used inearly refrigerators – and great stuff to power aerosols too. Not until the 1970s did scientistsrealise that the CFC release had the potential to destroy the ozone layer and therefore exposemillions of people to higher levels of cancer-causing ultraviolet radiation.We are now facing some of the unforeseen consequences of reacting to the dangers of globalwarming. Biofuels seem a green alternative to releasing the carbon dioxide tied up in fossil fuels,like oil. This appears to be true of ethanol produced from sugar cane grown in the tropics butless true of ethanol made from corn, as being promoted in the US. This uses so much energy inmanufacture that it probably adds to global warming and the sudden allocation of corn toethanol production is forcing up food prices. The price rises caused major riots in Mexico andcommodity prices are pushing up food prices worldwide. Western economies can absorb theincreased cost of food, but what of poor people in the Third World?Biodiesel, a popular European solution to global warming, has its own unintended consequences.Rainforests in the tropics are being chopped down to create palm oil plantations.That was not the intention. Just as global warming is an unintended consequence of affluence,so intertwined are the global environment and economy that simple interventions designed toreduce the problem can have unforeseen consequences that bite back. 35Fortunately, not all unforeseen circumstances are bad. Pfizer found that a side-effect of usingtheir anti-angina treatment UK-92480 for old people also treated impotence, hence Viagra. It hasnow been found that Viagra may accelerate recovery from jet-lag. Regain, which helps the hairgrowth of balding people, was also discovered as an unexpected benefit of taking a product tofend off heart attacks. 3694

Chapter 2 Sustainable marketing: marketing ethics and social responsibilityPublic actions to regulate marketingCitizen concerns about marketing practices will usually lead to public attention and legislativeproposals. New bills will be debated – many will be defeated, others will be modified and a fewwill become workable laws. Many laws affect marketing practices. As we will discuss in Chapter 3,companies operating within the EU are bound by several layers of laws and regulatory bodies.National laws are designed to regulate local marketing and business practices. In addition, businesseshave to comply with EU competition and consumer laws enforced by the EuropeanCommission to ensure fair competition and to protect consumer rights. The task is to translatethese laws into the language that marketing executives understand as they make decisions aboutcompetitive relations, products, price, promotion and channels of distribution. Figure 2.2illustrates the principal legal issues facing marketing management.‘Ethical consumption is perhaps the biggest movement in branding today,’ according to GfKNOP market research group. Its share of individual markets is relatively tiny although itsinfluence is seen behind the sales of Toyota’s hybrid, L’Oréal’s €1bn acquisition of troubledBody Shop and the huge growth of organic food and drink sales. But the problem, GfK NOPconcluded from their five-nation study, is that consumers are confused. The public is not surewhat an ethical brand actually is. There are so many angles to being ethical. In food labelling, isit locally grown, organic or subject to fair trade agreements? In beauty, is it free from animaltesting or produced from ‘natural’ ingredients? Or, maybe products that are fuel-efficient,recycled, produced in unionised work conditions or not linked to the tobacco or arms industries?Selling decisionsBribing?Stealing trade secrets?Disparaging customers?Misrepresenting?Disclosure of customerrights?Unfair discrimination?Advertising decisionsFalse advertising?Deceptive advertising?Bait-and-switch advertising?Promotional allowances andservices?Channel decisionsExclusive dealing?Exclusive territorialdistributorship?Tying agreements?Dealer’s rights?Product decisionsProduct additions anddeletions?Patent protection?Product quality andsafety?Product warranty?Packaging decisionsFair packaging andlabelling?Excessive cost?Scarce resources?Pollution?Price decisionsPrice fixing?Predatory pricing?Price discrimination?Minimum pricing?Price increases?Deceptive pricing?Figure 2.2 Legal issues facingmarketing managementCompetitive relations decisionsAnticompetitive acquisition?Barriers to entry?Predatory competition?95

www.pearson.co.uk/kotlerPart 1 Marketing now●●●The study of 5,000 consumers found international differences:Germans felt that ‘business ethics had worsened’.The more optimistic British thought that supporting ethical brands could help makecompanies more accountable but were wary that ethical brands were for ‘people with money’.French were more likely than US respondents to prioritise environmental issues.● Spaniards were enthusiastic about ethical food and beauty, but scoffed hype. 37“Consumers are confused. The public is not sure what an ethical brand actually is.Having discussed citizen and public actions to regulate marketing, we will next examine thebusiness actions towards socially responsible marketing that lead to different philosophies ofenlightened marketing and the fostering of marketing ethics.“KEY CONCEPTBusiness actions towards sociallyresponsible marketingEnlightened marketing—A marketing philosophyholding that a company’smarketing should supportthe best long-run performanceof the marketingsystem; its five principlesare consumer-orientedmarketing, innovativemarketing, valuemarketing, sense-ofmissionmarketing andsocietal marketing.Consumer-orientedmarketing—The philosophyof enlightenedmarketing that holds thatthe company should viewand organise itsmarketing activities fromthe consumers’ point ofview.At first, many companies opposed consumerism and environmentalism. They thought the criticismswere either unfair or unimportant. But, by now, most companies have grown to embracethe new consumer rights, at least in principle. They might oppose certain pieces of legislationas inappropriate ways to solve specific consumer problems, but they recognise the consumer’sright to information and protection. Many of these companies have responded positively toconsumerism and environmentalism in order to create greater customer value and to strengthencustomer relationships.Enlightened marketingThe philosophy of enlightened marketing holds that a company’s marketing should support thebest long-run performance of the marketing system. Enlightened marketing consists of fiveprinciples: consumer-oriented marketing, customer-value marketing, innovative marketing,sense-of-mission marketing and societal marketing.Consumer-oriented marketingConsumer-oriented marketing means that the company views and organises its marketing activitiesfrom the consumer’s point of view. It works hard to sense, serve and satisfy the needs of adefined group of customers. Good marketing companies tend to have one thing in common – anall-consuming passion for delivering superior value to carefully chosen customers. Only by seeing theworld through its customers’ eyes can the company build lasting and profitable customer relationships.Value marketingAccording to the principle of customer-value marketing, the company should put most of itsresources into value-building marketing investments. Many things marketers do – one-shot salespromotions, minor packaging changes, direct-response advertising – may raise sales in the shortrun, but add less value than would actual improvements in the product’s quality, features or96

Chapter 2 Sustainable marketing: marketing ethics and social responsibilityconvenience. Enlightened marketing calls for building long-run consumer loyalty and relationships,by continually improving the value that consumers receive from the firm’s market offering.By creating value for customers, the company can capture value from consumers in return.Innovative marketingThe principle of innovative marketing requires that the company continuously seek real productand marketing improvements. The company that overlooks new and better ways to do things willeventually lose customers to another company that has found a better way.An excellent example of an innovative marketer is Samsung Electronics:Samsung Electronics, a subsidiary of South Korea’s largest conglomerate, started as acopycat consumer electronics brand you bought off a shipping pallet at discount stores if youcouldn’t afford a Sony. But today, the brand holds a high-end, cutting-edge aura. In 1996,Samsung Electronics made an inspired decision. It turned its back on cheap knock-offs and setout to overtake rival Sony. The company hired fresh, young designers, who unleashed a torrent ofnew products – sleek, bold and beautiful products targeted to high-end users. Samsung calledthem ‘lifestyle works of art’ – from brightly coloured mobile phones and elegantly thin DVDplayers to flat-panel TV monitors. Every new product had to pass the ‘Wow!’ test: if it didn’t get a‘Wow!’ reaction during market testing, it went straight back to the design studio.Samsung also changed its distribution to match its new caché. It initially abandoned low-enddistributors, instead building strong relationships with speciality retailers. Interbrand calculatesthat Samsung is the world’s fastest growing brand over the past five years. It’s the world leaderin CDMA cellphones and battling for the number-two spot in total handsets sold. It’s also No. 1worldwide in colour TVs, flash memory and LCD panels. ‘Samsung’s performance continues toastound brand watchers,’ says one analyst. The company has become a model for others that‘want to shift from being a cheap supplier to a global brand.’ Says a Samsung designer, ‘We’renot el cheapo anymore.’ 38Customer-valuemarketing—A principle ofenlightened marketingthat holds that a companyshould put most of itsresources into customervalue-building marketinginvestments.Innovative marketing—Aprinciple of enlightenedmarketing which requiresthat a company seek realproduct and marketingimprovements.Sense-of-mission marketingSense-of-mission marketing means that the company should define its mission in broad socialterms rather than narrow product terms. When a company defines a social mission, employeesfeel better about their work and have a clearer sense of direction. Brands linked with broadermissions can serve the best long-run interests of both the brand and consumers. For example,Dove wants to do more than just sell its beauty-care products. It’s on a mission to discover ‘realbeauty’ and to help women be happy just the way they are.Some companies define their overall corporate missions in broad societal terms.Sense-of-missionmarketing—A principle ofenlightened marketingwhich holds that acompany should define itsmission in broad socialterms rather than narrowproduct terms.For example, defined in narrow product terms, the mission of Unilever’s Ben & Jerry’s unitmight be ‘to sell ice cream’. However, Ben & Jerry’s states its mission more broadly, as oneof ‘linked prosperity’, including product, economic and social missions. From its beginnings,Ben & Jerry’s championed a host of social and environmental causes, and it donated a whopping7.5 per cent of pretax profits to support worthy causes. By the mid-1990s, Ben & Jerry’s hadbecome the [US] nation’s number-two superpremium ice cream brand. However, having a‘double bottom line’ of values and profits is no easy proposition. Throughout the 1990s, as97

Part 1 Marketing nowcompetitors not shackled by ‘principles before profits’ missions invaded its markets, Ben &Jerry’s growth and profits flattened. In 2000, after several years of less than stellar financialreturns, Ben & Jerry’s was acquired by giant food producer Unilever. Looking back, the companyappears to have focused too much on social issues at the expense of sound businessmanagement. [Co-founder Ben] Cohen once commented, ‘There came a time when I had toadmit “I’m a businessman.” And I had a hard time mouthing those words.’ 39Such experiences taught the socially responsible business movement some hard lessons. Theresult is a new generation of activist entrepreneurs – not social activists with big hearts who hatecapitalism, but well-trained business managers and company builders with a passion for a cause.For example, consider the US company Honest Tea:Honest Tea has a social mission. ‘We strive to live up to our name in the way we conduct ourbusiness,’ states the company’s ‘philoso-tea’. ‘We do this in every way we can – whether weare working with growers and suppliers, answering our customers’ questions, or trying to leavea lighter environmental footprint.’ It all starts with a socially responsible product, an ‘HonestTea’ – tasty, barely sweetened, and made from all-natural ingredients, many purchased frompoorer communities seeking to become more self-sufficient. But unlike old revolutionaries likeBen and Jerry, Honest Tea’s founders are businesspeople – and proud of it – who appreciatesolid business training. Co-founder Seth Goldman won a business-plan competition as a studentat business school and later started the company with one of his professors.Honest Tea’s managers know that good deeds alone don’t work. They are just as dedicatedto building a viable, profitable business as to shaping a mission. For Honest Tea, socialresponsibility is not about marketing and hype. It goes about its good deeds quietly. A few yearsago, Honest Tea became the first company to sell a Fair Trade bottled tea – every time thecompany purchases the tea for its Peach Oo-la-long tea, a donation is made to the workerswho pick the tea leaves. The workers invest the money in their community for a variety of uses,including a computer lab for children in the village and a fund for families. Royalties from salesof Honest Tea’s First Nation Peppermint tea go to I’tchik Herbal Tea, a small woman-ownedcompany on the Crow Native Indian Reservation in Montana, USA, and the Pretty ShieldFoundation, which includes foster care among its activities. However, ‘when we first brought outour peppermint tea, our label didn’t mention that we were sharing the revenues with the CrowNation,’ says Goldman. ‘We didn’t want people to think that was a gimmick.’ 40Thus, today’s new activist entrepreneurs are not social activists with big hearts, but welltrainedbusiness managers and company builders with a passion for a cause.Societal marketingFollowing the principle of societal marketing, an enlightened company makes marketing decisionsby considering consumers’ wants and long-run interests, the company’s requirements and society’slong-run interests. The company is aware that neglecting consumer and societal long-term interestsis a disservice to consumers and society. Alert companies view societal problems as opportunities.In many cases customer needs, customer wants and customer long-run interests are the samethings, and customers are the best judges of what is good for them. However, customers do not98

Chapter 2 Sustainable marketing: marketing ethics and social responsibilityinvariably choose to do what’s good for them. People want to eat fatty food, which is bad fortheir health; some people want to smoke cigarettes knowing that smoking can kill them anddamage the environment for others; many enjoy drinking alcohol despite its ill-health effects. Tocontrol some of the potential evils of marketing, there has to be access to the media for thecounter-argument – against smoking, against fatty foods, against alcohol. There is also a need forregulation – self if not statutory – to check unsavoury demand.A second problem is that what consumers want is sometimes at odds with societal welfare. Ifmarketing’s job is to fulfil customers’ wants, unsavoury desires leave marketers with a dilemma.Consumers want the convenience and prestige of hardwood window frames, doors and furniture,but society would also like to keep the Amazon rainforest; consumers want the comfort of centralEuropeans now have theincome, automobiles andaccess to cheap food that nowallows them to challengeAmerica’s obesity. The lazy orindulgent lifestyle also createsmarket opportunities.99

Part 1 Marketing nowDeficient products—Products that have neitherimmediate appeal norlong-term benefits.Pleasing products—Products that give highimmediate satisfaction butmay hurt consumers inthe long run.Salutary products—Products that have lowappeal but may benefitconsumers in the longrun.Desirable products—Products that giveboth high immediatesatisfaction and highlong-run benefits.heating and air-conditioning, yet we need to conserve energy; the growing number of cars on theroad, not least a fast-rising source of carbon emissions, overwhelm the benefits of improved fuelefficiency, but few bother to reduce car ownership per household. Marketing has to be more alertto the inconsistencies between consumer wants and society’s welfare. Where there is insufficientdrive from within the consumer movement and consumers’ own sense of responsibility,marketers would do better to control or regulate their own behaviour in providing undesirablegoods or services for society at large. If not, legislation is likely to do that for them.“What consumers want is sometimes at odds with societal welfare.A societally oriented marketer wants to design products that are not only pleasing but alsobeneficial. The difference is shown in Figure 2.3. Products can be classified according to theirdegree of immediate consumer satisfaction and long-run consumer benefit. Deficient products,such as bad-tasting and ineffective medicine, have neither immediate appeal nor long-run benefits.Pleasing products give high immediate satisfaction but may hurt consumers in the long run.Examples include cigarettes and junk food. Salutary products have low appeal but may benefitconsumers in the long run – for instance, seat belts and air bags. Desirable products give both highimmediate satisfaction and high long-run benefits, such as a tasty and nutritious breakfast food.Examples of desirable products abound. Philips Lighting’s Earth Light compact fluorescentlight bulb provides good lighting while giving long life and energy savings. Toyota’s hybrid Priusgives both a quiet ride and fuel efficiency. An interesting feature of economic development is thatthe energy needed to generate each unit of output declines as wealth increases. There are severalreasons for this: the shift towards services, the use of more efficient manufacturing, the compressionof more value into added-value products, and technological advance. The iPod is awonderful example of a desirable product that has huge environmental benefits:“In World War II recorded music was not available because the shellac used in making shortlived78 rpm discs was a strategic material. That is unsurprising given that shellac camefrom the secretion of the lac insect found only in the forests of Assam and Thailand! Shortlyafter the advent of rock’n’roll in the 1950s, the 5-inch 45 rpm and long-playing albums weremade of much less expensive and longer lasting vinyl. Suddenly good recordings could be madefor less. Then came unattractive cassette, everlasting streams of which often decoratedroadsides. At last came almost indestructible and crackle-free CDs in their perfectly destructiblecases. Now, the taste for a piece of music wore out before the record. Finally, with the MP3player with electronic downloads comes the ability to carry around weeks of music that wouldhave taken a truckload of 78s to store.Figure 2.3 Societalclassification of new products100

Chapter 2 Sustainable marketing: marketing ethics and social responsibilitySome technologicalinnovations can have hugeenvironmental benefits. A Zenis produced with a fractionof the environmental impactof a boom box or even a CDWalkman; electronicallystored music is more environmentallyfriendly than CD,tapes or vinyl and electronicallystored photos do notconsume paper or chemicals.Companies should try to turn all of their products into desirable products. The challengeposed by pleasing products is that they sell very well, but may end up hurting the consumer. Theproduct opportunity, therefore, is to add long-run benefits without reducing the product’spleasing qualities. The challenge posed by salutary products is to add some pleasing qualities sothat they will become more desirable in the consumers’ minds.101

Part 1 Marketing nowMarketing ethicsConscientious marketers, however, face many moral dilemmas. The best thing to do is oftenunclear. Because not all managers have fine moral sensitivity, companies need to developcorporate marketing ethics policies – broad guidelines that everyone in the organisation mustfollow. They cover distributor relations, advertising standards, customer service, pricing, productdevelopment and general ethical standards.The finest guidelines cannot resolve all the difficult ethical situations the marketer faces.Table 2.1 lists some difficult ethical situations marketers could face during their careers. Ifmarketers choose immediate sales-producing actions in all these cases, their marketing behaviourmight well be described as immoral or even amoral. If they refuse to go along with any of theTable 2.1 Some morallydifficult situations inmarketing1. You work for a cigarette company. Public policy debates over many years leave no doubt inyour mind that cigarette smoking and cancer are closely linked. Although your companycurrently runs an ‘if you don’t smoke, don’t start’ promotion campaign, you believe that othercompany promotions might encourage young (although legal age) non-smokers to pick up thehabit. What would you do?2. Your R&D department has changed one of your products slightly. It is not really ‘new andimproved’, but you know that putting this statement on the package and in advertising willincrease sales. What would you do?3. You have been asked to add a stripped-down model to your line that could be advertised topull customers into the store. The product won’t be very good, but salespeople will be able toswitch buyers up to higher-priced units. You are asked to give the green light for the strippeddownversion. What would you do?4. You are thinking of hiring a product manager who has just left a competitor’s company. Shewould be more than happy to tell you all the competitor’s plans for the coming year. Whatwould you do?5. One of your top dealers in an important territory recently has had family troubles and hissales have slipped. It looks like it will take him a while to straighten out his family trouble.Meanwhile you are losing many sales. Legally, on performance grounds, you can terminate thedealer’s franchise and replace him. What would you do?6. You have a chance to win a big account that will mean a lot to you and your company. Thepurchasing agent hints that a ‘gift’ would influence the decision. Your assistant recommendssending a fine colour television set to the buyer’s home. What would you do?7. You have heard that a competitor has a new product feature that will make a big difference insales. The competitor will demonstrate the feature in a private dealer meeting at the annualtrade show. You can easily send a snooper to this meeting to learn about the new feature.What would you do?8. You have to choose between three ad campaigns outlined by your agency. The first (a) is a softsell,honest, straight-information campaign. The second (b) uses sex-loaded emotionalappeals and exaggerates the product’s benefits. The third (c) involves a noisy, somewhatirritating commercial that is sure to gain audience attention. Pretests show that the campaignsare effective in the following order: c, b, a. What would you do?9. You are interviewing a capable female applicant for a job as salesperson. She is betterqualified than the men that you just interviewed. Nevertheless, you know that some of yourimportant customers prefer dealing with men and you will lose some sales if you hire her.What would you do?102

Chapter 2 Sustainable marketing: marketing ethics and social responsibilityactions, they might be ineffective as marketing managers and unhappy because of the constantmoral tension. Managers need a set of principles that will help them figure out the moralimportance of each situation and decide how far they can go in good conscience.But what principle should guide companies and marketing managers on issues of ethics andsocial responsibility? One philosophy is that such issues are decided by the free market and legalsystem. Under this principle, companies and their managers are not responsible for makingmoral judgements. Companies can in good conscience do whatever the system allows.A second philosophy puts responsibility not in the system, but in the hands of individualcompanies and managers. This more enlightened philosophy suggests that a company should havea ‘social conscience’. Companies and managers should apply high standards of ethics andmorality when making corporate decisions, regardless of ‘what the system allows’. Each companymust work out a philosophy of socially responsible and ethical behaviour. Under the societalmarketing concept, each manager must look beyond what is legal and allowed, and developstandards based on personal integrity, corporate conscience and long-run consumer welfare.A clear and responsible philosophy will help the company deal with the many knotty questionsposed by marketing and other human activities.A clear and responsible philosophy will help the company deal with knotty issues such as theone faced recently by 3M:In late 1997, a powerful new research technique for scanning blood kept turning up thesame odd result: tiny amounts of a chemical 3M had made for nearly 40 years were showingup in blood drawn from people living all across the country. If the results held up, it meant thatvirtually everyone may be carrying some minuscule amount of the chemical, calledperfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), in their systems. Even though at the time they had yet to comeup with a definitive answer as to what harm the chemical might cause, the company reached adrastic decision. In mid-2000, although under no mandate to act, 3M decided to phase outproducts containing PFOS and related chemicals, including its popular Scotchgard fabricprotector. This was no easy decision. Since there was as yet no replacement chemical, it meanta potential loss of about €400m in annual sales. 3M’s voluntary actions drew praise fromregulators. ‘3M deserves great credit for identifying the problem and coming forward,’ says anEnvironmental Protection Agency administrator. ‘It took guts,’ comments another governmentscientist. ‘The fact is that most companies . . . go into anger, denial, and the rest of that stuff.[We’re used to seeing] decades-long arguments about whether a chemical is really toxic.’ For3M, however, it wasn’t all that difficult a decision – it was simply the right thing to do. 41In searching for ethical standards for marketing, marketing managers may also draw uponpostmodernist thinking and philosophies that date back well beyond marketing itself. RealMarketing 2.2 introduces some of this. As with environmentalism, the issue of ethics providesspecial challenges for international marketers. Business standards and practices vary a great dealfrom one country to the next.Imagine you are trying to win a big public contract in a developing country. The minister incharge makes unmistakable references to the disgracefully low pay of local civil officials and thebenefits his own children would enjoy if they could study abroad. The cost of providing this(concealed as a ‘scholarship’ paid for by your company) is minute compared with the value of thecontract. Your competitors, given the chance, would assuredly find the money. Do you pull out,or pay up? Most businesspeople in such situations find that their scruples are soon swallowed. Sodo most governments.103

Part 1 Marketing now2.2From Plato’s Republic to supermarketslaveryThere is good reason to search a long way back for the ethics to guide marketing. Asthe British philosopher Alfred North Whitehead (1861–1947) commented, ‘All Westernphilosophy is really no more than a footnote to Plato’s (428–354 BC) great work TheRepublic.’ If that were true, our thinking on ‘marketing ethics’ is little more than asmudge on that footnote.The ancients were also practical, as Plato’s student explained:Ethics is a rough and ready business determined by ordinary practical men ofcommon sense, not by inbred ascetic ‘experts’ with their heads in a remote andaustere world.Aristotle (384–322 BC)Thinking’s the thingA lot of thinking went on in ancient Athens, a city state of about 400,000 people.Socrates (469–399 BC) thought that the most important thing about human beings isthat they ask questions. He also thought that real moral knowledge existed and wasworth pursuing. He did not think morality could be tough, but said that it was morethan just obeying the law. The newly democratic Athenians did not like this questioningof state morality, so they condemned him to death by poisoning.Good for the state and good for you tooPlato thought that Athens’ experiments with democracy were a shambles and lefttown. He believed in moral absolutes that were separate from the more sordid world.This led him to idealise regimes where right and wrong were well defined. He thoughtmilitaristic and disciplined Sparta was a much better place than freethinking Athensand that people should do what is good for the state. Lots of leaders have tried thisand very nasty it is too.Choosing the happy mediumAristotle rejected his teachers’ concern for absolute truths, suggesting that peopletake a middle road and learn how to behave from experience. People learn to become104

Chapter 2 Sustainable marketing: marketing ethics and social responsibilitygood citizens and from that achieve contentment. Well, most people! And how aboutbeing a good citizen of a gang of hooligans?It was a long time before Western philosophy recovered from these Greeks, butthe Renaissance got things going again. Machiavelli was born in another city state:Florence.…2.2‘He may be dung, but at least he’s our dung’Machiavelli (1469–1527) was an observer rather than a philosopher. After he sawwhat succeeded, he recognised that politics and morality mix badly. This is aconvenient view for business leaders who think there should be two sets of moralstandards: one for public life and one for private life. In political and business life itis necessary to be pragmatic and prudent – in other words, unethical – while retaininga different private ethic. As recent politicians have found, life does not always divideso easily.Solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and shortThe English Royalist Hobbes (1588–1678) is even more depressing than Machiavelli.People are awful and are prevented from degenerating into our natural brutishbehaviour only by realising that everyone behaving that way would make lifeunbearable. People therefore establish a ‘social contract’ (which parents call‘bringing up’) that has to be enforced by a neutral third party (government contract).Franco-Swiss Rousseau (1712–78) had the opposite view that humanity is essentiallygood, but is corrupted by society to want things like smart clothes, carriages andNike trainers.Sum happinessEnglish Utilitarians Bentham (1748–1832) and Mill (1806–73) invented a form of moralcalculus. Bentham thought his country’s laws were in a mess because they lacked ascientific foundation. He saw human beings as pleasure–pain machines, so hesuggested that law makers should balance the sum of the pain and pleasure toachieve ‘the greatest happiness of the greatest number’. This has two consequences:means justifying ends and problems for minority groups. Mills worried about this‘tyranny of the majority’. He preferred talking about happiness rather than pleasure,tolerated individual lifestyles and thought that the ‘happiness sums’ varied and werefor individuals as well as law makers.▼105

Part 1 Marketing now…2.2Bah, happinessKant (1724–1804) had little time for happiness. The German idealist’s ethics hadcategorical imperatives. He believed that a moral action was one done out of a senseof duty. Ethics was about finding out our duties and living by them. Kant deduced a‘universality test’ to find the compulsory rules. He asked people to imagine what itwould be like if everybody did what they themselves wanted to do. Using this mindmodel, we deduce that if people sold shoddy goods habitually, life would be chaoticand, therefore, people have a duty not to sell shoddy goods.And justice for allThe American John Rawls (1921–2002) has greatly influenced modern liberalthinking. He has a mind model based on imagining a group of people broughttogether with no knowledge of what place they will have in society. They have toinvent a series of rules that will make their community just and fair. Then they haveto live in it.Don’t know; can’t knowThis rationalist claim to understanding ‘truths’ started being undermined byScotsman David Hume (1711–76). His ‘meta-ethics’ does not offer any advice, butrecognises an ‘is–ought gap’ between what we experience (is) and the conclusion wetry to draw from that (ought). Even though we know that bull bars on cars kill children(is), we can only produce a false argument that they should not be sold (ought).Developing similar insights, it follows that any moral argument between people is‘utterly futile, unsolvable and irrational’ (A.J. Ayers, 1910–89).The age of unreasonPostmodernists have pursued this ethical scepticism to new levels. Reason failsbecause of its dependence on language. What passed as reason in the past hascaused so much human suffering. This level of ethical uncertainty is not new; it isclose to the Sophist views that Plato argued against. Postmodernists despair at thesociety they see coming: a kaleidoscope of consumerist images that hypnotisecitizens into accepting the morality of capitalism; where individual morality ceases toexist, where all that remains is supermarket slavery and where the only choice is byconsumers between products – marketing.106

Chapter 2 Sustainable marketing: marketing ethics and social responsibilityMeanwhile Alasdair MacIntyre looks back to the Aristotelian idea that weshould concentrate less on the individual and more on people and what is goodfor society.…2.2SOURCES: J. Ackrill, Aristotle and the Philosophers (Oxford, 1981); G. Kerner, Three Philosophical Moralists(Oxford, 1990); A. MacIntyre, A Short History of Ethics (Routledge, 1987); D. Robinson and C. Garratt, Ethics forBeginners (Icon, 1996); B. Russell, A History of Western Philosophy (Oxford, 1945); P. Singer, Practical Ethics(Oxford, 1993); Lynn Sharp Paine, Value Shift (McGraw-Hill, 2003).Although bribes and kickbacks are illegal in many countries, they are standard business practicein many others. One recent study found that companies from some nations were much morelikely to use bribes when seeking contracts in emerging-market nations. The most flagrant bribepayingfirms were from Russia and China, with Taiwan and South Korea close behind. Othercountries where corruption is common include Turkmenistan, Bangladesh and Chad. The leastcorrupt were companies from Iceland, Finland, New Zealand and Denmark. 42“Although bribes and kickbacks are illegal in many countries, they are standardbusiness practice in many others.Across the globe, national cultures naturally impose different standards of behaviour onindividuals and organisations. In the EU, each market sector in each country is still characterisedby a mixture of accepted commercial practices, codes of practice and formalised legislation. Whatis considered an acceptable practice in one country may be illegal in another. Although the EUseeks to move towards a pan-European business ethics policy and codes of conduct, that day isstill some way off.The question arises as to whether a company must lower its ethical standards to competeeffectively in countries with lower standards. The answer: no. For the sake of all the company’sstakeholders – customers, suppliers, employees, shareholders and the public – it is important tomake a commitment to a common set of standards worldwide. For example, the ethical code ofjeans manufacturer Levi Strauss forbids bribes, whether or not prevalent or legal in the foreigncountry involved.Many industrial and professional associations have suggested codes of ethics and many companiesare now adopting their own codes. Efforts have also been made to develop ‘global’ standards.“An example is the Social Accountability standard SA8000, an international certificationstandard that encourages organisations to develop, maintain and apply socially acceptablepractices in the workplace. It was created in 1989 by Social Accountability International (SAI), anaffiliate of the Council on Economic Priorities, and is viewed as the most globally acceptableindependent workplace standard. It can be applied to any company, of any size, in any part of theworld. The areas it addresses include forced and child labour, health and safety, freedom ofassociation and collective bargaining, discrimination, disciplinary practices, working hours,compensation and management systems. 43107

Part 1 Marketing nowCompanies are also developing programmes, workshops and seminars to teach managersabout important ethics issues and help them find the proper responses. They hold ethics workshopsand seminars and set up ethics committees. Furthermore, many companies have appointedhigh-level ethics officers to champion ethics issues and to help resolve ethics problems andconcerns facing employees.PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) is a good example. In 1996, PwC established an ethics officeand comprehensive ethics programme, headed by a high-level chief ethics officer. The ethicsprogramme begins with a code of conduct, called ‘The Way We Do Business’. PwC employeeslearn about the code of conduct and about how to handle thorny ethics issues in a comprehensiveethics training programme, called ‘Navigating the Grey’. The programme also includes an ethicshelpline and regular communications at all levels. ‘It is obviously not enough to distribute adocument,’ says PwC’s CEO, Samuel DiPiazza. ‘Ethics is in everything we say and do.’ Last yearalone, the PwC training programme involved 40,000 employees, and the helpline received over1,000 calls from people asking for guidance in working through difficult ethics dilemmas. 44Still, compliance rules, written codes and ethics training programmes do not guarantee ethicalbehaviour. Ethics and social responsibility require a total corporate commitment. They must be acomponent of the overall corporate culture. Ethics programmes or seminars for employees helpto imbue corporate ethics and codes of conduct among staff, while ethical and social audits maybe used to monitor and evaluate business conduct and to use the lessons to guide both policyand behaviour. In the final analysis, ‘ethical behaviour’ must be an integral part of the organisation,a way of life that is deeply ingrained in the collective corporate body.The future holds many challenges and opportunities for marketing managers. In this chapter,we have examined many important concepts involving marketing’s sweeping impact on individualconsumers, other businesses, our ecological environment and society as a whole.Companies that are able to create new customer value in a socially responsible way will have aworld to conquer.Sustainable marketingThe concept of sustainable marketing holds that an organisation should meet the needs of itspresent consumers without compromising the ability of future generations to fulfil their ownneeds. Figure 2.4 shows how sustainable marketing and the marketing concept are linked by thedimension of time. The marketing concept recognises that organisations thrive from day to dayFigure 2.4 SustainablemarketingThe businessNowFutureCustomerNowFutureMarketing conceptSocietal marketingconceptStrategic planningconceptSustainablemarketing concept108

Chapter 2 Sustainable marketing: marketing ethics and social responsibilityby determining the needs and wants of a target group of customers and fulfilling those needs andwants more effectively and efficiently than the competition. The focus is on what customers wantnow. Try to foist upon them what they do not want and they will buy elsewhere. That is why carsare getting larger and more powerful, why washing detergents still contain phosphates and why manybreakfast meals contain more sugar or fat than is good for us. Marketers succeed by finding aneed and fulfilling it. Sustainable marketing projects our focus on the long-run welfare of society.Shoddy or defective goodsThe first time dimension of sustainable marketing examines the welfare of customers now and inthe future. This dimension has escalating levels of concern. The first is the provision of shoddygoods or defective goods.This customer really did not want holes but needed them to fix a coat hook. He bought theappropriate-looking coat hooks from Focus, a DIY chain, and these came with screws forfixing. If they looked good, his aim was to fit out the whole corridor with these nifty hooks. Beinghandy, the customer recognised that it would be better to drill holes for the screws before fixingthem. This he did, but when trying to fix the first screw it sheared, leaving an ugly bit of metalin a hole. He remeasured and tried a second screw. That also sheared, leaving a second uglyhole . . .The customer had fulfilled his immediate need when buying the coat hooks, but ended up veryannoyed. Focus had also fulfilled their immediate need by buying the coat hooks, as had themaker of the coat hooks in buying appropriately sized screws. At the same time, all lost becauseof the shoddy little component. For Focus, the defective goods had to be refunded, the follow-uporder never came and the customer talked to others.The marketing of shoddy ineffective goods is not sustainable because customers are likely tofind out, stop buying and pass on information to their friends. Many companies make a living byknowingly fulfilling customer’s immediate needs by mis-selling or selling shoddy goods. Probablythe extreme case of this is the sale of bootlegged drugs that are, at their best, only theft but, attheir worst, lethal. Bootlegging of music or books may seem a relatively harmless crime, butconsider the long-run impact: what is the chance of a music industry or literature developing ina country where any creative output is immediately stolen?Any company making anything can discover that the product is either defective or dangerous.3M phased out products containing PFOS when they discovered the potential damage of theproduct without any legal action forcing them to do so. This contrasts with denial that sometimesoccurs when dangers are uncovered.Ford were aware of design flaws in their 1970s Ford Pinto but allegedly decided it would becheaper to pay off possible lawsuits for resulting deaths than to change the car’s design. Amagazine obtained the cost-benefit analysis that it said Ford had used to compare the cost of an$11 (€7) repair against the cost of paying off potential lawsuits. Ford’s reputation was hugelydamaged by this disclosure as they were in the dispute with Firestone decades later over theFord Explorer accidents. 45109

Part 1 Marketing nowThe sustainable marketing concept suggests that making defective goods, either knowingly orunknowingly, defies the basic marketing principle of customer care.Intrinsically harmful goodsSome products, such as red wine, are harmful to customers if consumed to excess. Others, suchas cigarettes, are harmful in any quantity. Yet others, such as asbestos, are harmful if ingestedaccidentally. How do products that kill those who consume them square with the marketingconcept? Cigarettes certainly fulfil the needs and wants of those addicted to them, but is astrategy that depends upon killing customers by making them addicts sustainable? If you cankeep the danger from the public, as big tobacco tried, then sales continue. But this form ofdenial, like that of Ford with the Pinto, had dire consequences once the cover-up was exposed.Cigarette smoking is declining, helped by the product being banned in public places. Evensmokers agree with smoking being banned in the workplace. 46One sustainable marketing strategy pursued by tobacco companies is to diversify away fromtheir cigarette base. With its Marlboro brand, Philip Morris is the world’s largest tobacco producer,but it has also diversified away from that base to become Altria – a conglomerate that has amongits assets Kraft, the foods and beverage giant, and Miller, America’s second largest brewer.In the eye of the storm over increased obesity, McDonald’s has responded with asustainable ‘Plan to Win’ strategy of diversifying from hamburgers into salads, sandwichesand fruit, which has continued to pay off. Aimed at broadening McDonald’s appeal to healthconsciouscustomers, the campaign helped sales increase 11 per cent and profits jump 22 percent with European results being particularly strong. Also, after a seven-year search for an oilnot containing dangerous trans fats without compromising the taste of its French fries,McDonald’s is phasing out the traditional artery-clogging fats from its menu. 47Socially harmful goodsExternality—The effect ofa purchase by one partyon others who do nothave a choice and whoseinterests are not takeninto account.A driver of a large sports-utility vehicle (SUV) walked away from a crash with a small carwhose occupant was killed. In response, the driver went out and bought an even larger SUVbased on the thesis that they are safer. In reality roll-over crashes accounted for 3 per cent ofcar accidents in America but 32 per cent of deaths. Occupants of SUVs are three times morelikely to die from their vehicle rolling over than are the occupants of saloon cars.Similar consumption behaviour is displayed by drivers installing ‘bull bars’ on the front oftheir cars. Why? Few drivers encounter large wild animals on their school run or in theirsupermarket car park. Why do customers install them? Partly as a fashion accessory and partlybecause it protects their car in a bump or scrape. Unfortunately, these fashion items do have alarge social cost. Experimental studies suggest that the collision effect on pedestrians andcyclists of adding bull bars is similar to doubling the actual speed of the vehicle. That trades offagainst 2 to 3 per cent more protection to the vehicle that the accessories provide. 48In these cases the good bestows a fictional or marginal benefit to the buyer while imposing costson others. These can be called third-person costs. This is a case of a negative externality.110

Chapter 2 Sustainable marketing: marketing ethics and social responsibilitySecondary smoking is another example of a negative externality, but not all externalities arenegative. Where more than one in three people install anti-theft vehicle tracker systems in theircars, a positive externality occurs since the overall car crime rate goes down. Similarly, if morethan one in ten install radar-controlled cruise control systems, the stop-start motor congestionon the roads declines for all drivers.The social cost of goods such as SUVs or their bull bars may appear trivial to a buyer who isignorant of the third-person costs, or because the events that incur the third-person costs, suchas running over and killing a child, are rare.The remoteness of negative externalities can lead to their neglect. In the nineteenth century,many people in England were ignorant of the squalor of working-class life until it was graphicallyillustrated in novels like Charles Dickens’ Oliver Twist. Likewise, the cruelty of slavery wasinvisible to early generations, although not to later ones. In this century, it is not apparent that apair of trainers that you buy was produced in a Third-World sweatshop or that a piece of hardwoodfurniture would involve destroying tribal areas in Borneo or the Amazon basin.As the SUV examples show, marketers can achieve an immediate return from supplying goodswhere a third party pays the cost. Is the strategy sustainable? In the case of SUVs whose safety isillusory, it is akin to selling a dangerous good based on mythical safety claims. This flies in theface of the basic marketing concept. There is also a danger of a consumer backlash. In manycountries SUVs and the perceived anti-social attitudes of their owners have become something ofa joke. In other cases, banning the offending behaviour can wreck once-lucrative markets, as isoccurring with bull bars and smoking in public places. Democratic governments have the abilityto protect their own people from negative externalities, although it often takes pressure groupsto stimulate action.Where negative externalities are borne by distant peoples, the impulse for government actionis diminished. Hence the emergence of campaigners who use all the skills of modern marketingto communicate their concerns – Live Aid and Live Eight, aimed at the G8 summit in Scotland,are global examples. Like Nike in sportswear and B&Q in wood, enlightened marketers also seethe danger of reputation loss such as that which Nike faced or the opportunity to make theirproducts more appealing to concerned customers, as did B&Q by making sure their wood camefrom renewable sources.Many of the earlier concerns of environmentalists were the impact of pollution and otherpractices upon people who live now. Excessive use of private transport was a problem becauseof the environmental pollution and congestion it causes here and now. Global warming, however,implies that the true cost of our love of heating, air-conditioning, flying, power boats, electricalequipment that is instantly available and private motorised transport will be borne by futuregenerations or even during the lifetime of current students.Environmentally harmful consumptionEnvironmentally harmful behaviour is not new. The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotlerecognised that: ‘That which is common to the greatest number has the least care bestowed uponit.’ For a long time this did not matter beyond the local community. Over-fishing may havedestroyed the cod banks off North America’s coast, London was smothered in its Dickensiansmog, the Easter Islanders destroyed their lush tropical island, and the colonists of Greenlandovergrazed their land, making its name seem oddly inappropriate, but elsewhere in the world itdid not matter. These are all cases of The Tragedy of the Commons, a term derived originallyfrom a parable published by William Forster Lloyd in 1833. 49 Over-exploitation occurs becauseconsumption benefits individuals who are motivated to maximise their own use of the resource,while the costs of exploitation are distributed to all.“That which is common to the greatest number has the least care bestowedupon it.“The Tragedy of theCommons—Free access tofinite resource ultimatelydooms the resource byover-exploitation.111

Part 1 Marketing nowFree riders—People whoconsume more than theirfair share of a resource,or shoulder less than afair share of the costs ofits production.The global tragedy of the commons now affects us all because the common good is the wholeenvironment. Industrialisation means that our combined consumption can now destroy the airwe all breathe and the atmosphere that protects us from the sun’s rays. Marketing’s endeavoursthat result in destroying our shared environment by fulfilling the immediate needs and wants ofcustomers are clearly not sustainable. What does sustainable marketing offer?The world’s greatest generators of greenhouse gases are electricity and heat (26 per cent),deforestation (18), agriculture, industry and transport (14 each) and waste (4). In all sectors,some marketers have gained a strategic advantage, embracing the need to look to the needs oftomorrow’s markets. Denmark’s Vistas is growing fast as the world’s leading producer of windturbines but big money is catching up. GE has made ‘green is green’ their mantra. It has set upEcomagination that brings together businesses, like wind turbines, that are intrinsically green,with its other businesses that are more environmentally sound than the competition. GE isgenerally highly successful but its Ecomagination businesses are growing by 12 per cent perannum compared with 9 per cent for GE as a whole. Likewise Bombardier, which makes planesas well as being a global leader in rail technology: the Pendolino trains they make for VirginTrains already consume 76 per cent less fuel than road or local air travel, but Virgin Trains is nowpioneering Europe’s first biodiesel-powered Voyager trains that cut CO 2 by a further 14 per cent.These companies, along with many others, including Alstom and Siemens, are in an increasinglystrong position compared with those whose response to environmental concerns wasdenial. While Alstom, GE, Siemens, Vistas and the like were embracing sustainable marketing, theGlobal Climate Coalition (GCC) of big carbon emitters aimed to ‘shoot the messengers’, castingdoubt on the science of global warning and greenhouse gas reductions. After GCC collapsed,the Competitive Enterprise Institute championed denial, running an ad proclaiming: ‘Carbondioxide: they call it pollution, we call it life.’ Even Exxon has now broken from this alignment ofdoubters. 50These differing responses to sustainable marketing cut across industries. As a result, in theautomotive industry Toyota, Nissan, PSA Peugeot Citroën and Renault are well positioned for afuture cleaner-energy low-cost exposure to the changing market and strengths in low-carbontechnologies. In contrast, BMW, Ford and GM, with their dependence on SUV and sporty cars,are highly exposed. As GM’s vice-president of R&D now recognises: ‘This industry is 98 per centdependent on petroleum. GM has concluded that that’s not sustainable.’ 51Indications are that marketers cannot rely on the behaviour of today’s consumers to providethe market signals to shift to sustainable marketing. A few people are committed to ethicalconsumption and many enjoy the warm glow of doing good when they buy, but consumers areconfused and there is little sign that they will buy ethical products that cost more or performless well than the norm. It is a free-rider problem: most wealthy consumers are enjoying beingfree riders where their immediate descendents and the world’s poor pay. 52“Consumers are enjoying being free riders where their immediate descendentsand the world’s poor pay.Today’s free-riding consumers are benefiting from an externality that has a time dimension.The people who will pay are not born yet, so why bother? Environmentally damaging goodscarry with them a double incentive not to act now. Besides, the negative externality is tomorrow’sproblem, so we can free-ride. If everyone else constrains their lifestyle or invests to cut back theirenvironmental impact, we can benefit from a better environment without contributing anything.But what if we all free-ride? As an example, BA’s customers have the chance to pay just £5 tooffset the carbon emissions of a flight from London to Madrid but fewer than 1 per cent do. Thelink between our actions and the consequences are so remote that someone else can pick up thetab. Even when the economic benefits accrue directly to consumers, few respond.“112

Chapter 2 Sustainable marketing: marketing ethics and social responsibilityThe Green Car Congress promotes fuel-efficient driving by means that cost little to theconsumers, such as switching off car engines when the car is stationary, holding a steadyspeed and removing unused roof racks. They also show the impact of speeding. The speed limiton UK motorways is 70 miles per hour (113 kph), although people in the fast lane often drive at85 mph or more (138 kph). That speed difference worsens the fuel consumption of a typicalfamily car, like an Opel Zafria, from 48 mpg (17 kpl) to 38 mpg (13.5 kpl), and that is without theaccelerating and braking that fast driving involves. Drivers can save themselves a lot of moneyand be less damaging to the environment by driving legally.Lighting accounts for 19 per cent of the world’s electricity use, and one of the most effectiveways of saving money and carbon emissions is changing a standard incandescent light bulb(costs €1 and uses €15 of electricity a year) for an energy-efficient light bulb (costs €5 andconsumes €3 of electricity a year). Yet, according to Philips, only 30 per cent of the bulbs sold areof the energy-efficient variety.Unless the carbon-efficient product bestows some status, such as a Toyota Prius, fewconsumers respond. As a result, companies are asking governments to act – even suggestingcarbon taxes and targets. There is also more chance that consumers will act collectively as voterswhen everyone has to pay. It is already happening. The EU has a long-standing voluntary deal forcar emissions to reduce the CO 2 to 120 g/km by 2012 but people so love big, fast cars that therequirement is likely to soon become mandatory. ‘Not fair’, shout BMW, Porsche and Mercedes,while Renault and PSA are strangely quiet as their investment in more sustainable vehicles paysoff. The EU and Australia also intend to ban incandescent light bulbs on which consumers are soattached to wasting money. 53The sustainable companyAt the foundation of marketing is the belief that a company that neglects the wants and needs ofits customers will decline. The first dimension of sustainable marketing extends this view bysuggesting the short-termism of marketing goods that harm customers, others in society orpeople in the future. Killing your customers, other people’s customers or tomorrow’s customersis not sustainable marketing.“Killing your customers, other people’s customers or tomorrow’s customers isnot sustainable marketing.“The second dimension of sustainable marketing is assuring the continuity of the business.This means looking beyond current markets to new ones as product life cycles fade. The musicindustry is doing this as recorded music sales decline by taking a greater interest in the growingdemand for live music and investing in the copyright of songs. As the sale of digital camerasmatures, Canon, the market leader, is moving into new-technology flat-screen TVs that fit withtheir digital imaging and hi-tech competences.The long-term survival of a business also depends on socially responsible behaviour that doesnot risk the reputation of the company. The loss of reputation caused by poor governance andquestionable business practices can go far beyond the direct financial loss. When author, magazineeditor, TV host and domestic arts wizard Martha Stewart was convicted of insider tradingand sentenced to prison, fined and barred from serving on a public company Board of Directors,Governance—The actionof developing andmanaging consistent andcohesive policies,processes, policies anddecision rights for areasof responsibility within abusiness.113

Part 1 Marketing nowthe shares in her company fell even faster than those of Enron. Similarly, recall the dissolution ofthe Arthur Andersen accounting firm, after its involvement with Enron, and the demise of UnionCarbide after the death of thousands of people in the Bhopal disaster.There are voluntary or legal codes designed to assure the governance of companies. Enron,Worldcom and Robert Maxwell’s publishing empire all involved failures in governance thatallowed the senior managers to hide their business’s financial difficulties by ever more desperatemeans. Sustainable marketing, therefore, goes beyond caring for the needs and wants of today’scustomers. It means having concern for tomorrow’s customers as well as the well-being of allthose in assuring the survival of the business, the shareholders, the employees and the society inwhich they all live.Reviewing the conceptsResponsible marketers discover what consumers want and respond with the right products,priced to give good value to buyers and profit to the company. A marketing system shouldsense, serve and satisfy consumer needs and improve the quality of consumers’ lives. Inworking to meet consumer needs, marketers may take some actions that are not toeveryone’s liking or benefit. Marketing managers should be aware of the main criticisms ofmarketing.1. Identify the major social criticisms of marketingMarketing’s impact on individual consumer welfare has been criticised for its high prices,deceptive practices, high-pressure selling, shoddy or unsafe products, planned obsolescenceand poor service to disadvantaged consumers. Marketing’s impact on society has been criticisedfor creating false wants and too much materialism, too few social goods, cultural pollutionand too much political power. Critics have also criticised marketing’s impact on other businessesfor harming competitors and reducing competition through acquisitions, practices thatcreate barriers to entry, and unfair competitive marketing practices. Some of these criticismsare justified, some are not.2. Define consumerism and environmentalism and explain how theyaffect marketing strategiesConcerns about the marketing system have led to citizen action movements. Consumerism isan organised social movement intended to strengthen the rights and power of consumersrelative to sellers. Alert marketers view it as an opportunity to serve consumers better byproviding more consumer information, education and protection.Environmentalism is an organised social movement seeking to minimise the harm done tothe environment and quality of life by marketing practices. The first wave of modern environmentalismwas driven by environmental groups and concerned consumers, whereas thesecond was driven by government, which passed laws and regulations governing practicesimpacting the environment. The first two environmentalism waves are now merging into athird and stronger wave in which companies are accepting responsibility for doing no environmentalharm. Companies now are adopting policies of environmental sustainability –developing strategies that both sustain the environment and produce profits for thecompany.114

Chapter 2 Sustainable marketing: marketing ethics and social responsibility3. Describe the principles of socially responsible marketingMany companies originally opposed these social movements and laws, but most of themnow recognise a need for positive consumer information, education and protection. Somecompanies have followed a policy of enlightened marketing which holds that a company’smarketing should support the best long-run performance of the marketing system.Enlightened marketing consists of five principles: consumer-oriented marketing, customervaluemarketing, innovative marketing, sense-of-mission marketing and societal marketing.Because business standards and practices vary from country to country, the issue ofethics poses special challenges for international marketers. The growing consensus amongtoday’s marketers is that it is important to make a commitment to a common set of sharedstandards worldwide.4. Explain the role of ethics in marketingIncreasingly, companies are responding to the need to provide company policies and guidelinesto help their employees deal with questions of marketing ethics. Of course, even thebest guidelines cannot resolve all the difficult ethical decisions that individuals and firmsmust make. However, there are some principles that marketers can choose among. Oneprinciple states that such issues should be decided by the free market and legal system. Asecond, and more enlightened, principle puts responsibility not in the system but in thehands of individual companies and managers. Each firm and marketing manager must workout a philosophy of socially responsible and ethical behaviour. Under the societal marketingconcept, managers must look beyond what is legal and allowable and develop standardsbased on personal integrity, corporate conscience and long-term consumer welfare.5. Understand the dimensions of sustainable marketingSustainable marketing recognises that the long-term survival of an organisation goesbeyond serving the wants and needs of today’s customers. It recognises the conflict betweenthe short-term needs for profit and customer gratification to build an operation that enhancesthe lives of its current and future stakeholders. The first dimension of sustainable marketinglooks to the needs of tomorrow’s customers as well as today’s and the need to address environmentalissues that endanger the livelihood of all. This means concern for shoddy goodsthat unintentionally endanger customers (such as power motorcycles), intrinsically dangerousproducts (such as cigarettes), consumption that damages the lives of others (such as cornbasedethanol fuel that drives up the cost of the food of poor people) or consumption thatendangers future generations (such as our appetite for energy to fuel our lifestyle).Sustainable marketing’s second dimension means assuring the survival of a business inorder that it can continue to serve future customers. That means a concern that the companyhas the agility to evolve as markets change and the governance to assure its well-being.Discussing the concepts1. Marketing receives much criticism, some justified and much not. Which of the major criticismsof marketing discussed in the chapter do you think are most justified? Which are leastjustified? Explain.115

Part 1 Marketing now2. You have been invited to appear along with a sociologist on a panel assessing the marketing ofvideo games. You are surprised when the economist opens the discussion with a long list ofcriticisms, focusing especially on the undesirable impacts of video gaming on society, such aslifelike depictions of violence and inclusion of hidden sex scenes, which steal children’s innocenceand make people violent. Abandoning your prepared comments, you set out to defendmarketing in general, and the video gaming industry in particular. How would you respond tothe sociologist’s attack?3. The issue of ethics provides special challenges for international marketers as businessstandards and practices vary a great deal from one country or cultural environment to thenext. Imagine that you are a manager working for a global company. Select five moraldilemmas from Table 2.1. Propose an ethical response for each dilemma. Will theseresponses be the same irrespective of whether the company faces these dilemmas whenoperating in the UK, India or China? Discuss. Should the company adapt its ethical standardswhen operating in countries with different standards?4. Can an organisation be focused on both their consumers and the environment at the sametime? Explain, giving practical examples to support your answers.5. How might companies benefit from practising the philosophy of sustainable marketing, and isthe survival of a business guaranteed by fulfilling the wants and needs of customers?Applying the concepts1. Many corporations support worthy causes and contribute generously to their communities.Check out the websites of one of the following or some other company of your choice andreport on its philanthropic and socially responsible activities: Nestlé (nestle.com), Virgin(virgin.com), Nike (nikebiz.com), Tesco (tesco.com), Saab (saab.com), Toyota (toyota.com) andBP (bp.com). How does philanthropy by corporations counter the social criticisms ofmarketing?2. The growth of consumerism and environmentalism has led to marketing approaches that aresupposedly good for society, but some are actually close to deception.WebresourcesFor additionalclassic case studiesand Internet exercises,visit www.pearsoned.co.uk/kotler●●●List three examples of marketing campaigns that you feel genuinely benefit society as awhole. If possible, find examples of corporate communications, including advertising,sponsorships, sales promotions or packaging, to support the examples you have listed.You may also visit the websites of relevant companies to gather more specific informationon these campaigns.Find three examples of deceptive or borderline marketing campaigns that appear to usetheir social concern as a means of selling rather than showing a true commitment to thecommunal good. How are you able to tell which activities are genuine and which are not?What remedies, if any, would you recommend for this problem?References1. Quentin Anderson, Inside track: ‘In defence of the NSPCC’, Viewpoint: ‘The furore over the charity’s allocationof funds rests on a misunderstanding of its long-term goals’, Financial Times (14 December 2000),p. 19; Tom Braithwaite, National news: ‘Websites that fail children face action’, Financial Times(8 September 2006); ‘Charity donors in a chorus of protest at NSPCC wasters’, Daily Express (13 April2007); NSPCC’s website: www.nspcc.org.uk.116

Chapter 2 Sustainable marketing: marketing ethics and social responsibility2. See Richard Tomkins, ‘Smoke signals out as cigarette adverts meet their match’, Financial Times(9 February 2003), p. 3; Deborah L. Vence, ‘Match game’, Marketing News (11 November 2002), pp. 1,11–12; Neil Buckley, ‘Philip Morris case brings threat of fresh tobacco suits’, Financial Times (24 March2003), p. 30; Gordon Fairclough, ‘Study slams Philip Morris ads telling teens not to smoke – how amarket researcher who dedicated years to cigarette sales came to create antismoking ads’, Wall StreetJournal (29 May 2002), p. B1.3. ‘DFS profit warning highlights threadbare furniture market’, Investors’ Chronicle (6 February 2004);Carlos Grande, ‘Advertising up in effort to win shoppers’, Financial Times (13 January 2007).4. Excerpts from Theodore Levitt, ‘The morality(?) of advertising’, Harvard Business Review (July–August1970), pp. 84–92; Ben Abrahams, ‘The ASA: older and wiser’, Marketing (10 July 2000), p. 3.5. Lane Jennings, ‘Hype, spin, puffery, and lies: Should we be scared?’, The Futurist (January–February2004), p. 16. For recent examples of deceptive advertising, see ‘Mobile providers sued by New YorkCity’, Telecomworldwire (22 July 2005), p. 1; Chad Bray, ‘Federated to pay civil penalty’, Wall StreetJournal (15 March 2006), p. B3; and ‘Pfizer sues P&G over Crest ads’, Wall Street Journal (6 March 2006),p. 1.6. See the 1987 film The Tin Men starring Richard Dreyfuss and Danny DeVito for some great examples ofhigh-pressure selling, and the eventual downfalls.7. Andrew Bounds, ‘Lucrative holiday property rip-offs targeted by EU’ and ‘Offer of home in sun just pie inthe sky for UK couple’, Financial Times (8 June 2007), p. 8.8. ‘McDonald’s to cut “Super Size” option’, Advertising Age (8 March 2004), p. 13; Dave Carpenter, ‘Hold thefries, take a walk’, The News & Observer (16 April 2004), p. D1; Michael V. Copeland, ‘Ronald gets back inshape’, Business 2.0 (January/February 2005), pp. 46–7; David P. Callet and Cheryl A. Falvey, ‘Is restaurantfood the new tobacco?’, Restaurant Hospitality (May 2005), pp. 94–6; Kate McArthur, ‘BK offers fat tothe land’, Advertising Age (4 April 2005), pp. 1, 60.9. Eric Schlosser, Fast Food Nation: The dark side of the all-American meal (Harper Perennial, 2006); GregCritser, Fat Land: How Americans became the fattest people in the world (Penguin Books, 2004); TobiasBuck and Jenny Wiggins, ‘EU pushes voluntary code to tackle obesity’, Financial Times (31 May 2007),p. 8; Beuc press release PR 013/2007, www.beuc.eu.10. Tobias Buck, ‘Brussels gets teeth into food groups’ “misleading” claims’, Financial Times (1/2 February2003), p. 7.11. N. Craig Smith, Robert J. Thomas and John A. Quelch, ‘A strategic approach to managing productrecalls’, Harvard Business Review (September–October 1996), pp. 102–12; ‘When quality control breaksdown’, The European (6–12 November 1997), p. 29; Vanessa Valkin, ‘Court overturns Ford/Firestoneclass-action’, FT.com (2 May 2002); James Mackintosh and Richard Milne, ‘Electronic bugs cause recallof 1.3m cars by Mercedes’, Financial Times (1 April 2005); James Mackintosh, ‘Jaguar recalls luxury carover gears fault’, Financial Times (17 April 2004); ‘Timeline: Recent safety recalls in Japan’, FT.com(25 August 2006).12. For the little tin lamp tale, see http://www.exxonmobilchemical.com.cn/China-English/LCW/About_ExxonMobil/Our_History_in_China.asp; Mark Fagan, ‘Commodity driven market’, LawrenceJournal-World (4 May 2005), p. 1. Also see Clint Swett, ‘High prices on printer cartridges feedsmarketing for alternative industry’, Knight Ridder Tribune Business News (15 February 2006), p. 1; JohnGapper, ‘A bid to reprint the pricing rule book’, The Economist (21 May 2007).13. For more discussion, see Denver D’Rozario and Jerome D. Williams, ‘Retail redlining: definition, theory,typology, and measurement’, Journal of Macromarketing (December 2005), p. 175; Jeremy Warner,‘Tragedy of Post Office closures’, The Independent (18 May 2007).14. See Brian Grow and Pallavi Gogoi, ‘A new way to squeeze the weak?’, Business Week (28 January 2002),p. 92; Marc Lifsher, ‘Allstate settles over use of credit scores’, Los Angeles Times (2 March 2004), p. C1;Judith Burns, ‘Study finds links in credit scores, insurance claims’, Wall Street Journal (28 February2005), p. D3; Erik Eckholm, ‘Black and Hispanic home buyers pay higher interest on mortgages, studyfinds’, New York Times (1 June 2006), p. A22.15. Jane Croft, ‘Banks target poor as loan sharks face crackdown’, Financial Times (25 November 2004);‘Tesco plans to spend PLN600mn on new store openings in Poland in 2007’, Business Wire (18 May2007); ‘Tesco PLC, one of the most ubiquitous retail names in Britain, said Wednesday it is to openup to 25 “Tesco Express” convenience stores in the Tokyo area this year’, Kyodo News Service (18 April2007).117

Part 1 Marketing now16. Information from ‘Shop ’til they drop?’, Christian Science Monitor (1 December 2003), p. 8; GreggEasterbrook, ‘The real truth about MONEY’, Time (17 January 2005), pp. 32–5; Bradley Johnson, ‘Day inthe life: How consumers divvy up all the time they have’, Advertising Age (2 May 2005); Rich Miller, ‘Toomuch money’, Business Week (11 July 2005), pp. 59–66; ‘Bankers encourage “consumer generation” tosave’, Texas Banking (March 2006), pp. 25–6; Ralph Atkins and Andrew Bounds, ‘EU needs carefulnurturing to flourish’, Financial Times (4 June 2007), p. 4; ‘The future of Europe’, Financial Times SpecialReport (4 June 2007).17. Paul Metzner, Crescendo of the Virtuoso: Spectacle, skill, and self-promotion in Paris during the age of revolution(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998); Bronislaw Malinowski, Argonauts of the WesternPacific (London: Routledge, 1922).18. See Michael Cabanatuan, ‘Toll lanes could help drivers buy time’, San Francisco Chronicle (28 December2004), accessed at www.sfgate.com; ‘London mayor increases traffic toll, angers drivers, retailers’(3 July 2005), accessed at www.bloomberg.com; Dan Sturges, Gregg Moscoe and Cliff Henke,‘Innovations at work: Transit and the changing urban landscapes’, Mass Transit (July/August 2006),pp. 34–8; for London’s latest ploys, see http://www.cclondon.com/.19. ‘Marketing under fire’, Marketing Management (July/August 2004), p. 5. Also see ‘Media: The publicwants a permanent break from ad bombardment’, Marketing Week (1 December 2005), p. 27.20. Gail Kemp, ‘Commercial break: Should kids’ TV ads be banned?’, Marketing Business (September 1999),pp. 16–18; John Clare, ‘Marketing’s “material girls” aged only three’, Daily Telegraph (23 November1999), p. 9; Martin Lindstrom and Patricia B. Seybold, Brandchild (Kogan Page, 2003); see also JonathanHall, ‘Children and the money machine’, Financial Times FT Creative Business (18 March 2003), p. 6.21. Paul Betts, ‘Germany cannot afford EADS dogfight with France’, Financial Times (17 May 2007); DemetriSevastopulo, Stephanie Kirchgaessner and James Boxell, ‘US scrutiny on BAE increases over halting ofSaudi probe’, Financial Times (8 May 2007); Michael Peel, Jimmy Burns and James Boxell, ‘Swiss look atBAE’s Saudi sales’, Financial Times (15 May 2007); ‘US scrutiny on BAE increases over halting of Saudiprobe’, AFX Europe (Focus) (8 May 2007); Michael Peel, ‘UK role in arms trade puts PM’s reputation atstake’, Financial Times (31 May 2007), p. 2.22. Greg Winter, ‘Hershey is put on the auction block’, New York Times (26 July 2002), p. 5; Adam Jones,‘Danone to place emphasis on acquisitions’, FT.com (2 August 2006); ‘France’s Danone to buy 49 percentof Denmark’s Aqua d’Or for undisclosed sum’, AP Worldstream (19 September 2006); Haig Simonian,‘Nestlé buys Gerber for $5.5bn’, FT.com (11 April 2007).23. Oliver Wihofszki, ‘Daimler wird Chrysler gunstig los’, Financial Times Deutschland (15 May 2007).24. R.A.F. Casert, ‘Europe threatens new Microsoft fines’, AP Online (1 March 2007).25. For more discussion, see Jeremiah McWilliams, ‘Big-box retailer takes issue with small documentary’,Knight Ridder Tribune Business News (15 November 2005), p. 1; Nicole Kauffman, ‘Movie paints a darkpicture of Wal-Mart’s impact on communities’, Knight Ridder Tribune Business News (19 January 2006),p. 1; John Reid Blackwell, ‘Documentarian defends Wal-Mart’, Knight Ridder Tribune Business News (12May 2006), p. 1; ‘The global merger boom: The beat goes on’, The Economist (10 May 2007).26. For more details, see Paul N. Bloom and Stephen A. Greyser, ‘The maturing of consumerism’, HarvardBusiness Review (November–December 1981), pp. 130–9; Douglas A. Harbrecht, ‘The second comingof Ralph Nader’, Business Week (6 March 1989), p. 28; George S. Day and David A. Aaker, ‘A guide toconsumerism’, Marketing Management (Spring 1997), pp. 44–8; Benet Middleton, ‘Consumerism: apragmatic ideology’, Consumer Policy Review (November/December 1998), pp. 213–7; Colin Brown,‘Consumer activism in Europe’, Consumer Policy Review, 8, 6 (1998), pp. 209–12.27. ‘Slavery: Breaking the chains’, The Economist (22 February 2007); Jonathan Birchall, ‘Nike to strengtheneffort to combat worker abuse’, Financial Times (31 May 2007), p. 9.28. Sylvie Laforet and John Saunders, ‘Managing brand portfolios: How strategies have changed’, Journal ofAdvertising Research, 45, 3 (September 2005), pp. 314–27.29. Peter M. Senge, Goran Carstedt and Patrick L. Porter, ‘Innovating our way to the next industrial revolution’,MIT Sloan Management Review (Winter 2001), pp. 24–38; information from ‘BP Launches World’sGreenest Service Station’, BP press release, 25 April 2002.30. See ‘Sustainability Key to UPS Environmental Initiatives’, UPS press release, accessed at www.pressroom.ups.com, July 2006; http://www.ricoh.co.uk/environment/index.cfm, May 2007; John Reed, ‘Diesel couldoutpace hybrids in US’, Financial Times (27 May 2007); speech by Sir Terry Leahy given to invited stakeholdersat a joint ‘Forum for the Future’ and Tesco event in London on 18 January 2007.118

Chapter 2 Sustainable marketing: marketing ethics and social responsibility31. Information from ‘Xerox Equipment Remanufacture and Parts Reuse’, accessed at www.xerox.com,August 2006; speech by Sir Terry Leahy given to invited stakeholders at a joint ‘Forum for the Future’and Tesco event in London on 18 January 2007.32. Adapted from information found in Joseph Tarnowski, ‘Green monster’, Progressive Grocer (1 April2006), pp. 20–6.33. Adapted from ‘The top 3 in 2005’, Global 100, accessed at http://www.global100.org, July 2005. Seealso ‘Alcoa named one of the most sustainable corporations in the world for second straight year’,27 January 2006, accessed at www.alcoa.com. For further information on Alcoa’s sustainabilityprogramme, see Alcoa’s Sustainability Report at www.alcoa.com.34. ‘Cleaning up the act: Charging for household waste is a good idea’, The Economist (31 August 2007).35. Robert K. Merton, ‘The unanticipated consequences of purposive social action’, American SociologicalReview, 1, 6 (December 1936), pp. 894–904; Edward Tenner, Why Things Bite Back: Technology and therevenge of unintended consequences (Vantage Books, 1997); Jared Diamond, Collapse: How societieschoose to fail or survive (London: Penguin, 2005); Doug Cameron, ‘Cargill chief in warning over biofuelsboom’, Financial Times (30 May 2007); Robert Mathews, ‘Unforeseen consequences’, Financial Times(24 May 2007), p. 16.36. Robert Mathews, ‘Unforeseen consequences’, Financial Times (24 May 2007), p. 16; ‘Viagra and jet lag:Mile-high hamsters’, The Economist (24 May 2007).37. Carlos Grande, ‘Ethical consumption makes mark on branding’, Financial Times (20 February 2007).38. Information and quotes from Andy Milligan, ‘Samsung points the way for Asian firms in global brandrace’, Media (8 August 2003), p. 8; Gerry Khermouch, ‘The best global brands’, Business Week (5 August2002), p. 92; Leslie P. Norton, ‘Value brand’, Barron’s (22 September 2003), p. 19; ‘Cult brands’,BusinessWeek Online (2 August 2004) accessed at www.businessweek.com; Bill Breen, ‘The Seoul ofdesign’, Fast Company (December 2005), pp. 91–8; and Samsung Annual Reports and other informationaccessed at www.samsung.com, September 2006.39. Information from Mike Hoffman, ‘Ben Cohen: Ben & Jerry’s Homemade, established in 1978’, Inc.(30 April 2001), p. 68; and Ben & Jerry’s website at www.benjerrys.com, September 2006.40. Quotes and other information from Thea Singer, ‘Can business still save the world?’, Inc. (30 April 2001),pp. 58–71; and www.honesttea.com, September 2006. Also see Elizabeth Fuhrman, ‘Honest Tea Inc.:Social and environmental sinceri-tea’, Beverage Industry (April 2005), p. 44.41. Joseph Webber, ‘3M’s big cleanup’, Business Week (5 June 2000), pp. 96–8. Also see Kara Sissell, ‘3Mdefends timing of Scotchgard phaseout’, Chemical Week (11 April 2001), p. 33; Peck Hwee Sim, ‘Ausimonttargets former Scotchgard markets’, Chemical Week (7 August 2002), p. 32; Jennifer Lee, ‘E.P.A. orderscompanies to examine effect of chemicals’, New York Times (15 April 2003), p. F2; and Kara Sissell,‘Swedish officials propose global ban on PFOS’, Chemical Week (22 June 2005), p. 35.42. See ‘Transparency International Bribe Payers Index’ and ‘Transparency International CorruptionPerception Index’, accessed at www.transparency.org, August 2006; Minxin Pei, ‘The dark side of China’srise’, Foreign Policy (March/April 2006), pp. 32–40; ‘Everybody’s doing it’, Middle East (April 2006),pp. 20–1; and Transparency International’s web page at www.transparency.org.43. See Social Accountability International’s web page at www.sa-intl.org.44. See Samuel A. DiPiazza, ‘Ethics in action’, Executive Excellence (January 2002), pp. 15–16, ‘It’s all downto personal values’, accessed online at www.pwcglobal.com, August 2003, and ‘Code of conduct: The waywe do business’, accessed at www.pwcglobal.com/gx/eng/ins-sol/spec-int/ethics/index.html, June 2006.45. For details see http://www.fordpinto.com/blowup.htm.46. Richard Kluger, Ashes to Ashes: America’s hundred-year cigarette war, the public health and the unabashedtriumph of Philip Morris (Vintage Books, 1997); Stanton A. Glantz, John Slade, Lisa A. Bero, PeterHanauer and Deborah E. Barnes (eds), The Cigarette Papers (Berkeley: University of California Press,1998); Peter Pringle, Cornered: Tobacco companies at the bar of justice (Henry Holt, 1998); Allan Brandt,Cigarette Century: The rise, fall and deadly persistence of the product that defined America (Basic Books,2007); also see the star-studded Walt Disney film The Insider (2000) – it is not animation.47. Andrew Ward, ‘McDonald’s selects oil to avoid trans fat risk’, Financial Times (30 January 2007); AndrewClark, ‘McDonald’s health drive delivers fatter profits’, The Guardian (21 April 2007).48. Tessa R. Salazar, ‘Is the bull bar just a lot of bull?’, Philippine Daily Inquirer (30 October 2003); ‘America’sfavourite mode of transport is under attack’, The Economist (16 January 2003).119

Part 1 Marketing now49. Lloyd observed that when pastureland is in commons, so available to all, cattle-owners have a shortterminterest in increasing the size of their herds. Left unchecked, the size of the herds on the commonswill soon exceed their capacity and so be doomed by overgrazing. Garrett Hardin popularised andextended the term in his essay The Tragedy of the Commons (Science, 1968). For an example, see TriciaHolly Davis, ‘Overfishing causes havoc in the global food chain’, The Times Focus Report, WorldEnvironment Day (5 June 2007), p. 4; and ‘Still waters: The global fish crisis’, National Geographic (April2007), pp. 32–99.50. ‘Branson to launch eco-friendly train’, Sky News (7 June 2007); ‘Cleaning up’, Special report on businessand climate change, The Economist (2 June 2007), pp. 3–4; ‘Fairfield v the valley’, Special report on businessand climate change, The Economist (2 June 2007), pp. 14–18; ‘Sunlit uplands’, Special report onbusiness and climate change, The Economist (2 June 2007), pp. 20–4.51. ‘The drive for low emissions’, Special report on business and climate change, The Economist (2 June2007), pp. 32–4.52. Oliver Tickell, ‘Rich countries set to make poor pay’, The Times Focus Report, World Environment Day(5 June 2007), p. 11; ‘The final cut’, Special report on business and climate change, The Economist(2 June 2007), pp. 34–6; Joshi Venugopal, ‘Drug imports: The free-rider paradox’, Express Pharma Pulse,11, 9 (2005), p. 8.53. ‘Irrational incandescence’, Special report on business and climate change, The Economist (2 June 2007),p. 12; ‘The drive for low emissions’, Special report on business and climate change, The Economist(2 June 2007), pp. 32–4; www.greencarcongress.com/2006/05/fuel_consumptio.html.120

Company case 2 Nestlé: singled out again and againDuring the first few months, the mother’s milk willalways be the most natural nutriment, and everymother able to do so, should herself suckle herchildren.Henri Nestlé, 1869Nothing is a substitute for or equivalent or superior tobreastmilk.Nestlé warning, 2007The corporate affairs department at Nestlé UK’s headquarterswere bracing themselves for another burst ofadverse publicity. At the forthcoming General Synodof the Church of England a motion would call for acontinued ban on Nescafé by the Church. They alsowanted the Church Commissioners to disinvest their£1.1m (€1.6m) in Nestlé. The Church’s much publicisedboycott of Nescafé first occurred, amid much ridicule,in 1991, as a protest against the use of breast milksubstitutes in Third World countries. In the aftermath ofthe 1991 vote, Nescafé claimed that its sales increased,although many churchgoers said they stopped usingthe brand-leading coffee. The new protest would beone of many the company had faced from Baby FoodAction (BFA) protesters over decades although, accordingto Nestlé, the protesters’ complaints had no foundation.Nestlé SA, whose headquarters are in Vevey,Switzerland, is the world’s largest food company, withannual sales of CHF 98.5bn (€60bn) and with a net profitof CHF 9bn (€5.4bn). It employs around 260,000 people infactories or operations in almost every country in theworld. Henri Nestlé invented manufactured baby food ‘tosave a child’s life’ and the company have been suppliersever since. Then, in the late 1970s and early 1980s,Nestlé came under heavy fire from activists who chargedthe company with encouraging Third World mothers togive up breast feeding and use a company-preparedformula. In 1974 the British charity War on Wantpublished a pamphlet, The Baby Killer, that criticisedUnigate and Nestlé’s ill-advised marketing efforts inAfrica. While War on Want criticised the entire infantformula industry, the German-based Third World ActionGroup issued a ‘translation’ of the original pamphletretitled Nestlé Kills Babies, which singled out thecompany for ‘unethical and immoral behaviour’. Thepamphlets generated much publicity. Enraged atthe protest, Nestlé sued the activists for defamation.The two-year case kept media attention on the issue.‘We won the legal case, but it was a public-relationsdisaster’, commented a Nestlé executive.In 1977, two American social-interest groups, theInterfaith Center on Corporate Responsibility and theInfant Formula Action Coalition (INFACT), spearheadeda worldwide boycott against Nestlé. The campaigncontinued despite the fact that many organisationsrejected the boycott. The US United Methodist Churchconcluded that the activists were guilty of ‘substantialand sometimes gross misrepresentation’, of ‘inflammatoryrhetoric’, and of using ‘wildly exaggeratedfigures’. The boycott was called off in 1984when the activists accepted that thecompany was complying with an infantformula marketing code adopted by theWorld Health Organization (WHO). Sincethen, church, university, local governmentand other action groups periodicallyrediscover the controversy and createpublicity by calling for a boycott.The main accusation now is thatNestlé’s use of promotions persuaded hundreds of thousandsof poverty-stricken, poorly educated mothers thatformula feeding was better for their children. ‘Every day4,000 babies die from unsafe bottle feeding’, explainBMA. They continue, ‘Donations of infant formula can domore harm than good.’ Their concern is the donation offree or low-cost supplies of infant formula to maternitywards and hospitals in developing countries. Formulafeeding is usually an unwise practice in such countriesbecause of poor living conditions and habits; peoplecannot or do not clean bottles properly and often mixformula with impure water. Income level does not permitmany families to buy sufficient quantities of formula. Theprotesters hit out at industry practices generally butkeep Nestlé as their prime target:●‘Every day 4,000babies die fromunsafe bottlefeeding’, explainBMA.Promotional baby booklets ignoring or de-emphasisingbreast feeding.121

Part 1 Marketing now●●●●●Misleading advertising encouraging mothers to bottlefeedtheir babies and showing breast feeding to be oldfashionedand inconvenient.Gifts and samples inducing mothers to bottle-feed theirinfants.Posters and pamphlets in hospitals.Endorsements of bottle-feeding by milk nurses.Formula so expensive that poor customers dilute tonon-nutritious levels.A WHO code eliminates all promotional efforts,requiring companies to serve primarily as passive ‘ordertakers’. It prohibits advertising, samples and directcontact with consumers. Contacts with professionals(such as doctors) occur only if professionals seek suchcontact. Manufacturers can package products with someform of visual corporate identity, but they cannot picturebabies. The WHO code effectively allows almost nomarketing. However, the code contains onlyrecommended guidelines. They become mandatory only ifindividual governments adopt national codes throughtheir own regulatory mechanisms.WHO allows the donation of free or low-cost suppliesof infant formulas for infants who cannot be breast-fed.However, the International Association of Infant FoodManufacturers (IFM) is working with WHO and UNICEF tosecure country-by-country agreements with countries toend free and low-cost supplies.Nestlé itself has a policy on low-cost supplies indeveloping countries, as follows:●●●●Where there is government agreement, Nestlé willstrictly apply the terms of that agreement.Where there is no agreement Nestlé, in cooperationwith others, will be active in trying to secure earlygovernment action.Where other companies break an agreement, Nestléwill work with IFM and governments to stop thebreach.Nestlé will take disciplinary measures against anyNestlé personnel or distributors who deliberatelyviolate Nestlé policy.Given the repeated public relations problems thatNestlé faces, why does it not take unilateral action inending free supplies? Since the Third World infantformula market is so small compared with Nestlé’sworldwide interests, why bother with it?Part of the answer is in Henri Nestlé’s desire ‘to savea child’s life’. The European Commission’s directive onbaby food concludes that infant formula is ‘the onlyprocessed foodstuff that wholly satisfies the nutritionalrequirements of infants’ first four to six months of life.’In addition, a recent study by the American DieteticAssociation concluded that ‘on average, babies of 6 to8 months who are fed with human milk receive less than50% of the Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA) for ironand zinc, and less than 50% of the Adequate Intake (AI)for manganese, fluoride, vitamin D, vitamin B6, niacin,vitamin E, magnesium, phosphorus, biotin and thiamine.’Another consideration is that the campaigns by NorthEuropean activists have little impact on Nestlé sales,especially among poor people – a market that bothNestlé and Unilever are developing.Few mothers in countries with very high infantmortality rates use anything other than breast milk.However, Kenya is probably typical of what happenswhen mothers do supplement breast milk with somethingelse:●●●●●●33 per cent use uji, a local food made from maize;33 per cent use cow’s milk;28 per cent use water;14 per cent use glucose;11 per cent use milk powder, of which some is infantformula;3 per cent use tea.A study in the Ivory Coast shows the sort of problemsthat arise when Nestlé withdraws unilaterally. Othercompanies replaced the supplies to the affluent privatenurseries, but supplies for mothers in need collapsed.As a result the main hospital was not able to ‘afford tobuy enough to feed abandoned babies or those whosemothers are ill’.Questions1. Was and is Nestlé’s and the other IFM members’ marketingof infant formula ‘unethical and immoral’?2. Is it the case that ethical standards should be the responsibilityof organisations such as WHO and UNESCO, andthat the sole responsibility of firms is to work within thebounds set?3. Is Nestlé just unlucky or did its actions precipitate its beingsingled out by activists? Is the activists’ focus on Nestléunjust and itself dangerous? What accounts for Nestlé’scontinuing in the infant formula market despite theprotests?4. Did Nestlé benefit from confronting the activists directly incourt and winning? Should firms ever confront activistsdirectly? What other forms of action are available to the122

Chapter 2 Sustainable marketing: marketing ethics and social responsibilitycompany? Should firms withdraw from legitimate marketsbecause of the justified or unjustified actions of pressuregroups?5. The WHO code is a recommendation to government. Is itNestlé’s responsibility to operate according to the nationallegislation of any given country, or to follow WHO’srecommendations to that country? Do international bodiessetting international standards, such as WHO and UNICEF,have a moral responsibility to make those standards clearlyunderstood by all parties and to demand action by nationalgovernments to enact them?6. How should Nestlé respond to the threats from the GeneralSynod? Since Nestlé claimed sales increased after theNescafé boycott in 1991, should it just ignore the problem?SOURCES: John Sparks, ‘The Nestlé controversy – anatomy of aboycott’, Public Policy Education Fund, Inc. (June 1981); EuropeanCommission, Commission Directive on Infant Formula and FollowonFormula, 91/321/EEC; UNICEF, The State of the World’s Children(1992); RBL, Survey of Baby Feeding in Kenya (1992); Nestlé, Nestléand Baby Milk (1994); Andrew Brown, ‘Synod votes to end Nestléboycott after passionate debate’, The Times (12 July 1994); WorldHealth Assembly Resolution 54.2 ‘Infant and young child nutrition’(2001); Jonathan Wheatley and Jenny Wiggins, ‘The Americas: Littleby little Nestlé aims to woo Brazil’s poor’, Financial Times(20 February 2007); Joanna Moorhead, ‘Milking it: It was in 1977that campaigners first called for a boycott of Nestlé because of itsaggressive marketing of formula milk in the developing world. Thirtyyears on, have Nestlé and the other baby-milk firms cleaned uptheir act?’, The Guardian (15 May 2007); Hilary Parsons, ‘Response:We’re not trying to undermine the baby-milk code: Nestlé iscommitted to the health of mothers and infants in the developingworld’, The Guardian (22 May 2007); Nestle.com (June 2007),competing websites babymilk.nestle.com (June 2007) andbabymilkaction.org (June 2007).123