Download the final project report here. - KIMO

KIMO Home Working Data TrawlProjectJane Macaulay

Contents1. Executive Summary ...................................................................... 42. KIMO International (Kommunenes InternasjonaleMiljorganisasjon) – an introduction................................................. 62.1 Main issues................................................................................................63. Methodology .................................................................................. 73.1 Outline of the Pilot ....................................................................................73.1.1 Background...........................................................................................73.2 Project Management .................................................................................83.2.1 Recruitment of the Pilot Coordinator.....................................................83.2.2 Communications ...................................................................................83.2.3 Recruitment of Graduate Trawlers........................................................83.2.4 Response to advertisements ................................................................83.2.5 Interviews with Applicants.....................................................................93.2.6 Issues arising from the Interviews:........................................................93.3 Generation of the briefs..........................................................................103.4 Allocation of briefs to trawlers...............................................................113.5 Payment ...................................................................................................123.6 Contracts..................................................................................................123.7 Guidance to Trawlers..............................................................................123.8 Timescale for completion of reports......................................................124. Results.......................................................................................... 134.1 Submission of final reports....................................................................134.2 Trawler Evaluation ..................................................................................134.2.1 Communications: ................................................................................134.2.2 The Briefs: ..........................................................................................144.2.3 The Trawling Process .........................................................................164.2.4 The Report..........................................................................................184.2.5 The Future ..........................................................................................194.2.6 Financial Reward ................................................................................204.3 Client Evaluation .....................................................................................214.3.1 Communication...................................................................................214.3.2 The Report..........................................................................................224.3.3 General...............................................................................................245. Analysis and Discussion ............................................................ 275.1 Quality assurance ...................................................................................275.2 Generation of briefs ................................................................................275.3 Screening of briefs..................................................................................285.4 Allocation of trawls .................................................................................285.5 Screening of submitted reports .............................................................285.6 Trawler support .......................................................................................295.8 Accessing data ........................................................................................295.9 Time taken to write the reports ..............................................................305.10 Structure of the Reports .......................................................................30

5.11 Flexibility and Renegotiation................................................................305.12 Payment .................................................................................................305.13 Other costs ............................................................................................316. Recommendations: ..................................................................... 327. Appendices .................................................................................. 34

1. Executive SummaryA pilot project designed to see whether high quality research could beundertaken by graduates, working from home and trawling for data on theInternet, was undertaken by KIMO UK between April and December 2007.The KIMO Datatrawl Pilot Project was based on the premise that manygraduates moving to, or returning to live in Shetland – a remote and rural area -are not working in their own disciplines, for a variety of different reasons. It wasfelt that this pool of skilled and well-qualified graduates might be able to meet ademand for data trawled from the Internet in their area of expertise while workingfrom home. The Pilot was designed to identify such graduates, and to match theirbackground and experience with group, individual or agency requirements fordata. The collected data would then be presented as a report to the client.Funding for the Datatrawl project, totaling £17,544 was provided by Leader+,Shetland Enterprise and the Shetland Islands Council allowing a part-timecoordinator to be recruited. Shetland based marine biology graduates, andgraduates from other related environmental sciences, who responded to localadvertisements outlining the pilot, were recruited to undertake the data trawling.Small-scale research briefs suitable for Internet trawling were submitted byenvironmental and marine based agencies. For the purpose of the pilot thesubmitting agency did not have to pay for the work that was undertaken.The graduates, or trawlers, were asked to identify which of the proposed trawlsthey would be willing to work on, in order of preference. All trawlers wereallocated either their first or second choice. Eight graduates accepted the termsand conditions of the pilot and spent up to two months working from home on aflexible basis to the specifications of the brief. The coordinator then forwarded thecompleted reports to the submitting agencies.In order to evaluate the project clients and trawlers were asked to fill inevaluation forms highlighting successes and areas for improvement. Overall thepilot was judged to be highly successful with the majority of clients stating thatthe research exceeded their expectations and all trawlers stating they would beinterested in undertaking trawls in the future.On the basis of the participant evaluation, a series of recommendations weremade on areas for improvement to the pilot and possible future steps. Theseincluded· the setting up of an internet site for trawlers and clients· the formation of a ‘peer review group’ consisting of a number of experts intheir field as a way of screening both briefs and completed reports· an increase in advertising to generate an ongoing supply of briefs

· the importance of trawlers being paid in line with their qualifications andexpertise.· further funding should be sought in order to test the home-based datatrawling principle on a more extensive scale and prove its commercialviability.Overall the pilot project has proved a resounding success producing high qualitysmall-scale research briefs for clients using home workers with broadbandInternet connections. The project proved that not only was there the expertiseavailable within rural communities in Shetland to undertake this type of work butthat there is a potential market for the research.

2. KIMO International (Kommunenes InternasjonaleMiljorganisasjon) – an introductionKIMO is an international association of Local Authorities, which was founded inEsbjerg, Denmark in August 1990 to work towards cleaning up pollution in theNorth Sea. In 1994 it changed its remit to also include The Irish Sea, North EastAtlantic and The Arctic Seas. It has over 110 members in 9 countries includingthe United Kingdom, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, the Netherlands, Belgium, andthe Republic of Ireland with associate members in the Faeroe Islands and theIsle of Man.2.1 Main issuesKIMO International campaigns on marine pollution issues that affect coastalcommunities. These include:• Nuclear issues• Pollution from decommissioning of the oil and gas industry• Marine litter• Maritime safety and pollution• Dumping at sea• Hazardous substancesThe organization holds Non Governmental Organization (NGO) status at theNorth Sea Ministerial Conferences, the Committee of North Sea Senior Officials(CONSSO), the Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of theNorth East Atlantic (OSPAR), and the International Maritime Organization (IMO)(as part of the WWF Delegation). It has links with the European Parliament andCommission and sends representatives to stakeholder dialogue processes invarious countries.National Networks exist in each country and hold meetings on a regular basis.The data trawling pilot project was under the management of KIMO UK.

3. Methodology3.1 Outline of the Pilot3.1.1 BackgroundThe KIMO Datatrawl Pilot Project was based on the premise that manygraduates moving to, or returning to live in Shetland – a remote and rural area -are not working in their own disciplines, for a variety of different reasons. It wasfelt that this pool of skilled and well-qualified graduates might be able to meet ademand for data trawled from the Internet, in their area of expertise while workingfrom home. The Pilot was designed to identify such graduates, and to match theirbackground and experience with group, individual or agency requirements fordata. The collected data would then be presented as a report to the client.The hypothesis to be tested was that potentially such graduates could beemployed in their own disciplines using home based technology to collect andcollate information to a format specified by the agency or individual, thus utilizingtheir skills within Shetland and meeting a demand in the market.KIMO, being an environmental agency with a maritime remit, based the Pilotaround graduates in marine biology or related environmental disciplines. It wasdecided that the ‘trawlers’ would be recruited from within the Shetland communityand that they would work from home using the Internet.The benefits of home working are clear: flexibility, convenience, no travelexpenses or environmental damage and low overheads.On the down side there is a heavy reliance on technology (never failsafe) and thepossibility of worker isolation.The total cost of the Pilot was estimated at £17,544. Funding was made up ofgrants from Leader+, Shetland Enterprise and the Shetland Island Council.The Pilot identified groups, individuals and agencies with anenvironmental/maritime remit. Those agencies were invited to submit a researchproposal or ‘brief’. It was hoped that the majority of briefs would be generatedwithin Shetland, but failing this the net would be spread nationally.It was felt that a successful Pilot might pave the way for a small scale Shetlandbased business opportunity and could potentially be used as a template by other‘graduate rich’ rural communities worldwide.The timescale for the Pilot, including the writing up of the final report, was frommid April to the end of December 2007.

3.2 Project Management3.2.1 Recruitment of the Pilot CoordinatorThe Coordinator was recruited in March 2007 following advertisements in theShetland Times newspaper and on Shetland Islands Broadcasting Corporation(SIBC) commercial radio. The successful candidate started work in mid April2007 on a contract of 18 hours per week for the duration of the Pilot. TheCoordinator was based in Unst, 55 miles and 2 ferry crossings from Lerwick,where KIMO has its office. The Coordinator visited the Lerwick office whennecessary but the bulk of her work was done via the Internet and telephone fromhome.3.2.2 CommunicationsDuring the Pilot the Coordinator and the KIMO managers shared informationusing a web-based project management tool called Basecamp (seewww.basecamphq.com) this proved a very versatile and useful tool for allconcerned. Communications with trawlers was done using normal email systems.Basecamp as a communications system for use with the trawlers has potentialfor the future, and in the initial interview all applicants showed a willingness to tryit.3.2.3 Recruitment of Graduate TrawlersAn advertisement (Appendix 1) and a Press Release (Appendix 2) werecirculated to the local media; Radio Shetland ran an interview with Mr. JohnMouat from KIMO and SIBC commercial radio ran advertisements over theperiod of a week.Unfortunately two Shetland based skills databases, which it was hoped mightidentify marine biology graduates, proved not to be useable and extensive localadvertising remained the preferred option for recruitment.3.2.4 Response to advertisementsResponse to the advertisements from marine biology graduates interested intaking part in the data trawling experiment was immediate and fourteen peoplemade contact. Although most of these were in Shetland, there was also contactfrom ex-Shetland residents living on the Scottish mainland. Contact was madewith the Coordinator almost exclusively by email with only a few phone enquiries.

There were also a significant number of enquiries from graduates in otherdisciplines both in and out of Shetland interested in the idea and wondering if itcould be extended to include their areas of knowledge.All graduates from other disciplines were replied to with an explanation of thestructure of the Pilot. The Coordinator asked each person expressing an interestif they would like to be kept on file, in case of a Phase 2. All interested partiesconfirmed that they would like to be kept on file and contacted in the future incase of a Phase 2 being relevant to their background and training.3.2.5 Interviews with ApplicantsFollowing email and telephone conversations with potential trawlers based inShetland, face to face meetings were arranged to discuss the Pilot further, andcover a number of questions concerning the applicant’s suitability. (Appendix 3)These meetings were in various venues throughout Shetland. This was the onlytime there was a face-to-face meeting between the coordinator and the trawlerthroughout the whole period of the pilot, and was considered very important bythe coordinator. Fourteen potential trawlers were interviewed at this stage.At these meetings, the Coordinator sought information from the applicants aboutareas of expertise within their own disciplines, and previous experience. She alsotried to ascertain that an applicant had sufficient knowledge to be able to ‘sift’ theinformation as they went along. Throughout the whole project a great emphasiswas placed on the credibility of the sources of information, as it was recognizedthat much of the success of the Pilot would rest on the quality of the informationincluded in the reports and submitted to the agency, which generated the brief.On the basis of this interview, and evidence of their degree status andCurriculum Vitae, a group of twelve trawlers were identified as being suitablyqualified and interested in taking part. This initial group included two ‘stay-athome’mums, a retired professional, a graduate of 2007, and five applicantsworking full time in the marine/aquaculture industry that were drawn to the pilotas being an unusual and interesting experiment. It also included applicants fromSpain, Chile and Poland all with excellent qualifications and resident in Shetland.This varied group was subsequently reduced to eight as four candidateswithdrew before starting any trawling work, all citing time pressures. However allstated that they would be interested in being involved in the future if there were tobe a Phase 2 of the Pilot.3.2.6 Issues arising from the Interviews:Issues that arose during the interview process included the following

· Questions from the applicants around the accessibility of web basedscientific papers during their trawl. It was decided for budgetary reasonsthat KIMO could not get access for the trawlers to specialist sites requiringa registration fee or membership. This issue proved to be a drawback forthe trawlers and is covered at length in 4.2 Trawler Evaluation.· Concerns were expressed about the potential for isolation. The possibilityof online groups was discussed. In the event it was decided not to holdany meetings or workshops for the trawlers as a group. Again this israised in 4.2 Trawler Evaluation.3.3 Generation of the briefsOnce the trawlers were in place the next stage was to invite submission of briefs.Letters were sent to a wide range of groups and agencies based in Shetland(Appendix 4). These included marine engineers, local government agencies,environmental agencies, specialist bird agencies, commercial companies andagencies working in aquaculture and fisheries. There was also an article in theJune edition of Shetland Life (Appendix 5).The Pilot was outlined and it was emphasized that:a) The brief needed to be precise so as to generate a report that fitted therequirementsb) The agency would not have to pay for the work undertaken for the Pilotc) KIMO could not guarantee that every brief submitted would be worked on, asallocation depended on having someone with the right background andexperience to take on the trawlingDespite targeting a wide range of agencies within Shetland this initial search onlygenerated four briefs, all of them from the North Atlantic Fisheries College MarineCentre.As previously agreed a Press Release was then sent to a much wider audience,out with Shetland. Using the group emailing advertising service maintained byMr. Bob Earll [CMS – Coastal Management for Sustainability –www.coastms.co.uk], an advertisement was sent electronically to 4,000 membersof the mail group, all with an interest in the marine environment (Appendix 6).Following this mailing there was a great deal of response from out with Shetland.There were a number of agencies that contacted the Coordinator to find out moreabout submitting briefs, and there were a variety of emails and phone calls fromgroups and individuals curious about the whole idea. Unexpectedly the groupemail also generated a great deal of interest from highly qualified marine biologygraduates worldwide, interested in applying to be part of the trawling network.

The Coordinator replied to each applicant explaining the limitations of the Pilot(i.e. trawlers only being recruited from within Shetland) and asking if they wouldlike to be kept on file for a possible Phase 2. Everyone asked to be kept on fileand informed.Eight more briefs were submitted following the targeting of this much widergroup.At this stage – the end of July ‘07 - there were (coincidentally) twelve trawlersinterested in taking part and twelve submitted briefs (Appendix 7).3.4 Allocation of briefs to trawlersOnce all the trawls were submitted, the coordinator and the management teammet to allocate the briefs to the most appropriate trawler. This was to be done onthe basis of the applicants’ experience and specialist areas of study andresearch.Given that there was an extremely wide range of briefs submitted and that it wasvery hard to identify who amongst the trawlers might be best suited to each trawla system of self-selection was decided on.Each of the twelve potential trawlers was sent the list of trawls submitted.However, as two applicants had very close links with the NAFC Marine Centre itwas decided that they would not be eligible for the trawls submitted by thecollege. This was to avoid any possible conflict of interest.It was explained to the trawlers that a system of self-selection had been decidedon and each candidate was asked to list their top three trawls, in order ofpreference. In the end, each trawler was allocated either their first or secondchoice. It was at this stage, the allocation of the briefs, that four of the applicantswithdrew citing time pressures.As this left only eight trawlers it meant that only eight of the twelve submittedbriefs could be researched.Following the allocation of the briefs and acceptance of the terms and conditionsby the trawlers (see 3.6 Contract) all the agencies who had submitted briefs werecontacted by the Coordinator. They were told whether they had been successfulin having their brief accepted for the Pilot, and if so were given the timescale thetrawlers would be working to. Unsuccessful clients were thanked for the time theyhad taken to complete and submit the briefs.

3.5 PaymentThe submitted briefs were given a ‘price’ according to their perceived complexity.Trawlers were offered a set price for each trawl. This ranged from £300 to £500.This amount was detailed on the individual contracts drawn up with the trawlers.Setting this price was difficult but the total project budget only allowed for amodest remuneration in all cases. This price structure would need to be reviewedif a Phase 2 were to be considered.3.6 ContractsA contract was drawn up between KIMO and the trawlers, who were selfemployed. The contract outlined the responsibilities of both KIMO and thetrawlers who were asked to agree it, sign and return a hard copy to KIMO, andkeep one for themselves (Appendix 8).3.7 Guidance to TrawlersTrawlers were sent basic guidelines as to the preferred structure andpresentation of the report, including advice on referencing (Appendix 9).They were also advised to make contact with the named person on the brief ifthey needed clarification as to what was being sought.Data was to be identified and collated using the Internet. Access to subscriptiononlysites or journals was not financed. There has been a great deal of usefulfeedback about accessing scientific sites during the evaluation process.3.8 Timescale for completion of reportsAllocation of briefs and agreement over contracts was completed during the firstweek of September. October 29 th was set as the deadline for submission of thefinal reports, giving the trawlers nearly two months to complete the reports. Onetrawl was required by September 24 th as it was to be used by the client in apresentation that week. The trawler managed to complete the trawl to this tighttimescale.Trawlers were encouraged to make contact with the Coordinator with anyquestions or difficulties. Otherwise they worked independently from home.

4. Results4.1 Submission of final reportsEight trawls were undertaken. Reports were submitted via the Coordinator whoadded logos and a disclaimer. They were then forwarded to the submittingagencies; Final reports were submitted between September 24 th and November12 th . (Appendix 10)4.2 Trawler EvaluationThe trawler evaluation was conducted by email. All trawlers returned theirevaluation forms (Appendix 11).As the evaluation is critical in informing future developments, each question isconsidered in full so as to get a rounded picture of the trawlers’ experiences ineach area.4.2.1 Communications:• How did you hear about the KIMO Pilot?All the trawlers had seen advertisements in the local press.• Have you any suggestions as to other places KIMO might haveadvertised for trawlers?Answers included: New Scientist; BBC wildlife / focus magazines; local radioand appropriate websites e.g. environmentaljobs.co.uk• Please comment on your contact with the Coordinator e.g. was ittimely, clear, appropriate, supportive etc.? How could it have beenimproved?All trawlers said the contact was good, although there was disagreement as towhether it was sufficient.“Coordinator was friendly, helpful and clear throughout the project. The project was explained sowell that there was minimal contact needed”.Others seemed to feel more isolated and felt that group support would have beenhelpful:

“Group meetings including other trawlers and the coordinator would have been very beneficial toestablishing how to go about data trawling and how best to write the report. Such early planningmeasures would have been valuable”.One other trawler felt another meeting with the Coordinator a couple of weeks inor halfway through the process would have been useful for her.4.2.2 The Briefs:• Please comment on the briefs that were generated e.g. were theyalong the lines that you were expecting? Simpler? More complex?Three respondents said they were along the lines they were expecting.Other feedback was that the briefs were not as clear as the trawler would haveliked:“I felt that some areas of my brief were not fully explained and certain terms used notdefined.This meant that I had to interpret them in my own way, which might not have been in theinterest of the client.I would have liked to have found more relevant data on my project than I did... So in myview the brief was rather limiting.” [N.B. – this trawler had not realised that contact withthe client to clarify the brief was encouraged.]Another trawler felt that the timescale was unrealistic:“The briefs were similar to what I was expecting but given the time allocated to us, I feelmy brief required far too much work for a part-time trawler. The scope of the project washuge and could have been much more specific. So much time is needed just forplanning, referencing and final polishing, not to mention the main body of work that I feeltwice as much time (at least) would have been necessary.” N.B – this trawler also hadno contact with his client during the trawling process].Others also felt time was an issue:“The briefs were along the lines I was expecting. I think it is only when you start toreally begin the trawling that you can have an idea of how simple/complex the brief isgoing to be. I feel that the brief I undertook was quite complex and in-depth and neededa lot of time given to it. However, another brief might have been relatively straightforward.”

Other comments were that the trawling was more time consuming than firstexpected and that the demands of the brief were more complex than they initiallyappeared.• Given that it took KIMO longer than expected to generate the briefs,do you have any suggestions as to how this process could beimproved?Feedback to this question included having the briefs ready in advance, seekingthe briefs at the same time as the trawlers, a widespread advertising of the‘service’ on offer in many relevant places, and accepting the briefs from agencieson an ongoing basis.• How did you feel about the ‘self-selection’ method of distributing thetrawls? Do you have any suggestions as to other methods ofallocation?Most of the trawlers felt that self-selection was appropriateOne trawler commented on the possibility of bias resulting from self-selectedtrawls:“From the point of view of the data trawler, it is probably better to be able to choose asubject, as an interest in the subject matter may be more motivating and yield betterresults. On the other hand, there is a risk that the personal interest of the data trawlermay bias the outcome of the report, when taking on a preferred subject. Having saidthat, the alternative method of allocating trawls purely by matching the briefs to a datatrawler’s particular skills and experience may not necessarily achieve better results”.The question of expertise was raised a number of times. It was felt that a trawlerchoosing a brief would have a genuine interest in it, however they might not havethe required level of expertise to complete the report satisfactorily. TheCoordinator was identified as having a role in the allocation to ensure thoseallocated the trawls were properly qualified to take them on.The point was also made that there need not be a race to get the preferredchoices submitted and that this allowed time for the trawler to have a look on theInternet before making a choice.

4.2.3 The Trawling Process• Did you contact your client during the trawling process? If so pleaseindicate roughly how many times; whether the client was receptive toyour contact; whether the contact was useful to you; any furtherobservations in this area.Of the eight trawlers involved in the Pilot, only two did not contact their client, onesaying that he was not aware that this was an option. Guidance had been issuedto trawlers prior to starting the work, suggesting that contact with the client forclarification of the briefs might be useful. However trawlers were warned that ifthis contact resulted in more work being suggested by the client, KIMO was notin a position to exceed the amount of contract price to the trawler.The other six trawlers all had contact with the client between one and threetimes. All stated that this contact was very useful to gauge the expectations ofthe client and whether the trawler was on the right track.• Please comment on the trawling itself e.g. was it straightforward,difficult, enjoyable, frustrating?The responses to this question were detailed. Overall it seems that the trawlingwas not as straightforward as had been expected and there was a great deal offrustration over accessing sources:“Some of it was fairly straightforward. However it was frustrating when one had located agood source but found out that only the abstract was available - the full source beingonly available to members.Most of the periodical sources were not readily available in Shetland. This was a pity assome potentially relevant sources were not investigated.”Another trawler who had the same frustrations also identified the costcomponent, which could be involved in accessing the sources:“It was not straightforward. Although there were many ‘hits’ in connection with the areaof research, it was difficult to find specific pieces of information that would be directlybeneficial to the client and relevant to the primary aim of the brief. One particularlyfrustrating aspect of the research was in finding the source documents for citedreferences. It was quite often the case that a useful piece of information found within aparticular paper or journal would be an external reference to another source, which couldbe found online but would invariably be inaccessible (other than through payment of asubscription or a one-off fee).”

The frustration over accessing sources was also noted under the next heading:• What were the main challenges you came up against? How wouldyou suggest the trawler /KIMO could best meet these challenges?Most of the trawlers cited the difficulty in accessing certain sources on-line asbeing their main challenge. There were suggestions as to how KIMO might beable to subscribe to sources and give the trawlers access rights.“The problem of not being able to obtain source documents free-of-charge was the mainstumbling block. The way round this was to use the term ‘cited in’ when referencing theexternal source document. Nevertheless, to be able to access the original sourcedocument directly would be preferable to relying on a third-party interpretation of it.Would it be possible for KIMO to subscribe to one or two electronic databases ofscientific papers and journals, thereby allowing data trawlers some access tosubscription only sites?”Other comments under this heading included time issues“Piecing together information from reliable sites took longer than expected, especiallywhen specific information (figures etc.) was required. Up to date statistics wereparticularly difficult to obtain.”And similarly:“Finding the time to finish. I don’t think I did the final report justice as I ran out of time atthe end. It’s a difficult one to sort out because when you begin the trawl you never reallyknow how long it will take and what problems you may encounter. Possibly moreflexibility in finish dates would be good although there is a tendency for things to neverget done if there is not a deadline!”There was also some uncertainty over direction:“Not being sure if I was on the right track. I think some type of support network fromKIMO themselves and other trawlers would be good, i.e. some sort of Internet forum,notice board idea.”• How difficult was it to find the appropriate data?Responses to this question differed widely depending on the nature of the brief:

For some:“There was an immense amount of information available. Hence, as with any search onthe Internet, the main problem was in filtering the results in order to find the relevant data- a process that I found particularly time consuming.”“It wasn’t difficult – I think the opposite, there was an abundance of information, maybetoo much! But then it could have been the subject area of this particular brief, foranother brief it might have been more difficult to find relevant information.”“Data was easy to find. The format of the data is what presented the biggest challenge”.And for others:“I found it very difficult. There was a paucity of information on my brief’s requirements.Consequently, I had difficulty in meeting the needs of the brief and even now I amunsure whether I did.”• Please estimate how many hours you spent on the trawlingHours spent trawling (this does not include hours spent writing the report) rangedfrom twenty-five to fifty six. One trawler could not tell but said it had taken longerthan she had anticipated.4.2.4 The Report• What were the main challenges you found in writing the report?Time was cited as a problem by half the trawlers:“The time limit was the only real challenge writing this report. I got the most importantpart done, the results, as that is what the brief was specifically asking for. I felt I couldhave spent a bit more time on the discussion.”“Lack of time and lack of direction in the beginning.”“It took longer than expected! It’s been a while since I wrote a formal research report.The skeletons of this report make it adaptable for future research projects which shouldmake future write-ups quicker.”The suggested structure of the report caused difficulties for two of the trawlers:“I found the main challenge to be in adapting the results of the trawling process to fit therecommended report format. However, once this had been achieved, I felt that the

quality of the report was improved as a result of using the recommended format. Forexample, the client was given more information on the whole aspect of the data trawlingprocess than I would have included had I not used the given format.”And similarly:“I felt the suggested layout for this particular type of brief didn’t work. From reading thebrief I felt that it was more of an overview of the information that was out there and notparticularly a scientific report with facts and figures for results etc. Therefore it wasdifficult to fit the report into sections like results, analysis, discussion, as this didn’t seemrelevant to an overview/review”.• Any other comments or observations?One trawler requested more advice and general protocol for the report writing.One trawler was enthusiastic about the writing process as he had a particularinterest in the data he discovered.One trawler admitted to reaching a compromise on the report structure as shehad found one more suitable to the brief.• Please estimate how many hours you spent on writing the report.This ranged from fifteen to fifty among seven trawlers. The eighth stated it hadtaken longer than expected. (Nb - These figures do not include the hours spenttrawling).4.2.5 The Future• Would you consider working on further trawls in the future?All eight of the trawlers answered ‘yes’ to this question, although some hadreservations, many around the time it took to complete the reports. There wasenthusiasm for the fact that work in their own discipline could be done from homeand on a flexible basis. It also seemed that the trawlers had gained in confidencefrom their involvement in the pilot.

• Can you suggest any further improvements to the system we usedfor the Pilot e.g. in our publicity, communications, method ofallocation of briefs, support and guidance for trawlers, paymentsetc?Some of the trawlers felt it would have been very useful to have been able tomeet other people involved in the trawling ( N.b. - more useful feedback aboutmeeting with other trawlers was given in answer to the final question on theTrawler Evaluation – see below)One trawler was looking for more flexibility“More flexibility in the time taken for projects in order to ensure reports are to a highstandard. Also flexibility in payments as the project may end up taking longer thanoriginally thought”.And in a similar vein another wanted the opportunity to negotiate:“It might be useful to have some way of renegotiating a brief and its requirements after ithas been accepted for a trawl. This would help with briefs which, either, proveunrealistic in terms of time for the researcher, or in terms of the level of informationavailable for the commissioner of the report.”4.2.6 Financial Reward• Did you consider the price you were offered to do the work to begenerous / reasonable / on the low side?Four of the eight trawlers felt the payment was reasonable. The other four felt itwas on the low side. Clearly this depended on the length of time the trawlersspent overall on the report.• Please add anything else that you think might be helpful in theevaluation e.g. your overall impressions of the Pilot and your part init; your hopes and suggestions for the future; any ideas orcontributions that you have not already covered elsewhere;Responses to this were varied. There was enthusiasm for a Phase 2, a requestfor more guidance on legal aspects, and for more general support, and a feelingthat meeting with other trawlers would be both useful and enjoyable.

“I would certainly hope that this pilot project could continue as for many people who forwhatever reason can’t work a normal structured job this is ideal and it enables them touse their education for something relevant to their qualification and it’s not being wasted.“More support/advice would have increased the work rate (especially in the earlystages). Unfortunately I am more wary of taking part in future projects”.“On the whole, I have enjoyed taking part in the pilot study. I would be interested inlearning of the experiences of the other data trawlers; I’m sure it would be useful to poolthis knowledge for future projects”.“A meeting with other researchers on proposed briefs (maybe in workshop format) todiscuss them would be useful before we choose our preferences (which could be donein private). A meeting later on in the research with other researchers would be fun andinformative”.4.3 Client EvaluationThe client evaluation was conducted by email (Appendix 12)As the evaluation is critical in informing future developments each question isconsidered in full so as to get a rounded picture of the client’s experiences ineach area.4.3.1 Communication• How did you hear about the Pilot?Four clients heard by letter and four via the CMS email service• Have you any advice about how this could have been done better, orhow we might have reached a wider audience?There was a strong feeling that by using Bob Earll’s system we had accessed alarge number of people working in the marine world.One client encouraged KIMO to set up a website specifically to advertise theservice:“CMS provided a targeted service to individuals working in the marine field, but the newsletter was a single shot which may not be read at the time. If people need to this servicethere should be an Internet presence. This site should be optimised to be easily found bysearch engines looking for reviews/reviewers etc. Advertising in appropriate

environmental publications (both paper and online) would also be advantageous (butmay be costly); some environmental newsletters have community pages where the adsare relatively cheap. It would be also valuable to make the “DEFRA family” (Departmentof Environment) and its associated organisations aware of this service.”There was also the suggestion that KIMO could have advertised on its existingwebsite.• How did you feel about your communication with the coordinator?E.g. was it timely, clear, and appropriate? How could it have beenimproved?The general feeling was that communication was efficient and effective. Oneclient observed that in his opinion it could have been more frequent.• How did you feel about your communication with the trawler (if any)?E.g. was it timely, clear, and appropriate? How could it have beenimproved?The clients felt that communication with the trawlers was important, either byemail or by phone. This would be the opportunity to clarify the brief, discuss thethinking behind it and give clear instructions.Two respondents felt more frequent communication would have been better.“Due to the time constraints (the client had a tight deadline); communication with thetrawler was restricted to the outset and end of the project. With more time, it would havebeen useful to communicate during the research period, particularly to pick up on gaps,the direction the research was taking, or areas of particular interest”.One respondent who had had no contact with the trawler felt this was a bigdisadvantage:“No communications!! I would expect clarification and checks on target (e.g. a list ofthings currently being reviewed). It would have been useful to have at least got an emailto confirm the brief had been understood (e.g. “this is what I understand you want andthese are the sort of search areas I will investigate”). In the report it was obvious somethings were ambiguous and the trawler made decisions on what to concentrate on; Ithink if in doubt contact the customer would be a good motto.”4.3.2 The Report• Did the trawler meet the timescale as communicated to you via thecoordinator?Most answered ‘yes’ to this.

“Yes. This was impressive given the tight timescale”.However one client had had a different experience:“It was later than expected, however I understand there were mitigating circumstancesand in this case the delay did not impact on my priorities. Again early notification of anypotential delays would be useful to the customer.”· Were you happy with the presentation of the report?All respondents were generally happy with the presentation of the reports. Somewere extremely enthusiastic:“Happy doesn’t adequately cover my thoughts about the product – the report is superb,amasses a huge data set and presents it in a clearly logical way. Importantly, it alsohighlights deficiencies with the data, and suggests further areas of work which could beundertaken with such a huge data set”.• Were you happy with the content of the Report?Again all respondents were generally happy with the content.“Content is superb. This is a piece of work I have been trying to get done for a couple ofyears, so to at last have it achieved is amazing”.“An excellent comprehensive report that covers more ground than I expected”Once again the importance of communications between the client and the trawlerwas emphasised. Generally it was felt that the trawlers had met the terms of thebriefs very well.• Did the finished product and the way it was constructed meet yourexpectations?Everyone answered yes to this question, one with reservations.“Yes. A professional approach ensured an excellent end product”.“More than met my expectations – exceeded them by a substantial margin”.

“For a trial yes. A final “polished” service would allow easy access around the document(hyperlinks to sections) and full appreciation of the literature searched (e.g. refs at backmaybe with hyperlinks to the source material). Again this would depend on the targetaudience who may be technically aware people who want all the details or sciencemanagers who want clear simple conclusions or both groups (hence the importance of agood executive summary and or detailed appendices). Checking who the mainaudience will be is important for this service”.· If you had paid for such a service please give some indication ofwhat you would have been willing to pay.There were a variety of responses to this question. The eight clients would haveexpected to pay anything between £1,000 and £5,000 using standardconsultancy rates. One quoted £250 per day as being the ‘normal’ consultancyrate. It was also stated that some of this kind of research would probably be donein-house, unless it was part of a funded project.4.3.3 General• Would you be interested in using a service like this again?All respondents answered “yes”.“I was extremely impressed with the service provided, and in particular the quality of thereport produced. Yes this service would certainly be useful, but I think the key difficulty itwill face will be in competing with the general consultancy market. In terms of the serviceoffered it will be necessary to pitch the cost below that of the general consultancymarket, or offer a service which is demonstrably different. I’m not quite sure how thiscould operate, but certainly by building up a clear reputation for a collection ofoutworkers who have good data collection, management analysis and interpretationskills it should be possible to generate a unique way of working”.• If the answer is “yes” please estimate the likely volume of work thatyou might want researched e.g. one report per week, two per month,one every six months etc.Most of the clients felt they would have one or two such projects a year. Oneclient felt he might have as many as five to fifteen a year, depending on funding.• In your opinion is there a market for such small scale trawling?

There was a very firm ‘yes’ to this question. Advice was offered on positioning inthe market and a suggestion was made that such a service could be a usefulcomponent of university research projects. The possibility of matching specialistgraduates to the client’s requirements was also highlighted.· Are you aware of other agencies, of any disciplines, who might beinterested?The feedback included organizations working with scientific data, local wildlifetrusts and other NGO’s, the countryside agencies and other environmentalagencies. There was also a suggestion that water companies and the powersector might be interested.One client added to his evaluation in an email to the Coordinator. He suggested“using remote workers as data trawling subcontractors as part of larger contracts. Manyof the consultancies must need work like this done even for EIAs looking at existingdatasets for designated sites and species for example. Might be a way of getting theproject mainstreamed?”• What, in your opinion, could be done to improve this service?There were a range of comments in this feedback:“If it was permanently free, you’d be over-run with work. The difficulty will be making itpay”.“Providing profiles of the researchers”.“Allow researchers to use other medium other than Internet – for example face-to-faceand telephone interviews”.“Better communication and ensuring target on track. Expectation management. Loggingof previous requests /search (successful and unsuccessful outcomes) helps personaliseservice (compare with Any Question Answered text service”).“Overall I am very happy with the service provided. It was very efficient and fulfilled thebrief provided, with some additional information provided”.· Do you have any further thoughts that might help KIMO plan anddevelop a Phase 2?

The replies from the client evaluation were very constructive in terms ofdeveloping the project further:“I think the key thing will be to develop a market and ensure the project carves a nichewhich is clearly different to established consultancies”.“A web based portal for this service could also be beneficial, whereby clients could logon and see the progress of reports, not in terms of actual content but key milestones.The trawler details could also be made available through a website”.And a final word of thanks:“Thank you very much – you saved my skin! The research that you conducted made allthe difference to my conference presentation, which was very well received.I was very impressed that you were able to provide such a high quality piece of work insuch a short space of time and with so little guidance”.

5. Analysis and DiscussionThe evaluation from both the trawlers and the clients has demonstrated that thePilot has been a resounding success. The concept of using home based internetresearchers to compile reports on a range of marine issues using ‘quality’ datahas been proven to be possible. The project proved that not only was there wasthe expertise available within rural communities to undertake this type of work butthat there is a potential market for the research.The pilot also met or exceeded all project indicators in relation to undertaking afeasibility study, ICT projects, job creation, individuals gaining new skills andassistance of business, women and the under-employed. However despite thisthe evaluations highlighted a number of areas that could be improved on andthese have been discussed below with the aim of making recommendations as tohow a ‘Phase 2’ project might be developed.5.1 Quality assuranceIn order to gain the confidence of clients quality assurance was considered to befundamental. This applied both in the recruitment of trawlers and the content ofreports.Screening of the applicants during the pilot was done on a paper-basedassessment and by meeting them face-to-face i.e. personal observation. Thismeeting was considered very important by the Coordinator. In a larger projectincorporating trawlers from out with Shetland this would clearly presentdifficulties.Ongoing communication between the trawler and the client seems to be centralto the trawler producing a report honed to the client’s requirements.5.2 Generation of briefsDuring the pilot there was a time lag between having the trawlers in place andgenerating the briefs. There were good reasons for this at the pilot stage.However, should the service continue and expand, careful consideration wouldneed to be given to where the advertisements for the service were placed. BobEarll’s CMS email advertisement reached a very wide spectrum of agencies andindividuals working in the marine world. The placing of advertisements onwebsites and in journals usually has a cost component. Although it is envisagedthat word of mouth and personal recommendation of this service will help inadvertising its existence (initially amongst those working in the marineenvironment) extensive coverage in terms of advertising to take in a variety of

stakeholders would be beneficial. Very rapid expansion could jeopardise thequality of the reports. However without briefs being generated no service canexist.5.3 Screening of briefsAssuming trawls can be generated following the placing of advertisements, thereis a need for the briefs to be screened at this early stage. The twelve trawlssubmitted to the Pilot were extremely diverse and ranged widely in complexity.Some of them were also quite technical. Feedback from the trawler evaluationsuggested that some trawls were unrealistic in terms of the time it took toproduce the report – dramatically reducing the hourly rate earned (this was a setprice allocated before the trawl started, and not based on how long it took toproduce the report).Consideration needs to be given to this screening process, which requires theexpertise of someone with knowledge in the area of the brief. This person couldidentify whether the trawl was realistic for small-scale research, and put asuggested price tag on it depending on the complexity of the task.5.4 Allocation of trawlsDuring the pilot, the system of self-selection of trawls was used. Submitted briefswere circulated amongst the trawlers with a timescale for submission of theirpreferred options. The point was made in the feedback that this could cause biasin a report if a trawler chose a trawl on which he/she had a particular personalstance. However most trawlers liked this aspect of choice as it meant they couldstay within their own fields of knowledge and expertise and could spend timeresearching an area that interested them. Allocation of trawls without an elementof personal choice does not seem a sensible system. Consideration needs to begiven to the best way of trawlers selecting trawls which (if the advertisements areplaced judiciously) could be coming in on an ongoing basis. A web-based noticeboard, which could be accessed by trawlers who had been allocated a password,would be a possibility. Thus the screened briefs with an associated price tag anda suggested timescale (some might be open to negotiation) could be advertisedas a ‘jobs page’ and interested applicants could approach the Coordinatorexpressing their interest.5.5 Screening of submitted reportsDuring the pilot many of the reports were technical in their scope. Thus submittedreports could not easily be checked and passed as of a suitable quality unless bya person with knowledge and expertise in that area. Consideration needs to be

given to screening the reports in a similar way to screening the briefs, andprobably by the same person. There would clearly be a cost component in thisscreening mechanism.5.6 Trawler supportDuring the Pilot all trawlers were working in relative isolation. At no stage in theprocess were the contact details of other trawlers circulated, and there were noface-to-face workshops. The evaluation shows that some of the trawlers felt theycould have benefited by such contact, if only for reassurance andencouragement. Distribution of personal data is fraught with difficulties. It isenvisaged that participants using the notice board system of brief selection couldalso leave messages for one another. A discussion area could be created onlineand individuals could then decide whether to release their personal information toeach other.5.7 Contact between Trawler and ClientDuring the pilot the guidelines were that trawlers could contact their clients forclarification of any part of the brief. All but two trawlers did this. Some confusionexisted as to whether contact with the client was appropriate.Feedback from both trawlers and clients shows that contact was essential both interms of clarification at the beginning (where discussion of what the client waslooking for could take place), and during the trawling process itself. Generallyclients felt that they would have liked more contact with their trawlers. Thosetrawlers making contact said it had been extremely beneficial and helped them inknowing which direction to take in the trawling.5.8 Accessing dataConsiderable frustration was expressed by the limitation the trawlers felt in notbeing able to access online scientific sources. Most of the trawlers felt that thishad both limited the scope of their final report and added time to the wholeprocess as access to abstracts had led them into continued searching for thewhole paper. Feedback from the trawlers suggested various ways of allowingthem to access the relevant sites. Serious consideration needs to be given to thisaspect of the project. Understandably trawlers felt unhappy about putting theirnames to a piece of work which was limited by the access rights they had usingthe Internet. Mechanisms need to be explored for KIMO, (or individual trawlerspaying a reclaimable membership fee) to have access to identified subscriptiononlyscientific journal sites and/or providing home-based trawlers with PersonalIdentification numbers to allow access. The cost of these access rights isunknown and might prove prohibitive.

5.9 Time taken to write the reportsTime seemed to be a big issue for most of the trawlers. On average the total timetaken to trawl for data and put together the report was 68 hours. The price tagput on the briefs prior to making them available to highly educated, well-qualifiedtrawlers needs to reflect this fact.5.10 Structure of the ReportsTwo of the trawlers found that the suggested structure of the report was notsuitable for their brief. In future guidance to trawlers this needs to be recognisedand an alternative suggested. None of the clients felt there were problems withthe structure of the briefs submitted to them.5.11 Flexibility and RenegotiationFlexibility in the timescale for submitting the brief was an issue for one trawler.Another one asked about renegotiating the brief as once she started it seemedtoo broad and complex in its entirety.It is assumed that both these issues would be considered during the screeningprocess. Requests for an individual extension could be considered in exceptionalcircumstances but would need to be negotiated, in plenty of time, through theCoordinator and would depend on client agreement.5.12 PaymentSerious consideration needs to be given to setting a fair price on the trawls on anindividual basis. Evaluation shows that, although trawlers had agreed the priceon each trawl initially, it turned out that they spent much longer on completionthat had been anticipated. Although working from home cuts costs (i.e. travel,office costs etc.) and gives an element of convenience and flexibility it must alsobe recognised that trawlers are well qualified and doing a professional job.Payment needs to reflect this. Client evaluation of what they would haveexpected to pay for such a piece of work was way above what the trawlers wereactually paid. It could be that the cost cutting possible in working from homewould mean that the overall costs of such a small scale piece of consultancywork could be cut, thus undercutting others in the same field. Extensiveinvestigation into research/consultancy rates is suggested in order to identifyother players in the market and an appropriate range of payment to trawlers

5.13 Other costsThis would include advertising costs, costs of a Manager/Coordinator, costs ofmembers of an ‘expert review group’ (paid on an ad hoc basis with no retainer),and a percentage management cost to be paid to KIMO.

6. Recommendations:A number of issues have been identified during the period of the pilot, which willcontribute towards developing a Phase 2. Trawler and client evaluation havealso highlighted areas that should be considered if this project is to progress.On the basis of this the recommendations are as follows:1. The setting up of an Internet site for trawlers should be investigated. Thiswould consist of a ‘notice board’ for trawl availability, and the facility for one toone communication and the private exchange of information. It could alsohave pages on the legal aspects of trawling and use of materials, house anever-growing library of useful websites and links and be the reference pointfor all trawlers queries prior to contacting the coordinator. It would haveguidelines for trawler communication with the clients, referencing andplagiarism and outline suggestions for the structure of reports. It is envisagedthat this site would evolve depending on both trawler need and input. Thiswebsite could only be accessed by trawlers who had passed the initialscreening process and been accepted into the system.2. Similarly the site should also cater for clients. This would give guidelines asto the layout of briefs, the limitations of the service and positive feedback fromother (agreeing) service users. Clients would be informed of the wholeprocess in general terms and would be encouraged to contact theCoordinator for more detailed information. The home page of the site wouldalso be designed to act as a magnet for both agencies and prospectivetrawlers and would advertise the service to all site visitors.3. Consideration should be given to the judicious placing of advertisements,which would potentially generate an ongoing supply of briefs. Theseadvertisements would need to clarify what makes the data trawling servicespecial, different from and better than others in the field.4. The screening of applicants is clearly crucial to the aim of producing thehighest quality reports. Meeting with applicants in person as well as acomprehensive paper based assessment is recommended. This meetingwould enable the Coordinator to make a judgement on the suitability of thecandidate without relying solely on their written application. The use of videolinks for this interview could be explored although face-to-face meetings arerecommended.5. A ‘peer review group’ consisting of a number of experts in their field shouldbe considered as a way of screening incoming briefs and submitted reports.Their role would include determining whether the submitted brief was realistic,

guidance as to the honing down/clarification of submitted briefs, a suggestedprice for the brief and the responsibility to proof read the finished report tocheck its substance and suitability for submission. These people would workon an individual basis with a fixed remuneration per brief/report. It isrecommended that research be conducted as to the possibility of identifyingand approaching such individuals. Extension of the project to includedisciplines outwith the marine environment would require the setting up ofseparate peer review groups.6. Consideration should be given to setting up a system that would enabletrawlers access to online scientific sources. It is recommended that researchbe undertaken into the mechanics and cost of such access.7. Consideration should be given to setting a fair price on the trawls. Existingsmall-scale consultancy business rates should be investigated andconsideration be given to the possibility of undercutting these rates.Graduates involved in this project should be paid a wage in line with theirqualifications and abilities. As this project brings opportunities for remotespecialist workers, slightly lower rates than are available elsewhere might beacceptable. As has been seen in the client evaluation all clients would haveexpected to pay considerably more for the final report than the trawlers werepaid in the pilot.8. A Phase 2 of the data trawling pilot should be considered involving thedevelopment of a business plan and the identification of the investmentrequired to extend this project by another two or three years. The extendedproject could include graduates with a wider environmental remit, although itis felt that to extend it too far too soon would not be advantageous. Steadygrowth based on solid results and ‘brand’ reputation is seen as being moreimportant than the number of graduates and agencies involved at any onetime. Funding for the extension to this Pilot would need to be sought at thefirst possible opportunity. Goodwill exists within both the client group and thetrawlers group. Momentum will be lost by the elapse of an extended period oftime before Phase 2 could begin.

7. AppendicesAppendix 1Appendix 2Appendix 3Appendix 4Appendix 5Appendix 6Appendix 7Appendix 8Appendix 9Appendix 10Advertisement for TrawlersPress ReleaseQuestions for Discussion with ApplicantsLetters to Shetland based agenciesArticle in June Edition of Shetland LifeAdvertisement circulated via CMS serviceList of twelve submitted project briefsContract for TrawlersGuidance for TrawlersFinal Reports10.1 Regional Trends in Fisheries Data in England since 190010.2 Review of ‘resocking’ practices for the Mussel Industry10.3 Building Public Support for Marine Protected Areas10.4 Aquaculture Species Diversification – what is the nextspecies with potential for Shetland?10.5 Comparison of Grazed and Ungrazed Salt marsh10.6 Comparison of Testing Methodologies for fatty acid analysisin fish10.7 Improving the Marketing of Shetland caught Velvet Crabs10.8 Geospatial Tools for visualising the Marine and CoastalEnvironment

Appendix 11Trawler Evaluation11.1 Trawler evaluation - Regional Trends in Fisheries Data inEngland since 190011.2 Trawler evaluation - Review of ‘resocking’ practices for theMussel Industry11.3 Trawler evaluation - Building Public Support for MarineProtected Areas11.4 Trawler evaluation - Aquaculture Species Diversification –what is the next species with potential for Shetland?11.5 Trawler evaluation - Comparison of Grazed and UngrazedSaltmarsh11.6 Trawler evaluation - Comparison of Testing Methodologiesfor fatty acid analysis in fish11.7 Trawler evaluation - Improving the Marketing of Shetlandcaught Velvet Crabs11.8 Trawler evaluation - Geospatial Tools for visualising theMarine and Coastal EnvironmentAppendix 12Client Evaluation12.1 Client evaluation - Regional Trends in Fisheries Data inEngland since 190012.2 Client evaluation - Review of ‘resocking’ practices for theMussel Industry12.3 Client evaluation - Building Public Support for MarineProtected Areas12.4 Client evaluation - Aquaculture Species Diversification –what is the next species with potential for Shetland?12.5 Client evaluation - Comparison of Grazed and UngrazedSaltmarsh

12.6 Client evaluation - Comparison of Testing Methodologies forfatty acid analysis in fish12.7 Client evaluation - Improving the Marketing of Shetlandcaught Velvet Crabs12.8 Client evaluation - Geospatial Tools for visualising theMarine and Coastal Environment8. SponsorsHighlands and Islands EnterpriseToll Clock Shopping Centre26 North RoadLerwickZE1 ODEshetland@hient.co.ukShetland Islands Council Economic Development Unit6 North Ness Business Park,LerwickZE1 OLZdevelopment@shetland.gov.ukKIMO contact details:KIMOGrantfieldLerwickZE1 ONTjohn.mouat@kimo.shetland.org

Appendix 1ATTENTION MARINE BIOLOGISTS ANDENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE GRADUATESAre you a graduate in a marine science, environmental science or a related discipline?Do you have access to the Internet?Are you not fully utilising your skills and can work from home?Are you interested on taking part in an innovative Marine Environmental Research PilotProject?If so, KIMO UK are wanting to hear from you.For the next few months KIMO UK with co-funding from LEADER+, ShetlandEnterprise and the Shetland Islands Council are running a pilot project to look into thepossibility of setting up a network of environmental science graduates who could usetheir expertise from home undertaking internet research, on a flexible part-time basis.If you are interested in finding out more about the project please emaildatatrawl@kimointernational.org or phone 07789 790775 for details.More information about KIMO can be found at www.kimointernational.orgWorking from home, on flexi-time, in your own discipline - what could be better?

Appendix 2KOMMUNENES INTERNASJONALE MILJØORGANISASJONLOCAL AUTHORITIES INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL ORGANISATIONKIMO UK PRESS RELEASEWednesday 25th 2007KIMO Launches Innovative Marine EnvironmentResearch Project.Are you a graduate in a marine science or a related environmental discipline?Then KIMO UK would like to hear from you.With funding from LEADER+, Shetland Enterprise and the Shetland IslandCouncil KIMO are launching an innovative environmental research project whichis looking into opportunities for graduates living in Shetland to use their skills andexpertise, on a part-time basis and from the comfort of their own homes.Participants would be required to undertake research on the Internet in their owndiscipline and then to produce a report for clients.The project will develop and establish research methodologies, equipmentrequirements, investigate potential markets and costs of providing a service forpotential clients, undertake a sample of 5 to 10 illustrative model trawls to providemarine environmental information, investigate the technical opportunities andrestraints of providing information at different technical levels and of producingreports, identify opportunities and problems, and assess the options to expandthe project into the community using home workers.Jane Macaulay has been appointed Project Co-ordinator and will be based inUnst for the 9 month project.KIMO UK’s Mr Rick Nickerson said: “This is a very exciting project to investigatethe challenges in developing home working opportunities for people especially inrural areas. We are delighted that KIMO has been given the chance to take itforward. The kinds of people we are looking for need to have an in-depthknowledge of their own field, as quality assurance in the reporting to our clients isof paramount importance. If you have access to the Internet and have some timeto spare to take part in this pilot we would very much like to hear from you. “Notes for Editors

KIMO UK is a constituent network of KIMO International, an organisation thatconsists of 115 coastal local authorities in 9 countries in Northern Europerepresenting over 6 million inhabitants. KIMO campaigns and undertakesprojects on a range of marine pollution issues that affect coastal communities.For more information contact, Mrs Jane Macaulay on 07789 790775 or emaildatatrawl@kimointernational.orgwebsite www.kimointernational.org

(2) Suitable nickel drums or suitablesteel drums lined or coatedinternally with lead, effectivelyclosed.(3) Glass or earthenware containersof suitable make, effectivelyclosed.10%10%-50 L(2) -(3) For transport only-Packed singly with effectiveinorganic absorbent material instrong wooden cases. The neck ofthe container to be adequatelyprotected by fitted solid hoodbolted down to give totalenclosure.PHOSPHORUSTRICHLORIDE(Phosphorus Chloride).(1) Glass or earthenware containersof suitable make, effectivelyclosed.10%10 L(1) For transport only-Packed with effective inorganicabsorbent material in woodencases. Not more than 50 L in eachcase.E and H - 5 L(2) Suitable nickel drums or suitablesteel drums lined or coatedinternally with lead, effectivelyclosed.(3) For Anhydrous PhosphorusTrichloride only-Suitable unlined metal drums ofnot less than 1.6 mm body and 2mm ends, effectively closed.10%10%-250 L(2) -(3) -POTASSIUMHYDROXIDESOLUTION (CausticPotash Solution).(1) Glass or earthenware containersof suitable make, effectivelyclosed.5%10 L(1) For transport only-Packed with effective absorbentmaterial in wooden cases. Notmore than 50 L in each case.E 50 L 50 L(2) Glass or earthenware containersof suitable make, effectivelyclosed.5%70 L(2) Packed singly in-(a) wicker hampers with wickerbonnets; or(b) stout slatted crates lined withsuitable protective materialand with adequate protectionfor the neck of the container;or(c) strong iron hampers with ironbonnets, with not less than 12mm of packing material; thewhole to be contained in acase, create or hamper unlessthe diameter of the base of themetal hamper isapproximately equal to thediameter of the top of thehamper; or(d) wooden cases with suitableprotective material.(3) For transport only-Packed with effective absorbentmaterial in wooden cases. Notmore than 50 L in each case.(3) Polythene bottles of suitablemake, effectively closed, orpolypropylene containers, wheremanufacturers have satisfiedthemselves that polypropylenecontainers, effectively closed,will be suitable in thecircumstances and that suchcontainers are not likely to beused below -10 o C.5%5 L(4) For transport only-Packed in wooden cases.(4) Tins or cans of suitable make,effectively closed.(5) -(5) Suitable metal drums, effectivelyclosed.5%-POTASSIUMHYDROXIDE (CausticPotash).(Solid).(1) Glass or earthenware containersof suitable make, effectivelyclosed.5% 500 L- - (1) For transport only-Packed with suitable protectivematerial in wooden cases.(2) For transport only-E 50 kg 50 kgCap 295B - DANGEROUS GOODS (GENERAL) REGULATIONS 41

Appendix 4Proposed recipients of ‘agency letter’ grouped according to category of recipient:Environmental:· Environment and Rural Affairs Dept, Scottish Exec - John Martin· Fair Isle Marine Environment and Tourism Initiative – Nick Riddiford· Friends of the Earth Scotland – contact Vic Thomas – Sandwick, Shetland· SEPA – contact Dave O’Kill· SNH – contact John Uttley‘Birdy’· Fair Isle Bird Observatory – c/o Wardens· Martin Heubeck - SOTEAG· RSPB – contact Pete EllisAquaculture and Fisheries· NAFC – contact Carole Phillips· Shetland Aquaculture – contact David Sandison· Shetland Fishermen’s Association – contact Hansen Black, Chief ExecutiveMarine Engineers· Mott McDonald – contact George Anderson· Arch Henderson and Partners – contact Andy Sandison·Commercial Companies· Johnson Seafarms Ltd – contact Gordon Johnson· AB Associates – contact Andrew BlackadderLocal Government· Shetland Amenity Trust – contact Mick Clifton· Shetland Crofting, Farming and Wildlife Advisory Group – contact Sue White692633· Lerwick Port Authority – contact Victor Sandison· SIC – Jim Dickson - SIC Ports & Harbours, Stephen Cooper – Head of Service –Environment & Building Services, & Vic Hawthorne – Planning, DevelopmentPlans Manager, Martin Holmes – c/o NAFC, Scalloway, Trevor Smith (ContractManager (Engineering) Capital Programme Service, Greenhead Base, Lerwick· Shetland Community Councils

Also: KIMO UK – Letter by Rick. MCA – Knab Neville Davies.

-)une 9001Dcfc tnswlingThe search is on.for.graduates who can work from home on research projects via theinternet. The project's coordinator, Jone Mscgulgf, explains more.KIMO UK has launched aninnovaiive research pilot project thataims to seek out graduates to usetheir skills in a flexible and creativeway.As we all know, large numbers ofour young people go from Shetlandto study at universities and collegeslgutl.Many of rhem, rerurning roShetland after they graduate, find ithard to get work using theknowledge and understanding theyhave gained during their srudies.Often they rake work in otherdisciplines in order to stay inShetland and earn a living. and thedepth and breadth of their universiWor college learning remainsuntapped. Similarly, some graduaresgo on to starr a familv and find thatthe time they have to work is limited;others live in the most remote andrural areas of Shetland where theopportunities for working in theirown fields are scarce, or not nonexistent.But in the age of the internet,perhaps rhat no Ionger needs to bethe case. Vast quantities ofinformation is available online and.with the right connection, anyoneanywnere can access it. This canprovide employment opportunitieslor these well qualified people, fromthe comfort of their own homes.The first part of KIMO UK's HomeWorking Daratrawl project is to buildup a database of graduates,specifically in marine biology or arelated environmental science. Aprofile of each interested .qraduate isput together identifying thtirqualifications, their specialist areasof interest, any relevant experienceand orher derails that will iorm afuller picture of each individual. Thiswill help make ir possible tomaintain the quality assurancewhich is at the heart of the project.The second part of the project isro^idenrify who might wanrlntormarion searched for. We thinkthere may be a market for graduatesand specialists to collate "trawled"information to a ran.qe of clients -information in the fo-rm of a reportusing data collecred lrom thelnternet. The project aims to identifuthese potential clients and to qerthem to submit possible areas"forresearch.The research possibilities are aswide as your imagination allows. Itmight be that an environmentalagency wants an up,to-date searchdone, and report written, on feedingpatterns and movement of killerwhales around the northern seas. Itcould be that a fish farmingcompany is interested in the latestscientific research on blue/greenalgae. It might be thar a localgovernment department wants apolitical brief on coastal erosion._The challenge to the agenciesthis: tell us what isareas vou needresearch done in and KIMO UK willthen try to identify a home workergraduate wirh rhe right specialityand experience to fit the bill. Clearlythis will not be possible in everycase, but the more potenrial areas ofresearch submitted, the more likelvthat a suitable "rrawler" will befound.Projects mighr be fairly simpleand short, to be completed in a fewdays. or longer and more complex,requiring a report to be written in largreater depth. Ir is hoped that it willbe possible to include a ranqe ol fiveto 10 trawls as part of theexperiment.Allwork undertaken will bewritten and completed to the higheststandards, and the good news for theagencies is that not only will they geta high quality report writren to theirown needs and specifications, butalso there will be no charge to themfor the work undertaken at thisstage, as the pilot includes a budgetfor the payment of the graduates.So far we have been verv pleasedwith the numbers of potenlial"trawlers" who have contacted us,showing an interest in theexperiment. I am very hopeful that alot of good things could come fromthe projecr.If we find that there is a marketfor graduates in the narrowdisciplines we have targeted for thepilor it will prove thar t6ere could bescope for similar work to be done bya wider nerwork of graduates on alarger scale. This -ba"t could,potentially, then be used effectivelyln any remote or rural area wherethere are under-utilised graduareswho could use rhe technblogy togood effect. Everyone would benefitas folk can stay in the area theychoose to live in, and could dorheresearch from home in their owndiscipline, working to a detailed brielfrom a client. For the pilot project allthe work is to be Shetland based, buttheoretically the client could be atthe other side of the world.We now have a number of verywell qualified graduares who areliving in Shetland and are interestedin taking parr. Pur together they havean impressive and wide rangingknowledge base, and many years ofexperience in the field.Environmental agencies and othergroups need to use rheirimaginations and submit briefs thatwill be of most benefit ro themselves.Better still they should come to uswith three or four possibilities as thisgives more scope for gening a goodmatch with the expertise we haveavailable. Let's try to use thisopportunity in as constructive andcreative a way as possible to see if itcan work for all concerned.Jcne Mocoulcylf you cre interested in tcking portin the project. would like fo sr:bmitc brlef or would like to discuss ilfurl-her you can contoct Jcne on4778E 7qA775 or emoil her ondototrowt@kimointernotionol, org

Appendix 6KIMO Home Working/Data Trawl ProjectDo you have a project or some research sitting on the shelf?You haven’t had time or resources to have it completed?Are you interested on taking part in an innovative MarineEnvironmental Internet Research Pilot Project?We’re looking for Data Trawls for our Home workersDo you have a project or some research sitting on the shelf, which you haven’thad time or resources to have completed? KIMO UK has secured co-fundingfrom Leader +, Shetland Enterprise and the Shetland Islands Council tolaunch an innovative environmental research project in Shetland.The pilot project is designed to ‘test the waters’ as to whether there is amarket for marine biologists, or graduates in related environmental sciences,to trawl for data from the Internet in their own specific disciplines. This createsthe opportunity for customers with interests in the marine environment, suchas yourselves, to get well-qualified home-based researchers writing reports ona specific area of interest to you. It also opens up employment opportunitiesfor graduates living in remote areas that may not want, or be able, to accesstraditional routes of employment.The data collected would be filtered and assessed for its scientific substanceand quality by the ‘trawler’, (i.e. there would be strict quality controlprocedures) and then presented in the form of a report written to yourspecifications. Clearly your brief at the beginning of such a process wouldneed to be accurate and precise so as to generate a report specific to yourrequirements.We aim to have completed 5 - 10 data trawls by the end of the 9-monthproject and hope that these trawls can be varied in both length and depth. Thepilot will then be evaluated.The type of trawl possible is limited only by your imagination and thegraduates who put themselves forward for this experimental phase, so pleasefeel free to be creative. The pilot would aim to match the chosen graduates

discipline or area of expertise as closely as possible with your requirements.The selection process for trawls will depend on the nature of your brief, thecomplexity of the task and the availability of graduates with the appropriatediscipline. There is no guarantee that your request will be successful.We would like to invite you to take part in the pilot by submitting asuggestion(s) as to a possible area of research that might be of benefit to yourorganisation? Perhaps you have an idea or a topic area that you have nothad the time to explore? Or maybe you are involved in on going project workthat could benefit from an input of information you do not have time to collateyourself? There will be no charge at all for the work done for you during thisproject. The researchers will be paid out of the project budget. In other wordsyou can get some good quality work done by well-qualified people - fornothing!Although every attempt will be made to meet your requirements, as a Pilot thisis an experimental project and therefore at this stage the outcomes areunknown. Following the submission of the report to you we would hope thatyou would take part in a short evaluation so that we will be able to includeyour client feedback in the final Project Report.If you would like to discuss the pilot, or ideas that you would like to submit,please contact the Project Co-ordinator Jane Macaulay on 01957 711647,07789 790775 or email to datatrawl@kimointernational.org.

Appendix 7List of 12 submitted briefs1. Review of ‘resocking’ practices for the mussel industry2. Aquaculture Species Diversification – what is the next species with potential forShetland?3. Methods Evaluation4. Improving the marketing of Shetland caught Velvet Crabs5. Building Public Support for Marine Protected Areas6. Overview of the Socio-Economic Consequences of Factors impacting on FishStocks in the Clyde7. Geospatial tools for visualising the marine and coastal environment to aid incommunication and public participation for Integrated Coastal Zone Management(ICZM) / Marine Spatial Planning (MSP)8. Temporal Trends of PBFRs in the Marine Environment.9. Regional trends in fisheries data in England since 190010. Definitive lists of Saltmarsh species in the UK Regions11. Natural variability in the overall area of a saltmarsh and in the zones of asaltmarsh12. Comparison of Grazed and Ungrazed Saltmarsh(N.B. Only 8 of the submitted briefs were completed due to the withdrawal of 4 trawlersprior to starting the work.)

Appendix 8Contract for Home WorkersI the undersigned agree to take part in the KIMO Home Working Data Trawl PilotProject.In taking part in this project I agree to have my report completed and submitted toKIMO by (date).I agree to evaluate and collate the data trawled from the Internet in the best waypossible to meet the terms of the brief as attached.I agree to abide by the guidelines on plagiarism and referencing provided (seeattached).I accept that I will be paid a fixed price of (price) for the completion and submissionof this report and nothing in this agreement or otherwise is intended to, or does,create a contract of employment between me and KIMO.I agree that my name can be used on the final report.I accept that the finished report becomes the property of KIMO following submission.I agree to offer feedback and observations about my involvement in the Pilot for usein the final evaluative report.I understand and accept that there will be some publicity following the publication ofthe overall Pilot final report and that my involvement in the Pilot may in this way bemade public.Signed: ______________________________________Date: _____________Name: _________________________________________________(Home Worker)Signed: _______________________________________Date: _______________Name: ________________________________________(Pilot Project Coordinator)

Appendix 9Plagiarism.It is very important that all information collated by datatrawlers during the KIMODatatrawl Pilot Project is acknowledged and suitably referenced.Plagiarism – the unacknowledged incorporation of material derived from the workof another - is deemed unacceptable.The UHI Academic Standards and Quality Regulations 2006 – 2007 state :Plagiarism may include:1. The use of another person’s material without reference oracknowledgement2. The summarising of another person’s work by simply changing a fewwords or altering the order of presentation without acknowledgement3. The use of the ideas of another person without acknowledgement of thesource4. Copying the work of another person with or without that personsknowledge or agreementIn signing the contract with KIMO to take part in the Datatrawl Pilot, allhomebased researchers agree to acknowledge and suitably referenceinformation trawled and collated from the Internet.

Appendix 9Guidelines for Referencing 1Acknowledging sources"standing on the shoulders of giants" 2Presentation of ideas developed on previous knowledge requiresacknowledgement of sources of information so thatreaders can find the original sourcesthe authors of the original sources are given credit for their workthe writer's own research is clearthe work has credibilityYou must acknowledge what you have read to avoid plagiarising.Plagiarism.Plagiarism – the unacknowledged incorporation of material derived from the workof another - is deemed unacceptable.It is very important that all information collated by datatrawlers during the KIMODatatrawl Pilot Project is acknowledged and suitably referenced.The UHI Academic Standards and Quality Regulations 2006 – 2007 state :Plagiarism may include:1. The use of another person’s material without reference oracknowledgement2. The summarising of another person’s work by simply changing a fewwords or altering the order of presentation without acknowledgement3. The use of the ideas of another person without acknowledgement of thesource4. Copying the work of another person with or without that personsknowledge or agreement

Appendix 9Report WritingPlease include the following:Cover Sheet This should contain all of the following: full title of the report; yourname; the name of the group or institution who submitted the brief, the date.Title Page: Full title of the report. Your name.Acknowledgements: If any.Contents or Table of ContentsHeadings and subheadings used in the report with their page numbers.Remember that each new chapter should begin on a new page.Use a consistent system in dividing the report into parts. The simplest may be touse chapters for each major part and subdivide these into sections andsubsections. 1, 2, 3, etc, can be used as the numbers for each chapter. Thesections for chapter 3 (for example) would be 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, and so on. For afurther subdivision of a subsection you can use 3.2.1, 3.2.2, and so on.Please use the following headings:1. Executive Summary2. Brief3. Methodology4. Results5. Analysis and Discussion

Appendix 10.1Regional trends in fisheries data in Englandsince 1900Natural EnglandPaul Macdonald26/10/2007

Regional trends in fisheries data inEngland since 1900Paul MacdonaldDisclaimer:To the best of our knowledge the information in this report was accurateat the time of writing. As this information was obtained from onlinesources KIMO cannot be held responsible for any omissions orinaccuracies in the data.2

Table of Contents1 Executive Summary................................................................................42 Brief .........................................................................................................53 Methodology ...........................................................................................63.1 Data collection ...................................................................................63.2 Data analysis .....................................................................................73.3 Data restrictions.................................................................................74 Results.....................................................................................................94.1 North East..........................................................................................94.1.1 Regional trends in landings ........................................................94.1.2 Regional trends in fishing vessels ............................................104.1.3 Regional trends in CPUE..........................................................114.1.4 Landings at North East ports....................................................124.2 South east .......................................................................................224.2.1 Regional trends in landings ......................................................224.2.2 Regional trends in fishing vessels ............................................234.2.3 Regional trends in CPUE..........................................................244.2.4 Landings at South East ports ...................................................254.3 South West......................................................................................354.3.1 Regional trends in landings ......................................................354.3.2 Regional trends in fishing vessels ............................................364.3.3 Regional trends in CPUE..........................................................374.3.4 Landings at South West ports ..................................................384.4 North West.......................................................................................524.4.1 Regional trends in landings ......................................................524.4.2 Regional trends in fishing vessels ............................................534.4.3 Regional trends in CPUE..........................................................544.4.4 Landings at North West ports ...................................................555 Analysis and Discussion......................................................................585.1 Landings data..................................................................................585.2 Effort and CPUE data ......................................................................586 Conclusions ..........................................................................................603

1 Executive SummaryA large amount of historical commercial fisheries data, collected over anextended time period, is currently available for analysis from a number ofsources. This study aimed to utilize that data to investigate regional trends infisheries data in England since 1900. The work undertaken here attempts todisplay trends in historical fishing landings and effort on a regional basis and,where possible, trends in landings into major ports in each region are alsoshown.Results indicate that trends in landings varied between the four regions.Landings were highest in the eastern regions with over half a million tonneslanded annually during the most successful year in the North East and overquarter of a million tonnes landed in the South East’s most successful year.Landings in the South West peaked at over 100,000 tonnes while landings inthe North West peaked at around 80,000 tonnes.In the North East and North West regions landings were predominantlydemersal species with smaller quantities of pelagic and shellfish species alsolanded. The South East and South West regions had higher landings ofpelagic species. The majority of pelagic landings in the early part of the 20 thcentury were in the South East while the South West reported the bulk ofpelagic landings in the second half of the 20 th century.The preponderance of ports throughout England exhibit rapid decreases inlandings of all species throughout the study period. Few ports show signs ofrecovery although in a small number of ports shellfish landings haveincreased in recent years.4

2 BriefA large amount of historical commercial fisheries data, collected over anextended time period, is currently available for analysis from a number ofsources. However, separating out specific trends is often extremely difficult.The aim of this study was to investigate regional trends in fisheries data inEngland since 1900 by displaying trends in historical fishing landings andeffort on a regional basis. Where possible, trends in major ports in eachregion were also shown.5

3 Methodology3.1 Data collectionLandings data including demersal, pelagic and shellfish landings, as well asvessel numbers at each of the major ports were recorded in two MicrosoftExcel spreadsheets. While it is recognised that vessel numbers are by nomeans an ideal method of measuring effort, this was the only consistentmeasure of effort within the dataset over the time period.Data from 1900-1994 was downloaded from the Department for Environment,Food and Rural Affairs historical fisheries statistics website 1 , data from 1995-2004 was downloaded from the United Kingdom Sea Fisheries Statisticswebsite 2 and finally, data from 2005 was downloaded from the Marine andFisheries Agency website 3 . Data was downloaded in the form of pdf files for1 Information taken from Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Website.Page title: United Kingdom Sea Fisheries Statistics Historical Archive.Site Title: Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs.Last updated: 2005Internet address: http://statistics.defra.gov.uk/esg/publications/fishstathis/default.aspDate accessed: September 20072 Information taken from Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Website.Page title: United Kingdom Sea Fisheries Statistics.Site Title: Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs.Last updated: 2005Internet address: http://statistics.defra.gov.uk/esg/publications/fishstat/default.aspDate accessed: September 20073 Information taken from Marine and Fisheries Agency Website.Page title: United Kingdom Sea Fisheries Statistics.Site Title: Marine and Fisheries Agency.Last updated: 27 th September 2007Internet address: http://www.mfa.gov.uk/statistics/ukseafish.aspDate accessed: 12 th September 20076

each year. Relevant data for a given year was located, extracted from thehistorical record and recorded in the appropriate spreadsheet. Landings priorto 1975 were converted from cwt to tonnes.3.2 Data analysisFollowing data collection, the major ports were arranged into four regions;North East, South East, South West and North West. Data for each regionwas compiled from individual port data to produce regional trends in landingsof demersal, pelagic and shellfish over the time period. Vessel numbers foreach region were also calculated by combining data from individual ports. Arudimentary measure of catch per unit effort was then calculated for eachregion on an annual basis by dividing total landings by the number of vesselsin the region. Data for the South West region included landings into andvessels fishing from the Welsh ports of Swansea, Cardiff and Milford Haven.The dataset only considers landings into primary ports over the time period.As a result data is only available for some ports during periods when theywere considered to be primary ports and not for the entire study period. Effortdata was not available on a port by port basis.3.3 Data restrictionsA number of factors may have affected the accuracy of the data. On someoccasions unavoidable gaps in the data appeared, often only for shortperiods. For example, as may be expected, specific landings data for portswas often unavailable during the periods 1914-1918 and 1939-1945. Therewas also a lack of detailed data on landings for individual ports from the timeperiod 1900-1905. Another problem that arose with the data was the changein the format over the study period. As such it was often difficult to maintain aconsistent dataset for the required analysis. One example of this was thechange in the form of shellfish data from tonnes during 1975-2005 to cwtduring 1923-1974 and finally to total numbers during 1912-1922. Shellfishlandings were absent from the data prior to 1912.Vessel data was only available for the major registration ports. Vessels areclassed as those over 40ft or 10 metres for some of the time period while,7

more historically, vessels are classed as ‘first class’ and ‘second class’. Thismay have caused some discrepancies in the data as it was difficult toascertain whether the same types of vessel are being considered in thedifferent formats. In many cases large numbers of vessels are unaccountedfor in the data and as such effort and CPUE data should be treated withcaution and at best used as a very rough guide to effort in the various regions.Vessel data is missing from the dataset during the years 1991, 1946 and1915-1918.8

4 Results4.1 North East4.1.1 Regional trends in landingsLandings data was gathered from a total of 10 ports in the North East ofEngland over the period 1905-2005. Landings over the entire period werepredominantly demersal species (Figure 1) with small numbers of pelagic andshellfish species also landed. There was a steady increase in demersallandings during the early 1900s to a peak in 1937 at 540,000 tones. Landingsrapidly declined during the Second World War, increasing again towards theend of the 1940s. There was a slow decrease in landings up until the early1970s. This was followed throughout the remainder of the 1970s and early1980s by a rapid decline in the amount of demersal fish landed. The mostrecent landings data show that demersal fish landings into north eastern portswere at an all time low of 9,885 tonnes in 2005. Pelagic landings have beenrelatively steady over the study period with increases in landings at around1910 and again towards the end of the 1970s. Current pelagic landings arelow with a total of only 450 tonnes being landed in the last 7 years. Shellfishlandings were low throughout most of the study period, although there was arise in recent years.600000500000DemersalPelagicShellfish400000Landings (Tonnes)300000200000100000019051915192519351945195519651975198519952005YearFigure 1 Trends in fish landings in North East England from 1905-2005.9

4.1.2 Regional trends in fishing vesselsFour major ports, North Shields, Scarborough, Hull and Grimsby contributedto fishing vessel data (Figure 2). There was a steady increase in vesselsduring the early 1900s to a peak of 1,247 ‘first class’ vessels during 1914.Vessel numbers steadily decreased over time, with a major decrease duringthe Second World War. Vessel numbers have been at a very low level inrecent years with only 211 vessels registered in the region in 2005.14001200Fishing vessels1000Number of fishing vessels800600400200019051915192519351945195519651975198519952005YearFigure 2 Trends in the number of fishing vessels registered at major ports inthe North East of England from 1900-2005.10

4.1.3 Regional trends in CPUECatch per unit effort in the north east was relatively low in the early 1900s.CPUE then steadily rose in the late 1920s and 1930s (Figure 3). Following adecrease during the Second World War, CPUE continued to increase to apeak average of 1158 tonnes/vessel in 1969. CPUE has steadily decreasedsince then to the most recent average value of 91 tonnes/vessel in 2005.1400Tonnes/Vessel1200Average CPUE (Tonnes/Vessel)1000800600400200019051915192519351945195519651975198519952005YearFigure 3 Trends in CPUE in the North East of England from 1905-2005.11

4.1.4 Landings at North East ports4.1.4.1 AmbleFisheries landings statistics for Amble are included in the annual fisheriesstatistical reports for the years 1995 to 2005. Landings have predominantlyconsisted of demersal and shellfish species as well as a small number ofpelagic species (Figure 4). Landings of demersal species increased in the firstfour years of the ten year period, peaking at 1,636 tonnes in 1999, anddecreased to 273 tonnes in 2005. Shellfish landings have steady decreasedfrom over 600 tonnes in 1995 to just over 300 tonnes in 2005.1,8001,6001,400DemersalPelagicShellfishLandings (Tonnes)1,2001,000800600400200-19051915192519351945195519651975198519952005YearFigure 4 Trends in fish landings into the port of Amble from 1995-2005.12

4.1.4.2 BlythLandings statistics for Blyth are included in the annual fisheries statisticalreports from 1995 to 2005 (Figure 5). Demersal landing have decreased overthe ten year period with a slight increase again in 2005. Pelagic landings wereover 2,300 tonnes for 1995 but crashed following 2006 to less than 10 tonnesannually. Shellfish landings have been more consistent over the period with amarked increase during 2005 to 1,110 tonnes.25002000DemersalPelagicShellfishLandings (Tonnes)15001000500019051915192519351945195519651975198519952005YearFigure 5 Trends in fish landings into the port of Blyth from 1995-2005.13

4.1.4.3 North ShieldsThe port of North Shields has been a primary landing port in England for theentire 105 year study period. Landings have consisted predominantly ofdemersal and pelagic species with small number of shellfish species alsopresent (Figure 6). Demersal landings were reasonably steady at around20,000 tonnes per year for the first half of the 20 th century, excluding the warperiods. Landings then declined in the 1950s and 1960 only to rise and peakagain at a study period high of just under 30,000 tonnes in 1971. Since thenlandings have steadily decreased to the present annual landing of 1,000tonnes. Pelagic landings were also around 20,000 tonnes in the early 1900sbut steadily decreased over time until the late 1960s when there was a rapidincrease in landings to a peak of 50,000 tonnes in 1976. Landings decreasedrapidly following that and in recent years little, if any, pelagic species havebeen landed into the port. Shellfish landings into the port have been relativelylow throughout the study period.6000050000DemersalPelagicShellfishLandings (Tonnes)40000300002000010000019051915192519351945195519651975198519952005YearFigure 6 Trends in fish landings into the port of North Shields from 1905-2005.14

4.1.4.4 SunderlandSunderland was considered a primary port in the annual fisheries statisticsduring the years 1905 to 1937. Landings during that period consisted mainlyof demersal species as well as smaller quantities of pelagic and shellfishspecies (Figure 7). With the exception of the war period, landings of demersalfish were consistently between 800 and 1,600 tonnes up until the late 1920s.Following this, landings steadily declined to a low of 410 tonnes at the end ofthe record in 1937. Shellfish landings were consistently between 100-300tonnes over the period while pelagic landings peaked at 200 tonnes between1920 and 1930.180016001400DemersalPelagicShellfishLandings (Tonnes)12001000800600400200019051915192519351945195519651975198519952005YearFigure 7 Trends in fish landings into the port of Sunderland from 1905-1938.15

4.1.4.5 HartlepoolHartlepool was considered a primary port in the annual fisheries statisticsfrom the years 1900 to 1975 and again from the years 1995 to 2004. Landingshave been mainly demersal and pelagic with small numbers of shellfish alsolanded (Figure 8). Demersal landings rose in the early 1900s to a peak in1920 of 8,700 tonnes. Since then there has been a steady decline in landingsup until the most recent figure of 230 tonnes in 2004. Pelagic landings havefollowed a similar trend in Hartlepool with landings peaking in 1913 andsteadily declining to 0 tonnes in 2004. Shellfish landings have been lowthrough out the study period although there was an increase in landings inmore recent years.Landings (Tonnes)1000090008000700060005000400030002000DemersalPelagicShellfish1000019051915192519351945195519651975198519952005YearFigure 8 Trends in fish landings into the port of Hartlepool from 1905-1975and 1995-2004.16

4.1.4.6 WhitbyLandings statistics for Whitby have been included in the annual fisheriesstatistical data for the periods 1905-1949 and 1966-2005. Landings in Whitbywere low in the first half of the 20 th century although one notable exceptionwas pelagic landings during the Second World War period which were as highas 5,400 tonnes (Figure 9). Pelagic landings have been low throughout theremainder of the study period. Demersal landings increased steadily duringthe latter half of the 20 th century to a high of 4,600 tonnes in 1996 followingwhich there has been a marked decrease until the present time. Shellfishlandings have increased steadily in recent years to a high of 1,800 tonnes in2005.60005000DemersalPelagicShellfishLandings (Tonnes)4000300020001000019051915192519351945195519651975198519952005YearFigure 9 Trends in fish landings into the port of Whitby from 1905-1949 and1966-2005.17

4.1.4.7 ScarboroughThe port of Scarborough was considered a primary port in the annual fisheriesstatistics from 1905-2004. Landings in the early part of the 1900s werepelagic species, mostly herring (Figure 10). Pelagic landings took a huge leapfrom 4,801 tonnes in 1912 to 70,137 tonnes in 1913 and back to 4,298 tonnesin 1914. This huge landing in 1913 was down to large numbers of herringbeing landed. Since then pelagic landings have been below 1,000 tonnesannually. Demersal landings increased in the 1960s and 1970s althoughlandings have recently decreased steadily to 1,000 tonnes in 2004. Shellfishlandings were between 100 and 300 tonnes throughout the study period.Landings (Tonnes)80000700006000050000400003000020000DemersalPelagicShellfish10000019051915192519351945195519651975198519952005YearFigure 10 Trends in fish landings into the port of Scarborough from 1905-2004.18

4.1.4.8 BridlingtonBridlington was included in the annual fisheries statistics during the years1905-1949, 1966-1989 and 1991 to 2005. Demersal landing into the portincreased from less than 2,000 tonnes in the early 1900s to a high of 6,500tonnes in 1983 (Figure 11). Following this, landings of demersal fish steadilydecreased to the current level of only 5 tonnes in 2005. Shellfish haveaccounted for a large proportion of recent landings into Bridlington, peaking at5,300 tonnes in 2001. However, landings have decreased since that time tothe current value of 2,800 tonnes in 2005. Pelagic landings, while showingsporadic increases during certain years, have been fairly low throughout thestudy period.Landings (Tonnes)700060005000400030002000DemersalPelagicShellfish1000019051915192519351945195519651975198519952005YearFigure 11 Trends in fish landings into the port of Bridlington from 1905-1949,1966-1989, and 1991-2005.19

4.1.4.9 HullHull has played a major role in fish landings, especially demersal species,throughout the study period (Figure 12). Trends in demersal landings in Hullgo a long way to describing trends in the entire north east region. Demersallandings increased steadily from the 1920s to a high of 326,000 tonnes in1937. Following the war, landings rose to 28,000 tonnes in 1951 and havesteadily declined since then. Current demersal landings into Hull are 6,100tonnes in 2005. Pelagic landing in Hull have been mostly low although thereare three peaks in landings during the early 1910s, late 1930s and late 1970s.The highest pelagic landing was 13,300 tonnes in 1977. Shellfish landingshave also been very low in Hull with no shellfish reportedly landed for manyyears.Landings (Tonnes)350000300000250000200000150000100000DemersalPelagicShellfish50000019051915192519351945195519651975198519952005YearFigure 12 Trends in fish landings into the port of Hull from 1905-2005.20

4.1.4.10 GrimsbyLike Hull, Grimsby has played a major role in fish landings over the studyperiod. Landings have been mainly demersal and, with the exception of thewar years, between 120,000 tonnes and 220,000 tonnes were landedannually from the period between 1900 and 1970 (Figure 13). Following 1970landings have steadily and rapidly decreased to the current figure of 571tonnes in 2005. Pelagic landings peaked in 1911 at 34,000 tonnes and havebeen fairly low since then although there have been increases during theperiods 1920-1935 and 1964-1979. Shellfish landings have been lowthroughout most of the study period although there has been a rise tobetween 2,000 and 4,000 tonnes in recent years.250000200000DemersalPelagicShellfishLandings (Tonnes)15000010000050000019051915192519351945195519651975198519952005YearFigure 13 Trends in fish landings into the port of Grimsby from 1905-2005.21

4.2 South east4.2.1 Regional trends in landingsLandings data was gathered from ten ports over the study period. Pelagicspecies made up the majority of landings in the early 1900s while demersalspecies made up the majority of landings for the remainder of the studyperiod. Pelagic landings peaked at 283,000 tonnes in 1913 and steadilydeclined to often less than 100 tonnes after 1965. Demersal landings werealso highest during the early part of the 20 th century with the highest landing,over 76,000 tonnes, in 1907. Landings steadily declined until 1956 after whichtime they increased steadily to 31,000 tonnes in 1972. Demersal landingshave declined from that time to a low of 708 tonnes in 2005. Shellfish landingshave been low, often with no landings reported at the 10 ports, for the majorityof the study period although there has been a recent increase to the currentlevel of 5,000 tonnes in 2005.Landings (Tonnes)300000250000200000150000100000DemersalPelagicShellfish50000019051915192519351945195519651975198519952005YearFigure 14 Trends in fish landings in South East England from 1905-2005.22

4.2.2 Regional trends in fishing vesselsVessel data for the South East region comes from two primary registrationports; Lowestoft and Hastings (Figure 15). Trends show vessel numbersincreasing during the early part of the 20 th century, peaking at over 500vessels. The large jump in vessels from 1913-1914 may be as a result in thechange in the way vessels are recorded in the data over the two year period.In the 1920s vessel numbers began to decline steadily and continued until thelate 1980s. Following this there is a gap in the data followed by a largeincrease in vessels in 1992. This figure then decreases throughout the nextdecade with only 74 vessels registered at the two ports in 2005.700Tonnes/Vessel600Number of fishing vessels500400300200100019051915192519351945195519651975198519952005YearFigure 15 Trends in the number of fishing vessels registered at major ports inthe South East of England from 1900-2005.23

4.2.3 Regional trends in CPUETrends in catch per unit effort in the South East of England exhibit a numberof changes over the study period (Figure 16). There was a decrease in CPUEfrom over 1,200 tonnes/vessel to 80 tonnes/vessel in the first half of the1900s. CPUE then increased in 1946 and 1947 to 682 tonnes/vessel. In thefollowing years CPUE slowly decreased and levelled out at annual values ofbetween 100-250 tonnes/vessel. During the early 1990s there was a decreasein CPUE followed by a slight increase up until 2005.1400Tonnes/Vessel1200CPUE (Tonnes/Vessel)1000800600400200019051915192519351945195519651975198519952005YearFigure 16 Trends in CPUE in the South East of England from 1905-2005.24

4.2.4 Landings at South East ports4.2.4.1 YarmouthYarmouth has featured in the annual fisheries statistical data from the years1900 to 1949. During that time the predominant species landed were pelagicwhile relatively smaller quantities of demersal and shellfish species were alsolanded (Figure 17). Pelagic landings rose steadily in the early 1900s to a peakof almost 160,000 tonnes in 1913. Since that time, and until the records end,landings have decreased steadily to 32,000 tonnes in 1949. Demersallandings peaked at 4,100 tonnes in 1923 while before and after this periodthey were often less than 100 tonnes per year. Shellfish landings wereminimal, usually less than 100 tonnes per year.Landings (Tonnes)180000160000140000120000100000800006000040000DemersalPelagicShellfish20000019051915192519351945195519651975198519952005YearFigure 17 Trends in fish landings into the port of Yarmouth from 1905-1949.25

4.2.4.2 LowestoftLandings into Lowestoft were predominantly pelagic species in the first half ofthe 20 th century (Figure 18). Landings increased during the early part of the1900s to a high of 113,000 tonnes in 1913. Following this, there was a declineto less than 1,000 tonnes in 1967. In recent years pelagic landings have neverbeen more than 100 tonnes per year. Demersal landings peaked in 1920 at23,000 tonnes before declining prior to the Second World War. Landingsincreased again in the 1950s and 1960s before steadily declining to thepresent day level of less than 500 tonnes. Shellfish landings in Lowestoft havebeen lass than 200 tonnes per year throughout the study period.Landings (Tonnes)120000100000800006000040000DemersalPelagicShellfish20000019051915192519351945195519651975198519952005YearFigure 18 Trends in fish landings into the port of Lowestoft from 1905-2005.26

4.2.4.3 BillingsgateBillingsgate appeared in the historical fisheries statistics from the years 1905-1936. Demersal species made up the majority of landings over the timeperiod, peaking at 60,000 tonnes in 1907 and decreasing over time to a low of1,500 tonnes in 1936 (Figure 19). Pelagic species were low throughout thetime period except for a temporary increase in landings during the years1911-1914. During the majority of reported years there were no shellfishlandings. The largest amount of shellfish landed in one year was 17 tonnes in1935.Landings (Tonnes)700006000050000400003000020000DemersalPelagicShellfish10000019051915192519351945195519651975198519952005YearFigure 19 Trends in fish landings into the port of Billingsgate from 1905-1936.27

4.2.4.4 RamsgateLandings data from the port of Ramsgate was included in the annual fisheriesstatistics during the years 1900 to 1938. As with Billingsgate, landingsconsisted primarily of demersal species with a small number of pelagic andshellfish species also being landed over the time period (Figure 20). Demersaldata exhibits two peaks, one at 2,800 tonnes in 1909 and another at 5,000tonnes in 1920. Following the peak in 1920, landings decline rapidly to 268tonnes in 1938. Pelagic landings were highest during the early part of the 20 thcentury, peaking at 300 tonnes in 1920. After 1920 pelagic landings areconsistently below 100 tonnes. Shellfish landing were low throughout thestudy period, peaking in 1924 at 128 tonnes and declining in subsequentyears.Landings (Tonnes)60005000400030002000DemersalPelagicShellfish1000019051915192519351945195519651975198519952005YearFigure 20 Trends in fish landings into the port of Ramsgate from 1905-1938.28

4.2.4.5 FolkestoneIn the early part of the 20th century landings consisted primarily of demersaland pelagic species (Figure 21). Demersal landings fluctuated between 1,100and 1,600 tonnes during the time period 1905-1927. Landings then declinedrapidly to 0 tonnes in 1935. During the most recent year of recorded data,1938, landings increased again to 434 tonnes. Pelagic landings peaked at1,300 tonnes in 1912 and declined in subsequent years. As with demersallandings, pelagic landings increased in 1938 to 272 tonnes. Shellfish landingswere below 25 tonnes throughout the study period.1800Landings (Tonnes)1600140012001000800600400DemersalPelagicShellfish200019051915192519351945195519651975198519952005YearFigure 21 Trends in fish landings into the port of Folkestone from 1905-1938.29

4.2.4.6 HastingsLandings data for the port of Hastings was available in the fisheries statisticsfor the years 1905-1938. Landings consisted primarily of demersal andpelagic species while shellfish landings were never more than 1 tonne peryear over the time period (Figure 22). Pelagic landings peaked during the firstdecade of the 20 thcentury at around 1,500 tonnes and declined oversubsequent years to the final value of 285 tonnes in 1938. Demersal landingsalso peaked in the early part of the 1900s at around 950 tonnes anddecreased in succeeding years to 255 tonnes during 1938.Landings (Tonnes)18001600140012001000800600400DemersalPelagicShellfish200019051915192519351945195519651975198519952005YearFigure 22 Trends in fish landings into the port of Hastings from 1905-1938.30

4.2.4.7 NewhavenNewhaven featured in the annual historical fisheries statistical data from 1923to 1938. Landings for all species were relatively low, less than 350 tonnes ineach case (Figure 23). The dataset for Newhaven covers such a small periodof time that it is impossible to distinguish any long term trends. However, thedata does show a marked decrease in pelagic landings over the time periodfrom over 300 tonnes in 1923 to 14 tonnes in 1938.Landings (Tonnes)350300250200150100DemersalPelagicShellfish50019051915192519351945195519651975198519952005YearFigure 23 Trends in fish landings into the port of Newhaven from 1923-1938.31

4.2.4.8 BrightonLandings data for Brighton was included in the annual statistics for the years1905 to 1934. Landings consisted predominantly of demersal and pelagicspecies although landings of each were less than 600 tonnes throughout thestudy period (Figure 24). Demersal landings peaked at 540 tonnes in 1909and following this landings declined to 125 tonnes in 1934. Pelagic landingsexhibited a steady increase during the first two decades of the 1900s, peakingat over 500 tonnes in 1919. This was followed by a steady decline to 73tonnes in 1934. Shellfish landings reached a high of 25 tonnes in 1923 anddeclined to less than 5 tonnes in subsequent years.Landings (Tonnes)600500400300200DemersalPelagicShellfish100019051915192519351945195519651975198519952005YearFigure 24 Trends in fish landings into the port of Brighton from 1905-1934.32

4.2.4.9 ShorehamShoreham was considered a primary port in the annual fisheries statisticsduring the years 1995 to 2005. Landings into the port have consisted mostlyof shellfish and demersal species while a very small amount of pelagicspecies have also been landed (Figure 25). Shellfish landings increased from508 tonnes in 1995 to a high of 1,180 tonnes in 2003. In the last two yearslandings have decreased to the current level of 1,017 tonnes in 2005.Demersal landings peaked in 2001 at just over 1,000 tonnes and havesteadily declined to 550 tonnes in 2005. Pelagic landings were below 30tonnes per year throughout the 11 year period.Landings (Tonnes)140012001000800600400DemersalPelagicShellfish200019051915192519351945195519651975198519952005YearFigure 25 Trends in fish landings into the port of Shoreham from 1995-2005.33

4.2.4.10 PortsmouthLandings data for Portsmouth was available over an 11 year period from1995-2005. Shellfish species made up the majority of landings, peaking in2005 at almost 4,000 tonnes (Figure 26). Demersal landings peaked at 340tonnes in 1997 and have decreased since then to the current figure of 158tonnes in 2005. Pelagic landings into the port have been less than 25 tonnesper year over the study period.4500Landings (Tonnes)4000350030002500200015001000DemersalPelagicShellfish500019051915192519351945195519651975198519952005YearFigure 26 Trends in fish landings into the port of Portsmouth from 1995-2005.34

4.3 South West4.3.1 Regional trends in landingsA total of 14 ports contributed to the regional fisheries data for the South Westof England from 1905 to 2005. Landings consisted primarily of demersalspecies in the first half of the 20 th century and pelagic species in the secondhalf of the century (Figure 27). Demersal landings were fairly consistent priorto the Second World War while there was a decline in landings during the warperiod. Following the war, landings peaked at 64,000 tonnes in 1946 anddeclined until the 1970s. There was a steady increase in landings again in the1970s and 1980, peaking in the late 1990s at 21,000 tonnes in 1997, anddeclining in the following years. Pelagic landings were consistently between10,000 and 30,000 tonnes between 1905 and 1937. Over the next 38 yearsthey were below 10,000 tonnes. The late 1970s saw a dramatic increase inpelagic landings to a peak of 115,000 tonnes in 1977. In subsequent yearslandings declined to less than 20,000 tonnes. Following an upturn in landingsto 62,000 tonnes in 1995, they decreased again to the current value of 11,000tonnes in 2005. Shellfish landings were low in the early part of the 1900s andhave increased in recent years to the current value of 17,500 tonnes in 2005.140000120000DemersalPelagicShellfish100000Landings (Tonnes)80000600004000020000019051915192519351945195519651975198519952005YearFigure 27 Trends in fish landings in South West England from 1905-2005.35

4.3.2 Regional trends in fishing vesselsA total of seven primary ports; Poole, Brixham, Plymouth, Newlyn, Cardiff,Swansea and Milford Haven contributed to the vessels data in the South Westof England (Figure 28). Vessel numbers increased steadily over the first 14years of the 1900s until a peak of 397 vessels in 1914. Following the FirstWorld War numbers declined and throughout the 1960s and 1970s vesselnumbers were at their lowest. Vessel numbers increased again in the late1970s and 1980s. Following changes in the format of vessel data in the early1990s, numbers decline over the next decade from 680 in 1993 to 339 in2005.800700Vessels600Number of vessels500400300200100019051915192519351945195519651975198519952005YearFigure 28 Trends in the number of fishing vessels registered at major ports inthe South West of England from 1900-2005.36

4.3.3 Regional trends in CPUECatch per unit effort decreased from 900 tonnes/vessel in 1905 to 135tonnes/vessel in 1914 (Figure 29). Following the First World War, CPUEsteadily increased to 830 tonnes/hour in 1947 before decreasing again in the1950s and 1960s. CPUE dramatically increased in 1976 and peaked at 4,364tonnes in 1978. CPUE remained fairly high through the early part of the 1980sand then decreased to 500-600 tonnes in subsequent years. CPUE in the1990s and 2000s was at the lowest level of the entire study period.50004500Tonnes/vessel4000CPUE (Tonnes/vessel)350030002500200015001000500019051915192519351945195519651975198519952005YearFigure 29 Trends in fishing CPUE in the South West of England from 1905-2005.37

4.3.4 Landings at South West ports4.3.4.1 PooleLandings data is available from the annual historical statistics forPoole for the years 1995-2004. Landings over the time period werepredominantly shellfish species with small numbers of demersal and pelagicspecies also landed (Figure 30). Shellfish landings exhibited a tenfold declineover the data period from almost 4,000 tonnes in 1995 to 400 tonnes in 2004.Demersal landings were consistently between 100 and 200 tonnes over the10 years. Shellfish landing were almost non-existent, often less than 5 tonnesper year.Landings (Tonnes)45004000350030002500200015001000DemersalPelagicShellfish500019051915192519351945195519651975198519952005YearFigure 30 Trends in fish landings into the port of Poole from 1995-2004.38

4.3.4.2 WeymouthLandings data is available for Weymouth for the years 1927-1934 and 1995-2005. In the earlier of the two data periods, landings for all three fish types arelow, usually less than 100 tonnes for each fish type each year (Figure 31).When the record continued again in 1995 pelagic landings were at theirhighest level in the available data at almost 45,000 tonnes. Landings declinedin subsequent years and in recent years there have been no pelagic landingsreported into Weymouth. Shellfish landings have increased in the last tenyears to a 2005 total of 5,800 tonnes, making shellfish the largest contributorto Weymouth landings in the last seven years. Demersal landings from 1995to 2005 were rarely above 100 tonnes.Landings (Tonnes)5000045000400003500030000250002000015000100005000019051915192519351945DemersalPelagicShellfish1955 1965 1975198519952005YearFigure 31 Trends in fish landings into the port of Weymouth from 1927-1934and 1995-2004.39

4.3.4.3 TorquayThe port of Torquay was included in the historical fisheries statistical recordsduring the years 1905 to 1934. Landings into the port during that time werepredominantly pelagic and demersal species (Figure 32). Pelagic landingspeaked in 1919 at over 1,500 tonnes after which they declined to 237 tonnesin 1934. Demersal landings were highest at 360 tonnes in 1906. Followingthis, there was a decrease over the next 20 years. Demersal landingsincreased again to a high of 320 tonnes in 1931, only to decrease again insubsequent years. Shellfish landings were below 50 tonnes per year for theperiod that data was available.Landings (Tonnes)18001600140012001000800600400DemersalPelagicShellfish200019051915192519351945195519651975198519952005YearFigure 32 Trends in fish landings into the port of Torquay from 1905-1934.40

4.3.4.4 BrixhamLandings into Brixham were higher in the latter half of the 20 thcentury.Demersal landings were between 1,000 and 4,000 tonnes per year from 1905to 1982 (Figure 33). Landings then increased further, peaking in 1988 at5,600 tonnes. Since then, they have decreased again to less than 4,000tonnes in 2005. Pelagic landings were relatively low, between 30 and 1,300tonnes per year, from 1905 to 1972. Following this, there was a rapid increaseto a maximum of almost 4,500 tonnes in 1981. Pelagic landings thendecreased over subsequent years to the current value of 730 tonnes in 2005.Shellfish landings were less than 100 tonnes per year up until 1971. Therewas a huge one year increase in landings in 1973 to 5,500 tonnes with almost5,000 tonnes of queen scallops making up the landings. Following this therewas a decline to less than 1,000 tonnes followed by a steady increase to6,450 tonnes in 2004, with similar figures also reported for 2005.Landings (Tonnes)700060005000400030002000DemersalPelagicShellfish1000019051915192519351945195519651975198519952005YearFigure 33 Trends in fish landings into the port of Brixham from 1905-1934.41

4.3.4.5 PlymouthLandings data for Plymouth was available from the annual data for the years1905 to 1949 and 1976 to 2005. Landings of demersal fish were relatively lowthroughout the study period, peaking at 5,400 tonnes in 1980, and steadilydeclining in subsequent years until a break in records in 1949 (Figure 34).Demersal landings in the latter half of the 1900s and to the present day havebeen consistently around or below 2,000 tonnes. Pelagic species made up themajority of landings into Plymouth and landings peaked in 1977 at 78,000tonnes. Landings during this time were predominantly mackerel, with 68,000tonnes of the fish landed in 1977 consisting of this species. Following this,landings decreased to the current level of under 10,000 tonnes in 2005.Landings of shellfish were low throughout the majority of the study period,although there was a slight increase in the 1990s which continued to just over2,000 tonnes in 2005.Landings (Tonnes)9000080000700006000050000400003000020000DemersalPelagicShellfish10000019051915192519351945195519651975198519952005YearFigure 34 Trends in fish landings into the port of Plymouth from 1905-1949and 1976-2005.42

4.3.4.6 LooeLandings data for Looe was available for the years 1905 to 1949 and 1995 to2005. In the early 1900s landings were predominantly pelagic species with ahigh of 1,400 tonnes in 1922 (Figure 35). Landings were still at over 800tonnes when a break appeared in the data at 1949. In the late 1990s landingswere still at around 600-1,000 tonnes until a decline to 240 tonnes in 2005.Demersal landings were fairly low in the early half of the 1900s, less than 400tonnes until the break in the data in 1949. In 1995 over 1,400 tonnes ofdemersal species were landed although this figure rapidly declined to lessthan 550 tonnes in 2005. Shellfish data was available from 1923-1933, withlandings less than 10 years annually. The data continued in 1995 withlandings higher at 500 tonnes. This figure fluctuated over subsequent years tothe current value of 613 tonnes in 2005.Landings (Tonnes)16001400120010008006004002000DemersalPelagicShellfish1905 1915 1925 1935 1945 1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 2005YearFigure 35 Trends in fish landings into the port of Looe from 1905-1949 and1995-2005.43

4.3.4.7 MevagisseyMevagissey featured as a primary port in the data during the years 1905-1938. Landings were primarily pelagic up until the 1920s at which pointdemersal landings increased to a peak of 1,400 tonnes (Figure 36). Pelagiclandings were at their highest, 1,900 tonnes, in 1905. They declined graduallyto under 500 tonnes in 1938. Shellfish landings were less than 25 tonnesannually throughout the dataset and were often only 1-2 tonnes.Landings (Tonnes)200018001600140012001000800600400DemersalPelagicShellfish200019051915192519351945195519651975198519952005YearFigure 36 Trends in fish landings into the port of Mevagissey from 1905-1938.44

4.3.4.8 FalmouthData for landings into Falmouth was available for the years 1982 to 2005.Pelagic landings were at their highest at the beginning of the data period withover 40,000 tonnes landed in 1983 (Figure 37). There was a rapid decline insubsequent years and, with the exception of two or three better years,landings have remained low. Demersal landings were at their highest at over1,300 tonnes in 1982. Since that time landings have declined to the currentlevel of 260 tonnes in 2005. Shellfish landings have gradually increased fromover 100 tonnes in 1982 to over 1,300 tonnes in 2005.Landings (Tonnes)450004000035000300002500020000150001000050000DemersalPelagicShellfish1905 1915 1925 1935 1945 1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 2005YearFigure 37 Trends in fish landings into the port of Falmouth from 1982-2005.45

4.3.4.9 NewlynNewlyn was considered a primary port for the entire study period. Landingswere predominantly pelagic in the first half of the 20 th century, declining from apeak of 14,400 tonnes in 1907 (Figure 38). In 1945 landings were at a low of45 tonnes for the year and this was followed by a small upsurge in landings inthe following years to 3,000 tonnes in 1953. Pelagic landings declined againin the 1960s only rise and to peak at an all time high of 20,000 tonnes in the1970s. Landings in subsequent years have declined rapidly to the currentlevel of under 500 tonnes in 2005. Demersal landings were relatively low inthe first half of the 1900s and increased in the late 1970s, 1980s and 1990s toa high of 10,000 tonnes in 1995. Landings have decreased since then to lessthan 6,000 tonnes in 2005. As with demersal species, shellfish landings werelow for most of the 1900s, increasing in the 1980s and peaking in 1998 atalmost 4,000 tonnes. Since that time landings have been between 1,000 and2,500 tonnes annually.Landings (Tonnes)2500020000150001000050000DemersalPelagicShellfish1905 1915 1925 1935 1945 1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 2005YearFigure 38 Trends in fish landings into the port of Newlyn from 1905-2005.46

4.3.4.10 St IvesThe port of St Ives was considered a primary landing port in the annualfisheries statistics from the years 1905 to 1937. Landings consisted primarilyof pelagic species as well as lesser quantities of demersal and shellfishspecies (Figure 39). Pelagic landings peaked in 1920 at almost 4,500 tonnesand declined rapidly in succeeding years to only 44 tonnes in 1937. Demersallandings peaked at 830 tonnes in 1925 and also steadily declined to 250tonnes in 1937. Shellfish landings were never higher than 50 tonnes per yearthroughout the study period.Landings (Tonnes)5000450040003500300025002000150010005000DemersalPelagicShellfish1905 1915 1925 1935 1945 1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 2005YearFigure 39 Trends in fish landings into the port of St Ives from 1905-1937.47

4.3.4.11 PadstowPadstow featured in the fisheries statistics data from 1905 to 1938 and thenagain in 1995 to 2005. Landings were predominantly demersal and pelagicwith large fluctuations in landings from year to year (Figure 40). Pelagiclandings peaked at over 1,300 tonnes in 1911 and again in 1924. Landingsdecreased rapidly following this and were 0 from 1933 to 1938. Demersallandings peaked at 1,700 tonnes in 1922, decreasing in subsequent years to365 tonnes in 1938. At the continuation of the record in 1995, landings hadincreased to 1,600 tonnes, although they had decreased again to 440 tonnesin 2005. Shellfish landings were 0 in the early data period and had increasedto 116 tonnes in 1995. Landings peaked at 280 tonnes in 1997 and declinedin subsequent years.Landings (Tonnes)2000180016001400120010008006004002000DemersalPelagicShellfish1905 1915 1925 1935 1945 1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 2005YearFigure 40 Trends in fish landings into the port of Padstow from 1905-1938and 1995-2005.48

4.3.4.12 CardiffFish landings into the port of Cardiff during the years 1905 to 1956 weremainly demersal species (Figure 41). Landings fluctuated between 4,000 and9,000 tonnes in the early part of the 1900s, peaking at 8,300 tonnes in 1925.Following this there was a decline to 1,300 tonnes during the war years.Another increase to a peak of 7,000 tonnes in 1946 was followed by a sharpdecline to 670 tonnes at the end of the dataset in 1956. Pelagic landings werenever greater than 1,000 tonnes per year and shellfish landings were 0 for theentire time period.Landings (Tonnes)9000800070006000500040003000DemersalPelagicShellfish20001000019051915 192519351945 1955 19651975 19851995 2005YearFigure 41 Trends in fish landings into the port of Cardiff from 1905-1956.49

4.3.4.13 SwanseaLandings data for Swansea were available for the years 1905-1956. Landingsconsisted of demersal species, lesser quantities of pelagic species and verysmall numbers of shellfish (Figure 42). Demersal landings peaked in 1924 atover 12,000 tonnes and declined since then to 1,200 tonnes in 1956. Pelagiclandings fluctuated between 0 and 700 tonnes throughout the time periodwhile shellfish landings were never higher than 75 tonnes.Landings (Tonnes)14000120001000080006000400020000DemersalPelagicShellfish1905 1915 1925 1935 1945 1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 2005YearFigure 42 Trends in fish landings into the port of Swansea from 1905-1956.50

4.3.4.14 Milford HavenMilford Haven appears in the fisheries statistics for the entire study period.Landings were primarily demersal species although there was a sharp,temporary rise in pelagic landings in the 1970s (Figure 43). Demersallandings fluctuated in the first half of the 1900s, eventually peaking at 40,000tonnes in 1946. Since then landings declined rapidly and they were still at therelatively low level of 2,000 tonnes in 2005. Pelagic landings into MilfordHaven were consistently below 1,000 tonnes annually until 1976 when thenext three years saw a dramatic increase in landings. This peaked in 1979with over 47,000 tonnes of pelagic fish landed which, except for 500 tonnes,were mackerel. Landings declined rapidly in the following years and haveoften been less than 5 tonnes in recent years. Shellfish landings haveconsistently been relatively low at less than 2,000 tonnes per year.Landings (Tonnes)6000050000400003000020000DemersalPelagicShellfish10000019051915192519351945195519651975198519952005YearFigure 43 Trends in fish landings into the port of Milford Haven from 1905-2005.51

4.4 North West4.4.1 Regional trends in landingsData for fish landings into the North West of England were gathered fromthree primary ports; Liverpool, Whitehaven and Fleetwood. Landings into theregion were predominantly demersal (Figure 44). Landings rose in the early1900s to more than 71,000 tonnes in 1937. This declined during the war yearsand rose again to a peak of 79,000 tonnes in 1948. Since that time demersallandings have declined steadily to the recent level of under 300 tonnes in2005. Pelagic landings have been consistently under 10,000 tonnesthroughout the study period, peaking in the early 1900s, the 1930s and mostrecently in the 1970s. In recent years there have been no pelagic landingsreported into the primary North West ports. Shellfish landings into the regionhave contributed least to the overall landings, peaking at 2,200 tonnes in 1981and often less than 500 tonnes annually. The most recent data, 1,900 tonnesin 2005, suggests another slight upturn in landings.900008000070000DemersalPelagicShellfishLandings (Tonnes)600005000040000300002000010000019051915192519351945195519651975198519952005YearFigure 44 Trends in fish landings in North West England from 1905-2005.52

4.4.2 Regional trends in fishing vesselsFleetwood was the only port to contribute vessel data to the present analysis.Vessel numbers increased dramatically in the early part of the 1900s to over170 vessels in 1919 (Figure 45). This was then followed by a period of declineuntil the end of the Second World War. Following this, vessel numbersincreased again to a peak of 188 vessels in 1951. Since that time numbershave decreased steadily, with 15 vessels in 2005.200180Vessels160Number of vessels14012010080604020019051915192519351945195519651975198519952005YearFigure 45 Trends in the number of fishing vessels registered at major ports inthe North West of England from 1900-2005.53

4.4.3 Regional trends in CPUECatch per unit effort data for the North West region shows an increase inCPUE in the early part of the 1900s (Figure 46) followed by a decline up untilthe First World War. CPUE increases steadily following the war and peaks inthe late 1940s. Following this there is a decline in CPUE until in levels out ataround 500 tonnes/vessel in the 1950s and 1960s. The following years see asteady decline in CPUE to the recent level of 146 tonnes/vessel in 2005.14001200Tonnes/vesselCPUE (Tonnes/vessel)1000800600400200019051915192519351945195519651975198519952005YearFigure 46 Trends in fishing CPUE in the North West of England from 1905-2005.54

4.4.4 Landings at North West ports4.4.4.1 LiverpoolThe port of Liverpool featured in the fisheries statistical data during the years1905 to 1938. Landings mainly consisted of demersal species, smallquantities of pelagic fish and very small quantities of shellfish (Figure 47).Demersal landings peaked at 5,500 tonnes in 1909 and rapidly declined insubsequent years to 0 tonnes in 1938. Pelagic landings peaked at just lessthan 1,000 tonnes in 1913 and were at low levels since then. Shellfishlandings were never above 10 tonnes per year throughout the study period.Landings (Tonnes)60005000400030002000DemersalPelagicShellfish10000190519151925193519451955Year19651975198519952005Figure 47 Trends in fish landings into the port of Liverpool from 1905-1938.55

4.4.4.2 FleetwoodLandings into Fleetwood contributed to the majority of landings into the NorthWest of England. Demersal species were the most abundant, with smallernumbers of pelagic and shellfish landings also occurring (Figure 48).Demersal landings increased steadily throughout the first half of the 1900speaking at over 77,000 tonnes in 1947. In subsequent years there was asteady decline and the most recent landings data in 2004 reports that only500 tonnes were landed into the port. Pelagic landings peaked at over 5,000tonnes in 1908 and again in the 1930s. Since then numbers have declinedand in recent years there have been no pelagic landings into Fleetwood.Shellfish landings were consistently below 1,000 tonnes annually throughoutthe study period.Landings (Tonnes)90000800007000060000500004000030000DemersalPelagicShellfish2000010000019051915192519351945195519651975198519952005YearFigure 48 Trends in fish landings into the port of Fleetwood from 1905-2004.56

4.4.4.3 WhitehavenWhitehaven appears in the statistical records during the years 1945 to 1948,1957 to 1981 and 2005. Landings during that time have been predominantlydemersal and pelagic fish along with smaller quantities of shellfish (Figure49). Demersal landings peaked in 1949 at 5,800 tonnes, slowly declined in1960s and 1970s, and were at less than 250 tonnes in 2005. Pelagic landingsincreased during the 1960s and 1970s, peaking at 6,800 tonnes in 1972, anddecreased in subsequent years to 240 tonnes in 1981. No pelagic fish werelanded in 2005. Shellfish landings increased over the second half of the 20 thcentury and peaked in 2005 at 1,900 tonnes.8000Landings (Tonnes)7000600050004000300020001000DemersalPelagicShellfish019051915192519351945195519651975198519952005YearFigure 49 Trends in fish landings into the port of Whitehaven from 1945-1948,1957-1981 and 2005.57

5 Analysis and Discussion5.1 Landings dataResults indicate that trends in landings varied between the four regions.Landings were highest in the eastern regions with over half a million tonneslanded annually during the most successful year in the North East and overquarter of a million tonnes landed in the South East during it’s mostsuccessful year. Landings in the South West peaked at over 100,000 tonneswhile landings in the North West peaked at around 80,000 tonnes.One noticeable trend within the data was the appearance and disappearanceof ports at different stages within the records. On many occasions landings toports that disappeared from subsequent years’ records were at all time lowlevels. Conversely, when ports appeared again in the records followingperiods of absence, landings were often noticeably higher than in the yearsprior to the absence. A number of ports disappeared from the recordsaltogether while others have only appeared in recent years. This may suggesta shift in landings between ports but it specifically highlights the decline inlandings in the majority of the primary ports in England. Only a relatively smallnumber of ports; North Shields, Scarborough, Hull, Grimsby, Lowestoft,Brixham, Newlyn, Milford Haven and Fleetwood appear in the recordsthroughout the entire study period.In the North East and North West regions landings were predominantlydemersal species with smaller quantities of pelagic and shellfish species alsolanded. The South East and South West regions had higher landings ofpelagic species, the South East making up the majority of pelagic landings inthe early part of the 20 th century and the South West making up the majority inthe second half of the 20 th century. The preponderance of ports throughout allregions exhibited rapid decreases in landings of all species throughout thestudy period. Few ports show signs of recovery although in a small number ofports shellfish landings have increased in recent years.5.2 Effort and CPUE dataThe use of vessel numbers to measure effort and CPUE was never ideal. Assuch all effort and CPUE data should be treated with a great deal of caution.58

One of the major problems noted in the historical records was the lack ofinformation on the distribution of vessels in ports other than those highlighted.For example, in 1964 a total of 763 vessels are recorded at the major portswhile 4,100 vessels are recorded as being at ‘other’ ports. One way to dealwith this would be, as mentioned in the brief, to try and identify vessels fishingfrom each port on an annual basis from harbour records. This would be anextremely time consuming exercise although it would possibly provide moreaccurate effort and CPUE data.59

6 ConclusionsThere is a great deal of variability in regional landings into England from 1990to the present. Landings were highest in the North East and South East whilelandings in the North West and South West were consistently lower. Themajority of ports exhibit rapid declines in landings of demersal and pelagicspecies while a small number of ports have had increases in shellfish landingsin recent years. Occasional changes in the arrangement of the data in thehistorical records make obtaining effort, and as a result CPUE data, extremelydifficult.While this study identified regional trends in demersal, pelagic and shellfishlandings, further studies could be targeted to investigate regional trends inlandings of specific species. This information may be useful to investigatewhether there have been regional changes in the general distribution of fishspecies over the past 100 years.60

Appendix 10.2REVIEW OF ‘RESOCKING’ PRACTICES FOR THEMUSSEL INDUSTRYMaría Consolación Cadavid CarrascosaNAFC MARINE CENTRE22 th October 2007

REVIEW OF ‘RESOCKING’ PRACTICES FOR THE MUSSEL INDUSTRYMaría Consolación Cadavid Carrascosai

Disclaimer:To the best of our knowledge the information in this report was accurate at thetime of writing. As this information was obtained from online sources KIMOcannot be held responsible for any omissions or inaccuracies in the data.ii

CONTENTS:1.- Executive Summary…………………………………………………………………12.- Brief…………………………………………………………………………………...23.- Methodology…………………………………………………………………………34.- Results………………………………………………………………………………..44.1.- Mussel Culture and Resocking Techniques in United Kingdom…………44.1.1- Xplora Mussel Ladder………………………………………………...44.1.2.- Smartfarm ……………………………………………………………..74.2.- Mussel Culture and Resocking Techniques in Other Countries…………84.2.1.- New Zealand.………………………………………………………………..84.2.2.- Spain………………………………………………………………………..104.2.2.1.- Bateas…………………………………………………………….………104.2.2.2.- BateaMedusa ® ..................................................................................114.2.2.3.- Seeding and Resocking………………………………………….……..124.2.2.4.- Continuous Resocking Machine………………………………….……134.2.2.5.- Types of Socks………………………………………………….……….154.2.3.- Canada…………………………………………………………….……….164.2.4.- Denmark……………………………………………………………..……..184.2.5.- Netherlands………………………………………………………..……….194.2.6.- Iceland…………………………………………………………….………..204.2.7.- Norway……………………………………………………………..……….215.- Analysis and Discussion…………………………………………………………..225.1.- Mussel Culture……………………………………………………………...225.2.- Mussel Resocking…………………………………………………………..235.3.- Resocking Density…………………………………………………………..245.4.- Types of Mussel Socks……………………………………………………..256.- Conclusions………………………………………………………………………...267.- Recommendations…………………………………………………………………278.- Appendix……………………………………………………………………………28iii

1.- EXECUTIVE SUMMARYMussel farming is one of the oldest types of aquaculture in the World. The mainareas of production of blue mussel (Mytilus edulis) are Spain, the Netherlands,Denmark and Canada. The main area of cultivation of green mussel (Pernacanaliculus) is New Zealand. Farmed mussel biomass and areas of cultivationhave been increasing in the past years; both globally and in Shetland.One of the critical objectives during mussel culture is to reach an optimal stockdensity on the ropes; to obtain a maximum shell-growth, without decreasing theproduction tonnage. In order to do that, some farmers remove the musselsseveral months after the seed had been attached to the rope. They are graded bysize and those which have not reach the commercial size are returned to the seaon another rope, a process known as ‘resocking’ or ‘retubing’; as those musselshave lost the ability to reattach to a surface momentarily, they are enclosed intoa mesh which keeps them fastened to the rope.This report will review different ‘resocking’ techniques that have been developedin the different areas, as well as mussel stocking densities; in order to improveShetland mussel production.1

2.- BRIEFKIMO Home Working/Data Trawl ProjectReview of ‘resocking’ practices for the mussel industryScope of WorkTo undertake a review of current practices with respect to ‘resocking’ or retubingwithin the mussel farming industry in the UK and other geographic areas withestablished mussel farming activities (New Zealand, Spain, Canada, Denmark,Holland, Norway, Iceland). The review will consider the size and demographics ofthe industry, current practices and technologies being used. A final report will beprepared summarising the information collected and recommendations onsuitable technology and practices which could be adopted in Shetland.BackgroundMost rope-grown mussel harvesters rely mainly on natural processes withminimal intervention when collecting their stock. They rely on natural spat fall forrecruitment of mussels on droppers and natural ‘thining’ by mussels falling fromthe lines to control overcrowding. As stock grows and overcrowding takes placedue to increasing density the optimal growth of the mussels may decline. Someharvesters take action in terms of raising the droppers, removing the mussels,decreasing density and reattaching to a fresh dropper encased in a supportivemesh. This ‘resocking’ can be carried out manually or using automatedmachinery and is largely dependent on the volume of production.This review will gather together current information on practices carried out indifferent areas to determine the most recent advances, technologies andtechniques and determine which would be suitable for Shetland and whatoptimum resocking densities could be and its impact on production volumes.· Current state of knowledge on resocking or retubing practices bygeographic area· Review of technical equipment, costings and infrastructure requirements· Recommendations on technology and procedures which could be adoptedin ShetlandNAFC ContactMr Kenny GiffordPh: 01595 772408E mail: kenny.gifford@nafc.uhi.ac.uk2

3.- METHODOLOGYThis review has been written by obtaining information from internet sources, asfollows:- General websites about mussel farming techniques in different countriesand its significance in their economy through Google search engine.- Mussel farming suppliers sites also through Google search engine.- Aquaculture newsletters and on-line magazines.- Scientific journal through internet databases: ScienceDirect, ISI Web ofKnowledge, SpringerLink, Blackwell Synergy, IngentaConnect and JSTOR.The information found was as web pages and PDF files.3

4.- RESULTS4.1.- MUSSEL CULTURE AND RESOCKING TECHNIQUES IN THE UNITEDKINGDOMMussels in the UK are grown on ropes (longlines and rafts) and on the seabed.As this review is mainly about resocking techniques I will only explain about ropegrownmussel cultivation.A mussel farm longline consists of a rope with grey floats attached and fixed tothe seabed by two moorings at both ends of the rope. Droppers are suspendedfrom this main rope. The typical measurements are 200-400 m of headline andfloats spaced 3 m apart, but they are dependent on the necessities of the site, aswell as the separation between droppers which usually is about 0.45-1m 1 .Droppers have pegs along the rope to avoid mussels slipping down when theygrow. After some months some farmers try to keep an optimal stock density bytaking out the mussels and ‘resocking’ them. The densities which the musselsare resocked are in the range 1.5-2 kg per metre of dropper 1 .This process in Shetland is done by taking the ropes ashore, passing themussels through a stripper, a declumper and a grader to separate them andretubing the ones that have not reached the commercial size yet. Resocking isdone manually but there are socking machines on the market used in othercountries.Other farmers never retube their mussels, only collect their lines when is the timefor harvesting, they rely on the process called ‘natural thinning’ in which themussels fall because of their weight 1 .4.1.1.- XPLORA MUSSEL LADDERIn 1999, Jim McLachlan from Xplora Products Ltd. introduced the Xplora ladder.This system consists of two 12mm polypropylene ropes with pegs. The lines arehung in continuous loops of six metres along the headline and there is a spacingof 1 metre between them (See figures 1 & 2). It shows the following advantages 2 :- The ropes with the pegs give the spat a good surface to attach and avoidmussels dropping off the rope.1 From Seafish. Seafish rope-grown mussel cultivation. Rope-grown mussel cultivation. 21/3/05http://www.seafish.org/upload/file/about_us/Aqua%20Level%202%20Rope%20Mussel%20Culti.pdf. (accessed: 11.09.07)2From Eurofish. Eurofish-Xplora ladder. Eurofish-EM 5/01. 01/10/01http://www.eurofish.dk/indexSub.php?id=772(accessed: 18/09/07)4

- The ladder is easier to handle than the usual rope with pegs.- Growth of mussels improves in the confines of each ladder segment.- The lines system makes harvesting more efficient and improves yield from7kg to 15-20kg 3 ).Figure 1. Mussel ladder system. From www.xploraproducts.comFigure 2. Mussel ladder. From www.xploraproducts.comLater in 2000, he developed a platform, on which mussels can be harvested aswell as retubed (Figures 3 & 4). The system has a FRANKEN BV washer-gradermachine (Figure 4) which is used to get the mussels ready for the market, and anA-2 AGUIN retubing machine (Figure 5). This raft is designed for the double linesof the Xplora ladder, but can be adapted for use with single line ropes as well 4 .Diagram 3. Harvesting catamaran for highvolumes.From www.xploraproducts.com3 Ian Fraser (The Sunday Herald). Mussel harvester sale success Sunday Herald The. FindArticles- News, Magazine Back Issues and Reference on all Topics. 2002 ProQuest Informationand Learning Company. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4156/is_20020630/ai_n12575752.Accessed: 3/10/074 Fish Farming International. Article 1July 2001www.xploraproducts.com/xplora/Xplora%20in%20FFI.htmAccessed 18/09/075

Figure 4. Harvesting catamaran,Down on the floor to the left:Franken's high speed sorter.From www.xploraproducts.comThis harvesting system is said to be used for a farm of 100 tonne production. Itwas also proven at a 200 tonne site in Loch Striven (Clyde estuary) 3 . Norwegiancompanies Mytilus AS and Ryfylke Havbruk (both joined as a harvestingcompany called Multi-cat 4 ) have also shown good results in the 400 tonnes farmand it is expected to improve their production to 5000 tonnes 3 .This mussel ladder system has shown such good results during the last sevenyears, that Jim McLachlan’s farm in Loch Striven was short listed for the 2007Aquaculture Today Fit for the Future Awards for work in the shellfish sector 5 .The re-tubing machine used is a Model A2 from Talleres AGUIN (Spain), itproduces up to one meter of mussel per loaded rope per second 6 . The musselsare retubed into cotton socks (from JJChicolino) which will dissolve afterapproximately 10 days. This retubing process in Norway has given good results 2 .Figure 5. Retubing machine on catamaran. From www.xploraproducts.com5 Aquaculture Today. Aquaculture Today: Loch Striven ladder system gets results! AquacultureToday 19/04/07http://www.aquaculturetoday.co.uk/news/fullstory.php/aid/170/Loch_Striven_ladder_system_gets_results! html Accessed:3/10/076Vi har valgt å samarbeide med dette spanke firmaet som blant annet produserer maskiner forstr. Xploraproducts. http://www.xploraproducts.com/xplora/Talleres%20Aguin.htm Accessed:21/09/076

The only disadvantage of the system is that because of the size and thecomplexity of the harvesting catamaran it can only be used inshore.4.1.2.- SMARTFARMThe SmartFarm is a long-line system which consists of tubes of PE calledSmartLines, which act as floats; from those SmartLines hang net collectors of 2-3meters deep, mesh size and rope thickness depends of customer specifications.The length of the unit can be up to 126 m and the total meter of collector per unitis in the range 2000-3350m 7 . (Figures 6&7)Figures 6&7. SmartFarm system (From: www.smartfarm.no)This system is used in Shetland by Johnson Seafarms Ltd. This company has 96SmartLines in three different locations. They harvest and market the mussels intheir own processing plant.Figure 8. SmartFarm system in Shetland IslesFrom: http://www.gestenaval.com/smartfarm.htmJohnson Seafarms Ltd. sites were used in December 2006 to show it to Spanishgrowers from Andalucia and clients from the company Gestenaval S.L.(agents ofthe SmartFarm system). The visitors were shown the efficiency of the harvestprocess: 1 Tonne of mussels in 4 minutes, this speeds makes the job for thefarmer more secure in Shetland waters.SmartFarm AS has developed a machine specially design for JohnsonsSeafarms. The new machine is able to operate SmartLines of 3m in height, canbe used on a pontoon or a working boat, harvest at the same speed as the firstmodel and it can also clean the mussels and make density controls 8 .7Smart Farm AS. Smart Farm AS. http://www.smartfarm.no/index2.html Accessed: 4/10/078 SmartFarm News. Gestenaval S. L. 1/10/07. http://www.gestenaval.com/smartfarm_news.htmAccessed: 3/10/077

Figures 9&10. New harvesting machine operating at Johnsons Seafarms (Fromhttp://www.gestenaval.com/smartfarm_news.htm)The SmartFarm system does not resock the mussels, as the mussels areattached to a net, not to a rope. I included it in this report because it is used inShetland waters. As it is more widely used in Norway it will be more widelyexplained in that section.4.2.- MUSSEL CULTURE AND RESOCKING TECHNIQUES IN OTHERCOUNTRIES4.2.1.- NEW ZEALANDThe kind of mussel farmed in New Zealand is the green lipped mussel (Pernacanaliculus). The industry has developed from dredging the sediment, to the useof rafts and in the mid 70s the longline technology was introduced 9 . Currentpractices have introduced the continuous long-line system (Figure 11).Figure 11. Continuous long-line system from Donaghys (Fromhttp://www.donaghys.co.nz/fileadmin/downloads/Mussel_farm_structure_systems___splicing.pdf )9 Culturespecies Perna canaliculus (1). Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations.2007http://www.fao.org/fi/website/FIRetrieveAction.do?dom=culturespecies&xml=Perna_canaliculus.xml Accessed: 12/09/078

This system consists of a longline attached to floats and moored to the seabed atboth ends and a growing line which hangs in loops from the longline. Thegrowing line can be of several kilometres long, and the longline cannot be longerthan 110m 10 .Mussel spat is collected in the north of New Zealand as the cool waters from thesouth stop the mussel eggs from hatching. The spat is washed onto the beachattached to seaweed or they attach to a special seed collector line used in NewZealand. The rope used is called Christmas tree rope, because is very hairywhich gives plenty surface attachment to the seed. (Figure 12)Figure 12. Christmas tree rope.Fromhttp://www.donaghys.co.nz/spatcollectionmusselropes.htmlWhen the seed reaches 12mm in size it is transferred to a grow-out line, the seedis poured into a machine over the rope and a cotton socking, called “mussock” isfastened over them. This “mussock” will dissolve in less than a month, by thattime the seed will be attached to the rope.After 6 or 9 months the mussels need to the “thinned” to avoid overcrowding. Theropes are taken out of the water, passed through a stripper to separate themussels, and then passed to a socking machine, which fills plastic mesh socks.Usually one line will give 2 to 3 mussel socks.After 12 months harvesting takes place, the mussels which have not reached acommercial size are re-socked as explained before. 11The New Zealand style resocking machine (Figure 13) uses a rope core andbiodegradable cotton mesh which is hauled over the rope. Cotton sock eliminated10 Green Lipped Mussels. 2007 http://www.green-lipped-mussels.com/Accessed: 5/10/0711 Gray Ranger. Mussel. NZ fish and underwater life 11/June/2006http://www.geocities.com/wenraylm/mussel.html Accessed: 12/09/0711a Chapter 7: Mussel farm equipment. Forsiden NIFES. 5/10/07http://www.nifes.no/file.php?id=563 Accessed: 17/09/07PDF file: From: Draft_ mussel_ guide_ 2000_ Part_ C_ web_ [1].pdfChapter 5: Seed Collection and Larval Monitoring9

problems with out-migration of seed through polyethylene mesh and providedgreater strength to the longer lines used in offshore operations. 11a .In Australia Glen Dibbin, grower from the farm “Blue Lagoon” has used an oldfishnet stocking machine 12 . The socks are bought from Bishop AquaticTechnologies in Canada.Figure 13.New Zealand style continuous socking machine(From:http://amac.unh.edu/publications/progress_reports/2000/2000_shellfish.html)The commercial stocking rate for mussels in grow-out lines is between 200-400mussels/m of rope. When reseeding, the juvenile spat does not attach to the ropeas quickly, to avoid clumps in the bottom of the sock, the sock and rope are tiedat 0.5 m intervals.4.2.2.- SPAIN4.2.2.1.- BATEASMussel culture in Spain has been done mainly on rafts called “bateas” in Galicia,North of Spain. Long-line culture is also present but is not as common. As saidunder the United Kingdom section there are some growers interested in using theSmartFarm system.A batea is a criss-cross wooden structure made from eucalyptus, from whichhang 500, 10 meters long droppers. (Figure 14) Those ropes have pegs to avoidmussels dropping from them in case of overcrowding. Under the structure there12 Kellie Russel. Landline 14/12/02: Musseling in on oyster popularity. Australian BroadcastingCorp.ABC Online. 2007. http://www.abc.net.au/landline/stories/s746106.htm Accessed: 13/10/0710

are floats and it is attached to the bottom by a rope and a mooring. The fact thatit is only a single mooring makes the batea twist with the tides, providing all themussels with enough plankton.Figure 14. Galician raft(From http://www.mercasa.es/nueva/revista/pdf92/moluscos.pdf)4.2.2.2.-BATEAMEDUSA ®A circular raft system created by the company Corelsa S.A. was tested during2005 and has proven to increase the mussel production more than 100% overthe traditional raft, plus a reduction in the growth cycle by four months. Thisstructure is made of polyurethane and does not need any maintenance for 20years. It has the shape of concentric circles with the mooring in the centre toallow it circle around itself, which distributes the nutrients more evenly than theold one. (Figures 15&16)The production reaches 150 tonnes in comparison to the 110 tonnes from thebatea 13 .Figures 15&16. Bateamedusa ® . (From www.bateamedusa.com)13 Batea Medusa. BATEAMEDUSA. http://www.mercasa.es/nueva/revista/pdf92/moluscos.pdfAccessed: 6/10/0711

4.2.2.3.- SEEDING AND RESOCKING 14In Galicia, the main mussel producer of Spain, a mussel seed of 15-20 mm fromspring settlement will reach 5cm in five months time when it would have to beretubed. If the seed has been settled in autumn, it will take 7-8 months to reacha resocking size. After this process it would need about a year to get thecommercial size.The seeding process is similar to other countries; there are three steps, thewheel, the net and the positioning. The wheel is a system of drawers with rollers.The rope travels over these rollers. The mussel seed goes into a funnel and thenover the rope. The machine introduces the mussels into the sock (Figure 17).Figure 17. Mussel socking machine(From:http://www.observatorio-acuicultura.org/Documentos/DescargasOESA_GetFile.aspx?id=2484.)The socks can be made of nylon, acetate, cotton or combinations of the three.Nylon net holds the mussels better, but it does not dissolve. Cotton net dissolvesbut needs to be fastened around the rope a few times.After five months, the ropes reach 10 times their weight, and it is time to resockthe mussels (Figure 18). After this process, from an initial rope there will be threeor four on-growing ropes.The mussels found on the ropes can have very different sizes (Figure 19),because of that they are separated by size with a grader, after being declumped.The resocking process can be done manually (Figure 20) or by using a machine(usually one from talleres AGUIN).14Junta de Andalucia. Libro mejillon andalucia.http://www.observatorio-acuicultura.org/Documentos/DescargasOESA_GetFile.aspx?id=2484.Accessed:11/09/0712

Figures 18&19: Rope ready for resocking and different sizes of mussels from arope previous to resocking(From:http://www.observatorio-acuicultura.org/Documentos/DescargasOESA_GetFile.aspx?id=2484.)Resocking usually takes place from June to September, but in areas ofcontinuous settlement is done during other months as well. The resockingprocess should take place when the stocking density reaches 10Kg/m.Figure 20. Resocking by hand(Fromhttp://www.observatorio-acuicultura.org/Documentos/DescargasOESA_GetFile.aspx?id=2484. )4.2.2.4.- CONTINUOUS RESOCKING MACHINEThe Spanish style resocking machine (Figure 21), commonly uses a cotton sock,and wraps the mesh around the rope core. The disadvantage of the Spanishmethod is that the pegs on the rope allow gaps in case of inexperienced orcareless operators. Those gaps can cause the mussels to fall 15 .15 Chapter 7: Mussel farm equipment. Forsiden NIFES. 5/10/07http://www.nifes.no/file.php?id=563 Accessed: 17/09/07PDF file: From: Draft_ mussel_ guide_ 2000_ Part_ C_ web_ [1].pdfChapter 5: Seed Collection and Larval Monitoring13

The model A-2 from talleres AGUIN S.L.; processes up to 1m of rope per second.It can be used on a boat, combined with other machines from the same companyas stripper and declumper, and on its own as well. Also it can process noncontinuousand continuous longlines and rafts.The speed, diameter and height can be adjusted. It is small and light-weight,easy to use and maintain 16 .Figure 21. Resocking machine model A-2 from Talleres AGUIN S.L.(From:http://www.fukuina.com/shellfish/spanish_continuous_socking_machine.htm )The A-2 resocking machine advertised in the webpage has been substituted bythe model A-4 (Figure 21a). This new model has a speed of 2m per second andprovides a more uniform socking; it is easier to use. (Talleres AGUIN, pers.com.).Figure 21a. Resocking machine model A-4 from Talleres AGUIN S. L.16 Fukui North America. Spanish Continuous Socking Machine, Fukui North AmericaFukui North America. 2004http://www.fukuina.com/shellfish/spanish_continuous_socking_machine.htmAccessed: 12/09/0714

4.2.2.4.- TYPES OF SOCKS 17Spanish socks for seeding (fastening the seed to the rope) are different fromresocking ones (Figures 22&23); the first ones are made of a more closed mesh,with 13 meshes in 20 cm, while the socks used for resocking have 9 meshes in20 cm. Both types of socks can be made of acetate, cotton-acetate, cotton-nylonor nylon.Figure 22 Seeding mesh & 23 resocking mesh.From: http://www.jjchicolino.es/JJCEnglish.pdf1.- Cotton Plus ® from JJChicolino has in its interior a plastic or carton sleevewhich makes easier when loading the retubing machine. It can be made of:- 100% cotton, called Cot100 and it disappears in approximately 15 days;used when not extreme sea conditions.- 50% cotton and 50% polyester, the polyester will not disappear; used onextreme sea conditions.Different percentages of polyester can be made to tailor the necessities of theculture.The types of cotton plus are:a) Classic:- Used with the Aguin A-2 retubing machine.- Width of 51 cm and 29 meshes.- Used only for resockingb) Ultraplus:- Used with the Aguin A-4 retubing machine.- It has more yarn than the classic, which makes the mesh closer- Used for seeding and resocking.- Width of 51 cm and 39 meshes.17J J Chicolino. 1/04/07http://www.jjchicolino.es/JJCEnglish.pdfAccessed: 17/09/0715

c) 6/39- Used with the A-3 retubing machine.- Narrower than the Classic and the Ultraplus.- Width 39 cm and 29 meshes.- Used for seeding and resocking.2.- Cotton Pack ® is an older system which does not have the sleeve. It is beingreplaced by Cotton Plus ® .- Made 100% cotton, called 100 Cot- Width of 46 to 51 cm and 29 meshes- Used only for resockingBoth Cotton Plus ® and Cotton Pack ® use thread and net complements to tightenthe mussel to the rope. Thread complements can be made of linen or jute andnet complements of acetate, nylon or a combination of acetate-nylon.3.- Cotton Line ® is used when culturing with different methods than thetraditional, it has an outer cover of plastic sock netting. It can be made of 100%cotton, raylon 50% cotton and 50% polyester and other different combinations tosuit the farmer as Cotton Plus ® .4.2.3.- CANADAMussel culture in Canada is mainly done on Prince Edward, but the number ofmussel farms in Newfoundland and Labrador, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia,Quebec and British Columbia are increasing. The methods used are: longline,continuous longline and rafts 18 .Some growers use the mussel disc-line-system developed in 1999 by PennClove Shellfish LLC. (Washington). It is an alternative to the use of pegs in thelines 19 and can be used for individual mussel socks for rafts or for continuoussocks in longlines. The discs are inserted every 12-18 inches into mussel socksduring the socking process or afterwards,The system (Figure 23) consists on the following:1) The core rope is made of extruded plastic material, and it is re-usable.2) The disc of 20.3 cm made of plastic.18 Fisheries and Oceans Canada. Shellfish Species. Fisheries and Oceans Canada Home Page.21/08/07 http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/aquaculture/shellfish/blue_mussels_e.htm Accessed:13/09/0719Eurofish. Eurofish-Bivalves. Eurofish. August 2000.http://www.eurofish.dk/indexSub.php?id=613Accessed: 18/09/0716

3) The cotton sock, “Disc-Net-Line”, which can be made as individual socks orcontinuous.Figure 23. Disc and cotton sleeve(From: http://www.penncoveshellfish.com/disc-netline_system.htm)The company also makes socking machines for which the rate of socking is 1mper second. Mussel collector lines are deployed in early spring, and three weeksafter spawning in May, mussel seed have grown on the collectors. During latesummer, when they get to a convenient size, they are placed onto a conveyor toa socking machine or a group of socking tables, where mussels are placed intothe socks at a density of 150 per foot of line. The average yield from a collectorline is 2-3 harvest lines. The socks are hung from the rafts 20 . Three weeks afterbeing deployed the cotton mesh rots away and the mussels have attached to theDisc-Net-Line 21 (Figure 24&25).(Figures 24&25. Disc-Net-Line before and after three weeks immersed(From: http://www.penncoveshellfish.com/disc-net-line_system.htm)20 Penn Clove Shellfish. Disc-Net-Line System. Penn Clove Shellfish is America’s PremierGrower and Distributor of Mussels, Clams and Oysters.26/07/07http://www.penncoveshellfish.com/Thinning&Socking.htm Accessed: 13/10/0721 Penn Clove Shellfish. Disc-Net-Line System. Penn Clove Shellfish is America’s PremierGrower and Distributor of Mussels, Clams and Oysters.26/07/07http://www.penncoveshellfish.com/disc-net-line_system.htmAccessed: 20/09/0717

In Newfoundland there are only two growers who actually use the automaticsocking machines 22 , some of them use socking tables which are a rectangularaluminium box that has plastic or metal pipes protruding from the bottom corner,the sock is rolled around each pipe. To fill up the sock, a valve is opened and themussels flow down into it. The new high-speed socking table (Figure 26) can fill450’ of socking in less than four minutes; still is not as fast as the New Zealand orSpanish socking machines 23 .Figure 26. High-speed socking table(From:http://www.fukuina.com/shellfish/high_speed_socking_table.htm4.2.4.- DENMARKMussel farming in Denmark is done mainly by bottom culture, because of that theresocking process does not take place. Most of their production comes from theLimfjord, other fjords and a small part from the Danish Wadden Sea and thecoast of Kattegat 24 . More than 90% is exported frozen or canned, makingDenmark one of the main producers of processed mussel in Europe 25 .There have been a few attempts to develop a long line culture, with goodproduction results; the condition index and meat content were higher in longline22 Chapter 7: Mussel farm equipment. Forsiden NIFES. 5/10/07http://www.nifes.no/file.php?id=563 Accessed: 17/09/07PDF file: From: Draft_ mussel_ guide_ 2000_ Part_ C_ web_ [1].pdfChapter 5: Seed Collection and Larval Monitoring23 Fukui North America. Bishop Aquatic Technologies, Inc. , Mussel culture basics (part 2).August 1999 http://www.fukuina.com/articles/jul_aug99.htm Accessed: 20/09/0724Smaal A.C. SpringerLink –Journal Article. 2002.http://www.springerlink.com.libezproxy.open.ac.uk/content/vr515201523153x6/fulltext.pdfAccessed: 13/09/07 From Journal Hydrobiologia 484: 89-98/ Kubler Academic PublishersEuropean mussel cultivation along the Atlantic coast: production, status, problems andperspectives25 Kristensen P.S. & Petersen J. K. AC02 Abstracts. First International Mussel Forum- CountryPresentations I. Aquaculture Association of Canada Homepage. Sept. 2002.http://www.aquacultureassociation.ca/ac02/abstracts/FIMF%20Country%20I.htm#PetersenAccessed: 24/09/07 Abstract from Aquaculture Canada 200218

farmed mussels than bottom-cultured ones, and suspended cultured musselsshowed a lower pollutant content 26 . However, the high operating-labour coststhat longlined mussels require, only leaves them the option to be sold live, due tothe lower production cost of bottom-growing mussels, which are destined forcanning 27 . Another disadvantage is that longlines can be damaged in winter bythe ice 23 .A long line system tested in Limfjorden is a float of 10 PVC tubes of 48 m longeach and a net hanging below each tube. The system has only one mooringwhich allows it to float around it 28 .4.2.5.- NETHERLANDSDutch mussel culture is second in Europe after the Spanish 29 , most of theirculture is done in mussel beds, but there are a small proportion of long linegrowers which is increasing.Mussel seed is collected by dredging from natural beds in the intertidal region.The size is approximately 20mm and about 1 year old. They are transported toculture lots in May or June, during the grow-out period; mussels are redeployedup to 2-3 times to different areas with good growing conditions and low stormrisk. The mussel farmer controls the presence of starfish (Asteria rubens),removes pseudofeces and controls stocking density by scattering the mussels 28 .After 1.5-2 years the mussels are harvested; this process occurs in the morning,mussels are classified by size and the ones that reach a commercial size of 50-60mm are auctioned for processing and the smaller ones are redeployed in theafternoon.26Kristensen P.S. VLIZ – Integrated Marine Information System-IMIS. FLANDERS MARINEINSTITUTE: MARINE & COASTAL RESEACH & MANAGEMENT IN FLANDERS. 1989.http://www.vliz.be/vmdcdata/imis2/imis.php?module=ref&refid=14931 Accessed:24/09/07From the publication: Mussel and oyster culture in Denmark, in: De Pauw, N. et al. (Ed.) (1989).Aquaculture: a biotechnology in progress. pp. 341-350.27 FAO. Culturespecies Mytilus edulis (1) Food and Agriculture Organization of the UnitedNations.2007http://www.fao.org/fi/website/FIRetrieveAction.do?dom=culturespecies&xml=Mytilus_edulis.xml#tcNF0050 Culture species mytilusAccessed: 10/10/0728 Dolmer P. & Rikke P. F. SpringerLink-Journal Article, 2002.http://www.springerlink.com.libezproxy.open.ac.uk/content/dwrpaefvgyck8tdj/?p=5a85ef82516f4209b9de7279ad333892&pi=0 Accessed: 10/10/07 From Journal Helgoland Marine Research(2002) 56: 13-2029 Dankers N. & Zuidema D. R. JSTOR: Estuaries: Vol. 18, No 1, Part A: Dedicated Issue: TheEffects of Aquaculture in Estuar. 2007http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0160-8347(199503)18%3A1%3C71%3ATROTM(%3E2.0.CO%3B2-%23Accessed: 18/09/07 From Journal: Estuaries Vol. 18, No 1A. p. 71-80 March 199519

Mussels are delivered to processing plants and they are kept in a rewateringsystem for 48 hours to remove sand and grit 30 .The culture lot that has been harvested is cleaned of silt and new seed isdeployed 28 .Long line culture at mid water has recently started with only 300 tonneproduction, and 7 companies in the market 31 . Don Bishop president of BishopAquatic Technologies Inc. visited a long line farm where mussels are cultured indouble long lines 600-700 meters long which are chained to the shore. The 8-10mm seed is placed into 20 meter socks at stocking densities of 1 kg per meterand it was expected produce 7-10 kg per meter in 12-14 months 29 .As mussels are produced mainly by bottom culture there is no documentedinformation about resocking on the web.4.2.6.- ICELANDMussel culture in Iceland has just started to develop in the last 30 years, howeverit has been mostly done by small companies which did not continue despite thegood results.There is a mussel farm called Norðurskel, (www.skel.is, page in Icelandic) whichhas been producing suspended mussel for the past six years, with the aim ofexporting their mussels in the next two years 32 .Two companies Breid from Iceland and Maqsy from Norway designed a musselculture system for Icelandic conditions in 2004. It consists, of float units, whichare tubes of 8.5 m length. (Figures 27&28)Figures 27&28. Breid and Maqsy equipment in Iceland(From: http://www.veidimal.is/Kraeklingur/kraeklgl/Reykholt/breid.pdf.30 Bishop Aquatic Technologies Consulting Group. Bishop Aquaculture Technologies, Inc., DuchMussel Culture. Fukui North America. 2004 http://www.fukuina.com/articles/jan_feb02.htmAccessed: 13/09/1031 Van Zwieten P.A.M. Summary. NRLO Thuispagina [Nationale Raad vor LandbounwkundigOnderzoek] 1998 http://www.agro.nl/nrlo/english/98_8.htm Accessed: 13/09/0732 Skelraek.is-Mussel in Iceland. Skelraek.is. 2006http://www.skelraekt.is/?d=3&m=page&f=viewPage&id=12 Accessed: 10/10/0720

This system has the following advantages:1) The tubes are easy to manipulate and don’t need heavy machinery forthey deployment.2) The unit is submerged by two sinking points:a) This avoids mussels dropping of from collectors during extremeweather conditions.b) Prevents the unit to get damaged during winter due to ice. This unitcan be deployed before winter and raised after the ice season.c) It cannot be spotted by eider ducks, one of the main predators ofmussels.d) The unit does not collect drifting seaweed.3) The unit can also be covered by a net to prevent eider ducks diving formussels.4) The rope holding the unit is knot free and holds securely the collectors 33 .4.2.7.- NORWAYSince 1970 mussel culture started developing very slowly. However, in the recentyears it has been expanding rapidly, with 60 commercial farms in operation. 34The most modern systems that are being used are the Xplora ladder and theSmartFarm (Figure 29). The companies Mytilus AS & Ryfylke Havbruk, LuleSjomat As and Sorfold Skjell AS are all using the Xplora ladder 35 , while there arenine companies using the Norwegian system SmartFarm 36 . Currently there aremore than 600 SmartLines in production in Norway 37 .33 Microsoft PowerPoint – BREID ppt Institute of Freshwater Fisheries 2004http://www.veidimal.is/Kraeklingur/kraeklgl/Reykholt/breid.pdf.Accessed: 20/09/0734 Smaal A.C. SpringerLink –Journal Article. 2002.http://www.springerlink.com.libezproxy.open.ac.uk/content/vr515201523153x6/fulltext.pdfAccessed: 13/09/07 From Journal Hydrobiologia 484: 89-98/ Kubler Academic PublishersEuropean mussel cultivation along the Atlantic coast: production, status, problems andperspectives35 Fish Farming International. Article 1July 2001www.xploraproducts.com/xplora/Xplora%20in%20FFI.htmAccessed: 18/09/0736 SmartFarm. Gestenaval S.L. http://www.gestenaval.com/smartfarm.htm Accessed: 25/09/0737Rodríguez Blanco A. Cultivo Mejillón Offshore Gestenaval S.L.http://www.gestenaval.com/id128.htmAccessed:25/09/0721

Figure 29. SmartLine in Norway(From:http://www.smartfarm.no/index2.html)The system is permanently submerged even during harvesting or seeding; so thenet does not need to be removed. It is also easy to transport and deploy and hasproven resilient in extreme weather conditions 36 .The machine used for harvesting (Figures 30&31) is the only one able to harvestand clean the collectors under water. Mussels are pumped from the collectorsdirectly into the harvesting boat, which reduces their stress levels. It collects 1 tonof mussels in less than 4 minutes. This machine also controls spat density(“resocking”) and removes predators like starfish 38 .Figures30&31. SmartFarm multimachine.(From: http://www.gestenaval.com/id128.htm)The spat density (“resocking”) process is done by two different types of brushes,a rigid one which removes the mussel that is pumped on board of the boat andareas without a brush, which leave the mussels on the net for further on-growing(Srta. Amaya Rodríguez Blanco; pers. com.)38 SmartFarm AS. SmartFarm A.S. http://www.smartfarm.no/index2.html Accessed: 25/09/0722

5.- ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION5.1.- MUSSEL CULTUREMussel culture has been carried out for a long time by some European countrieslike Spain (bateas), Denmark and Holland (bottom culture), France (bouchots).Other countries like Norway and Iceland in Europe and New Zealand andCanada, started to look for methods of mussel farming more recently. The desireto improve the production and find the most suitable technique has increased thedevelopment of mussel farming technology over the World.Systems used in the United Kingdom include bottom culture in Wales as well aslonglines and rafts. The Xplora ladder has proven successful for mussel cultureand retubing in inshore waters such as Scottish lochs, but the size andcomplexity of the harvesting machine make it unsuitable for offshore waters.The SmartFarm system is used in Shetland with good results by one company. Itshows the following advantages:- The tubes have less visual impact than longlines or rafts.- They are easy and safe to deploy and do not need to be removed whenharvesting, which reduces costs.- The seeding-socking process is done by using spat naturally fixed or froma hatchery, which is more environmental friendly than collecting musselsfrom the shore, which affects its ecosystem.- The net does not deform as much as the traditional rope preventingmussels dropping off.- The system offers safer working conditions from deployment to harvestingas it is operated from the boat all the time.- Use of minimum manual labour as is only launched once.- Operational costs are reduced as everything is done mechanically.- The harvesting machine is very efficient as works under water- It copes very well with changing and extreme weather conditions with verylow loss of mussels.- It has also shown good results in exposed sites.The only disadvantage of the system is that requires natural spat collection whenused offshore, which can be difficult in low-spat sectors; this can be sorted bydeploying the SmartLines in a good spat-settlement area and transporting thesystem to a grow-out zone after the seed has been collected 36 .The BateaMedusa ® is a good alternative to traditional rafts as it has nomaintenance costs, the production is higher and it has a longer lifespan 39 .39 http://www.bateamedusa.com/Files_BateaMedusa/THE%20%20MEDUSA%20RAFT.pdfBATEAMEDUSA- Contact number: +34 670 848 679http://www.bateamedusa.com/Files_BateaMedusa/THE%20%20MEDUSA%20RAFT.pdfAccessed: 6/10/0723

Longline design is safer for the farmers as they do all the jobs from the boat, alsoit provides a more uniform concentration of nutrients around the mussels. Thecontinuous rope system avoids the ropes from getting tangled and broken duringbad weather conditions. There is a subsurface system used on some farms inNew Zealand which keeps the ropes 10m below the surface, this helps to getspat in deeper waters and it prevents mussels dropping off during storms. Thissystem is being used in Eastern Seafarms mussel farm in Opotiki, New Zealand’sbiggest marine farm, with 4750 ha and a predicted production of 15,000 tonnes 40 .Bottom culture produces the largest volume of mussels, but suspended musselculture has a better use of the space, producing more mussels per area 41 . Also,bottom culture has a limitation of space, it competes with activities like fishingand mussel faeces can accumulate quickly producing anoxic areas, affectingother species. Mussels from bottom culture need to be cleaned of sand and gritafter harvesting and present lower yields 36 .5.2.- MUSSEL RESOCKINGThis process can take place during husbandry (approximately 5 months afterseeding the ropes), when the farmer spreads the mussels from one rope to 3 or 4to avoid overcrowding; and during harvesting, when mussels which haven’treached the commercial size are placed back at sea until they get to amarketable size. There have been some experiments about the efficiency ofresocking, some of them did not show obvious advantages but the majority haveconfirmed that resocking improves yield, shell size and decreases the numbers ofmussels falling from the ropes.The mussels found on the ropes are separated by size with a grader. Theresocking process can be done manually, by using a mussel table or by using amachine.There two typical resocking machines, the New Zealand style resocking machine(Figure 13), and the Spanish style resocking machine (Figure 21). Both usecommonly a cotton sock which wraps around the rope core fastening themussels. The disadvantage of the Spanish method is that the pegs on the ropeallow gaps in case of inexperienced or careless operators. Those gaps cancause the mussels to fall 42 . There is very little information on the web about the40 Jo-Mario Brown http://www.seascallop.com/NZ_MusselFarm.jpg / Sea scallop mapping page.9/05/02http://www.seascallop.com/NZ_MusselFarm.jpg Accessed: 20/09/0741 Bishop Aquatic Technologies Consulting Group. Bishop Aquaculture Technologies,Inc.,Transforming mussel culture. Fukui North America. 1998http://www.fukuina.com/articles/jul_aug98.htmAccessed: 12/09/1042 Chapter 7: Mussel farm equipment. Forsiden NIFES. 5/10/07http://www.nifes.no/file.php?id=563 Accessed: 17/09/0724

New Zealand model, but in Spain Talleres AGUIN S.L., the manufacturer of theresocking machine, confirmed that they have some customers in Shetland(Talleres AGUIN S.L., pers. com.)5.3.- RESOCKING DENSITY.Resocking density is the amount of mussels resocked per length of rope. Whilethere is some information about the stocking density related to mussel seeding,there are no publications that studied the stocking density for thinning-outmussels that have not reached the commercial size when harvesting.Seeding usually takes place 5-6 months after the collectors have been deployed,when mussels are approximately 0.5 cm in length. The recommended optimalstocking density (OSD) in Canada is 180 mussels per 30.5 cm of sock, but somegrowers from Prince Edward have reduced it to 100-125 mussels per 30.5 cm.One study from Canada showed that even if the result from the experiment saidthan the OSD was 400 individuals per 30.5 cm, the relationship between biomass(yield) and population density confirmed than the OSD was on the range of 120-200 mussels per 30.5cm 43One Spanish study observed the influence of three factors on the growth rate ofmussels cultivated in rafts, as depth of cultivation, position within the raft andstocking density in two stages, from seeding to thinning-out and until harvesting.The seeding densities were from high density (used by the farmer) which was10,000 mussels per meter of rope to low density of 5,000 mussels per meter ofrope. The mussel seeds were less than 20 mm long. The thinning out processtook place after 5 months. The mussels were then socked at lower densities,from 700 mussels per meter to 350 mussels per meter. The musses wereapproximately 4.75-5 cm long. This experiment as well as others revealed thatthere is not always a negative relationship between stocking density and growth;this has been explained with two hypotheses related to the behaviour of formingmulti-layer clumps:- There is a reduction of mussels per area dependent on the density, whichcan be due to mussels dropping off the ropes at the start of the cultivationor because there is a competition for food and space. The multi-layerconstruction soon becomes a monolayer.PDF file: From: Draft_ mussel_ guide_ 2000_ Part_ C_ web_ [1].pdfChapter 5: Seed Collection and Larval Monitoring43 Fréchette M., Bergeron P., Gagnon P. IngentaConnect.On the use of self-thinningrelationships in stocking experiments. IngentaConnect Home. 1996.http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/els/00448486/1996/00000145/00000001/art01349Accessed: 19/09/07. From Journal Aquaculture 145 (1996)91-112: On the use of self-thinningrelationships in stocking experiments25

- The mussel seeds move looking for a place where they can reachnutrients easily. The multilayer structure is maintained 44 .In an Argentinian experiment about the culture of Mytilus platensis , the seedingstocking density was 2,000 mussels per meter and after 3 months the musselswere thinned-out at densities from 900 to 450 individuals per meter. Theconclusions of the study confirmed that at 12 months there was a difference onyield depending of stocking density, with 450 mussels per meter being thedensity that obtained the best harvestable biomass. This experiment also showedthat there was no obvious difference between the mussel yield or shell lengthduring the first six months, concluding that for long culture periods it is convenientto use low stocking densities 45 .5.4.- TYPES OF MUSSEL SOCKS.The socks can be made of synthetic fibres like nylon, acetate or polyester;natural ones as cotton or combinations of both natural and synthetics.Synthetic nets do not dissolve, which causes disposal problems of the mesh, outmigrationof seed through the mesh. They tend to accumulate mud and gettangled in the machines used for harvesting. For the use of the Xplora ladder a100% cotton sock is recommended.The use of cotton sock (Spanish wrap and New Zealand’s sock) eliminates theseproblems, but it has to be fastened a few times around the rope core in order tooffer the same strength than the synthetic ones.44Fuentes J., Gregorio V., Giráldez R. Molares J.http://www.sciencedirect.com.libezproxy.open.ac.uk/science?_ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6T4D-40HV08M-4-7 .Science Direct Home. 2000.http://www.sciencedirect.com.libezproxy.open.ac.uk/science?_ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6T4D-40HV08M-4-7&_cdi=4972&_user=126980&_orig=browse&_coverDate=09%2F25%2F2000&_sk=998109998&view=c&wchp=dGLzVlz-zSkWA&md5=74e46ee3209ffd18ffedf68817760a05&ie=/sdarticle.pdfAccessed: 19/09/07From Journal: Aquaculture 189 (2000) 39-52 Whithin-raft variability of the growth rate ofmussels, Mytilus galloprovincialis, cultivated in the Ría de Arousa (NW Spain)45 Zaixso H. E., Lizarralde Z. I.http://iodeweb1.vliz.be/odin/bitstream/1834/1865/1/Rev%20Invest%20Desarr%20Pesq%2014%20109-123. OceanDocs Item: 1834/1865(2001)http://iodeweb1.vliz.be/odin/bitstream/1834/1865/1/Rev%20Invest%20Desarr%20Pesq%2014%20109-123.pdf Accessed: 12/10/07 From: Revista de Investigación y Desarrollo Pesquero(14) 119-123 Efectos del desdoble sobre la biomasa cosechable de Mytilus platensis D’Orb. Encultivo. Mar del Plata: Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Desarrollo Pesquero (INIDEP)26

6.- CONCLUSIONSSuspended mussel culture methods are more popular than bottom culture ones,also the product presents a better yield and is free of sand and grit and it doesnot have the problem of space. Most of the new techniques for mussel cultureare being developed for suspended cultures.Looking at the methods of rope-cultured mussels, rafts and longlines, it seemsthat longlines, specially the continuous longlines is the most popular one, as itallows the farmer to work from the boat at all times, which makes the job easierand safer, although rafts are not recommended for exposed areas, new modelslike the BateaMedusa has proven good results during storms, and an increase ofthe production of 100% against the traditional raft.The process of mussel resocking is highly recommended as it increases the yieldand shell size, and decreases the amount of mussels dropping off from the rope.Lower resocking densities are recommended in order to obtain better yields. Theuse of machines for retubing is more efficient than the use of mussel tables, andbiodegradable cotton socking seems to be the best option as it does not tangle inharvesting machines and is more environmentally friendly than the syntheticones.27

7.- RECOMMENDATIONSThe development of efficient mussel culture techniques requires a strongmechanization of the system, from deployment of collector lines to harvestingand resocking.Technology recommended for use in Shetland waters should be tailored to theoceanographic conditions of the site (currents, shelter), among otherconsiderations like expected production and capital available.Weather conditions in Shetland favour the use of longlines as opposed to rafts,as is safer for the farmer and the machines developed to date make this jobeasier reducing time and workers, and consequently the costs. The efficiencyshown in other countries, like New Zealand suggest that continuous longlinecould be used to increase the production, as well as subsurface systems whichwill reduce the effects of extreme weather conditions. Finally,the Smartfarm,system used by Johnsons Seafarms have given good results in Shetland waters.The resocking system in Shetland is done after harvesting; mussels are taken tothe processing facilities where they are graded, retubed and redeployed in thelonglines or rafts. Harvesting boats like those used in New Zealand and Spainwhich incorporate declumpers, graders and resocking machines would increasethe efficiency.28

8.- APPENDIXContact list of manufacturers and suppliers of equipment:UNITED KINGDOM:Xplora ladder:Xplora ProductsUnit 4London RoadTrading State2500 London RoadGlasgow G32 8XZSCOTLAND UKhttp://www.xploraproducts.comTel. +44 (0) 141 778 0966Fax. +44 (0) 141 778 0388Email: aqua@xploraproducts.comSmartFarm:Smart Farm ASHalvorstraen 564085 Hundvåg,NORWAYhttp://www.smartfarm.noTel. +47 51 59 59 15Fax. +47 51 59 59 14Email: post@smartfarm.noNEW ZEALAND:DonaghysHead Office – Christchurch16 Sheffield Crescent, HarewoodPO Box 20-449, ChristchurchNEW ZEALANDhttp://www.donaghys.com/aquaculture.htmlTel. +64 3 983 4100Fax. +64 3 983 4191Freephone: 0800 942 006Email: enquiries(at)donaghys.co.nz29

SPAIN:Bateamedusa ®CorelsaPolígono de la GrelaC/ Severo Ochoa 25PO Box 114615008 A CoruñaSPAINTel: +34 670 848 679 / +34 (981) 27 10 01/02Fax: +34 (981) 27 08 23http://www.bateamedusa.comEmail:info@bateamedusa.comSocks:JJChicolinoVilariño s/nBoiro15930 A CoruñaSPAINTel: +34 (981) 84 99 00Fax: +34 (981) 84 57 00http://www.jjchicolino.es/english/index_en.htmlEmail:chico@chicolino.comResocking machine:Talleres AGUIN S.L.Ardia, 17836989 O Grove (Pontevedra)SPAINTel: (+34) 986 73 10 91Fax: (+34) 986 73 13 80http://www.aguin.com/qsomos/indexi.htmlE-mail: aguin@aguin.com30

CANADABishop Aquatic Technologies, Inc.:Fukui North AmericaPO Box 669110-B Bonnechere St.W.Eganville, Ontario K0J 1T0CANADAhttp://www.fukuina.com/index.htmTel: 613-432-3173Fax: 613-432-9494Email: christineh@fukuina.comDisc-Net-Line System:Penn Cove Disc-Net-Line SystemP.O. Box 148 Coupeville, WA 98239http://www.penncoveshellfish.com/disc-net-line_system.htmTel: (360) 678-4803FAX: (360) 678-0266Email: shellfish@penncoveshellfish.comSocks:Go Deep International Inc.10 Watertower RoadSaint John, NBE2M 7K2CANADAhttp://www.godeepintl.caToll Free: (877) 446-3337Tel: (506) 633-7850Fax:(506) 633-7859Email: kent.ferguson@godeepintl.caICELANDBreid ehfNýlendugötu 23101ReykjavíkICELANDTel: 861-7349Contact name: John Baldvinsson, Jon H. JonssonEmail:baldvinsson@simnet.is31

Marine Aquaculture System AS (MAQSY AS)Postboks 1273, Pirsenteret7462 TrondheimNORWAYTel: 47 73 83 17 36Fax: --http://www.maqsy.noContact name: Egil LienEmail:Egil.lien@maqsy.no32

Appendix 10.3Building Public Support for Marine Protected AreasM.D.ScrimshawA report submitted in response to a brief from:The Wildlife Trusts24 September 2007

Disclaimer:To the best of our knowledge the information in this report was accurate atthe time of writing. As this information was obtained from online sourcesKIMO cannot be held responsible for any omissions or inaccuracies in thedata.

Building Public Support for Marine Protected AreasM.D.Scrimshaw

Contents1. Executive Summary .........................................................................................................12. Brief .................................................................................................................................23. Methodology ....................................................................................................................34. Results.............................................................................................................................45. Analysis and Discussion ..................................................................................................55.1. General guidelines and points of good practice ........................................................55.2. Evidence from case studies ......................................................................................65.2.1. Case studies in the USA, Canada and Australia.................................................65.2.2. Five MPAs in the USA ........................................................................................75.2.3. Race Rocks, British Columbia, Canada..............................................................85.2.4. Soufriere Marine Management Area, St. Lucia, Caribbean ................................95.2.5. MPAs in Victoria, Australia..................................................................................95.3. Common factors......................................................................................................105.3.1. Stakeholder involvement...................................................................................115.3.2. Zoning...............................................................................................................145.3.3. Education..........................................................................................................145.4. Evidence of post-designation support .....................................................................155.4.1. Benefits from ‘spillover’.....................................................................................165.4.2. Benefits from ‘no-trawl’ areas ...........................................................................176. Conclusions ...................................................................................................................187. Bibliography...................................................................................................................20

1. Executive SummaryThe Wildlife Trusts have identified that establishment of marine protected areas (MPAs) inthe UK tends to be unsuccessful largely because of a lack of public support. They seek togather information from existing MPAs around the world in order to learn lessons that canhelp to build and maintain public support for MPAs in the UK.The aim of this project was to collect information on the planning and managementprocesses of MPAs. The method involved using the Internet to trawl for sources of relevantinformation. Information was sought from site-specific examples or case studies, as well asfrom general recommendations, innovative ideas and points of good practice used byfacilitators involved in the selection and designation processes of established MPAs, thatmight be applicable to the UK.Although there was little information available that specifically dealt with building publicsupport for MPA projects or programmes, there was, nevertheless, a range of documentsthat contained elements that addressed the subject of gaining or maintaining publicsupport for MPAs. In reviewing the information sources available on the Internet, it becameclear that while there is no recommended format for a successful MPA planning process,there are a number of key considerations that help to encourage public support for MPAs.Evidence from case studies revealed a number of common factors that are important inbuilding public support. These are: stakeholder involvement in the planning andmanagement processes, including the concept of community-based MPA schemesimparting a sense of ownership; the use of zoning to accommodate different user groupsto help avoid conflicts between stakeholders; and education as a tool for informing thepublic and the participants in the establishment process. Keeping the public informedthroughout the planning process was seen as a critical factor in successful MPA projects.There was also evidence that post-designation benefits could be used to encourage localsupport for MPAs or at least support for marine conservation generally. These includebenefits to local fisheries by exploiting ‘spillover’, for example, or the enhancement of anarea following MPA designation – including the benefits from tourism and recreation.The key factor underlying the lessons learned from the establishment of existing MPAswas the importance of looking at socio-economic aspects, alongside conservation issues,at an early stage in the process.While recognising that each case is different, it is clear that lessons can be learned fromexisting MPAs and applied to the establishment of future MPAs, thereby helping to buildand maintain public support for MPAs in the UK.1

2. BriefThis report is being submitted in response to a brief from The Wildlife Trusts. Theproposal, which is in support of their Marine Bill Campaign, emanates from concerns thatunsuccessful implementation of marine protected areas (MPAs) in the UK is primarilybecause of a lack of public support. The aim was to collect global information on theplanning and management processes of MPAs and identify lessons learned that can beused for building public support for MPAs in the UK.The scope of the project included the concepts of building public support during theprocess of site selection and designation, building and maintaining public support formanagement of MPAs, promoting compliance with the regulations and, to a lesser degree,building support for marine conservation generally.The report is to be used as a basis for a presentation by The Wildlife Trusts at a UKconference ‘Towards a Coherent Network of Marine Protected Areas’ on 2-3 October2007.2

3. MethodologyThe method of obtaining information involved using the Internet to trawl for sources thatmay have relevance to the aim of the brief. The information was gathered, either directlyfrom websites or indirectly from links to publications found on the Internet, and reviewedfor suitability for inclusion in the report.Use was made of general search engines and more specialised information source sitesand science-oriented portals, such as ScienceDirect ® (www.sciencedirect.com), anelectronic collection of science, technology and medicine journals and books, andScienceResearch.com TM (www.scienceresearch.com), an Internet portal allowing publicaccess to scientific journals and databases.Websites used in the trawl included:· online newspapers and magazines;· conservation organisation sites;· environmental issues sites;· information/promotional sites for specific MPAs;· government or government agency sites.The sources of information were in the form of web pages, PDF files or text files.3

4. ResultsWhile there seems little information readily available on projects or programmesspecifically aimed at building public support for MPAs, there is a broad spectrum ofdocuments, electronic or published, containing useful information relevant to the subject ofgaining or maintaining public support for future MPAs. This information is either in the formof guidelines, general advice on how to achieve a successful outcome or specificexamples or case studies where lessons learned from past experience can be used toimprove the success of MPA designation or establishment.The information that follows is based on a small sample of the documented knowledge thathas been acquired worldwide through the establishment of these MPAs.Note that the use of the term ‘marine protected area’ or ‘MPA’ is used in its broadest sensein this report, particularly when referring to site-specific examples and does not necessarilyrefer to a particular statutory definition. This all-encompassing term, therefore, refers toany marine or coastal area partially or fully protected from human activities and can beapplied to sites labelled: ‘protected area’, ‘marine reserve’, ‘marine park’, ‘marinesanctuary’, ‘marine nature reserve’, ‘marine conservation zone’, ‘no-take zone’ (NTZ) and‘conservation area’, to name but a few. Note also that all website addresses were active atthe time they were accessed prior to the date of this report but that these addresses aresubject to change.4

5. Analysis and Discussion5.1. General guidelines and points of good practiceWhile there is no particular formula that can be used in the planning process forestablishing an MPA or system of MPAs, there is nevertheless a pool of knowledge thathas emerged, based on the lessons learned so far, that can be adapted to suit individualcases. This accumulated knowledge can be in the form of guidelines or practical advice, orit can be an identification of the good and bad points, gleaned from both successful andnot so successful schemes.In other words, while recognising that each site is unique, lessons and techniques learnedfrom other MPAs can be applied to future MPA establishment processes. However, thereshould be flexibility in the approach to adjust to individual cases 1 .Some lessons were learned during the seven-year planning process to establish theGilbert Bay Marine Protected Area on the Labrador coast of Canada, which wasdesignated in 2005. According to Jason Simms of the Department of Fisheries andOceans (DFO) a who oversaw the project, public meetings with long presentations, whichattempt to deal with all queries, should be avoided. Instead it is better to hold ‘communityinformation sessions’ of 3-4 hours duration, in which the public are invited to drop-in andpose their questions to representatives of the overseeing government department – in thiscase the DFO – and the steering committee. This was considered to be a less intimidatingapproach for dealing with public concerns about the MPA 2 .A key to successful implementation is the inclusion of socio-economic and politicalfactors alongside scientific information throughout the process 3,4 . The importance ofaddressing the socio-economic aspects – as well as the conservation issues – at an earlystage in the planning of an MPA is highlighted in a study to assess the viability of usinggeospatial analysis tools in California’s MPA planning process. The study involvedconducting local knowledge interviews of fishers in the ports of the north-central region ofCalifornia. The report suggests that incorporating local knowledge into the decisionmakingprocess helps to look at the siting issues from the point of view of the peopleinvolved in the local fisheries, thereby helping to avoid some of the conflicts associatedwith the siting of the MPAs 5 . Indeed, the benefits of using valued knowledge from local1 Lundquist, C.J. and Granek, E.F. (2005) Strategies for Successful Marine Conservation: IntegratingSocioeconomic, Political, and Scientific Factors. Conservation Biology 19(6), pp.1771-1778, DOI:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2005.00279.x.2 MPA News (2005) Tips on public consultation: Jason Simms, Department of Fisheries and Oceans,Canada. MPA News 7(6), December 2005/January 2006, p.5.3 See Reference 1 above.4 Living Oceans Society and WWF Canada (2006) Recommendations for Effective Marine PlanningProcesses: Lessons Learned from Case Studies in Canada, the USA and Australia. A Report by LivingOceans Society and WWF Canada.5 Scholz, A., Bonzon, K., Fujita, R., Benjamin, N., Woodling, N., Black, P. and Steinback, C. (2004)Participatory socioeconomic analysis: drawing on fishermen’s knowledge for marine protected areaplanning in California. Marine Policy 28, pp.335-349.5

users who may have lifetime experiences of user patterns can also have the added benefitof empowering users and helping to sustain local support 6 .In a study looking at the methods used for establishing and managing MPAs 7 , key factorsin the successful implementation – particularly of Mediterranean MPAs – were identified.Of particular note were the following:· use of a structured and quantitative approach to design;· the involvement of the stakeholders in the planning process, either bystatutory or contract-based agreements;· zoned protection, characterised by a highly protected central zone surroundedby a buffer zone;· effective legislation to support the MPA designation;· a transparent management regime.The example of Miramare Marine Nature Reserve, Trieste, Italy is cited as an example ofwhere socio-economic and conservation issues are embraced through effectivemanagement 8 .Lastly, a small but important point is in the use of appropriate terminology. For example,Lane 9 recommends the use of the term ‘fisheries management tools’ rather than ‘no-takezone’ when communicating with commercial fishing industry representatives.5.2. Evidence from case studiesThere have been numerous case studies undertaken by researchers looking at all aspectsof MPAs. The following section highlights a number of points of interest to emerge fromsome of these studies that may have a bearing on building public support or reducingconflicts among stakeholders in connection with future planned MPAs.5.2.1. Case studies in the USA, Canada and AustraliaA number of case studies in the USA, Australia and Canada were used as a basis forcompiling a set of recommendations for achieving a successful outcome to an MPAplanning process 10 . A few pertinent points of advice are included here:· build awareness about the proposed MPA well before the start of theplanning process, and thereby help to educate and create interest among thepublic and stakeholders as well as improve support for marine conservation ingeneral;6 Stevens, T.F, Jones, P.J.S., Howell, K. and Mee, L. (2006) Methods for managing Marine Protected Areas:Options for establishing and managing a marine protected area system in the UK. Report for NaturalEngland.7 See Reference 6 above.8 See Reference 6 above.9 Lane, D. (2001) Proceedings of the MPA Powertools Conference: Building the Marine Protected AreaMovement from the Grassroots Up. White Rock BC, October 19-21. Living Oceans Society (unpublished)cited in Reference 4 above.10 See Reference 4 above.6

· conduct a feasibility study to determine the existing level of support andknowledge among potential users and assess the need for an MPA from both asocio-economic and a biological aspect;· ensure that all stakeholders’ representatives have been identified beforethe negotiation process begins so that everyone is on board at the start, aprocess that can take up to a year to complete; ensure that representatives aretrusted and empowered by their stakeholder group and that the right balance ofrepresentation exists;· it is important to build trust between stakeholders from the start;· ensure that all members regard each other as having a legitimate reason forbeing involved;· it helps to involve members of the community alongside scientists in the role oflocal expert stakeholders so that they become part of a team withresponsibility for collecting and disseminating information;· use local knowledge where available; users of the proposed MPA may havebuilt up a considerable wealth of information regarding marine ecosystems thatcan be tapped into;· use different levels of discussion processes; small, less formal groupsalongside larger, structured processes may help to reduce fear and improvecommunity involvement;· build the trust and respect of the fishing community; make fishers aware ofthe economic benefits to be gained from a particular proposed MPA;· avoid giving an impression of ad hoc conservation measures by co-ordinatingproposals for MPA schemes;· have clear objectives for discussion;· avoid giving the impression of solutions arrived at “behind-closed-doors”.5.2.2. Five MPAs in the USAThe National Marine Protected Areas Center, in co-operation with the National Oceanicand Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Coastal Services Center, conducted five casestudies in the USA to investigate MPA establishment processes and determine the lessonslearned from each case 11 .The project investigated the following sites:1. Carl N. Schuster Jr. Horseshoe Crab Reserve, Delaware Bay,2. Channel Islands Marine Reserves, California,3. Gulf of Mexico Grouper Closures, Florida,4. San Juan County Bottomfish Recovery Zones, Washington,5. Tortugas Ecological Reserve, Florida.11 Kessler, B.L. (2003) Marine Protected Area (MPA) Process Review: Case Studies of Five MPAEstablishment Processes. National Marine Protected Areas Center in co-operation with NOAA CoastalServices Center.7

Although the establishment of the MPA in each case underwent a specific processparticular to that site, the case studies revealed several common factors. These were:· all the processes took several years to complete;· multiple stakeholders, representing a diverse range of interests, wereinvolved throughout;· conflicts arose among stakeholders about the level of restrictions imposed onthe MPA;· similar resources were used to communicate with the public and media:public consultation was used throughout in the form of public meetings, forumsand/or workshops and also through the use of websites; press releases ornewspaper articles were used to publicise meetings, inform the public aboutregulations or request feedback on proposals;· the outcome of the implementation process was shaped by historical andpolitical factors.5.2.3. Race Rocks, British Columbia, CanadaSituated on the Juan de Fuca Strait, south of Vancouver Island, Race Rocks supports acommunity of marine mammals and birds, subtidal invertebrates, fish and kelp forests 12 .The area is used for tourism and recreation (whale watching, pleasure boating,recreational fishing and scuba diving).Established in 2000, Race Rocks Marine Protected Area was the first MPA designatedunder Canada’s Oceans Act of 1996 by the Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO) a .The planning process used a ‘consensus-based approach’ within a consultationframework. This was achieved through the Race Rocks Advisory Board, which was set upby the DFO and comprised representatives from science and education establishments,environmental NGOs, government agencies, First Nations (a term used to describeCanada’s indigenous people) and various user groups.The viewpoint of the DFO, instigators of the MPA, was that the consultation process had“galvanised strong support” for the establishment of Race Rocks MPA 13 .Nevertheless, the process was not without its failings. In a thesis examining the processesinvolved in the establishment of Race Rocks MPA 14 , the author identified both thesuccesses and the shortcomings in the process.Among the notable successes were that:· the meetings were considered to be “inclusive and fair” by most of theparticipants and generally supported the consensus recommendations agreed;12 Information taken from Fisheries and Oceans Canada websitePage title: RACE ROCKS – XwaYeN: A Success Story for Community and Stakeholder Involvement(Backgrounder, BG-PR-00-32E)Site title: Fisheries and Oceans CanadaLast updated: 14 September 2000Internet address: www-comm.pac.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/pages/release/bckgrnd/2000/bg0032_e.htmDate accessed: 23 September 2007.13 See Reference 12 above.14 Leroy, A.S. (2002) Public Process and the Creation of a Marine Protected Area at Race Rocks, BritishColumbia. The University of British Columbia.8

· the process respected the interests of the indigenous people, particularly withregard to the “organisation of aboriginal workshops and ceremonies”;· the process included most stakeholders that had an interest in the MPA;· user groups were better able to become involved in volunteer stewardship.The notable shortcomings were that:· there was no stable funding in place for the management of the pilot MPA;· at least one group of indigenous people was not properly represented;· the boundary options were preconceived and not part of an “integratedmanagement approach”.5.2.4. Soufriere Marine Management Area, St. Lucia, CaribbeanOn the southwest coast of the island of St. Lucia, Soufriere was subject to conflicts ofresources between different users and experienced much environmental degradation.However, as a result of a planning process that brought all the stakeholders together andculminated in the Soufriere Marine Management Area, these conflicts have been largelyresolved. It serves as a good example of the success of utilising multi-use zoning. Theprocess, which was examined in a case study 15 , was able to generate significant supportfrom the start. Among the reasons given for this success were that:· the local community and other stakeholders were involved in the planningprocess;· agreement on the designation of zones was reached by all stakeholders;· a flexible approach was taken to the planning process;· the capability of poorly organised stakeholders to become involved wasimproved;· various agencies had the role of facilitators in the process.5.2.5. MPAs in Victoria, AustraliaThe following information comes from a study of the events over a 30-year period in thedevelopment of MPAs in Victoria, culminating in the successful establishment of its currentMPA system 16 .Of the many lessons that have inevitably been learned over this period, some haveparticular relevance and are readily transferable to other MPA planning processes in otherlocations. Some of these important findings are highlighted here:15 Pierre-Nathoniel, D. (2003) Towards the Strengthening of the Association: The Case of the SoufriereMarine Management Area (SMMA), Saint Lucia. Paper presented at the Second International TropicalMarine Ecosystem Management Symposium (ITMEME II). Passy City, Metro Manila, Philippines, March2003 cited in Romulus, G. (2005) Protected landscapes and seascapes and their relevance to Small IslandDeveloping States in the Caribbean: the case of Saint Lucia. Chapter 13 in The Protected LandscapeApproach: Linking Nature, Culture and Community, eds. Brown, J., Mitchell, N. and Beresford, M., IUCN-The World Conservation Union, DOI: 10.2305/IUCN.CH.2005.2.en, ISBN: 2-8317-0797-8.16 Wescott, G. (2006) The long and winding road: The development of a comprehensive, adequate andrepresentative system of highly protected marine protected areas in Victoria, Australia. Ocean & CoastalManagement 49, pp.905-922, DOI: 10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2006.08.001.9

· it was often the most ambitious proposals that proved successful; indeed, itmay be more effective to propose a wide-ranging system of MPAs at the outsetas opposed to individual site-specific MPAs b ;· earlier debates were characterised by stakeholders taking rigid positions, whilemore recently it became clear that those willing to compromise gained morenegotiating power;· a successful outcome may take many years to achieve, highlighting theneed for persistence in the process of implementing MPAs;· the use of regular meetings helped to keep politicians and the media updatedon the progress of the planning process;· the importance of campaigning through effective use of the media should notbe underestimated;· the use of different key figures from a range of backgrounds to champion theproposals – people are more likely to take notice of a “trusted messenger”;· the use of an educational programme helped to raise awareness of theenvironmental issues involved, an example being the publication, in localnewspapers, of posters on local habitats and “charismatic fauna”;· the use of focus groups helps to develop media material and terminology (theuse of the term ‘no-take’ rather than ‘highly protected MPA’, for example);· it helps to distinguish between the “closed-mind” opponents and the moreopen-minded members of the community; target messages at the openmindedgroup and argue, in an open and fair way, against the objectors group,effectively appealing over them to the open-minded general community;· it is helpful to use an existing independent body to arbitrate over competingclaims of proponents and opponents.5.3. Common factorsIt should be stressed that while some lessons learned from the establishment of MPAsaround the world may be equally applicable to proposals for, say, UK or European MPAsites, some may not. There are likely to be geographical, cultural, historical, economic ordemographic differences encountered among the localities associated with eachestablished and proposed MPA. Nevertheless, there are several distinct elements withinthe process of planning and implementing an MPA that are characteristic of a successfuloutcome, in terms of being supported or at least accepted by the local community or thegeneral public. These are:1. stakeholder involvement, particularly when manifested in community-basedschemes;2. zoning, in order to accommodate multiple-users;3. education, whether it be educating or informing the public in the benefits of sitespecificMPAs or on the concept of MPAs generally.10

5.3.1. Stakeholder involvementEvidence suggests that an essential prerequisite of successful conservation planning is toinvolve all potential stakeholders at an early stage 17 . Stakeholder involvement in theplanning process provides for a better overall solution for achieving the objectives than a‘top-down’ level of management and is more effective in dealing with conflicts betweenusers 18 . Stevens et al. 19 , in recognition of MPAs as being “common-pool resources”, stressthe need to involve representatives from a broad and diverse range of stakeholders thatmay have access rights or interests in the MPA.One example is Australia’s Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, where stakeholderinvolvement in the implementation was important in achieving a successful outcome 20 .Indeed, public consultation and participation is an integral part of the MPA planningprocess in Australia 21 .Another benefit of increasing public support, beyond a successful implementation of anMPA, is that “public support will invariably lead to stronger regulations, better enforcementand improved compliance” 22 . One of the lessons learned from the lobster managementscheme at Bonavista Bay in Newfoundland, Canada – where areas were closed to alllobster harvesting – was that “communality supported agreements increasecompliance among stakeholders” 23 .Involving stakeholders from the start can have the effect of empowering the participantswith a sense of responsibility and ownership 24,25 . This is never more apparent than in‘community-based marine reserves’ of which there are many examples, particularlyamong communities that depend on resources from coral reef ecosystems. Indeed,17 Leslie, H. (2005) A Synthesis of Marine Conservation Planning Approaches. Conservation Biology 19(6),pp.1701-1713, DOI: 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2005.00268.x.18 van’t Hof, T. (1998) Social and Economic Impacts of Marine Protected Areas: A Study and Analysis ofSelected Cases in the Caribbean. Caribbean Natural Resource Institute (CANARI) Technical Report No.252.19 See Reference 6 above.20 Fernadnes, L. et al. (2005) Establishing Representative No-Take Areas in the Great Barrier Reef: Large-Scale Implementation of Theory on Marine Protected Areas. Conservation Biology 19(6), pp.1733-1744,DOI: 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2005.00302.x cited in Reference 1.21 See Reference 6 above.22 Fogarty, M. J., Bohnsack, J. A., and Dayton, P. K. (2000) Marine reserves and resource management inSheppard, R.C. (ed.) Seas at the Millennium: An Environmental Evaluation. Elsevier Science Ltd, Oxford,ISBN-13: 978-0-08-043207-6, ISBN-10: 0-08-043207-7 cited in FSBI (2001) Marine protected areas in theNorth Sea. Briefing Paper 1, Fisheries Society of the British Isles, Granta Information Systems.23 Sweeting, C.J. and Polunin, N.V.C. (2005) Marine Protected Areas for Management of Temperate NorthAtlantic Fisheries: Lessons learned in MPA use for sustainable fisheries exploitation and stock recovery. AReport to the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, University of Newcastle upon Tyne.24 Cinner, J.E., Marnane, M.J. and McClanahan, T.R. (2005) Conservation and Community Benefits fromTraditional Coral Reef Management at Ahus Island, Papua New Guinea. Conservation Biology 19(6),pp.1714-1723, DOI: 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2005.00269.x cited in Reference 1.25 Granek, E.F. and Brown, M.A. (2005) Co-Management Approach to Marine Conservation in Mohéli,Comoros Islands. Conservation Biology 19(6), pp.1724-1732, DOI: 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2005.00301.xcited in Reference 1.11

community participation is recognised as an important factor in sustainable reefmanagement 26 .Although the socio-economic aspects of tropical coral reef communities may be farremoved from UK coastal communities, there are, nevertheless, a number of lessons thatcan be learned from involving the community in MPA planning and management.Designated as a “biodiversity hotspot” by Conservation International, the marineenvironment of the Philippines has been highlighted as containing a rich source ofendemic species and yet is among the most environmentally threatened regions 27 .However, an array of community-based MPAs has been successfully established inresponse to this threat. For example, many MPAs in the Philippines are establishedautonomously by local communities or local governments, perhaps in response to adepletion of their fish yields 28 .A notable example of a successful community-based MPA scheme is that of Apo IslandMarine Reserve in the Bohol Sea, Philippines, which was created in 1982. Here, theimprovements in marine biodiversity, fish yields from ‘spillover’ c and resilience of theprotected area to environmental changes have been well documented 29 . Establishing anMPA at Apo Island has given rise to a sense of pride among the community 30 .Moreover, the local people have been generating income from tourism: the area hasbecome very popular with divers, for example, an activity that is permitted but strictlycontrolled within the reserve.Communities in the Central Visayas, particularly in the provinces of Bohol and NegrosOriental, have also benefited from incomes generated from tourism as a result of marineconservation 31 .The experience of the Haribon Foundation for the Conservation of Natural Resources hasshown that crucial support for MPAs can be gained through communication, throughmeetings or house to house visits, and education. Getting others to identify the26 White, A.T. and Vogt, H.P. (2000) Philippine Coral Reefs Under Threat: Lessons Learned After 25 Yearsof Community-Based Reef Conservation. Marine Pollution Bulletin 40(6), pp.537-550. PII: S0025-326X(99)00243-X.27 Information taken from Conservation International websitePage title: Biodiversity Hotspots – Philippines – OverviewSite title: Conservation InternationalInternet address: www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/hotspots/philippines/Pages/default.aspxDate accessed: 21 September 2007.28 See Reference 6.29 Information taken from Malaya Environment websitePage title: Significant Science research programSite title: Malaya – The National NewspaperLast updated: 8 January 2007Internet address: www.malaya.com.ph/jan08/envi_1.htmDate accessed: 21 September 2007.30 Information taken from Over Seas – The Online Magazine for Sustainable SeasPage title: The Women of Apo Island by A. Sia (Vol. 1, No.2)Site title: OneOcean – Coastal Resource & Fisheries Management of the PhilippinesLast updated: February 1998Internet address: www.oneocean.org/overseas/feb98/leaders_women_at_apo.htmlDate accessed: 21 September 2007.31 See Reference 29 above.12

conservation issue is essential and involving the community in the process endears asense of ownership 32 .In Fiji, the ‘locally managed marine areas’ were created and are managed with theinvolvement of local communities whereby responsibility for managing the traditionalinshore fishing grounds are handed over to the original owners 33 . Other examples ofcommunity-based coral reef conservation projects include Puerto Morelos National MarinePark in Mexico 34 and Bay Islands, Honduras 35 .Another example of a successful community-based MPA is in Andavadoaka, Madagascarwhere the local community teamed up with the conservation groups Blue Ventures andWildlife Conservation Society (WCS) and with the IHSM, Madagascar’s national maritimeinstitute, to set up a seasonal no-take zone (NTZ) for octopus. This benefits the artisanalfishers with greater yields when the seasonal ban is lifted 36 . The village recently receivedthe UNDP Equator Prize in recognition of the work done to “diminish poverty through theconservation and sustainable use of biodiversity” 37 .Sometimes ‘bottom-up’ initiatives derive from locally-managed conservation measures,which then become recognised by government bodies. One example is the Blongko MPAin North Sulawesi, Indonesia, a community-based scheme and the first marine park in thecountry to be locally managed 38 .Of particular note within the recommended guidelines to emerge from the experience ofestablishing the Puerto Morelos National Marine Park is that all sections of thecommunity should be able to participate. This should be both during and after theestablishment process, in order that the local public experience “a sense ofownership” 39,40 . Furthermore, evidence suggests that, in this case, involving keycommunity leaders helped to foster general local support for the MPA 41 .32 Lavides, M., Plantilla, A., Mallari, N.A., Tabaranza Jr., B., de la Paz, B. and Nozawa, C.M. Building supportfor and beyond protected areas in the Philippines: a Haribon’s journey of transformations. Chapter 6 inCommunicating Protected Areas, pp. 46-57.33 Lutchman, I. (2005) Marine Protected Areas: Benefits and Costs for Islands. WWF the Netherlands.34 RodrÍguez-MartÍnez, R.E. (2007) Community involvement in marine protected areas: the case of PuertoMorelos reef, Mexico. Journal of environmental Management, DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2007.06.008.35 Luttinger, N. (1997) Community-based coral reef conservation in the Bay Islands of Honduras. Ocean &Coastal Management 36(1-3), pp.11-22.36 Blue Ventures (2006) The Andavadoaka Project: ‘Velondriake’ – To Live with the Sea. Blue VenturesConservation Report.37 Information taken from Blue Ventures websitePage title: News and PressSite title: Blue VenturesLast updated: 23 August 2007Internet address: www.blueventures.org/newspress_recent.htmDate accessed: 21 September 2007.38 Information taken from Issues Online in Science and Technology websitePage title: Creating Havens for Marine Life by T. AgardySite title: ISSUES ONLINE in Science and TechnologyLast updated: Autumn 1999Internet address: issues.org/16.1/agardy.htmDate accessed: 21 September 2007.39 Jorge, M.A. (1997) Developing capacity for coastal management in the absence of the government: a casestudy in the Dominican Republic. Ocean & Coastal Management 36 (1-3), pp.47-72.40 See Reference 34 above.41 See Reference 34 above.13

5.3.2. ZoningThe use of zoning to accommodate a range of different users is seen as an effective wayof achieving some level of conservation while also encouraging stakeholder support 42 .Levels of zoning can be used to satisfy both commercial and leisure users.The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, for example, succeeded in accommodating a diverserange of users by using zones within the area, incorporating commercial activities, such asoil exploration and sponge fishing, as well as leisure activities, such as diving andrecreational fishing 43 . Part of the success of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park was thelevel of public participation in the process of zone designation, far more than wasrequired under law 44 . However, lessons were learned from the not so successful aspectsof zone designation in the marine park. The difficulties of the task involved areacknowledged, along with the concern that the designation of zone boundaries does notalways improve public understanding, with the multitude of similar zones serving toconfuse users. Zoning, particularly in large multi-user MPAs is invariably a matter ofcompromise 45 .In Spain, MPAs are usually zoned with two or three levels of zoning, the central ‘core’zone being where all human activities are banned. Typically, these zones comprise only 7-10% of the total reserve area. An intermediate or ‘buffer’ zone borders the core zone andis where some activities are prohibited or restricted, such as spear-fishing and scubadiving. A third zone, where present, would be even less restrictive 46 . The example given ofa three-zoned Spanish MPA is Freus d’Evissa Marine Reserve, Balearic Islands, whichwas established in 1999.The use of zoning to grade different levels of protection can be seen in other MPAs inEurope and worldwide 47 .5.3.3. EducationThe role of education in building public support for an MPA should not be underestimated.The importance of education as a means for raising public awareness, changingattitudes and promoting public participation in the decision making processes hasbeen demonstrated in the context of coral reef management 48 . Resources should be madeavailable to build public understanding and awareness about the threats to themarine environment, through the dissemination of information about MPAs. Use shouldbe made of research and monitoring results obtained locally and worldwide 49 .42 See Reference 1 above.43 See Reference 38 above.44 Day, J.C. (2002) Zoning – lessons from the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. Ocean & CoastalManagement 45, pp.139-156.45 See Reference 44 above.46 See Reference 6 above.47 See Reference 6 above.48 Browning, L.J., Finlay, R.A.O. and Fox, L.R.E (2006) Education as a tool for coral reef conservation:lessons from marine protected areas. Conservation Biology Series 13, pp.419-454, Cambridge UniversityPress.49 See Reference 4 above.14

Lundquist & Granek 50 cited the benefits demonstrated by Granek & Brown 51 of aprogramme of education to teach natural history to local user groups in order toimprove their understanding of marine conservation issues. Education need not be limitedto natural science subjects, however. Educating scientists and facilitators in socioeconomicaspects of MPAs is also something that may benefit successfulimplementation 52 . Similarly, providing training in consensus-based negotiations forrepresentatives can improve the effectiveness of the planning process 53 .There is a recognised link between the “quality and features” of MPAs and the rewardsgained by visitors to the site 54 . This can be exploited to promote the amenity value offuture MPAs and help build public support for a particular project. The use of visitorcentres to increase public awareness of local marine reserves and marine conservation ingeneral is demonstrated by the Miramare Marine Nature Reserve, Trieste, Italy. As farback as 1989, visitors in that year numbered over 16,000. There was also a programme ofactivities such as guided walks, diving, classroom and laboratory events and promotionalmaterial 55 .The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park has been noted for public participation in the planningprocess; one element was the publication of brochures and booklets, etc., designed toengage the public in the planning process 56 .In the Philippines, successful reef conservation programmes in Negros Oriental andBatangas provinces are partly due to intensive education programmes. Similarly, in thecase of Tubbataha Reef National Marine Park, Palawan, education of the stakeholderswas essential for achieving a consensus for a management plan 57 .In Mexico, prior to the establishment of Puerto Morelos National Marine Park in 1998,public education played an important role in gaining public support for the MPA. Thisstarted with education programmes on coral reefs, with support from NGOs and localscientists 58 .Finally, within the role of education, visits to other successful MPAs can be effective ingaining support from local government and the community and have yielded positiveresults in the planning process 59 .5.4. Evidence of post-designation supportSometimes public support is only generated after an MPA has been established. However,recounting the evidence of the benefits gained from exploiting existing MPAs can be usedto build public support for promoting the establishment of new MPAs.50 See Reference 1 above.51 See Reference 25 above.52 See Reference 1 above.53 See Reference 4 above.54 See Reference 18 above.55 Spoto, M. and Franzosini, C. (1991) The Natural Marine Reserve of Miramare (Trieste, Italy): Tourism andEnvironmental Education. Ocean & Shoreline Management 16, pp.53-59.56 See Reference 44 above.57 See Reference 26 above.58 See Reference 34 above.59 See Reference 32 above.15

Establishing an MPA site can have the effect of enhancing the area’s value therebygenerating more public interest, as in the case of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, itsMPA designation having attracted “more public and political attention to protecting it” 60 .An example of where there is strong public support for an MPA is the Cape Rodney toOkakari Point Marine Reserve, Leigh, New Zealand. One survey showed that ten yearsafter the reserve had been established, 78% of local commercial fishers supported theestablishment of more marine reserves 61 . The NTZ has benefited local fisheries andbrought additional income from tourism and recreation. A study of the socio-economicimpacts revealed that “local residents would be worse off if the reserve did not exist” 62 .Furthermore, using MPAs for education and recreation can provide social benefits andresult in improved public support for marine conservation generally 63 .5.4.1. Benefits from ‘spillover’‘Spillover’ c is being exploited by commercial fishers by concentrating their fishing effort atthe boundaries of the MPA – a tactic known as ‘fishing the line’. The evidence of localfisheries benefiting from this tactic can be used to promote public support for MPAs “as along term insurance policy” 64 .Another example is the Southwest Isle of Man Scallop Research Closures. Here, localscallop fishers thought that the adjacent fishing grounds had improved and have sincedevoted most of their fishing effort to just outside the boundaries. There was alsoanecdotal evidence of higher catch rates 65 .At the Mombasa Marine Park, Kenya, significantly greater catch rates of exploitable fishspecies occurred close to the managed coral reef park than at greater distances 66 .By fishing the waters adjacent to marine reserves in St. Lucia, artisanal fishers increasedtheir catch yields by between 46 and 90% within five years of the reserves beingestablished 67 .The Silliman MPAs programme, set up in 1974, is estimated to have improved thelivelihoods of 150,000 people in the coastal communities of the Visayas and northernMindanao, Philippines, as a result of spillover from NTZs in the MPAs 68 .60 See Reference 38 above.61 Gubbay, S. (2000) Marine National Parks: A Briefing Paper for WWF Scotland cited in Reference 62below.62 Wills, R. (2004) Marine National Parks: What Could They Offer? A discussion paper for SNH and WWF inScotland.63 See Reference 18 above.64 Dudley, N. and Stolton, S. (2003) Ecological and Socio-economic Benefits of Protected Areas in Dealingwith Climate Change, Chapter 8 in Buying Time: A User’s Manual for Building Resistance and Resilienceto Climate Change in Natural Systems, pp.217-233. WWF Climate Change Program.65 See Reference 23 above.66 McClanahan, T.R. and Mangi, S. (2000) Spillover of Exploitable Fishes from a Marine Park and its Effecton the Adjacent Fishery. Ecological Applications 10(6), pp.1792-1805.67 Roberts, C.M., Bohnsack, J.A., Gell, F., Hawkins, J.P. and Goodridge, R. (2001) Effects of MarineReserves on Adjacent Fisheries. Science 294 (5548), pp.1920-1923, DOI:10.1126/science.294.5548.1920.68 See Reference 29 above.16

There are many more examples, from other MPAs around the world, of spilloverexploitation (as well as export across the boundary of eggs and larvae) providing benefitsto fisheries. Examples include fishing for crabs in Kyoto Prefecture, Japan and for lobstersin Bonavista Bay, Newfoundland, while research has also shown evidence of snapperspillover at Cape Rodney to Okakari Point Marine Reserve in New Zealand 69 . Although notan MPA, there is similar evidence of prawn and lobster fishing at the edge of the BritishUnderwater Test and Evaluation Centre (BUTEC) in the Inner Sound, Scotland – whichhas been closed to fishing since the 1970s.It should be conceded, however, that where over exploitation of spillover may have adetrimental effect on the marine conservation of the protected area, zoning may be applied(see section 5.3.2) to restrict the fishing activity at the boundary of the highly protectedcore zone 70,71 .5.4.2. Benefits from ‘no-trawl’ areasA site designated as a ‘no-trawl’ area may benefit local fisheries. For example, after theGulf of Castellammare in Sicily was subjected to a trawling ban in 1990, evidencesuggests that artisanal fishing – which was still permitted within the closed area –improved with increased catches and an increase in employment due to fishers returningafter the trawl-ban. Evidence suggests that the artisanal fishery is ‘economicallysustainable’. Nevertheless, there is evidence that this improvement may be offset to somedegree by the adverse impact on artisanal fisheries outside the ‘no-trawl’ area 72 .69 Egli, D.P. and Babcock, R.C. (2004) Ultrasonic tracking reveals multiple behavioural modes of snapper(Pagrus auratus) in a temperate no-take marine reserve. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 61(7), pp.1137-1143, DOI: 10.1016/j.icesjms.2004.07.004.70 Gubbay, S. (2006) Marine Protected Areas: A review of their use for delivering marine biodiversitybenefits. English Nature Research Reports, No. 688.71 See Reference 6 above.72 See Reference 23 above.17

6. ConclusionsIn reviewing some of the literature available on the establishment and management ofMPAs, in all their various forms, some common factors emerge that are associated withsuccessful implementation of designated MPAs that can be used to build or maintainpublic support. These are the involvement of stakeholders in the planning andmanagement process; the designation of zones of varying levels of protection toaccommodate different users; and education as a tool for training and informing both thegeneral public and the participants in the process.The identification and involvement of a diverse range of stakeholders from the start of theplanning process is a key part of successful establishment of an MPA. There should exist,or be built, a level of trust between stakeholders, each of whom should be recognised ashaving a legitimate reason for being represented. It is important to have clear objectivesthroughout the process but not at the expense of flexibility in the planning andmanagement functions. A willingness to compromise in negotiations helps to progress theplanning process. Negotiations should include all legitimate stakeholders and be seen tobe fair. A consensus-based approach is a useful tool for negotiation in thesecircumstances. It is important to the success of the MPA project that decisions madeduring the planning process can be backed by effective legislation.The concept of stakeholder involvement is exemplified by community-based MPAschemes, most often seen among coral reef marine reserves, where local livelihoodsdepend on marine resources. However, there is no reason why locally managed MPAsthrough community participation cannot be applied to establishing MPAs in other types ofmarine environments. As well as helping to ensure a successful outcome to MPAdesignation, this approach can also lead to better enforcement or compliance. The use oflocal knowledge and the concept of volunteer stewardship can also be used to encouragestakeholder involvement.The use of zoning has been used to satisfy a diverse range of different users, both forcommercial and leisure purposes. It is an effective means of encouraging stakeholdersupport for the establishment of an MPA, particularly when the designation of zonesinvolves public participation. The use of zones with varying levels of protection has beenused effectively in existing MPAs and serves as a compromise between the need formarine conservation in a particular marine environment and its use for human activities.Education programmes have been used to great effect in building public awareness aboutthreats to the marine environment and about the need for conservation measures indesignated areas. Education can be used to change public attitudes and encourageparticipation in the planning process. Publication of printed material, such as brochures,booklets and posters, helps to build awareness for marine conservation. It can also help tokeep people informed of the plans and progress of proposed MPAs. However, educationcan also be aimed at scientists and facilitators, particularly in the context of socioeconomicaspects of MPA designation. Training can also be given in consensus-basednegotiation, for example, to help ensure a successful outcome to the planning process.Finally, the use of visitor centres at MPA sites helps to maintain public awareness inconservation issues. Visits by representatives to successfully established MPAs can alsobe used to promote support for the designation of a new MPA.Public awareness is such a vital part of the planning process for establishing an MPA thatit is useful to determine the level of public support by conducting a feasibility study. It isalso necessary to understand the socio-economic aspects at an early stage. Informing thepublic well before the start of the proposal and keeping the public, politicians and the18

media informed during the planning stage are seen as key factors in helping to foster localsupport. The use of forums, imparting information through ‘trusted messengers’ and theuse of regular meetings (or more informal ‘community information sessions’) have all beenidentified with the process of establishing successful MPAs. Also, the usefulness of themedia in promoting a proposal should not be underestimated.Promoting the benefits of existing MPAs is also an effective way of encouraging localsupport. For example, exploiting ‘spillover’ at the boundaries of existing MPAs and the useof ‘no-trawl’ areas by small-scale fishers are seen as benefits that can be cited to buildsupport for a proposal from the fishing industry. Historical evidence showing how an areacan be enhanced following designation as an MPA can also be used to garner supportfrom the local community. In certain cases, the more tangible benefits from tourism andrecreation can also be highlighted to show the possible economic advantages ofestablishing an MPA.Evidence from successful MPA projects shows that public support can be built andmaintained by addressing the socio-economic needs alongside the primary requirementsof marine conservation, even if desirable marine environmental protection goals have to becompromised. Over time, however, as public awareness of marine conservation improves,the need for compromises may perhaps diminish.19

7. BibliographyCarter, D.W. (2003) Protected areas in marine resource management: another look at theeconomics and research issues. Ocean & Coastal Management 46, pp.439-456, DOI:10.1016/S0964-5691(03)00017-6.Casia, M. Introduction to the Establishment of a Community-Based Marine Sanctuary.CRM Document No. 24-CRM/2000.Greenpeace (2004) Rescuing the North and Baltic Seas: Marine Reserves – a key tool.ISBN: 1 903907 09 8.Jones, P.J.S. and Burgess, J. (2005) Building partnership capacity for the collaborativemanagement of marine protected areas in the UK: A preliminary analysis. Journal ofEnvironmental Management 77, pp.227-243.Marine Conservation Society (2006) Marine Protected Areas Position Statement, July2006.MPA News website – International News and Analysis on Marine Protected AreasInternet address: depts.washington.edu/mpanews.Nicholls, H.B. (1998) Canadian east coast marine-protected areas: A review. Ocean &Coastal Management 39, pp. 87-96, PII: S0964-5691(98)00016-7.Roberts, C.M. and Mason, L. (2004) Design of marine protected area networks in theNorth Sea and Irish Sea.Scottish Environment Link (2005) Coastal and Marine national Parks – Scotland’sOpportunity. Briefing, October 2005.World Database on Protected Areas websiteInternet address: www.unep-wcmc.org/wdpa.Endnotesa Also known as ‘Fisheries and Oceans Canada’ (FOC).b The reason for this is that smaller individual sites set up independently and separately can be targetedmore effectively by the opposition and, because the support is localised, there may be little resistance towell-organised opposition, which is then able to concentrate its resources on weakening the proposal.Conversely, larger scale MPA systems can be more resilient to targeted opposition because a series ofMPAs may generate more countrywide support. Also, the opposition groups would have to defeat a wholerange of proposals simultaneously.c A term that refers to the export of stock from the ‘no-take’ zone (NTZ) or ‘no-trawl’ area to the unprotectedarea.20

Appendix 10.4KIMO INTERNATIONALDATA TRAWL PROJECTAQUACULTURE SPECIESDIVERSIFICATIONWhat is the next species with potential forShetland?For the North Atlantic Fisheries CollegeMarine Centre.By Mr. Daniel Gear- 1 -

AQUACULTURE SPECIESDIVERSIFICATIONWhat is the next species with potential forShetland?Compiled and writtenby Mr. Daniel Gear.Disclaimer:To the best of our knowledge the information in this report wasaccurate at the time of writing. As this information was obtained fromonline sources KIMO cannot be held responsible for any omissions orinaccuracies in the data.- 2 -

TABLE OF CONTENTSPage1. Executive Summary 42. Brief 53. Methodology 64. Results 85. Analysis and Discussion 226. Conclusions 247. Recommendations 258. Appendix 269. Bibliography 27- 3 -

EXECUTIVE SUMMARYAquaculture in Shetland is a major part of the islands economy and at presentfocuses on the mono-culture of high value, top of the food chain/predatoryorganisms, with salmon (by far the most produced species in Shetland) being aprime example of this.Many other species are currently viable alternatives but alternative practices arealso available which can increase the productivity and number of speciescultured, and decrease the environmental impacts of aquaculture.Organisms low in the food chain (such as seaweed species, echinoderms andmolluscs) are recommended as marine species which can be part of polyculturesystems or integrated aquaculture systems, which (apart from the input of fin-fishfeed) are self-sufficient in food energy requirements and could have zero impactor even a positive effect on wild local ecosystems.- 4 -

BRIEFAquaculture in Shetland has been tremendously successful over the past threedecades, particularly with the culture of the Atlantic salmon which has generatedmillions for the local economy and has established markets world-wide with areputation for high quality. Since the salmon farming boom of the early 1980’s,Shetlands aquaculture industry has diversified gradually and now species suchas cod, common mussels, halibut, sea trout and oysters are culturedcommercially.Now, as in the recent past, the search is on for another species to growcommercially in the near ideal conditions for cold water aquaculture found aroundthe Shetland islands. This report will discuss the suitability of potential candidatespecies for production and outline the status the aquaculture industry in Shetlandand other countries with established aquaculture industries.Recommendations shall then be made as to which species are most suitable tobe commercially produced at this time.- 5 -

METHODOLOGYThe report shall be researched solely by trawling the internet for information fromappropriate web sites as is required for this particular project (Data Trawl).The results section of the report shall contain all factual information on the topicsincluded in this report. This will consist of; information and demographics ofaquaculture in Shetland, Scotland and other leading aquaculture countries andwill include detailed accounts of species diversification, both successes andfailures.Detail shall be restricted to new or unusual (to Shetland) concepts in aquaculture,which are likely to be covered in the analysis and discussion section.The Results section shall then be analysed and discussed in Section 5 in order toexpand on the most relevant information gathered and explain its relevance topotential aquacultural development in Shetland.While recent figures and statistics are difficult to obtain for free online, everyeffort will be made to ensure the most up to date information is used. Althoughthis information is quite often several years out of date, the year of publication willbe stated where applicable.Following the Analysis and Discussion section, conclusions shall be clearlystated and based upon these, recommendations will be made as to whichspecies could be considered for aquaculture development. Further research/action that would aid or speed the process of progression into large-scaleaquaculture production shall also be included.- 6 -

References are listed in order of appearance and a full web address is includedso that each web reference can be viewed by the reader.- 7 -

RESULTSChinese Aquaculture8.51%21.92%69.57%ChinaAsia (excluding Chinaand the Pacific)Rest of WorldFigure 1: Percentage share of world aquaculture 2004 production tonnageby country/countries (59.4 million tonnes ) (Data taken from URL1:Aquaculture development in China).19.50%China29.30%51.20%Asia (excluding Chinaand the Pacific)Rest of WorldFigure 2: Percentage share of world value of aquaculture production value(Total: US$70.3 billion) 2004 by country/countries(Data taken from URL1:Aquaculture development in China).- 8 -

Contrary to most countries, China relies much more on domestic aquacultureproduction for food fish supply (direct human consumption) than capturefisheries. In 2004 31million tonnes of fish was taken from aquaculture, comparedwith 6 million tones from capture fisheries. This is in stark contrast to the rest ofthe world, which is usually by far more reliant on capture fisheries for food fishsupply (URL2: Trends in global aquaculture).The main cultured species are of the Crypnidae family, mostly species of Carp(URL1: fao.org), although there are around 200 commercially cultured species inChina (URL1: Aquaculture development in China). Most fish in this country arefreshwater species, which are cultured in ponds and are mainly produced in thegreat river basins in the South of the country where high year-round production ispossible due to consistently high temperatures. The table below shows the mostcommonly cultured pond species in China (URL1: Aquaculture development inChina). The success of Chinas aquaculture owes much to the fact that almostevery suitable water body is utilised for aquaculture production, including ponds,canals, rivers, lakes and coastal areas. Production success has been improvedby careful broodstock management and artificial propagation by theadministration of hormones. (URL1: Aquaculture development in China)Aquaculture in China goes hand in hand with other industries, especiallyagriculture, the by-products of which are used as feed and fertilizer for fishponds. Manure from pigs, poultry and even human sewage are used to increasethe growth of aquatic plants in fish enclosures, which the fish feed on as part oftheir diet. “Fertilised water” from industrial food production (containing theresidues of various food products) are also used for the purpose pf fertilisation.(URL1: Aquaculture development in China)- 9 -

Table 1.1: Top 25 pond cultured species in China (data from URL1:Auaculture development in China).1 Silver carp Hypophthalmichthys molitrix2 Big head carp Aristichthys nobilis3 Grass carp Ctenopharyngodon idella4 Black carp Mylopharyngodon piceus5 Mud carp Cirrhina molitorella6 Common carp Cyprinus carpio7 Crucian carp Carassius auratus8 Wuchan fish Megalobrama amblycephala9 Black bream Megalobrama terminalis10 White Amur bream Parabrama pekinensis11 Freshwater Yellowtail Xenocypris argentea12 Small scale Plagiognathops microlepis13 Tilapia Tilapia mossambica14 Tilapia Tilapia nilotica15 Mandarin fish * Siniperca chautsi16 Spotted Mandarin fish * Siniperca scherzeri17 Snakehead * Ophiocephalus argus18 Grey mullet * Mugil cephalus19 Red-eyed mullet * Mugil soiny20 Chinese sturgeon Acipenser sinensis21 Japanese eel Anguilla japonica22 Loach Misgurnus anguillicandatus23 Rainbow trout Salmo gairdneri24 Round snout Distoechodon tumirostris25 Red eye Squalibarbus curriculus(* denotes that these species are cultured on a relatively small scale.)Photograph 1.1: Example of a Chinese earth-banked fish farming pond(from URL3: Hui-Rong et. al.)- 10 -

Marine Culture in ChinaAquaculture in the marine environment is also very important in China. Shrimpfarming (which is now hugely successful in tropical regions worldwide) originatedand developed in China from 1959 onwards (URL4: china-fishery.net).Two types of marine macro algae are commonly produced in China. These areKelp and Phorphyra. Kelp production accounts for around half of China’s marineaquaculture production tonnage (URL4: china-fishery.net).The most important shellfish species are oysters, mussels, clams and pearloysters. There are around 20 marine fish species also cultured commercially.(URL4: china-fishery.net).Table 1.2: World aquaculture production, top 10 species. (Data from URL5: Ranaand Immink)Common name Species name Production (tonnes x 10 6 )Kelp Laminaria japonica 4.17Pacific cupped oyster Crassostrea gigas 2.92Silver carp Hypophthalmichthys molitrix 2.88Grass carp Ctenopharyngodon idellus 2.44Common carp Cyprinus carpio 1.99Unclassified freshwater fishes Osteichthyes 1.59Algae Aquatic plants nei 1.42Bighead carp Hypophthalmichthys nobilis 1.41Yesso scallop Pecten yessoensis 1.27Mollusca Marine molluscs nei 1.2It can be seen in table 1.2 that the top ten species in aquaculture (world wide,tonnage) are all at the lower end of the food chain, being either a plant, filterfeederor herbivorous/omnivorous fin fish (URL5: Rana and Immink).- 11 -

KELP CULTUREKelp (Laminaria spp.) has the highest worldwide aquaculture production weight.In China it accounts for more than half the mariculture output of the country. Kelpis cultured by firstly obtaining reproductive fronds in order to collect zoospores.The frons are partially dried and then placed in a container with seawater andplanting ropes. The drying then submerging technique causes the plant torelease the zoospores into the water, which subsequently attach themselves tothe planting ropes. (URL6: C. K. Tseng)The zoospore covered ropes are then attached to a floating raft structure, so theyare at a few metres depth and safe from wave-action damage, desiccation orintense sunlight. Depth is a very important factor in governing how quickly thekelp grows and how likely it will succumb to disease. (URL6: C. K. Tseng)After a period of growth and establishment, the young kelp plants must bethinned. This is done by removing them from the planting ropes and twistingthem into larger on-growing ropes so that they can develop and grow withoutcompetition. (URL6: C. K. Tseng)- 12 -

Uses of Kelp and other seaweedBrown seaweeds such as Kelp (Laminaria spp.), are very rich in mineralmacronutrients such as sodium, calcium, magnesium, potassium, chlorine,sulphur and phosphorus. They also contain the micronutrients iodine, iron, zinc,copper, selenium, molybdenum, fluoride, manganese, boron, nickel and cobalt.(URL7: S. Dharmananda)Seaweed’s most notable and sought component is its high iodine concentration.The daily requirement of iodine for an adult human is around 150 µg/day, whilejust 1 gram of dried brown seaweed contains 500-8,000 µg of iodine. Seaweedsupplement tablets are mainly taken for their high iodine content, since iodine isvital for the proper function of the thyroid gland (thyroid hormones containiodine). (URL7: S. Dharmananda)Seaweed contains several vitamins. Red and brown algae are rich in carotenes(provitamin A) and are used, in fact, as a source of natural mixed carotenes fordietary supplements. The content ranges from 20-170 ppm. The vitamin C in redand brown algae is also notable, with contents ranging from 500-3000 ppm.Other vitamins are also present, including B 12 , which is not found in most landplants. (URL7: S. Dharmananda)Seaweeds are used in many types of food in South-East Asia and are said tohave many medicinal properties, as they are used extensively in Chinesemedicine. (URL7: S. Dharmananda)- 13 -

Shetland AquacultureShetlands most important cultured marine species is the Atlantic salmon, theproduction value of which was worth £89.5 million in 2003 (URL8: Shetland instatistics). Other species were not even mentioned in Shetland Islands Council’slatest online statistical report.Cod, sea trout, mussels and Halibut are now all farmed commercially in Shetland(URL9: SSFA/ Shetland Aquaculture) although figures/statistics could not befound online.- 14 -

CANADIAN AQUACULTURECultured Species.SalmonTroutOther finfishClamsOystersMusselsScallopsOther shellfish0 20000 40000 60000 80000 100000 120000Production in 2005 (Tonnes).Figure 1.1: Canadian aquaculture production (tonnes) in 2005, showingmajor farmed species and their harvested tonnage from a total weight of154083 tonnes (data taken from URL 10: James and Slaski, 2006).Cultured Species.SalmonTroutOther finfishClamsOystersMusselsScallopsOther shellfish21,07074,9378,37816,09533,1681,0798,220543,6340 200,000 400,000 600,000Value (x10 3 ) in 2005 (Canadian Dollars)Figure 1.2: Value of Canadian aquaculture production (in Canadian dollars)for each commercially cultured species in 2005 (data taken from URL 10:James and Slaski, 2006).- 15 -

NORWEIGAN AQUACULTURENorway’s aquaculture industry is similar to Shetland’s, in that the most commonlyproduced species is the Atlantic Salmon. Indeed, in 2004 Atlantic salmonaccounted for 32.2% of all fish exported from Norway (URL11: H. Aslesen)Cod farming is a major up and coming industry in Norway. In 2001 theNorwegian government initiated a breeding program to establish cod farmsacross the country. Commencing production in 2002, the breeding program aimsto domesticate the wild species, promoting genetic traits which benefit culturerequirements (URL12: Norwegian cod breeding program).Norway is also currently the forerunner in research into the commercial culture ofthe European lobster (Homarus gammarus). New laws (relating to the sea bed)passed through the Norwegian parliament have given the incentive for lobsterranching to take place. This law gives exclusive harvesting rights (for decapods,mollusks and sea-urchins) for companies/individuals with the necessary licence(URL13: UW photo).A lobster farming complex was set up on the island of Kvitsøy (near Stavanger)in 2000 in order to carry out research and development. The company (AS) iscurrently producing “plate-sized” lobsters as well as smaller sizes (6cm and 12cm juveniles for restocking/ongrowing elsewhere) with a capacity for 8000 ofeach size bracket per year (i.e. 24,000 annually) (URL13: UW photo).- 16 -

POTENTIAL NEW SPECIES FOR CULTURE IN SHETLANDEuropean lobster (Homarus gammarus)The culture of lobsters is not a new concept and much research has been carriedout to improve its success and feasibility. The complete lifecycle production waswell understood and achievable in the 1970s, although the main problem, whichcontinues to this day, is with economic feasibility due to high production costs(URL14: Richards and Wikens).Recent studies have been carried out in Norway in order to improve upon allaspects of land-based lobster culture, including research and development workon biology, technology, feed, market, monitoring of water quality, healthmanagement and comparative studies on single cages vs. communal rearingsystems (URL13: UW photo)Most of the old problems of lobster culture have now been overcome; dry feed indifferent sizes is being developed in Norway, labour and space-savingtechnologies are now available and pigmentation problems related to diets arecurrently under investigation with possible solutions being tested. The biggesteconomic obstactle facing would-be lobster farmers is the high cost of starting upand the long wait for monetary return. At present it is possible to produce a platesizedlobster from a hatchling larvae in 24-30 months, although this requiresheated water which has been thoroughly treated to remove pathogens andorganic material (URL13: UW photo).Recent development on juvenile on-growing (from stage IV onwards) has shownthat the cost of the “middle stages” of culture (first benthic stage to over stage X)can be greatly reduced. This is achieved by putting the juveniles in small cagesattached to mussel rafts or other floating structures, and allowing them to simply- 17 -

feed off naturally occurring plankton and fouling organisms, without providing anyartificial/supplementary feed. This practice has the obvious benefits of reducedlabour, heating costs, feeding, and water treatment expenses (URL15:Development of juvenile lobster production methodologies.).Brood-stock for culture purposes was until recently a major problem, sincebreeding in captivity was so poor and wild “berried” females were the onlypractical sources of juveniles. This was obviously not viable for large-scalecommercial production since the support of local fishermen is almost vital toobtain enough females, and their supply would be extremely unreliable since thefishermen would realize that such activity reduces the wild recruitment potential(unless also used for restocking purposes). Artificial insemination is currentlybeing developed by means of electrical current-induced ejaculation and artificialfertilization of hard-shelled females (URL16: Aiken et. al.).Spotted wolfish (Anarhichas minor)Research published in as far back as 1999 has shown that wolffish are promisingcandidates for aquaculture, in sea climates similar to Shetland. (URL17: Falk-Peterson et. al.). This research found that the product was of high quality andpotential value, growth rates were relatively fast (2-3 years to market size).Shetland’s sea temperature is usually on the high side (7 to 13°C [URL18:Shetland Tourism]) for larval culture which is most successful at 6°C (URL17:Falk-Peterson et. al.), therefore temperature-controlled broodstock and larvaefacilities would be necessary for hatchery purposes.Wolfish can grow equally well in cages on the sea bed as surface-cages, sincethey are bottom dwelling fish (URL19: Mortensen et. al.) therefore relativelyexposed sites can be utilised and therefore competition with other culturedspecies for sites should be minimal. Wolfish are also strong osmoregulators and- 18 -

so can withstand fluctuations in salinity (e.g. in a voe with a lot of fresh waterinput) (URL20: Le François et. al.).Hake (Merluccius merluccius)Hake have received some interest from academic studies (with a view to developthe species for aquaculture), since it has a high market value. Recent attempts toobtain broodstock have failed utterly, since hake (a very delicate, deep-waterfish) cannot abide the quick changes in pressure after being caught, nor therough treatment received in some capture techniques. After several trials ofmany different capture methods, no hake survived long after capture (less than12 hours at best) (URL21: James Treasurer).- 19 -

EchinodermsThe green sea urchin (Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis) is by far the mosteconomically valuable sea urchin species which is native to Shetland. Green seaurchins are highly sought after (particularly in Japan) for the gonads of bothmales and females, which is commonly known as “roe” (URL22: Kelly)Paracentrotus lividus is another species of native sea urchin which has a largeamount of edible flesh (URL23: Picton & Morrow)The breeding and larval culture of sea urchins is well understood and relativelystraight forward (URL24: Sea Urchin Embryology Lab). The abundant offspringcan then be grown in on-shore tanks or ranched/used for re-stocking in localwaters. As the name suggests, sea urchins are scavengers and will utilise manydifferent sources of food. As yet, no commercially produced feed exists for seaurchins but there is currently research being carried out in Oban, Scotland, to trialsea urchins on feed from integrated aquaculture. This involves the growth of highprotein seaweed species around fish farms (such as salmon farms where highconcentrations of organic nutrients are present in the water column) (URL25:SAMS).Industrial development is still impeded by the lack of full scale growouttechnology. Existing growout systems for sea urchins are operating on anexperimental scale, and do not meet production scale requirements of economy,capacity, or ease of operation (URL 26: N.T. Hagen).Another type of Ecninoderm worth mentioning is the sea cucumber. Methods formass cultivation of tropical species (such as Holothuria scabra) are now wellestablished and practiced in India, Australia, Indonesia, the Maldives and theSolomon Islands. The focus of the research effort for both temperate and tropical- 20 -

species is currently on the production of juveniles in hatcheries for the restorationand enhancement of wild stocks. Like many other marine organisms,echinoderms have been, and continue to be, examined as a source ofbiologically active compounds with biomedical applications. Sea cucumber hasbeen valued in Chinese medicine for hundreds of years as a cure for a widevariety of ailments. Sea cucumbers have recently been the focus of marinebiotechnology studies, after compounds with anti-tumour, antiviral, anticoagulantand anti-microbial activity were isolated from these organisms (URL22: Kelly).The main consumers of sea cucumbers are countries in South-East Asia, suchas China and Japan. Their appetite for this particular echinoderm has led to aworld-wide fishery (at least in tropical and warm-temperate latitudes) which hasseriously depleted some areas of natural sea cucumber populations (e.g. theGalapagos islands). The main product of sea cucumbers is the boiled and dried“belly” of the organism. Therefore fresh delivery is unimportant and cultivationneed not necessarily be close to the main markets (URL27: Sea-Cucumber:Food and Medicine.)- 21 -

ANALYSIS and DISCUSSIONIt can be seen from the results section that there are several species with goodpotential for culture in Shetland right now, and some with potential for culture inthe future if research and development with the species is successful.There is now however, a growing awareness that production must be customerdriven and that even good products, produced economically, can still failbusinesses if good marketing practices are not followed. The recent (initial)success of organic cod culture in Shetland is one example of a company whichplaces high importance on the consumer and on marketing, and owes much of itssuccess to this (URL28: Aquaculture Today).Most of the species mentioned specifically in the results (with the exception ofHake) could be developed as serious aquaculture candidates, but would-beproducers must be very aware of markets, publicity and sustainability.Integrated aquaculture could be viewed as a very trendy new idea which hascome about to appease public perception of aquaculture. It is clear however thatsuch practices have many benefits, including; maximum utilisation of space,complimentary culture, reduced environmental impact/zero impact and largepublic support (which in turn supports marketing strategies).If integrated aquaculture is a success and near-zero impacts are achieved, itwould greatly increase the production potential of Shetland’s aquaculturefacilities, without the requirement of many new inshore sites. The past’s problemsof enriched inshore waters caused by fin-fish farms could be turned into today’sassets, the organic enrichment increasing productivity of other types of culturedorganisms, such as kelp (and other seaweeds), juvenile lobsters, mussels andechinoderms – to name but a few. A small fish farm, producing perhaps 500- 22 -

tonnes of salmon a year, discharges about the same amount of nutrients as atown of 5,000 to 7,500 people.(URL29: environment.template). This gives someindication as to the potential enrichment possible for polyculture use and theharmful discharge which is currently unused.Lessons can also be learned from China, where aquaculture is not set apart fromother industries but is integrated to utilise waste products food production onland.- 23 -

CONCLUSIONS▪ There are several good candidates for commercial aquaculture which arecurrently not being exploited.▪ New farming practices (such as integrated aquaculture) can help establish newspecies in an economical and environmentally sustainable way.▪ Customer awareness and good marketing are integral to the success of anynew aquaculture enterprise- 24 -

RECOMMENDATIONSAn institute such as the NAFC Marine Centre could have a major role inimplementing new practices and species into Shetland aquaculture.For example, if trials of new species and practices could be operatedsuccessfully on a small scale (encompassing all parts of a fully functioningenterprise), corporations/investors/entrepreneurs could then be shown profitablenew aquaculture businesses which are proven to work.The author strongly recommends that integrated aquaculture andenvironmentally sustainable methods are at the heart of new aquacultureprojects.- 25 -

APPENDIXCanada 15-16China 8-13Ecinoderms 20-21European lobster 17-18Hake 19Kelp 12-13Norway 16Shetland 13Wolffish 18- 26 -

BIBLIOGRAPHYURL1: Aquaculture Development in Chinawww.fao.org/docrep/X5686E/x5686e03.htm14/10/07URL2: Trends in Global Aquaculture Production:1984-1996www.fao.org/DOCREP/FIELD/006/AD742E/AD742E00.HTM18/10/06URL3: PHOTO Li Hui-Rong, YuYong, Ji Wei-Shang, Xu Huai-Shu The Effect ofALKEN CLEAR-FLO 1200 Used in Grow-out Ponds of Penaeus japonicuswww.alken-murray.com/China99-6.htm14/10/07URL4: Marine Aquaculture in China.www.chinafishery.net/english/aquaculture/marineaquaculture.htm16/10/07URL5: Rana and Immink. Trends in Global Aquaculture Production:1984-1996www.fao.org/fi/trends/aqtrends/aqtrend.asp11/10/07URL6: K. Tseng: Laminaria Culture in Chinawww.fao.org/docrep/X5819E/x5819e09.htm19/10/07URL7: S. Dharmananda THE NUTRITIONAL AND MEDICINAL VALUE OFSEAWEEDS USED IN CHINESE MEDICINEwww.itmonline.org/arts/seaweed.htm20/10/07URL8: Shetland in Statistics 2005www.shetland.gov.uk/council/documents/sins2005.pdf12/10/2007URL9: Shetland Aquaculturewww.shetlandaquaculture.com/production-figures12/10/2007- 27 -

URL10: James and Slaski (2006) Appraisal of the opportunity for offshoreaquaculture in UK waters. Report of project :FC0934, commissioned by Defraand Seafish from FRM Ltd., 119 pp.www.defra.gov.uk/28/09/2007URL11: H. Aslesen. Knowledge intensive service activities and innovation in theNorwegian aquaculture industry Part project report from the OECD KISA studywww.step.no/reports/Y2004/0504.pdf23/10/07URL12: Norwegian cod breeding program,www.fiskeldi.is/codfarm/pdf/1mortensen.pdf21/10/07URL13: UW Photowww.articles.uwphoto.no/articles_folder/lobster_farming_in_Norway.htm27/10/07URL14: Richards and Wikens. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheriesand Food. Directorate of Fisheries Research Lobster CultureResearch. Laboratory leaflet number 49. Lowestoft, 1979.www.cefas.co.uk/publications/lableaflets/lableaflet47.pdf26/10/07URL15: Development of juvenile lobster production methodologies.www.aquareg.com/AquaReg/AquaWeb.nsf/ShowNews?OpenForm&ID=0792DBDCBA87DA89C1257258002A67D6&L=E28/10/07URL16: Aiken, Waddy, Moreland and Polar.Electrically Induced Ejaculation and Artificial Insemination of the AmericanLobster Homarus americanusJournal of Crustacean Biology, Vol. 4, No. 4 (Nov., 1984), pp. 519-527www.links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0278-0372(198411)4%3A4%3C519%3AEIEAAI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-T27/10/07URL17: Falk-Peterson, Hansen, Fieler, Sunde.Cultivation of the spotted wolffish (Anarhichas minor) – a new candidate for coldwaterfish farming.Aquaculture Research, Volume 30, Number 9, September 1999, pp. 711-718(8)www.ingentaconnect.com/content/bsc/ares/1999/00000030/00000009/art0001028/10/07- 28 -

URL18: Visit Shetlandwww.visitshetland.com/about-shetland/climate/27/10/07URL19: Mortensen, Toften and AasNorwegian Institute of Fisheries and Aquaculture Research, Norway.Cage culture of spotted wolffish (Anarhichas minor Olafsen)www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T4D-4MRN9P4-1&_user=10&_coverDate=04%2F06%2F2007&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=b3a6b5b0a50a98a75beda43572447fc128/10/07URL20: N. R. Le François, S. G. Lamarre, and P. U. Blier. Tolerance, growth andhaloplasticity of the Atlantic wolffish (Anarhichas lupus) exposed to varioussalinitiesAquacultureVolume 236, Issues 1-4, 14 June 2004, Pages 659-675www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T4D-4C4W26V-3&_user=10&_coverDate=06%2F14%2F2004&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=97884ece90d3310600006c26f647aefa28/10/07URL21: James Treasurer. SEAFISH Hake Report.www.seafish.org/upload/file/fisheries_management/Technology%20and%20Innovation%20Primer%20Project%20FRF%20hake.doc29/10/07URL22: Kelly, M.S. Echinoderms: their culture and bioactive compounds.www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=1715269728/10/07URL23: Picton, B.E. & Morrow, C.C., 2005. [In] Encyclopedia of Marine Life ofBritain and Irelandwww.seaslug.org.uk/marinelife/species.asp?item=ZB355028/10/07URL24: Sea Urchin Embryology Labwww.raven.zoology.washington.edu/celldynamics/downloads/urchinlab.html28/10/07- 29 -

URL25: SAMS Research Project: Integrated Aquaculture - AAAGwww.sams.ac.uk/research/departments/ecology/ecology-projects/integratedaquaculture/researchproject.2007-04-19.304454494629/10/07URL26:N.T.Hagen. Sea Urchin Growout Systems: a Review of the Options.www.mi.mun.ca/mi/aac/ac2001/SeaUrchin.htm#Sea%20Urchin%20Growout28/10/07URL27: Sea-Cucumber: Food and Medicine.www.itmonline.org/arts/seacucumber.htm29/10/07URL28: Aquaculture Today, Consumers must come first.www.aquaculturetoday.co.uk/news/fullstory.php/aid/205/Consumers_must_come_first.html27/10/07URL29:www.environment.no/templates/themepage____2688.aspx)24/10/0Additional LinksCANADIAN AQUACULTURE R&D REVIEWwww.aquacultureassociation.ca/RandD/R&D-2007.pdf02/10/2007Aquaculture Statistics Report, Canada 2005http://dsp-psd.pwgsc.gc.ca/Collection/Statcan/23-222-XIE/23-222-XIE2005000.pdf11/10/2007Harry L. Cook Problems in Shrimp Culture in the South China Sea Regionwww.fao.org/docrep/field/003/AC005E/AC005E01.htm17/10/07A.R.O. Chapman: The wild harvest and culture of Laminarialongicruris in Eastern Canadawww.fao.org/docrep/X5819E/x5819e08.htm19/10/07- 30 -

Federation of Greek Aquacultureswww.imbc.gr/fgm/en/profile/index.html26/10/07(Polyculture) www.fishonline.org/farmed/seaweed.php21/10/07State of the Environment Norwaywww.environment.no/templates/themepage____2688.aspx26/10/07www.en.fiskforsk.norut.no/fiskeriforskning/forskning/havbruksforskning/avl26/10/07Norwegian lobster farm.www.norwegian-lobster-farm.com/about.htm27/10/07Gulf of Maine Times vol. 5, no. 1Efforts underway to revitalize sea urchin industrywww.gulfofmaine.org/times/spring2001/urchins.html28/10/07- 31 -

Paul Featherstone Page 1 18/02/2008Appendix 10.5Comparison of Grazed and Ungrazed SaltmarshBy Paul FeatherstoneBrief submitted by the Environment AgencyNovember 2007

Paul Featherstone Page 2 18/02/2008Comparison of Grazed and Ungrazed SaltmarshByPaul FeatherstoneDisclaimer:To the best of our knowledge the information in this report was accurate at the time ofwriting. As this information was obtained from online sources KIMO cannot be heldresponsible for any omissions or inaccuracies in the data.

Paul Featherstone Page 3 18/02/2008Table of Contents1.Executive Summary 42. Brief 73. Methodology 84. Results 104.1 Background 104.2 Saltmarsh development 104.2.1 Pioneer 114.2.2 Low marsh 114.23 Middle marsh 124.2.4 High marsh 124.3 Grazing 134.3.1 General grazing 134.3.2 Natural grazing 144.3.3 Domestic grazing 144.4 Grazing pressure 154.4.1 Heavy 154.4.2 Moderate 184.4.3 Light 194.4.4 Abandoned 205. Analysis and Discussion 226. Conclusions 257. Recommendations 268. Appendix 27

Paul Featherstone Page 4 18/02/20081.Executive SummarySaltmarshes are highly productive habitats situated between the extremes of the tides.They are traditionally divided into four zones (pioneer, low, middle and upper) whichhave, in a mature saltmarsh, established their own distinctive range and type of faunaand flora. Saltmarshes have an important biological and agricultural value for bothnatural and domestic grazing respectively.The type of grazing regime occurring on saltmarshes has a profound effect upon thespecies and structural diversity of a saltmarsh and as a consequently it’s health.Natural grazing by herbivores is considered to be limited in its impact. However, thedegree of grazing by domestic animals can have a severe effect. In general domesticgrazing will reduce the height of the vegetation, decrease the species diversity andgrazing sensitive species can disappear. Cattle tend to produce more structural diversevegetation than sheep.Within the literature surveyed there was a paucity of information on the actual ‘likely’numbers of species to be found on grazed as opposed to ungrazed saltmarsh. Insteadthe literature often referred to relative taxa diversity and species type present (orabsent) in the assessment of differences between grazed and ungrazed saltmarshHeavy grazing can lead to the dominance of tillered coarser grasses and a very closelycropped sward, which will favour overwintering and passage wildfowl and waders.Over-grazing can lead to saltmarsh instability, severely affect bird breeding and

Paul Featherstone Page 5 18/02/2008nesting and a very low overall bio-diversity. This would indicate a deterioratingsaltmarsh in declining health. However, even in heavily grazed saltmarsh the speciesnumbers can be artificially high. So using likely species numbers as an index for thehealth of a saltmarsh can be problematicalModerate grazing can lead to a ‘tussocky’ vegetation structure with patches of tightlygrazed sward intermingled with more structural diverse areas. This will favourbreeding waders and nesting birds in the middle and upper marsh.Lightly grazed or natural grazed saltmarsh has good structural and species diversityand is nearest to the bio-diversity of a ‘natural’ saltmarsh in supporting a wide varietyif wildlife. Due to its biological richness, this type of saltmarsh would be regarded ingood health. Certain workers found that species richness increased with elevation onthe saltmarsh and was 1.5 - 2 times higher in the grazed saltmarsh as opposed to anungrazed one.However, cessation of grazing on a saltmarsh can lead to a loss of species andstructural diversity. Generally the vegetation will be one dominated by rank grasseswhich will out-compete and prevent traditional saltmarsh vegetation from becomingestablished. This would be an indication of a saltmarsh in declining health.In general, inappropriate grazing levels, either overgrazing of traditionally ungrazedsaltmarsh or undergrazing of traditionally grazed saltmarsh, can lead to a lowering ofspecies diversity and eventually threaten the stability of a saltmarsh.

Paul Featherstone Page 6 18/02/2008Using the likely numbers of species or taxa diversity on its own as an index of thehealth of a saltmarsh may be problematical. Consideration of other factors may haveto be taken into account.

Paul Featherstone Page 7 18/02/20082 BriefAt present there is not a simple comparison between the likely number of species tobe found on a grazed as compared to an ungrazed saltmarsh. This report has beencommissioned as an attempt to provide figures for taxa diversity expected underdifferent grazed and ungrazed saltmarsh. As well as identifying literature sources usedsome recommendation have been asked to be made as to the robustness of the figurespresented as an indication of the health of a saltmarsh.

Paul Featherstone Page 8 18/02/20083 MethodologyThe internet was trawled for literature pertaining to species differences betweengrazed and ungrazed saltmarsh. Suitable literature relevant to the present report wasselected and assessed on its credibility for inclusion.The brief did not specify whether comparisons should be made in terms of plant oranimal species diversity. In the report I have assumed that plant species diversitywould be the more relevant or at least the most direct factor in assessing the health ofa salt marsh. This is because plants will be directly affected by grazing and plantsbeing sedentary, their diversity and numbers would not represent a short-term trend,as might be the case with locomotive animals. However, the presence of animals interms of numbers and type of species present is reflected by grazing and so indirectlycan also indicate the health of a salt marsh. Hence, animal diversity and species typewill be mentioned where deemed necessary.The actual definition of the state of health of a saltmarsh was not specified. In thereport it will be assumed that the level of species diversity determines the health of asaltmarsh. A healthy marsh is assumed to have a high biodiversity. However, this hasto be qualified, as species present is a reflection of the natural habitat. For example,polar regions having a low overall biodiversity can still be considered in a healthystate.In the title, the brief mentions grazing as a blanket term with no mention of grazingpressure. However, this is qualified in the text as indeed saltmarshes are subject to a

Paul Featherstone Page 9 18/02/2008variety of grazing regimes and each of these will have a marked effect on speciesdiversity and hence health of a saltmarsh. Even an abandoned but previously grazedsaltmarsh will have a different species composition to a traditionally ungrazed one.The report will look at the effect of different grazing regimes overall as a comparisonto the traditional ungrazed condition.Finally, the report did not specify the location of the saltmarshes under investigation. Itherefore assumed to trawl for data on British saltmarshes but unfortunately findingactual physical ‘likely’ numbers, as opposed to type and relative values, of speciespresent was difficult. So I had to widen my search to a more global extent. Even thenthe only information source found was from the Wadden Sea area where differencesin the frequency distribution of species between grazed and ungrazed saltmarsh wereused.

Paul Featherstone Page 10 18/02/20084 Results4.1. BackgroundSaltmarsh constitutes a highly productive habitat 1 and is found between Mean Highwater Spring Tides (MHWS) and Mean Low water Neap Tides (MLWN) and sorepresent a transitional zone between inter-tidal mudflats and terrestrial habitats. Theirdevelopment requires a degree of shelter from wave action, which facilitates a netaccumulation of sediment, which is consequently stabilised by vegetation 2 with amature saltmarsh taking between 40 and 80 years to develop 3 . Currently there areabout 45,000 hectares of saltmarsh habitat in the UK of which 95% is located withinestuaries 1 .4.2. Saltmarsh DevelopmentEarly saltmarsh vegetation is composed of a few widely distributed halophyticpioneering species, which act to trap and stabilise the sediment, by their rudimentaryroot structure. In response to this, the surface of the saltmarsh becomes progressivelyraised and a succession of an increasingly structurally and species diverse closedcommunity of plants and animals develops as the vegetation becomes covered withfewer and fewer tides. On a mature saltmarsh four main zones have been identifiedwhich are classified based on tidal regime and the plant distribution. Even thoughthere might be variation and overlap in species composition the four main zones are1Annex G Species Action Plan at www.ukbap.org.uk/library/tranche12Boorman,L.A. 1995. Sea level rise and the future of the British coast. Coastal Zone Topics:Process, Ecology and Management,1,10-133Saltmarsh Review. An overview of coastal saltmarshes, their dynamic and sensitivitycharacteristics for conservation and management. Boorman, L. A. 2003. JNCC report No. 334

Paul Featherstone Page 11 18/02/2008pioneer, low, middle and high 1 . A list of the typical species found in each zone andtheir common names are shown in appendices 1 and 2 respectively.4.2.1 PioneerThe pioneer zone is covered by all tides except the lowest neap tides. Plant speciesare sparse and scattered with considerable bare ground between representing an‘open’ structurally simple community. Relatively large clumps of single species arepresent. Species generally consist of the annual colonisers such as glassworts(Salicornia spp), perennials such as the cord grasses (Spartina spp) and Sea Aster(Aster tripolium). A thin film of microalgae (diatoms) or a mat of filamentous algaeoften covers the surface4.2.2 Low marshThis zone covered by most tides and have a generally closed or nearly closedcommunity structure i.e. ground cover is nearly complete. A more stable and diversecommunity develops with the arrival of some less flood tolerant species perennialspecies such as the stoloniferous Sea Grass, Puccinellia mariitma and the woodyshrub Sea Purslane (Atriplex portulacoides) as well as a few pioneer species likeAstor tripoloium. In general the presence of these three species represents the peakdevelopment of the lower marsh. In contrast to the pioneer marsh a two-dimensionalmosaic comprising groups of individuals of the various species begins to develop.1Saltmarsh Review. An overview of coastal saltmarshes, their dynamic and sensitivitycharacteristics for conservation and management. Boorman, L. A. 2003. JNCC report No. 334

Paul Featherstone Page 12 18/02/20084.2.3 Middle marshMiddle marsh is only covered by spring tides. Dominated by species such as Sealavender( Limonium vulgare), Sea plantain ( Plantago maritima) and Sea Arrowgrass(Triglochin maritimum). These are all long-lived perennial species with relative slowrates of spread. A few scattered low and pioneer marsh species may be present as wellas a few invaders from the high marsh zone. This complex interaction of speciesrepresents the climax of the saltmarsh succession. The plant communities develops anelement of layering (or a three dimensional structure) with algal mats on the soilsurface itself, prostate species growing along the soil surface (e.g. Sea Thrift -Atmeriamaritima), intermediate species raised from the soil (e.g. Puccinella maritimea) andtall species (e.g. Aster tripolium) dominating the canopy. An accompanying distinctlitter layer of fallen plant material begins to develop with its associated microflora offungal and bacterial communities (Saltmarsh Review) 1 .4.2.4 High marshOnly covered by the highest spring tides. Species composition tends to be highlyvariable and structural diverse with the species present depending on the nature of thesoil. Species such as Saltmarsh Rush (Juncus gerardii) and Sea Rush (J. maritimus)are found in wet areas whereas Red Fescue (Festuca rubra), Sea Wormwood(Seriphidium maritimum) and Sea Couch (Elytrigia atherica) are present in the dryerareas. Non or marginally-saline species such as Birdsfoot-trefoil (Lotus corniculatussand Autumn Hawkbit (Leontodon autumnalis) can also be found. Many other species1Saltmarsh Review. An overview of coastal saltmarshes, their dynamic and sensitivitycharacteristics for conservation and management. Boorman, L. A. 2003. JNCC report No. 334

Paul Featherstone Page 13 18/02/2008are found which will include Thrift (Armeria maritima), Sea-milkwort (Glausmaritima) and a number of middle marsh species. Generally, the species found aredetermined by inter-specific competition often to the detriment of the less competitivebut more halophytic lower/pioneer marsh species.4.3. Grazing4.3.1 General grazingSaltmarshes are grazed both by natural herbivores such as ducks, geese and rabbitsand domestic animals (sheep and cattle). Grazing will have a major effect on thestructure and species composition of a salt marsh compared to an ungrazed one. Thisis due to the grazing process itself and the soil compaction by grazing animals 1 . Lightgrazing may increase the productivity of the marsh leading to greater speciesdiversity. For example, nibbling can encourage the vigour and growth of plants aswell as removal of dead growth, dung can enrich the nitrogen cycle and seeds can betransported in the guts of grazers 2 . However heavy grazing can be detrimentalleading to reduced structural diversity, a close-cropped sward and loss of grazingsensitive plants. Excessive trampling can not only kill plants but also produce bareareas, which will be subjected to erosive forces leading to environmental instability 2 .Generally the vegetation in ungrazed saltmarshes is 0.5 – 1 metre tall withconsiderable spatial variation in height.1Science Report – R& D Technical report (PFA-076/TR). English Nature. Chapter 4. Factorsleading to saltmarsh change.2 Goudie, A. Nature of the Environment. Part 1 The Global Framework. Chapter 3. TheOrganic world. Blackwell Publishing 2001. ISBN 9780631200697

Paul Featherstone Page 14 18/02/2008Whereas grazed marsh has a very characteristic appearance forming a dense mat ofvegetation often less than 0.1 metre tall 1 .4.3.2 Natural grazingGrazing by natural herbivores is generally considered to make a positive contributionto the overall diversity of a saltmarsh and so the impact of grazing of these animals isconsidered to be limited in its impact 1 . However, Smith 2 did find that the salt marshplant community composition was altered by grazing snow geese on the marshes ofthe mid-Atlantic coast of the United States.4.3.3 Domestic grazingGrazing of domestic stock occurs extensively on saltmarshes throughout the UK 3 andhas been practised for centuries. Saltmarshes provide an important resource in termsof their agricultural value for grazing, as there is rarely a need for farmers to applylarge amounts of artificial fertilisers as the silt deposited provides additionalnutrients 4 . The species composition as well as the overall structure of the vegetationhas been strongly affected by this type of grazing 1 . As a result, domestic grazingpressure will play a significant role in the health of a saltmarsh.1Saltmarsh Review. An overview of coastal saltmarshes, their dynamic and sensitivitycharacteristics for conservation and management. Boorman, L. A. 2003. JNCC report No. 3342 Smith 111 T.J.(1983) Alteration of saltmarsh plant community composition by grazingsnow geese. Ecography. 6(2), page 204-2103Science Report – R& D Technical report (PFA-076/TR). English Nature. Chapter 4. Factorsleading to saltmarsh change.4 SDAC Edinburgh. Estimating the value of environmental features. Institute of Ecology andresource management. University of Edinburgh and SDAC Edinburgh Jan 1999

Paul Featherstone Page 15 18/02/20084.4 Grazing pressureLevels of grazing are defined by the standing crop 1 . English Nature, in their CoastalHabitat Restoration project 2 , expands on this by assessing the biological value of asaltmarsh under four levels of grazing regime inherently practised.4.4.1 Heavy grazingThis has grazing levels equivalent to stocking densities used in inland grassland ofbetween 9-10 sheep and 2 – 2.5 young cattle per hectare (April – October) 3 . Thesesaltmarshes generally have a close-cropped homogenous sward (height

Paul Featherstone Page 16 18/02/2008For example Bos at al 1 found that the grazing sensitive species Sea Purslane, Atriplexportulacoides, Sea Couch, Elymus athericus, Atriplex prostrata and Sea Wormwood,Seriphidium maritmum showed significantly greater incidence without grazing interms of frequency distribution. This was for saltmarshes in the Wadden Sea evenunder a light grazing pressure of around 0.5 cows and sheep per hectare (Appendix 3).Dupre 2 concluded that heavy grazing in the coastal meadows resulted in acomparatively low number of species.Heavily grazed saltmarshes tend to develop a ‘bowling green’ appearance and thisuniform short sward is not conducive to invertebrate fauna 3 . The vegetation structureis generally of tillered coarser grasses (i.e. rapid growth where the growing points areat the base of the leaves) 4 typical of grazed areas inland. This type of marsh tends tofavour overwintering wildfowl (e.g. ducks and geese) where approaching predatorscan be easily seen and is favoured by breeding oyster-catchers and lapwings 5 . As aresult of the high level of grazing, breeding birds on the upper marsh such as skylark,meadow pipit and linnet are affected by nest trampling 6 .1 Bos D, Bakker J.P. de Vries Y, & van Lieshout S. 2002. Long-term vegetation changes inexperimentally grazed and ungrazed back-barrier marshes in the Wadden Sea. AppliedVegetation Science. Article pp 45 –542Dupre C. & Diekmann M. 2006. Differences in species richness and life-history betweengrazed and abandoned grasslands in southern Sweden Ecography 24 (3), 275- 2863 BuglifeAdvice on managing BAP habitats: coastal saltmarsh. www.Defra.gov.uk4 JNCC 2004. Common standard Monitoring Guidance for Saltmarsh Habitats. August 2004.JNCC ISSN 1743-8160 (online)5 Saltmarsh Review. An overview of coastal saltmarshes, their dynamic and sensitivitycharacteristics for conservation and management. Boorman, L. A. 2003. JNCC report No. 3346 Coastal Habitat Restoration – Towards Good Practice. www.english-nature.org.uk.

Paul Featherstone Page 17 18/02/2008Some heavily grazed saltmarshes develop their own visually distinct plantcommunities. These would include the Saltmarsh Flat-sedge, Blysmus rufus andvarieties of free living fucoids such as the Knotted Wrack Ascophyllum nodosum, thelatter of which is only confined to a few sheltered and unpolluted areas 1 . Grazedsaltmarshes in northern Scotland may contain frequent turf fucoid, Fucus cottnii 2 .Over grazing of the marsh can lead to bare patches, which can be colonised with thepioneer species typical of the lower and pioneer zones. This can lead to an increase inthe abundance of lower marsh species in the upper marsh 3 . Indeed, intensive grazingby both sheep and cattle can lead to a downward-shift of vegetation zones 4 . However,over grazing should be avoided as it can result in saltmarsh instability and eventhreaten its value for coastal defence 5 . A saltmarsh in this condition is considered tobe poor 6 .1 Coastal Habitat Restoration – Towards Good Practice. www.english-nature.org.uk2 JNCC 1330. Atlantic salt meadows (Glauco-Puccinellietalia maritimae).www.jncc.gov.uk/ProtectedSites/SACselection/habitat.asp3 Bakker J.P. 1985 The Impact of grazing on plant communities, plant populations and soilconditions on saltmarhes. Plant Ecology. Volume 62, Numbers 1-3/June 1985.pp 391-3984 Kiehl K.,Schroder H. & Stock M. 2007. Long-term vegetation dynamics after land-usechange in Wadden Sea salt marshes. Coastline reports 7 (2007) pp 17-24 ISSN 0928-27345 SDAC Edinburgh. Estimating the value of environmental features. Institute of Ecology andresource management. University of Edinburgh and SDAC Edinburgh. Jan 19996 Defra UK, Maintenance of coastal saltmarsh HP05. www.defra.gov.uk

Paul Featherstone Page 18 18/02/20084.4.2 Moderate grazingGrazing intensity is of the order of 5-6 sheep or 1 – 2.5 young cattle per hectarebetween April and October. These saltmarshes have a mosaic of vegetation withpatches of tightly grazed swards (e.g. Festuca rubra) and denser more structuraldiverse areas of flora 1 . For example the sward can include the lower growing SeaGrass perennial, Puccinella maritima with the less palatable tussocky cord grassSpartina anglica. A tussocky structure is often a feature of moderate grazing andfavours breeding waders 2 . Amongst the flora, grazing sensitive species, which are notevident in the more heavily grazed marsh e.g. Limonium spp, are frequently present.There may be some reduction in the standing crop, which to some extent will dependon the type of domestic grazer present. Cattle tend to produce a more structurallydiverse vegetation than sheep, which has been shown to be important in increasing thediversity of wading birds present 3 . Moderate cattle grazing has been put forward as ameans of maintaining saltmarsh at a young succession stage which will facilitate it’ssuitability for a wider range of halophytic species and breeding redshank 4 . However,sheep grazing on the upper marsh leads to the dominance of grassy vegetation 5 ,particularly sea couch (Elytrigia atherica) 6 .1 Coastal Habitat Restoration – Towards Good Practice. www.english-nature.org.uk2 Carmarthanshire county Council, Improving the way we live and work. Action forbiodiversity. www.camarthanshire.gov.uk3 Milson, T.P. at al. 2000. Habitat models of bird species distribution: an aid to themanagement of coastal grazing marshes. Journal of applied Ecology.37, 706-7274 Esselink, P et al. 2000. The effect of decreased management on plant species distributionpattern in a saltmarsh nature reserve in the Wadden Sea. Biological Conservation, 93, 61-765 Rodwell,J.S. 2000. British Plant Communities Volume 5: Maritime Communities andVegetation of Open Habitat. Cambridge University Press 56British Saltmarshes, Edited by Sherwood BR, Gardiner BG and Harris T. Forrest Text 2001

Paul Featherstone Page 19 18/02/2008So a moderately grazed saltmarsh can include vegetation suitable for grazing ducksand geese as well as provide nesting habitats for a limited number of breeding birdsincluding redshank and passerines in the middle and high marsh.4.4.3 Ungrazed/Lightly grazedThis is consistent with natural grazing and/or low level, intermittent grazing bydomestic stock at 2 – 3 sheep and 0.7 – 1.0 young cattle per hectare for 6 months 1 .These saltmarshes have a good structural and species diversity which, is reflected inthe high variability of vegetation height. All grazing sensitive species tend to bepresent and in some areas (e.g. the Wash) Limonium spp may dominate the uppermarsh 2 .As with grazing sensitive species, Bos et al 3 found that there was a significantdifference in terms of the percentage frequencies of certain plant species in grazed asopposed to ungrazed areas (Appendix3). They are also found that species richnessbenefited from grazing with livestock on both the lower and higher saltmarsh. Forexample the species richness in a lightly grazed marsh was around 12 species in a 2 x2 m 2 quadrat compared to about 6 in an ungrazed one and that 80 % of traditionallysaltmarsh species showed a higher incidence on grazed as opposed to ungrazed marsh.Overall they found that species richness increased with elevation on the saltmarsh andwas 1.5 - 2 times higher in the grazed saltmarsh.1 Beeflink, W.G. 1977. Saltmarshes. In: The Coastline, ed. Barnes, R.S.K. John Wiley andSons, Chichester, 93-1222 JNCC 1330. Atlantic salt meadows (Glauco-Puccinellietalia maritimae).www.jncc.gov.uk/ProtectedSites/SACselection/habitat.asp3 Bos D, Bakker J.P. de Vries Y, & van Lieshout S. 2002. Long-term vegetation changes inexperimentally grazed and ungrazed back-barrier marshes in the Wadden Sea. AppliedVegetation Science. Article pp 45 –54

Paul Featherstone Page 20 18/02/2008Kiehl at al 1 found that seed availability of grazing sensitive species on ungrazed plotscan be so high that the establishment of these grazing sensitive species was possibleeven on adjacent heavily grazed plots.Most of the standing crop is not removed and these saltmarshes are closest to ‘naturalmarshes’ described above. Generally, they have a complete sequence of vegetationfrom pioneer to upper marsh and terrestrial habitats and so tend to be the biologicalrichest supporting a wide range of invertebrates and breeding birds 2 . If we usebiodiversity as an indication of the health of a system then this type of saltmarshwould be of good condition.4.4.4 Abandoned, formally grazed saltmarshThese are saltmarshes, which have previously been grazed but have been abandonedover the last few decades. Consequently no standing crop is removed and cessation ofgrazing results in the rapid growth of the coarser grasses, which have previously beenkept in check by grazing. These will out-compete other marsh plants and becomedominant leading to a loss of the characteristic halophytic vegetation. Surface litteraccumulates leading to matted vegetation. Scrub and gorse encroachment has thepotential to become a problem in some areas 3 .1 Kiehl K.,Schroder H. & Stock M. 2007. Long-term vegetation dynamics after land-usechange in Wadden Sea salt marshes. Coastline reports 7 (2007) pp 17-24 ISSN 0928-27342 Coastal Habitat Restoration – Towards Good Practice. www.english-nature.org.uk3 Management Statement for Firth of Forth SSSI. 2000. SNH Ref: 8163

Paul Featherstone Page 21 18/02/2008Generally, abandonment of grazing leads to a dominance of a single species (e.g. rankgrasses such as the Couch grass, Elytrigia repens 1 , reduced overall species andstructural diversity and a matted coarse-grained matted vegetation mosaic. Bos at al 2found a negative effect of cessation of grazing. They found it led to the dominance ofthe Sea Couch, Elymus athericus, at the expense of Festuca rubra in the higher marshand the dominance of the grazing sensitive Atriplex portulacoides in the low marshleading to an overall decrease in species densityThe saltmarsh becomes less suitable for invertebrates and for feeding, breeding andwintering birds. These saltmarshes are deemed to be in generally poor condition 3 .It can be beneficial to reintroduce light grazing back onto an abandoned marsh tocontrol these coarser grasses to try and establish a high floral diversity. Cattle wouldbe the preferred animals to accomplish this task 4 .1 UK Biodiversity Action Plan www.uk.ukbap.org.uk2 Bos D, Bakker J.P. de Vries Y, & van Lieshout S. 2002. Long-term vegetation changes inexperimentally grazed and ungrazed back-barrier marshes in the Wadden Sea. AppliedVegetation Science. Article pp 45 –543 Defra UK, Maintenance of coastal saltmarsh HP05. www.defra.gov.uk4 SNH Commissioned Report No.203. The effects of cattle on the natural heritage ofScotland. SNH 2003

Paul Featherstone Page 22 18/02/20085. Analysis and DiscussionIt would seem that the type of grazing regime occurring on saltmarshes has aprofound effect upon the species and structural diversity of a saltmarsh and as aconsequently it’s health. Even though natural grazing by herbivores is considered tobe limited in its impact the degree of grazing by domestic animals can have a severeeffect. In general domestic grazing will reduce the height of the vegetation, decreasethe species diversity and grazing sensitive species can disappear. Cattle tend toproduce more structural diverse vegetation than sheep.However, within the literature, the species diversity and numbers differences betweengrazed and ungrazed saltmarsh were reported in relative terms with no actual numbersallocated to the discourse. The only hard actual likely number of species in terms offrequency of occurrence in grazed as opposed to ungrazed saltmarsh was in workdone in 2002 by Bos et al on the Wadden Sea saltmarshes.In most of the literature surveyed there is a general consensus of opinion that a lightlygrazed saltmarsh will have a greater biodiversity than an ungrazed one and as aconsequence can be regarded as in good health. For example Bos et al maintained thatspecies richness on a grazed saltmarsh was 1.5 – 2 times greater than on an ungrazedone. However there is a dilemma here. An ungrazed saltmarsh (but not previouslyabandoned) one can be considered in a natural state and therefore in a healthy state.So using likely species numbers may not be appropriate in assessing the health of asaltmarsh. Can a lightly grazed saltmarsh be considered in a healthier state than anatural ungrazed one? Further research is needed to address these issues.

Paul Featherstone Page 23 18/02/2008Heavily grazed saltmarshes generally have low species richness as compared toungrazed ones but again no hard likely numbers could be found. So in assessing thehealth of a saltmarsh other factors had to be considered. This would include the type(e.g. dominance of couch grasses) or absence of certain species found on the marsh(e.g.grazing sensitive ones). The presence of certain animals, which are the result of acertain grazing regime on the saltmarsh, would indirectly indicate its health. Theappearance of areas of bare ground, as a result of over-grazing on the mid to uppermarsh, might also indicate a marsh in failing health.However, the biodiversity in terms of likely numbers of species may again not be agood indication in itself in assessing the health of a saltmarsh. For example theinvasion of pioneer and low marsh species into heavily grazed mid to upper marshwould increase the biodiversity. Indeed, the high availability of seeds from anadjacent ungrazed area can cause grazing sensitive species becoming established evenon heavily grazed marsh - so leading to an even greater number of species present. Interms of species number both of these would indicate a saltmarsh in good health eventhough it is being heavily grazed and possibly becoming inherently unstable.A moderately grazed saltmarsh will have a lower diversity of plant species (ascompared to a lightly grazed/ungrazed saltmarsh) but biodiversity overall can be highif animals are included. Indeed the structural diversity of a moderately grazedsaltmarsh will attract a variety of natural grazers such as certain geese, ducks andnesting birds which, in themselves, can be considered of high conservation. On this

Paul Featherstone Page 24 18/02/2008basis a moderately grazed saltmarsh may be deemed to be in good health even thoughits grazing pressure could be leading to a lowering of plant species diversity per se.From the literature it would appear that ‘sensible’ grazing regimes on a saltmarshcould be of benefit in terms of health of the saltmarsh. For example the reintroductionof light grazing on an abandoned marsh can be used to re-establish flora diversity.However, inappropriate grazing levels, either overgrazing of traditionally ungrazedsaltmarsh or undergrazing of traditionally grazed saltmarsh, can lead to a lowering ofspecies diversity and eventually threaten the stability and consequent health of asaltmarsh.Using the numbers of likely numbers on its own as an index of saltmarsh health maynot be appropriate. Other methods of assessment may have to be included indetermining the overall state of health of a saltmarsh.

Paul Featherstone Page 25 18/02/20086. ConclusionsIt would seem that the type of grazing regime occurring on saltmarshes has aprofound effect upon the species and structural diversity of a saltmarsh and as aconsequently it’s health. From the literature it would appear that ‘sensible’ grazingregimes on a saltmarsh could be of benefit in terms of health of the saltmarsh.In general, inappropriate grazing levels, either overgrazing of traditionally ungrazedsaltmarsh or undergrazing of traditionally grazed saltmarsh, can lead to a lowering ofspecies diversity and eventually threaten the stability of a saltmarsh and itsconsequent health.Using the likely numbers of species or taxa diversity on its own as an index of thehealth of a saltmarsh may be problematical. Consideration of other factors may haveto be taken into account.

Paul Featherstone Page 26 18/02/20087. Recommendations.It is hard to give recommendations as to the robustness of the figures above. Theredoes appear to be a paucity of information on the likely numbers of species found ongrazed as opposed to an ungrazed saltmarsh. The only significant figures were fromBos at al in 2003. But these on there own have limited value and would have to beverified by further research to be truly viableThere does appear to be a consensus of opinion that a lightly grazed saltmarsh has thegreatest overall species and structural diversity. As I have taken biodiversity as anindex of health, then a saltmarsh with light grazing should be in good health.However, even on a heavily grazed marsh species numbers can be increased. This canbe due to invasion of lower marsh species on bare ground or seeding of grazingsensitive species from adjacent ungrazed marsh. Establishing the health of a saltmarshbased purely on likely number of species present and therefore biodiversity may beproblematical and other criteria should be assessed.

Paul Featherstone Page 27 18/02/20088 AppendixAppendix 1. Typical species for ungrazed saltmarsh zones (from JNCC 2004)Pioneer zone Low-mid marsh Mid-upper marshSalicornia spp Puccinellia maritima Festuca rubraSuaeda maritima Triglochin maritima Juncus gerardiiPuccinellia maritima Plantago maritima Armeria maritimaAster tripolium Atriplex portulacoides Agrostis stoloniferaAster tripoliumSpergularia maritimaSuaeda maritimaTurf fucoidsLimonium vulgareGlaux maritimaSeriphidium maritimumPlantago maritimaAster tripoliumJuncus maritimusTriglochin maritimaBlysmus rufusEleocharis uniglumisArtyemisia maritimaLeontodon autumnalisCarex flaccaCarex extensaTurf fucoids

Paul Featherstone Page 28 18/02/2008Appendix 2. Common names and synonyms for saltmarsh plant species (from JNCC2004)Agrostis stolonifera - Creeping bentArmeria maritima - ThriftSeriphidium maritimum (Artemisia maritima) - Sea wormwoodAster tripolium - Sea asterAtriplex (Halimione) portulacoides - Sea-purslaneBlysmus rufus - Saltmarsh flat-sedgeCarex extensa - Long-bracted sedgeCarex flacca - Glaucous sedgeEleocharis uniglumis - Common spike-rushEleocharis parvula - Dwarf spike-rushElytrigia atherica - Sea CouchElytrigia (Elymus) repens - CouchElytrigia juncea (Elytrigia pungens, Elymus farctus) - Sand CouchFestuca rubra - Red fescueFilipendula ulmaria - MeadowsweetFucus cottonii - a turf fucoidFrankenia laevis - Sea-heathGlaux maritima - Sea-milkwortInula crithmoides - Golden SamphireIris pseudacors - Yellow IrisJuncus gerardii (gerardi) -Saltmarsh rushJuncus maritimus - Sea rushLimonium vulgare - Common sea lavenderLimonium humile - Lax-flowered sea lavender

Paul Featherstone Page 29 18/02/2008Parapholis strigosa - Sea hard-grassPlantago maritima - Sea plantainPuccinellia distans - Northern saltmarsh-grassPuccinellia maritima - Common saltmarsh-grassSalicornia spp. - Glasswort, SamphireSarcocornia perennis (Arthrocnemum perenne) - Perennial glasswortSpartina anglica - Common cord-grassSpartina maritima - Cord-grassSpartina alterniflora - Smooth cord-grassSpergularia marina - Lesser sea-spurreySuaeda maritima - Annual sea-bliteSuaeda vera - Shrubby sea-bliteTriglochin maritima - Sea arrowgrass

Paul Featherstone Page 30 18/02/2008Appendix 3Frequencies (%) of species occurrence per treatment (2m x 2m quadrant) for the 30species occurring most frequently. For the groups the frequencies deviate significantlyfrom proportionality 1 Species Grazed UngrazedHigher in ungrazed Artemisia maritima 43 65Atriplex prostrata 19 68Elymus athericus 26 52Atriplex portulacoides 14 25No significant difference Festuca rubra 78 85Juncus maritimus 9 10Lotus corniculatus 8 10Higher in grazed Plantago maritima 67 40Agrostis stolonifera 53 41Juncus gerardi 63 22Glaux maritima 58 22Triglochin maritima 49 23Armeria maritima 46 26Puccinellia maritima 43 23Spergularia maritima 43 10Limonium vulgare 39 12Trifolium repens 31 20

Paul Featherstone Page 31 18/02/2008Aster tripolium 36 15Poa pratensis 26 19Salicornia europaea 35 7Suaeda maritima 30 12Plantago coronopus 23 2Potentilla anserina 14 10Agrostis capillaris 15 6Carex arenaria 15 6Leontodon autumnalis 16 1Phragmites australis 14 3Plantago lanceolata 11 6Ammophila arenaria 10 6Spergularia salina 12 21 Bos D, Bakker J.P. de Vries Y, & van Lieshout S. 2002. Long-term vegetation changes inexperimentally grazed and ungrazed back-barrier marshes in the Wadden Sea. AppliedVegetation Science. Article pp 45 –54

Paul Featherstone Page 32 18/02/2008

Appendix 10.6KIMO INTERNATIONALHOMEWORKING/DATA TRAWL PROJECTTITLE:Comparison of Near Infrared Spectroscopy withSoxhlet for Percentage Fat Analysis in Fish.Comparison of Near Infrared Spectroscopy withGas Chromatography for Fatty Acid Analysis in Fish.PROJECT COMMISSIONED BY: NAFC Marine CentreScallowayShetlandRESEARCHER:Diana Winfielddianawinfield@shetland.gov.ukdianawinfield@yahoo.co.ukDATE COMPLETED: November, 2007

ABRIEF FROM NAFC MARINE CENTRENote: This brief was divided into 3 parts. Two of which are in this report. The thirdon biotoxin analysis is in a separate report.COMPARISON OF THE USE OF NEAR INFRAREDSPECTROMETER (NIRS)VERSUS SOXHLETFOR PERCENTAGE FAT ANALYSIS IN FISHNOTE: Soxhlet is already used by NAFC for percentage fat analysis in fish.COMPARISON OF NEAR INFRAREDSPECTROMETER (NIRS) WITH GASCHROMATOGRAPHYFOR FATTY ACID ANALYSIS IN FISHNOTE: Gas Chromatography is already used by NAFC for fatty acid analysis in fish.Disclaimer:To the best of our knowledge the information in this report was accurate at the time ofwriting. As this information was obtained from online sources KIMO cannot be heldresponsible for any omissions or inaccuracies in the data.Page 2/40

BAcknowledgementsPlease note the following are given in alphabetical order by organisation.Organisation Name Title/RoleBrimrose Corporation Igor Nazarov Spectrometer DivisionManagerBruker Optics Limited Nektaria Servi Internal Sales EngineerCalibre Control International Michael J TaylorRegional Sales ManagerLtd.Foss B&I Alastair MacLennan Regional Sales ManagerFoss B&I Steve O’Halloran Chemical AnalysisMarine Harvest (Scotland)Ltd.Tony LaidlerLaboratory ServicesManagerNAFC Marine Centre Niall O’Rourke Contact for Research ProjectShetland Catch Paul Ratter In charge of NIRSSkretting ARCØrjan BreivikNIR Responsible/Researcher(Skretting AquacultureResearch Centre, Stavanger,NorwayThermo Fisher Scientific Graham Johnston Molecular andChromatography SpecialistAuthor’s note: Responsibility for this report and its accuracy.The above are acknowledged for their helpfulness but may have totally differentviews on the current situation as to the use of NIR in fish analysis for Percentage FatContent and Fatty Acid Content in fish.The low level of information on the internet has meant that much of this report is adigest of information obtained from a variety of locations (including internet, emails,brochures and telephone conversations). Specific information has been acknowledged in anumber of sections in this report. In others, the report has been written from a digestedknowledge. Hopefully, any plagiarism has been kept to a minimum (if not actually nonexistent).Page 3/40

CMethodologyThis report was intended to be internet based research. Internet searches werecarried out using various key words. Despite trawling through literally hundreds of pages,few results were obtained pertaining to use of NIRS with fish. The low level of data meantthat this report would have been problematic in its usefulness to NAFC Marine Centre.However, the inclusion of telephone calls and emails to various individuals and companieshas meant that useful information directly pertaining to the use of NIRS in fish analysis hasbeen obtained.Page 4/40

DTABLE OF CONTENTSA Brief Page 2B Acknowledgements Page 3C Methodology Page 4D Table of Contents Page 51 Report:Comparison of Near Infrared Spectroscopy with Soxhletfor Percentage Fat Analysis in Fish.Comparison of Near Infrared Spectroscopy with GasChromatography for Fatty Acid Analysis in Fish. Page 81.1 Description of Soxhlet, Gas Chromatography and NIRSpectroscopy with a homogenised sample, for both percentagefat analysis and fatty acid content Page 81.1.1 Soxhlet Page 81.1.2 Gas Chromatography Page 81.1.3 NIR Spectroscopy using a homogenised sample Page 9for both percentage fat analysis and fatty acid content1.2 NIR Spectroscopy – Introduction Page 101.3 Hardware for NIR Spectroscopy Page 111.3.1 Comparison of NIRS Machines using a fibre opticprobe v. NIRS machines using a homogenisedsample put into them – Prediction of fat content in fish Page 111.3.1.1 Justifying the Use of NIR MachinesUsing Homogenised Samples RatherThan NIR Machines with Fibre OpticProbes Page 121.4 Software for NIR Machines Page 131.4.1 Introduction Page 131.4.2 Machine Specific Software v. Multiplatform Software Page 131.4.3 Buying Software for NIR Spectroscopy Page 131.4.4 Software Requirements for NIR Spectroscopy Page 151.4.5 Calibration Equations Page 161.4.6 Initial and Ongoing Calibration of an NIRS Machine Page 161.4.7 Calibration and Fish Analysis Page 171.4.8 Building a Calibration for Your Purposes Page 181.4.9 Part of Cycle for Building Calibration Equations ‘InHouse’ Page 191.4.10 Periodic Checking Of Calibration Equations Page 21Page 5/40

1.4.10.1 Cycle For Periodic Checking ofCalibration Equations Page 211.5 Studies Involving the Use of NIRS in Comparison to Soxhlet Page 221.5.1 Japanese study of the percentage of fat in mackerel Page 221.5.2 Irish study of oil in farmed salmon Page 231.5.3 Irish study of different methods for testing fat contentin herring Page 241.6 NIRS and Fatty Acids Page 251.7 Studies Involving the Use of NIRS to Determine Fatty Acidsand Studies Showing The Ability of NIRS to DistinguishBetween Similar Molecules Page 261.7.1 A Study by Afseth and colleagues on a chemicalimitation of fish Page 261.7.2 Rapeseed Analysis for Different Fatty Acids Page 261.7.3 Study of Tocepherols in Alfalfa Showing the Abilityof NIRS to Distinguish Between Similar MoleculesWhen Compared to Chromatographic Methods Page 261.7.4 Study of Fatty Acids in Cheese Comparing NIRS andGas Chromatography Page 271.8 SCOTTISH CASE STUDIES Page 281.8.1 Individual Case Study: Marine Harvest, Scotland Page 281.8.1.1 Calibration of Marine Harvest NIRS machine Page 281.8.1.2 Results of Marine Harvest NIRS machine ascompared with Soxhlet and GasChromatography Page 281.9 Conclusions Page 301.9.1 ACCURACY Page 301.9.1.1 Accuracy and Percentage Fish Fat Analysis Page 301.9.1.2 Accuracy and Fatty Acid Analysis Page 301.9.1.2.1 Accuracy and Identification ofPercentages of Particular Groupsof Fatty Acids (for example: EPA,DHA, sum of Omega 3, sum ofOmega 6, sum of monoemes) Page 30Page 6/40

1.9.1.2.2 Accuracy and Identification ofPercentages of Individual FattyAcids Page 311.9.2 COST Page 311.9.3 THROUGHPUT Page 321.9.4 REASONS TO CHOOSE SOXHLET FORPERCENTAGE FAT ANALYSIS Page 321.9.5 REASONS TO CHOOSE GAS CHROMATOGRAPHYFOR FATTY ACID ANALYSIS Page 321.9.6 REASONS TO CHOOSE NIRS FOR PERCENTAGEFAT ANALYSIS AND FATTY ACID ANALYSIS Page 331.10 Abbreviations Page 341.11 Bibliography Page 35Page 7/40

1 Report:Comparison of Near Infrared Spectroscopy withSoxhlet for Percentage Fat Analysis in Fish.Comparison of Near Infrared Spectroscopy withGas Chromatography for Fatty Acid Analysis in Fish.1.1 Description of Soxhlet, Gas Chromatography and NIR Spectroscopy with ahomogenised sample for both percentage fat analysis and fatty acid content1.1.1 SoxhletSoxhlet is a ‘wet chemistry’ method for the quantitative determination of thepercentage of fat in fish. The fat sample is representative of the entire fish (assuming theflesh of the entire fish is used!). This is a lengthy, work intensive process 1 requiring askilled technician. There are a variety of solvents usable. The use of acid makes it adangerous method to use with requirements for careful storage and care and attention by thetechnician, to fulfil Health and Safety requirements.Time for preparation and analysis:Lengthy and complex, although, new Soxtec TMmachines list shorter analysis times 2 .Errors:There will be errors due to measurement (humaninaccuracy).Health and Safety:Use and storage of acid.Operator:Skilled technician.1.1.2 Gas ChromatographyGas Chromatography is a ‘wet chemistry’ method for the identification andquantitative determination of fatty acids in fish.Fat needs to be extracted from the fish using Soxhlet or another suitable method.The fat sample is representative of the entire fish 3 . The composition of fat and the amountof each fatty acid are determined using Gas Chromatography. This is a lengthy andcomplex process requiring a skilled technician.123See Bibliography for:Greenwood C.F. 2 , Allen J.A. 1 , Leong A.S. 2 , Pallot T.N. 1 , Golder T.M. 1 and Golebiowski T. 1An Investigation Of The Stability Of NIRS Calibrations For The Analysis Of Oil Content InWhole Seed CanolaAlso see Bibliography for:Oxford InstrumentsDetermination of Oil and Moisture Content in Fish Feed: Application Note, NMRSee Bibliography for:FossA SoxtecTM for every needAs with Soxhlet, this presumes that the flesh of the entire fish is used in the preparatory stages.Page 8/40

Time for preparation: Time to do an extraction using Soxhlet.Time for analysis: Lengthy and complex.Errors: Due to measurement (human inaccuracy) ;Due to insufficient length of columns 4 ;Due to the problem of availability of standards in the case offish oils with complex fatty acids 5 .Health and Safety: Use and storage of acid since Soxhlet is used for extraction.Operator:Skilled technician.1.1.3 NIR Spectroscopy using a homogenised sample for both percentage fatanalysis and fatty acid contentThe fish is homogenised so that the sample is representative of the entire fish. Thesample is then placed in the machine and the machine analyses it in about 45 seconds persample. The results produced include both percentage fat and fatty acid content of the fish.Time for preparation:Time for analysis:Errors:Health and Safety:Operator:Time to homogenise sample and put in the NIR machine’scontainer.45 seconds per sample or less.Due to calibration (see calibration section);Due to the quality of hardware – variations exist according totype and manufacturer.No acid requirement so only normal Laboratory H&S rules.A skilled technician is not required although some training isneeded to homogenise the sample and use the equipment.45See Bibliography for:Azizian H, Kramer J.K.G., Kamalian A.R., Hernandez M., Mossoba M.M. and Winsborough S.L.Quantification of trans fatty acids in food products by GC, ATR-FTIR and FT-NIR methods.See previous footnotePage 9/40

1.2 NIR Spectroscopy – IntroductionNIR Spectroscopy was recognised as a fast developing field of expertise by Defra asearly as 2000, with the implication that available research publications were often out ofdate and only the leaders in this field of research had much of an idea of what was going on6 . The latter has implications for internet research and the level of availability ofinformation about NIRS. However, this report aims to at least provide a reasonableintroduction to making a decision between ‘wet’ chemistry methods such as Soxhlet andGas Chromatography and the use of NIRS. The final decision, when it comes to be mademay well depend on the advice of leading manufacturers of NIRS products and thosealready working in the field. Hopefully, this report will give areas for discussion with themanufacturers so that their products can be assessed for use with fish analysis.Both the hardware and software are important to the performance of the NIRSmachine in a particular situation. A brief history of both of these can be found in an articleby Franklin E. Barton, II 7 and in a DEFRA article assessing the use of NIRS 8 .678See Bibliography for:MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, FISHERIES AND FOOD: CSG 15Research and Development, Final Project Report, Page 3, 2001See Bibliography for:Barton II, Franklin E. (USDA Agricultural Research Service)Theory and Principles of Near Infrared SpectroscopySee Bibliography for:MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, FISHERIES AND FOOD: CSG 15Page 10/40

1.3 Hardware for NIR SpectroscopyThere are a considerable variety of different types of hardware available. There arethose for laboratory use only including NIR scanning monochromators and NIRS diodearray instruments 9 . Fourier Transform NIR (FTNIR) machines are now being researched10 with the potential to be even more accurate. A move away from laboratory basedresearch into the field has been made possible by more miniaturised NIRS , 11 with portableunits available 12 . A variation between desktop and portable units has been noted by someresearchers 13 . NIRS machines are available with fibre optic probes and there are those thatrequire a homogenised sample to be put into the machine for analysis.Different machines are likely to produce different results simply from a hardwarepoint of view. Accuracy will vary according to the type of machine which you buy and themanufacturer.1.3.1 Comparison of NIRS Machines using a fibre optic probe v. NIRSmachines using a homogenised sample put into them – Prediction of fatcontent in fishA fibre optic probe is used at different parts of a fish’s body and produces differentresults according to where it is put. Carrying out measurements on the meat side of a fillet,for example, would not give a prediction of the fat content of the fillets. Only if the NIRprobe is placed in the middle part of a sample can it be used to predict the fat content with ahigh degree of correlation with solvent extraction according to one source 14 . This methodmay also lend itself to use in the field as well as in the laboratory.Using a homogenised sample of the whole fish, will have the advantage of a readingbeing representative of the percentage fat content throughout the fish, rather than at aspecific area. The specific area may give a result which is higher or lower than that of therest of the fish.91011121314See page 3 of previous footnoteSee Bibliography for:Free Patents OnlineFT-NIR fatty acid determination methodSee Bibliography for page 5 of:MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, FISHERIES AND FOOD: CSG 15See Bibliography for:Shimamoto Junji, Hiratsuka Seiichi, Hasegawa Kaoru, Sato Minoru, Kawano SumioRapid non-destructive determination of fat content in frozen skipjack using a portable nearinfrared spectrophotometerSee previous footnoteSee Bibliography for:Nielsen Durita, Hyldig Grethe, Nielsen Jette and Nielsen Henrik HauchLipid content in herring (Clupea harengus L.)—influence of biological factors and comparisonof different methods of analyses: solvent extraction, Fatmeter, NIR and NMRPage 11/40

1.3.1.1 Justifying the Use of NIR Machines Using HomogenisedSamples Rather Than NIR Machines with Fibre OpticProbesThe following has been used to justify the choice of an NIRS machine using ahomogenised sample over one using a probe (c.f. description of NIRS on the previouspage):a. Accuracy.NIRS machines using homogenised samples are likely to be more accuratethan those using fibre optic probes, since the sample can be maderepresentative of the whole fish’s body.b. Usable in Fatty Acid AnalysisOne NIR machine can be used for both fat analysis and fatty acid analysis.Fatty acid analysis requires the analysis of small amounts of each fatty acidso accuracy becomes even more important.Page 12/40

1.4 Software for NIR Machines1.4.1 IntroductionSoftware is the ‘brains’ of the NIR machine. The software affects the accuracy ofthe NIR machine and how well it performs for a particular area of use. Often with NIR, thewords, calibration or calibration equations, will be referred to, instead of software. Theserefer to the software and its ability to meet particular requirements for accuracy whensample testing. This report uses a mixture of the previous terms.1.4.2 Machine Specific Software v. Multiplatform SoftwareMachine Specific Software is software which can only be used on a particular makeor model of NIR machine.Multiplatform Software is software which can be used on several different types ofNIR machine.Software which is usable on different NIR machines has the possibility of errorsbuilding up. The latter is possible because the programmers need to make the programmesmore flexible so that they are usable on different NIRS models from the samemanufacturer or from different manufacturers. The researcher hasn’t found any evidence ofthis for NIR machines, but it does remain as a possibility. Frequently, the more flexible aprogramme, the more complex it is to write.The disadvantage of buying software, which is only usable on one make or model ofNIR machine, is the difficulty of switching NIR manufacturers or models of machine at alater date. However, if the NIR machine and its software, is carefully chosen at the initialplanning stage, then it is likely to last several years before being too outdated for the usechosen.1.4.3 Buying Software for NIR SpectroscopySoftware can be bought from the company that manufactures the machine, fromanother company and/or developed ‘in-house’. The manufacturer may in practice sourceequations to calibrate the machine from other companies 15 .The following looks at two ways of obtaining software:Method 1:The purchaser buys the software with the machine and does anynecessary updating themselves. This software is likely to be public domainsoftware or have little or no restrictions on its use. This means that theoperator can ‘tweak it’ as long as they do not sell their adjusted version on,later, to someone else. Good software may well do the ‘tweaking’ at theoperator’s request. This is useful in limiting the level of expertise requiredby an operator.15Personal communication with at least one manufacturer showed that they work in partnership withother companies for software purposes.Page 13/40

Method 2:Advantages to Method 1:a. The purchaser control’s the calibration of their machine.b. The purchaser can add other species of fish, (and potentially shellfish etc) asthey find the need to do so. They can use the machine’s software tocalculate these new species into their calibrations.c. The operator doesn’t need a high technical ability to carry out the previousoperations, if they have purchased good software and a good machine.d. The purchaser may get a starter pack of Calibration equation(s) inclusivewith their hardware, which can be built on ‘in-house’.Disadvantages to Method 1:a. The starter pack of Calibration Equation(s) may not be good enough for thepurchaser’s purposes. It is important for information on the testing done todevelop these equations, to be requested from the hardware manufacturer –see no. 5 under the heading ‘Software Requirements for NIR Spectroscopy’.The purchaser can buy the software separately from their hardwareor by using a contract with another company (a Calibration Service),arranged through their hardware manufacturer. The Calibration Serviceprovides the purchaser with calibration equations and sometimes withsubsequent updates. The likelihood with this method is that the Calibrationcompany retains the license for the original calibration equations and thepurchaser only gets a license to use them.Advantages to Method 2:a. Calibration is someone else’s problem 16 .Disadvantages to Method 2:a. The Calibration Company may not specialise in the same varieties of fishand there may be geographical variations, for example, due to differentwaters.b. The Calibration Company may not allow users to ‘tweak’ their equationshould they find fish, even ones of the same species, that cause variations inresults.c. The purchaser finds that their requirements are more varied than theCalibration Company contract allows for. This may result in having to payfor more expertise than planned for. Also, the purchaser may have to waitfor the Calibration Company to analyse and add other fish samples to theirequations.16Note:Depending on the Calibration Company chosen, you might find, as a purchaser, that this isakin to putting one’s head in the sand. Initially very comfortable, but may later result infinancial and time output that is possibly unpleasant and stressful. Asking the right initialquestions could prevent this problem occurring or any possible impact on the purchaser’sreputation.Page 14/40

1.4.4 Software Requirements for NIR SpectroscopyIt is worth having software which is:1. Updatable, whether by the purchaser or a Calibration Company;2. Gives not only the result e.g. Percentage of Fat, amount of aspecific Fatty Acid, but also gives the error in that reading (e.g. areading of 17 percent may be between 16.9 and 17.1 percent inreality);3. Gives an outlier factor for each reading (from 0 to 5 where 0 is anexact match and 5 is a non-match and requires a response e.g.further calibration);4. Preferably does either of the following:a. Gives the error in the reading and outlier factor, on the samescreen as the result, so time isn’t wasted in checking eachsample.Orb. Comes up with some kind of immediately easy to seewarning so the operator is aware that he/she needs to find outwhat is wrong.5. The examples of the types of fish tested for the originalcalibration equation(s) supplied. For example:a. Species of fish tested;b. Number of samples;c. Geographical source of the samples;d. Tests being made e.g. fat content in percent and/or fattyacid content.for:The above should give a purchaser an initial idea of the suitability of the softwarea. The species of fish which is being tested;b. The geographical area which the NIR machine will be operated in;c. The error of the NIR machine in making readings for Percentage Fat Contentand Fatty Acid Content for those particular fish.Page 15/40

1.4.5 Calibration EquationsOther than a good source of hardware, calibration is the backbone of whether anNIR machine will perform reasonably well in comparison to Soxhlet or GasChromatography.Calibration Equations can be:Product Specific Calibration - Calibration based on a particular source andtype e.g. a specific type of mackerel.General Calibration - Calibration which is suitable for fish from avariety of sources. For example, fish from avariety of geographical areas and/or types offish e.g. all types of mackerel.Global Calibration - Calibration which is suitable for all types offish from whatever geographical source.Calibration equations could vary, within the Calibration explanations above, forexample, to a Calibration for a number of types of fish available only in Scottish waters.1.4.6 Initial and Ongoing Calibration of an NIRS MachineResearch from other areas e.g. grain and animal feed and olive oil analysis showsthat varying the type and origin of grain affects the results obtained with NIRS 17 . Thedecision about which wavelengths used by the NIR machine also has an effect on theresults obtained 18 .It is not a big jump to say that the species and origin of fish being tested may wellaffect the accuracy of calibration equations. Since fat content of fish varies seasonally, itmay be necessary to check your equations to see if you need a seasonal variation.An initial calibration, which has been received with the NIR machine, may not be asaccurate as the purchaser would like. This could result in an initial calibration period beingrequired, where the purchaser would need to check out the varieties of fish that they areplanning to use, or a number of samples of a specific fish. While good software is availablewhich re-calibrates itself, it does not appear sensible to do this without back up tests withSoxhlet (or NMR) and Gas Chromatography 19 . This means either maintaining your171819See Bibliography for:Not knownSee Bibliography for:Shimamoto Junji, Hiratsuka Seiichi, Hasegawa Kaoru, Sato Minoru, Kawano SumioRapid non-destructive determination of fat content in frozen skipjack using a portable nearinfrared spectrophotometerALSO See Bibliography for:Lagardere Lionel, Lechat Hervé, Lacoste FlorenceDétermination de l’acidité et de l’indice de peroxyde dans les huiles d’olive vierges et dans leshuiles raffinées par spectrométrie proche infrarouge à transformée de FourierSee Bibliography for:Toussaint Caroline A 1 * , Médale Françoise 2 , Davenel Armel 1 , Fauconneau Benoît 1 ,Haffray Pierrick 1 , Akoka Serge 1Determination of the lipid content in fish muscle by a self-calibrated NMR relaxometrymethod: comparison with classical chemical extraction methodsPage 16/40

expertise in your laboratory, equipping a laboratory with Soxhlet/NMR and GasChromatography or sending away some samples for analysis 20 .1.4.7 Calibration and Fish Analysis 21The analysis of fish is a relatively new area of NIR spectroscopy. While there maybe a number of calibration equations available, they may not have the more close to castiron equivalents to e.g. Soxhlet and Gas Chromatography, that for example NIR ProductSpecific and Global Calibration Equations for grain have.However, NIRS is a developing field and has shown that it can be reasonablyaccurately used, with manufacturers quoting errors of points of a percent. Since they canonly quote these results for specific tests, then reality would mean that you may havegreater errors (closer to 1 percent 22 ) when, for example, dealing with different varieties offish in waters around Shetland (whether for analysis for Percentage Fish Fat or for FattyAcid Content) 23 .For specific fish, for example, salmon, the individual case study for Marine Harvest,Scotland, later in this report shows that good results can be obtained with NIR for this typeof fish. The Percentage Fat Analysis error for the 2007 data is under 0.9 percent. Forgroups of Fatty Acids, such as the sum of Omega 3s, the errors for the 2007 data werebelow +/- 0.6 % and good correlation coefficients were obtained. However, for theidentification of individual Fatty Acids, little information is available directly from theinternet or otherwise on fish analysis. The existence of Gas Chromatography results forindividual fatty acids means that there is a standard to which NIR machines can becalibrated. A purchaser of an NIR machine wishing to identify individual Fatty Acids, mayfind it possible to negotiate a pre-check on a particular NIR machine. This would enablethe purchaser to ensure that it could successfully identify the required individual FattyAcids.To obtain more accurate results, in this growing field, then you can build in recalibrationof new samples (explained in the next section).212223Also see Bibliography for:Not knownResponsibility for what is written in the paragraphs on this page and the next is fully accepted by theauthor of this report since it reflects her understanding of the situation at the moment.Please see acknowledgements section for some of the many people who have contributed theirprofessional knowledge.Source withheld due to previous comment.Research in the areas of grain and olive oil have shown that changing even the type of olive oil canalter NIRS calibration requirements c.f. the following report reference:See Bibliography for:Lagardere Lionel, Lechat Hervé, Lacoste FlorenceDétermination de l’acidité et de l’indice de peroxyde dans les huiles d’olive vierges et dans leshuiles raffinées par spectrométrie proche infrarouge à transformée de FourierPage 17/40

Note:The species of fish is also likely to affect accuracy so calibration equations specificto a type of fish are likely to maximise accuracy 24 . Calibration needs a chemical means ofanalysis as a standard for comparison and this is frequently the Soxhlet method or NMR 25for fish fat analysis and Gas Chromatography for fatty acid analysis 26 . This means thatanother laboratory needs to be sent samples to be analysed or a Soxhlet extractor orequivalent method and Gas Chromatography used on site. It is best to check calibrationequations periodically and since fat content of fish varies seasonally, it may be necessary tocheck your equations to see if you need a seasonal variation 27 . The correct wavelengths forthe calibration equation are important since using four rather than one wavelength gavemore accuracy in one analysis and narrowing the wavelength band resulted in moreaccurate results in an analysis of vegetable oils 28 .1.4.8 Building a Calibration for Your PurposesThe manufacturer of an NIR machine may well have an arrangement to supply‘starter’ software with the machine. This ‘starter’ software may come ready to use or itmay well be possible to obtain samples from the purchaser to build a ‘starter’ calibrationfor their specific use. For example, one company is willing to be sent 30 to 50 samples offish with reference results (Soxhlet and Gas Chromatography) to build a ‘starter’ SpecificCalibration for the purchaser for their specific purposes 29 .This ‘starter’ (Specific) Calibration or other existing General or SpecificCalibrations 30 can be taken and new data obtained as the NIR machine is used on moresamples of the same type of fish or on different types of fish. If slightly, or very differentresults, are obtained from those stored in the machine, then they will be highlighted by theoutlier value. The outlier value will vary from the ideal value of 0, which represents aperfect or near perfect match. The new variations can be built onto the original calibrationequation, by having good software in the NIR machine automatically updating, at theoperator’s request 31 . This improves the accuracy of the NIR machine and will enable amove towards obtaining a General Equation or Global Equation fulfilling the operator’s2425262728293031See previous footnote.See Bibliography for:Toussaint Caroline A 1 * , Médale Françoise 2 , Davenel Armel 1 , Fauconneau Benoît 1 ,Haffray Pierrick 1 , Akoka Serge 1Determination of the lipid content in fish muscle by a self-calibrated NMR relaxometrymethod: comparison with classical chemical extraction methodsNMR for fish fat analysis has an accuracy of below 1% (one manufacturer quotes 0.88%: seeBibliography below). One quote obtained for an NMR machine was in the region of £34,000.See Bibliography for:Bruker Optics/SINTEFRapid measurements of fat content in live salmon.See Bibliography for:Oxford InstrumentsDetermination of Oil and Moisture Content in Fish Feed: Application Note, NMRSee Bibliography for:Not KnownPersonal Communications, October, 2007, with Michael J. Taylor, Calibre Control International Ltd.As obtained when purchasing your NIR machine.Personal Communications, October, 2007, with Steve O’Halloran, Foss B&I.Page 18/40

equirements for fish fat or fatty acid analysis. Each change in the calibration equation isgiven a new file number so the operator can revert to an earlier equation if necessary 32 .Please note that carrying out the previous procedures, while testing the purchaser’sown samples, can only be done if there is no contract with a Calibration Company limitingthe use and development of their software. The purchaser would also have to check thatupdates from a Calibration Company did not automatically over-ride their own newly builtupequations.32Personal Communications, October, 2007, with Steve O’Halloran, Foss B&I.Page 19/40

1.4.9 Part of Cycle for Building Calibration Equations ‘In House’Fish tested using an originalNIRS Calibration EquationObtained with machine(e.g. File name Cod 02)NIRS detects spectraldata askew by certain amountNOYESNIRS produces an outliershowing a bad matchOperator decision to allowNIRS machine softwareto produce a new calibrationequation built on the old oneNOYESCalibration equation built upfrom old oneand given a new file namee.g. Cod 003Page 20/40

1.4.10 Periodic Checking Of Calibration EquationsSince the area of use of NIR with fish analysis is still developing, to ensure that youare using and/or developing a reasonably accurate General or Global Calibration Equationthen it is possible to build in a periodic check against Soxhlet or NMR for percentage fatanalysis of fish and Gas Chromatography methods for fatty acid content of fish. Severalcompanies and organisations use these checks on their calibrations 33 34 35 .1.4.10.1 Cycle For Periodic Checking of Calibration EquationsNIR READINGPERCENTAGE FISH FATFATTY ACID CONTENTSOXHLET READINGFOR PERCENTAGEFISH FATGAS CHROMATOGRAPHREADING FOR FATTYACIDSYES MATCHES NIR READING REPEATNOADJUST CALIBRATIONOF NIR MACHINENO ADJUSTMENTOF NIR MACHINE33 Skretting ARC/Nutreco do their own ‘in-house’ checks for their Stavanger fish analyses.Marine Harvest send to Skretting ARC/Nutreco in Stavangar, Norway for checks on their calibrationequations.Shetland Catch carry out Soxhlet checks on their NIRS machine used for percentage fat analysisusing the services of NAFC Marine Centre, Shetland.34 See Bibliography for:Bassompierre Marc,* Munck Lars, Bro Rasmus and Engelsen Søren BallingRapid dioxin assessment in fish products by fatty acid pattern recognition35 Personal Communications with Ørjan Breivik, Skretting ARC/Nutreco, Norway October, 2007Personal Communications with Tony Laidler, Marine Harvest, Scotland October, 2007Personal Communications with Paul Ratter, Shetland Catch, Shetland, Scotland October, 2007Page 21/40

1.5 Studies Involving the Use of NIRS in Comparison to SoxhletWARNING NOTE: Any study comparing NIRS to Soxhlet (or GasChromatography) ends up assuming that the errors are due to NIRS. In fact the statisticsonly show how closely the two methods correlate (agree) with each other and not whichone is producing the errors. Soxhlet itself is not an error free method. Research availableon the internet has largely made the assumption that the errors are due to NIRS (not veryeasy to prove however generally accepted!)1.5.1 Japanese study of the percentage of fat in mackerel 36NIRS: Dispersive type NIRS with fibre optic probeDate of publication: 2004The following describes (statistically) a Japanese study of mackerel using NIR witha probe before carrying out analysis with Soxhlet oil extraction (with diethylether as thesolvent) as the standard. The NIR spectra used a dispersive-type NIR instrument and afibre optic probe (which was designed for use with this analysis).For calibration using 54 mackerelThe results (using 4 wavelengths) were:Frozen fish: Correlation coefficient: 0.95 Standard Error: 2.69%Thawed fish: Correlation coefficient: 0.97 Standard Error: 2.07%For validation using 53 mackerel for measurementFrozen fish: Standard error of prediction (bias): 2.88%(-0.75%)Thawed fish: Standard error of prediction (bias): 2.14%(-0.31%)As can be seen, using the NIRS on thawed fish produced more accurate results.Results for 1 wavelength (926nm)Results for 4 wavelengthsFrozen fish: Correlation coefficient: -0.93 Correlation coefficient: 0.95Thawed fish: Correlation coefficient: -0.95 Correlation coefficient: 0.97Comments:Statistically, a reasonably high degree of correlation is shown between thetwo methods with a standard error of between 2% and 3%.General Learning Points:1. The importance of correct calibration was shown in more accurate results beingproduced by using 4 wavelengths rather than 1 wavelength.2. A variation in the results for thawed and frozen fish was shown and to remove suchdiscrepancy from results a decision should be made on whether fresh, frozen orthawed fish should be used and their age and storage so that results are comparablebetween samples.36See Bibliography for:Shimamoto, J., Hasegawa, K., Sato, M., Kawano, S.Non-destructive determination of fat content in frozen and thawed mackerel by near infraredspectroscopyPage 22/40

1.5.2 Irish study of oil in farmed salmon 37 Date of publication: 1996NIRS: NIRS with fibre optic probe.An Irish study used NIR spectroscopy with a fibre optic probe to measure oil infarmed salmon.ResultsDorsal calibration: Best result: Standard error of prediction for oil: 2.0%Ventral calibration: Best result: Standard error of prediction for oil: 2.4%Researchers’ ConclusionsThe researchers sited the use of NIRS as applicable only when ‘approximations ofoil … content’ were required 38 .3738See Bibliography for:Downey G.Non invasive and non-destructive percutaneous analysis of farmed salmon flesh by near infraredspectroscopy.See footnote 13.Page 23/40

1.5.3 Irish study of different methods for testing fat content in herring 39Date of publication: 2002Another Irish study investigated a variety of methods for testing the fat content inherring. Soxhlet was used as the standard with NIR, Torry meter, microwave method andfexIKA being tested. The NIR method gave the best results in comparison to the Soxhletmethod and was deemed to meet the industry standard for a rapid procedure in Ireland.MethodMeetsIndustryStandardfor rapidprocedureOrder ofperformancein comparisonto SoxhletUse ofsolventextractionNIR Yes 1 ExpensiveMICROWAVETORRYMETERFexIKACost Advantages DisadvantagesMinimaloperatorskillsYes 2 Low ‘Attentiveoperator’YesYLowon asamplebasisMinimaloperatorskillsVariation inresults withdifferentoperatorsResultsaffected bywatercontent/dryness of fish flesh39See Bibliography for:Vogt, A., Gormley, T.R., Downey, G. and Somers, J. (2002).A comparison of selected rapid methods methods for measuring the fat content of herrings(Clupea harengus).Page 24/40

1.6 NIRS and Fatty AcidsA Gas Chromatograph can, with a high degree of accuracy result in quantifiableresults for a large range of fatty acids (depending on points already noted previously).Most current NIR machines can potentially produce (usually with a lower degree ofaccuracy) sufficiently accurate and quantifiable results for a range of fatty acid families,e.g. the sum of Omega 3s, depending on the calibration equations being used. MarineHarvest, Scotland and Skretting ARC/Nutreco, Norway already use NIRS with sufficientlyaccurate results for family groups of fatty acids (see the individual case study on MarineHarvest, Scotland, later in this report).For individual fatty acids, for example, cod has 13 fatty acids according to Tacon 40 ,there may be problems with identifying individual fatty acids with sufficient accuracy andreliability for some applications. In theory, this should be possible with correctprogramming and calibration equations but the researcher was unable to find any actualpractical results for individual fatty acid analysis in fish on the internet or otherwise.Since individual fatty acids can be identified from Gas Chromatography withsufficient column lengths, a standard exists for the calibration of an NIRS machine for theidentification of individual fatty acids. The problems with doing this in practice may occurdue to fatty acids in particular groups producing very similar spectra on an NIRS machinedue to their similar molecular structures 41 . This would make them difficult to separatefrom each other unless very accurate calibration is undertaken. Also, some fatty acids maybe present only in very small quantities making them harder to detect 42 .NIRS is already widely used to find the fatty acid composition of oil in seeds 43 . Itdoes not appear to be so widely used to find the fatty acid composition of fish.40414243See Bibliography for page 9 of:Choct Mingan, Naylor Adam, Oddy Hutton and Nolan JohnIncreasing Efficiency of Lean Tissue Deposition in Broiler ChickensPersonal Communications, October, 2007 with Ørjan Breivik, Skretting ARC/Nutreco.Personal Communications, October, 2007 with Ørjan Breivik, Skretting ARC/Nutreco.See Bibliography for:Velasco Leonardo 1 , Möllers Christian, and Becker Heiko C.Screening For Quality Traits In Single Seeds Of Rapeseed By Near-Infrared ReflectanceSpectroscopy.Page 25/40

1.7 Studies Involving the Use of NIRS To Determine Fatty Acids And StudiesShowing The Ability of NIRS to Distinguish Between Similar Molecules1.7.1 A Study by Afseth and colleagues on a chemical imitation of fish 44Date of Publication: 2005The results of this study showed that NIRS provided good results in analysing thesaturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fat in the chemical fish imitation mix.Errors were between 2 and 7% for the total range of fatty acid content.1.7.2 Rapeseed Analysis for Different Fatty Acids 45Date of Publication: 1999In this study reliable equations were obtained with values of r squared of0.89 and above for the following fatty acids:Oleic acid: r 2 = 0.90 Standard error: 8.3%Glucosinolate: r 2 = 0.90 Standard error: 10.3 µmol g -1Erucic acid: r 2 = 0.90 Standard error: 6.3%Equations were obtained for linoleic and linolenic acids but these were ofconsiderably less accuracy.Conclusions:The report concluded that NIRS was a viable alternative to Gas Chromatography.1.7.3 Study of Tocepherols in Alfalfa Showing the Ability of NIRS toDistinguish Between Similar Molecules When Compared toChromatographic Methods 46 Date: 2007NIRS:Chemical Comparison:NIRS with a Remote Reflectance Fibre-Optic ProbeAlkaline hydrolysis, extraction with hexane, fraction,chromatographic determinationResults for 69 samplesα-tocopherol Range: 0.55 to 5.16 mg/100gPrediction Corrected Standard Errors: 0.946,(β + γ)-tocopherol Range: 0.07 to 0.48 mg/100gPrediction Corrected Standard Errors: 0.9560.321mg/100g0.022 mg/100g444546See Bibliography for:Ingenta ConnectSee Bibliography for:Velasco Leonardo 1 , Möllers Christian, and Becker Heiko C.Screening For Quality Traits In Single Seeds Of Rapeseed By Near-Infrared ReflectanceSpectroscopy.See Bibliography for:González-Martín M., Hernández-Hierro J., Bustamante-Rangel M., Barros-Ferreiro N.Use of NIRS Technology with a Remote Reflectance Fibre-Optic Probe for PredictingTocopherols in AlfalfaPage 26/40

The above were comparable to the chemical results according to the researchers.CommentsNIRS is capable of distinguishing between compounds with relatively similarstructures.1.7.4 Study of Fatty Acids in Cheese Comparing NIRS and GasChromatography 47 Date: 2007NIRS: NIRS with a standard 210/210 bundle remote reflectance fibre-optic probeSample number:92 cheesesMade from cow’s, ewe’s, goat’s milk.Number of fatty acids determined using NIRS: 8 (C10:0, C12:0, C14:1, C16:1,C17:1, C18:0, C18:1, C18:2)Results:C10.0Multiple correlation coefficient 0.917 Prediction corrected standard error 0.581C12.0Multiple correlation coefficient 0.922 Prediction corrected standard error 0.255C14.1Multiple correlation coefficient 0.991 Prediction corrected standard error 0.019C16:1Multiple correlation coefficient 0.705 Prediction corrected standard error 0.240C17:1Multiple correlation coefficient 0.980 Prediction corrected standard error 0.006C18:0Multiple correlation coefficient 0.833 Prediction corrected standard error 0.915C18:1Multiple correlation coefficient 0.601 Prediction corrected standard error 1.219C18:2Multiple correlation coefficient 0.822 Prediction corrected standard error 0.344Comment:While there were high correlation coefficients (over 0.90) with 4 fatty acids, theprediction corrected standard error was only relatively low for 3 of these (under 0.300).47See Bibliography for:González-Martín M., Hernández-Hierro J., Morón-Sánchez R., Salvador- Esteban J., Vivar-Quintana1 A., Revilla- Martín I.Determination of Fatty Acid in Cheese by Near Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) with a Fibre-Optic ProbePage 27/40

1.8 SCOTTISH CASE STUDIES1.8.1 Individual Case Study: Marine Harvest, Scotland48 49Date of Contact: October, 2007Marine Harvest in Scotland use a Foss NIRS machine for thedetermination of pigment, oil and fatty acids in salmon. Note, the Fossmachine does not use a probe but homogenised samples. The same NIRS machineis used to detect pigment, oil and to give a breakdown of the amounts ofindividual fatty acids (including EPA, DHA, all Omega 3,all Omega 6 fattyacids, all of monoenes and all saturated fatty acids).1.8.1.1 Calibration of Marine Harvest NIRS machineInitially Marine Harvest built their own calibration equations and were able toconsult with Foss while doing so. They have moved on from this, to work with Skretting inStavanger, Norway. Skretting ARC/Nutreco now supply Marine Harvest with calibrationequations, including updates and corrections as needed. The Skretting/Marine HarvestCalibration Equations are machine specific. The Foss Analytical NIRS6500 machine isused with the NIR Transport system.Marine Harvest send approximately 6 lots of 10 flesh samples of salmon a year,with Marine Harvests' NIRS results, to Sketting ARC/Nutreco. Skretting ARC/Nutrecoanalyse the flesh samples using Soxhlet and Gas Chromatography. Skretting ARC/Nutrecocompare the two sets of results and supply any corrections needed for the Marine HarvestNIRS machine calibration. This is similar to a 'pay-as-you-go' scheme.1.8.1.2 Results of Marine Harvest NIRS machine as compared withSoxhlet and Gas ChromatographyTotal fat content Standard Error of Calibration (SECV): +/- 1 %Fatty AcidsEPA Standard Error of Calibration (SECV): +/- 0.12 %DHA Standard Error of Calibration (SECV): +/- 0.20 %Sum omega 3 Standard Error of Calibration (SECV): +/- 0.35 %Sum omega 6 Standard Error of Calibration (SECV): +/- 0.32 %Sum saturated fatty acids Standard Error of Calibration (SECV): +/- 0.36 %Sum monoenes Standard Error of Calibration (SECV): +/- 0.54 %48 Personal Communications, October, 2007, with Tony Laidler, Marine Harvest, Scotland.49 Personal Communications, October, 2007 with Ørjan Breivik, Skretting ARC/Nutreco.Page 28/40

Note: The results are as a % of sample. This means that the Standard Error of Calibration(SECV) gives the figure to add and take away from the result obtained with the NIRSmachine to give the range, the actual value lies in.Made Up ExamplesTotal Fat Content Result: 6%Actual Result: Between 5% and 7%EPA Result: 1% of sampleActual Result: Between 0.88 and 1.12 %Fatty Acid as a Percentage of Total FatThis can be calculated by using the total fat result if needed.Page 29/40

1.9 Conclusions1.9.1 ACCURACYIf a high degree of accuracy (not error free!) is required then the ‘wet chemical’methods of Soxhlet (for percentage fish fat analysis) and Gas Chromatography (for fattyacid analysis) should continue to be used.1.9.1.1 Accuracy and Percentage Fish Fat AnalysisIf a high degree of accuracy (not error free!) is required then the ‘wet chemical’method of Soxhlet (for percentage fish fat analysis) should continue to be used.However, NIRS has generally proved a reliable and comparatively accuratealternative to Soxhlet in the analysis of grain, mainly because reasonably accurateCalibration Equations for Specific through to Global situations are available. This showsthat NIRS technology has the potential to be used in the field of percentage fat analysis offish.The new developments in the use of NIRS in percentage fish fat analysis show thaterrors can be as high as +/- 1% for homogenised samples. The latter error figure comesfrom the Marine Harvest/Skretting ARC/Nutreco results earlier in this report 50 .For NIRS machines using a fibre optic probe, the errors can be much higheralthough they can with specific use (e.g. dorsal measurements only) be limited to 2% to3%. The latter error was seen as acceptable for percentage fish fat analysis and wasdeemed as meeting Irish industry standards. The latter uses the results of an Irish Study(2002) mentioned earlier in this report 51 .1.9.1.2 Accuracy and Fatty Acid AnalysisIf a high degree of accuracy (not error free!) is required then the ‘wet chemical’method of Gas Chromatography (for fatty acid analysis) should continue to be used.1.9.1.2.1 Accuracy and Identification of Percentages ofParticular Groups of Fatty Acids (for example:EPA, DHA, sum on Omega 3, sum of Omega 6,sum of monoemes)If identification of particular groups of fatty acids (see above title for examples)then the Marine Harvest/Skretting ARC/Nutreco data mentioned earlier in this report showsthat NIRS can measure the quantities of these groups with a reasonable degree of accuracy.5051Personal Communications, October, 2007 with Ørjan Breivik, Skretting ARC/Nutreco.Personal Communications, October, 2007 with Tony Laidler, Marine Harvest, Scotland.Refers to the Irish Study comparing different methods for measuring the fat content in herringsmentioned earlier in the report.See Bibliography for:Vogt, A., Gormley, T.R., Downey, G. and Somers, J. (2002).A comparison of selected rapid methods methods for measuring the fat content of herrings(Clupea harengus).Page 30/40

Errors for the data for 2007 were recorded as all under +/- 0.55 % in comparison to GasChromatography.1.9.1.2.2 Accuracy and Identification of Percentages ofIndividual Fatty AcidsIf each particular fatty acid needs to be identified rather than sums of particulargroups of fatty acids (see previous paragraph), then it is possible that Gas Chromatographyis the better method at this stage of NIRS development due to the low level of dataavailable on the internet for fish analysis.However, the possibility exists that individual fatty acids can be identified using anNIRS machine and that the machine can be calibrated from Gas Chromatography (usingsufficient length of columns for accuracy). There may be difficulties, due to individualfatty acids, with similar molecular structures, producing very similar spectra using NIRS 52 .Also, small quantities of some individual fatty acids in fish may make them difficult toidentify using NIRS 53 . There is at least one company that is willing to check for the abilityto identify individual fatty acids using NIRS. This may well be advisable beforeconsidering buying an NIRS machine for the specific purpose of identifying individual fattyacids.Some of the research in other fields of analysis (NOT fish!), looked at previously inthis report, suggests that NIRS is capable of distinguishing between very similar molecules.Many of the studies made use of attachments such as probes to the NIR machines whichmay well have given less accurate readings. Some reasonable correlation coefficients wereobtained (0.9 and above) but some of the error rates were unacceptable.1.9.2 COSTHardware initial outlay:Software initial outlay:The initial outlay for NIRS needs to be considered since thisis in the region of £25,000 for a mini spectrometer. A fullsize NIRS machine (for example, a diode array instrument),using a cup system for homogenised samples, may cost in theregion of £35,000 - £45,000 54 .The initial outlay for the NIRS software will varyaccording to the requirements of the purchaser and whether acontract with a Calibration Service is purchased.For a ‘starter calibration’ with the NIRS machine: Onecompany has stated that 30 to 50 samples would be requiredfor this calibration to be specific to the user 55 .52535455Personal Communications, October, 2007 with Ørjan Breivik, Skretting ARC/Nutreco.Personal Communications, October, 2007 with Ørjan Breivik, Skretting ARC/Nutreco.Quotes obtained from individual companies have been withheld for the purposes of this report.Costs supplied by individual companies have been handed over directly to commissioners of thisreport. If individual contact details are required for companies, then the author of the report can becontacted using the emails at the start of this report.See previous footnote.Page 31/40

Ongoing outlay:For a ‘starter calibration’ with an ongoing calibrationagreement with the same company: One quoteobtained was in the region of £660 excluding the cost ofsending the NIRS machine to the company carrying out thecalibration 56 .Ongoing outlay for NIRS depends on whether a CalibrationService is employed.If a Calibration Company is not employed, then the costs ofperiodic maintenance of equipment and the time involved incarrying out Soxhlet and Gas Chromatography (to check themachines accuracy) need to be factored in.If a Calibration Company is employed, the costs involvedmay include:a) Cost of ongoing use of software and the ‘person’ hoursinvolved in assisting the purchaser with calibration. Onequote obtained was in the region of £2,240 57 .b) Cost of sending validation samples to the CalibrationCompany. One quote obtained was in the region of £4,200for 6 validations per year, excluding postage 58 .1.9.3 THROUGHPUTNIRS has a considerably faster throughput of samples than either Soxhlet or GasChromatography. Once the sample has been homogenised, an NIR machine takesapproximately 45 seconds per sample to provide both percentage fat analysis and fatty acidcontent.1.9.4 REASONS TO CHOOSE SOXHLET FOR PERCENTAGE FATANALYSISThe biggest reasons to choose Soxhlet are its high level of accuracy and knownreliability of performance for different species of fish from different sources. It is also anindustry wide accepted method for its accuracy of results.1.9.5 REASONS TO CHOOSE GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY FOR FATTYACID ANALYSISThe biggest reasons to choose Gas Chromatography are its high level of accuracyand known reliability of performance for different species of fish from different sources. Itis also an industry wide accepted method for its accuracy of results.565758See previous footnote.Quotes obtained from individual companies have been withheld for the purposes of this report.Costs supplied by individual companies have been handed over directly to commissioners of thisreport. If individual contact details are required for companies, then the author of the report can becontacted using the emails at the start of this report.See previous footnote.Page 32/40

1.9.6 REASONS TO CHOOSE NIRS FOR PERCENTAGE FAT ANALYSISAND FATTY ACID ANALYSIS1. The NIRS machine can be used on the same sample to give both thereadings for Percentage Fat Content and Fatty Acid Analysis in one analysistime 59 .2. This means, in a laboratory already using Soxhlet and Gas Chromatography,they can both be replaced by the same NIRS machine.3. NIRS has a very fast sample throughput. The quotes obtained for analysistimes for one sample, homogenised and placed in a cup, were all 45 secondsand under 60 . Sample throughput is further speeded up by the use ofdisposable cups so that the NIRS equipment does not require cleaningbetween samples (your equipment for homogenising each sample is anothermatter!).4. NIRS machines can be attached to computers making it easy to save results.5. NIRS requires a trained operator but not one with the level of skill requiredto use Soxhlet and Gas Chromatography. This means that in a laboratoryalready using the later two methods of analysis, a skilled technician can befreed for other duties 61 .6. NIRS is now used by recognised companies in the fish industry forPercentage Fat Analysis. For example, Marine Harvest, Skretting ARC andShetland Catch.7. NIRS is now used by recognised companies in the fish industry forquantification of particular groups of fatty acids. For example, MarineHarvest, Scotland and Skretting ARC, Norway.8. There is a wide field of NIRS research available in other fields to show thatNIRS can be used by big industries reliably to give accuratedata in comparison to Soxhlet and Gas Chromatography. For example, inthe grain industry to give percentage fat, moisture and protein content.9. Since the use of NIRS in the fish industry is a developing field, thepurchaser could take part in this area of research development and possibleproduction of Calibration Equations, if they chose to do so.10. Since NIRS is a developing field, a student could possibly be provided witha research project involving the use of NIRS. This research may even bepossibly undertaken in parallel with the NIR machine being used for sampletesting for other reasons.596061This is providing a machine using a homogenised sample put on a sample dish in the machine foranalysis rather than one with a probe is used.Source withheld but can be verified from manufacturers and other users in the field.Source withheld but can be verified from manufacturers and other users in the field.Apart from periodic checks of calibration equations if these checks are to be done ‘in-house’.Page 33/40

1.10 AbbreviationsARCDEFRAFOSS B&IKIMONIRNIRSAquaculture Research Centre (Skretting ARC/Nutreco, Stavanger, Norway)Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, Government, UnitedKingdomhttp://www.defra.gov.uk/Foss in Britain and Irelandwww.foss.dkKommunenes Internasjonale Miljorganisasjon (Local AuthoritiesInternational Environmental Organisation)http://www.kimointernational.org/Near Infrared (Near Infra-Red)Near Infrared (Near Infra-Red) SpectroscopyPage 34/40

1.11 BibliographyArticles:Websites:Articles are listed by author/s (in bold and italics) and then followed by thetitle of their paper (in bold).Websites are listed where possible by the name of the group whom thewebsite represents. Dates are given for website updates where these existfor particular pages on the website. Where the website page clearly states itsauthor, then this has also been included.Clicking on the URL (in blue or pink) will take you to the particular pageused.Parent websites for each specific URL can be found from the URL:e.g. URL: http://www.teagasc.ie/ashtown/research/……..Parent site – first section of URL: http://www.teagasc.ieAll websites in this report were accessed in September and October, 2007.Ashtown Food Research Centre, Irelandhttp://www.teagasc.ie/ashtown/research/preparedfoods/overviewofseafoodtechnology.htmWebsite Last Updated: March, 2006Azizian H, Kramer J.K.G., Kamalian A.R., Hernandez M., Mossoba M.M. and Winsborough S.L.Quantification of trans fatty acids in food products by GC, ATR-FTIR and FT-NIR methods.Reprinted from Lipid Technology, Vol.16, No.10, Pages 229–231, October, 2004 with permissionfrom the publisher, ©PJ Barnes & Associates, Bridgwater, UKhttp://www.nirtechnologies.com/PDF/LipidTechnology.pdfBarton II, Franklin E. (USDA Agricultural Research Service)Theory and Principles of Near Infrared SpectroscopyReproduced from the Proceedings of the 10 th International NIR ConferencePublisher: NIR publicationsCopyright: Spectroscopy Europe 2002http://www.spectroscopyeurope.com/NIR_14_01.pdfWebsite Last Updated: 14/1/2002Bassompierre Marc,* Munck Lars, Bro Rasmus and Engelsen Søren BallingRapid dioxin assessment in fish products by fatty acid pattern recognitionThe Analyst , 129 , 553 – 558, 553 2004Received 21st January 2004, Accepted 23rd March 2004First published as an Advance Article on the web 20th April 2004http://www.rsc.org/delivery/_ArticleLinking/DisplayArticleForFree.cfm?doi=b401036a&JournalCode=ANBrimrose CorporationThe Measurement of % Protein, % Oil, And % Moisture in Fish Feed Using AOTF-NIRSpectroscopyApplication Report # Food5Food5.docObtained through personal communications with Igor Nazarov (nazarov@brimrose.com)www.brimrose.comBrimrose CorporationMeasuring Fat and Moisture in Meat Products Using AOTF-NIR SpectroscopyApplication Report # Food8Food8.doc Obtained through personal communications with Igor Nazarov (nazarov@brimrose.com)www.brimrose.comPage 35/40

Bruker OpticsFT-NIR Calibrations for feed: fishApplication note: AF # 245 EAF245_Ingot_Feed_Fish_Flyer.pdfObtained through personal communications with Nektaria Servi (nektaria.servi@optics.bruker.co.uk)www.bruker.co.ukBruker OpticsIsolated trans Content DeterminationDetermination of trans fatty acids in edible fat and oil products.Application note: AF # 216 Eftir AF216E_fatty-acids.pdfObtained through personal communications with Nektaria Servi (nektaria.servi@optics.bruker.co.uk)www.bruker.co.ukBruker Optics/SINTEFRapid measurements of fat content in live salmon.nmr salmon_application.pdfObtained through personal communications with Nektaria Servi (nektaria.servi@optics.bruker.co.uk)www.bruker.co.ukChoct Mingan, Naylor Adam, Oddy Hutton and Nolan JohnIncreasing Efficiency of Lean Tissue Deposition in Broiler ChickensA report for the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation by University of NewEnglandRIRDC Publication No 98/123 RIRDC Project No UNE-54A, Page 9, August, 2000http://www.rirdc.gov.au/reports/CME/98-123.pdfCozzolino D. a, , Murray I. a , Chree A. b and Scaife J.R. cMultivariate determination of free fatty acids and moisture in fish oils by partial least-squaresregression and near-infrared spectroscopya Animal Biology Division, Scottish Agricultural College, Ferguson Building, Craibstone State,Aberdeen AB21 9YA, Scotland, UKb United Fish Products Ltd., Tullos, Aberdeen AB12 3AY, Scotland, UKc Department of Agriculture, University of Aberdeen, MacRobert Building, Aberdeen, AB12 5UA,Scotland, UKLWT - Food Science and Technology, Volume 38, Issue 8, Pages 821-828, December 2005Received 27 May 2004; revised 6 October 2004; accepted 26 October 2004. Available online 15December 2004.http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WMV-4F1GRCH-1&_user=10&_coverDate=12%2F31%2F2005&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=d070d8f61fe5b9e502d52bb64c546b18Website Last Updated: 10/03/2007Downey G.Non invasive and non-destructive percutaneous analysis of farmed salmon flesh by near infraredspectroscopy.Food Chemistry, 55, 305-311, 1996Cited on the website of Ashtown Food Research Centre, Irelandhttp://www.teagasc.ie/ashtown/research/preparedfoods/overviewofseafoodtechnology.htmWebsite Last Updated: March, 2006Endo Yashi, Tagiri – Endo Misako, Kimura KenichiroRapid Determination of Iodine Value and Saponification Value of Fish Oils by Near-InfraredSpectroscopyJournal of Food Science, Volume 70 Issue 2 Page C127-C131, March 2005http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2005.tb07072.xPage 36/40

Foss AnalyticalA Soxtec TM for every needFoss AnalyticalObtained through personal communications with Alastair MacLennan (amaclennan@foss.co.uk)Foss B&Iwww.foss.dkFoss AnalyticalInfraXact TM Lab/ProFoss AnalyticalObtained through personal communications with Alastair MacLennan (amaclennan@foss.co.uk)Foss B&Iwww.foss.dkFoss Analytical ABFeed & Forage Analyzer Model TR-3750-CFoss Analytical ABObtained through personal communications with Alastair MacLennan (amaclennan@foss.co.uk)Foss B&Iwww.foss.dkFoss Tecator ABSoxtec TM System 2047 SoxCapTMFoss Tecator ABObtained through personal communications with Alastair MacLennan (amaclennan@foss.co.uk)Foss B&Iwww.foss.dkFoss Tecator ABMill CollectionFoss Tecator ABObtained through personal communications with Alastair MacLennan (amaclennan@foss.co.uk)Foss B&Iwww.foss.dkFreepatentsonlineWebsite for online patentsSpecific patent:FT-NIR fatty acid determination methodDocument Type and Number: United States Patent 20050250213Kind Code: A1http://www.freepatentsonline.com/20050250213.htmlWebsite Last Updated: 10/03/2007González-Martín M., Hernández-Hierro J., Bustamante-Rangel M., Barros-Ferreiro N.Use of NIRS Technology with a Remote Reflectance Fibre-Optic Probe for PredictingTocopherols in AlfalfaUniversidad de Salamanca, Spain.Abstract, The 13th International Conference on Near Infrared Spectroscopy (13th ICNIRS) inUmeå-Vasa, Sweden & Finland, 15-21 June, 2007.http://www.nir2007.com/abstracts/system/poster_b/B-06_30.pdfWebsite Last Updated: 10-May-2007Page 37/40

González-Martín M., Hernández-Hierro J., Morón-Sánchez R., Salvador- Esteban J., Vivar-Quintana1 A., Revilla- Martín I.Determination of Fatty Acid in Cheese by Near Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) with a Fibre-Optic ProbeUniversidad de Salamanca, SpainAbstract, The 13th International Conference on Near Infrared Spectroscopy (13th ICNIRS) inUmeå-Vasa, Sweden & Finland, 15-21 June, 2007.http://www.nir2007.com/abstracts/system/poster_b/B-18_64.pdfWebsite Last Updated: 10-May-2007Greenwood C.F. 2 , Allen J.A. 1 , Leong A.S. 2 , Pallot T.N. 1 , Golder T.M. 1 and Golebiowski T. 1An Investigation Of The Stability Of NIRS Calibrations For The Analysis Of Oil Content InWhole Seed Canola1 Ag-Seed Research Pty Ltd, PO Box 836, Horsham Victoria 3402 , Australiajacquie.allen@nre.vic.gov.au2 Agriculture Victoria, Victorian Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Private Bag 260, HorshamVictoria 3401, Australia. claire.greenwood@nre.vic.gov.au.The 10 th International Rapeseed Conference, Canberra, Australia, 1999http://www.regional.org.au/au/gcirc/1/572b.htmIngenta ConnectWebsite for Ingenta Connecthttp://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/sas/sas/2005/00000059/00000011/art00010Koca N. *, , Rodriguez-Saona L. E. * , Harper W. J. * and Alvarez V. B. *,1Application of Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy for Monitoring Short-Chain FreeFatty Acids in Swiss Cheese* Department of Food Science and Technology, The Ohio State University, 110 Parker Food Scienceand Technology Building, 2015 Fyffe Rd., Columbus 43210Department of Food Engineering, Ege University, 35100 Bornova, Izmir, Turkey1 Corresponding author: alvarez.23@osu.eduJournal of Dairy Science, Issue 90, Pages 3596-3603, 2007© 2007 American Dairy Science Associationhttp://jds.fass.org/cgi/content/abstract/90/8/3596Website Last Updated: 10/03/2007Lagardere Lionel, Lechat Hervé, Lacoste FlorenceDétermination de l’acidité et de l’indice de peroxyde dans les huiles d’olive vierges et dans leshuiles raffinées par spectrométrie proche infrarouge à transformée de FourierOleagineux, Corps Gras, Lipides, Volume 11, Numero 1, 70-5, Janvier/Fevrier 2004http://www.john-libbey-eurotext.fr/fr/revues/agro_biotech/ocl/edocs/00/04/03/9E/article.md?type=text.htmlWebsite Last Updated: 10/01/2007MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, FISHERIES AND FOOD: CSG 15MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, FISHERIES AND FOOD: CSG 15Research and Development, Final Project Report, Page 3, 2001http://www.defra.gov.uk/science/Project_Data/DocumentLibrary/LS3609/LS3609_151_FRP.pdfPage 38/40

Nielsen Durita, Hyldig Grethe, Nielsen Jette and Nielsen Henrik HauchLipid content in herring (Clupea harengus L.)—influence of biological factors and comparisonof different methods of analyses: solvent extraction, Fatmeter, NIR and NMR[Department of Seafood Research (DIFRES), Danish Institute for Fisheries Research, TechnicalUniversity of Denmark, Søltofts Plads, Building 221, DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark]Received 18 November 2003; revised 24 March 2004; accepted 20 July 2004. Available online 3September 2004.Food Science and Technology, Volume 38, Issue 5, Pages 537-548, August, 2005http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WMV-4D7K1B1-3&_user=10&_coverDate=08%2F31%2F2005&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=17ea48f98b8d9e88b8e237b007e8f421Not knownhttp://www.jle.com/fr/revues/agro_biotech/ocl/e-docs/00/03/34/9E/article.md?type=text.htmlWebsite Last Updated: 10/01/2007Olsen Elisabeth Fjærvoll a, , Rukke Elling-Olav a , Flåtten Audun b and Isaksson Tomas aMeat Science, Quantitative determination of saturated-, monounsaturated- andpolyunsaturated fatty acids in pork adipose tissue with non-destructive Raman spectroscopya Department of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food Science, Norwegian University of LifeSciences, P.O. Box 5036, N-1432 Ås, Norwayb Norwegian Meat Research Centre, P.O. Box 396, Økern, N-0513 Oslo, NorwayVolume 76, Issue 4, Pages 628-634, August, 2007.Received 9 March 2006; revised 9 January 2007; accepted 2 February 2007. Available online 21February 2007.http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T9G-4N3P09Y-2&_user=10&_coverDate=08%2F31%2F2007&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=11a8afd6b8a49bd24d2a3a231f9b3268Website Last Updated: 10/03/2007.Oxford InstrumentsDetermination of Oil and Moisture Content in Fish Feed: Application Note, NMRhttp://www.oxford-instruments.com/wps/wcm/resources/file/eb039a40f4c915c/Oil_in_fish.pdfPrevolnik M. 1 , Candek-Potokar N. 1 , Skorjanc D. 2Ability of NIR spectroscopy to predict meat chemical composition and quality – a review1Agricultural Institute of Slovenia, Ljubljana, Slovenia2Faculty of Agriculture, University of Maribor, Maribor, SloveniaCzech J. Anim. Sci., 49, (11): Pages 500–510, 2004http://www.kis.si/datoteke/File/kis/EN/ZIV/pig/1-ability_of_NIRS.pdfShimamoto Junji, Hiratsuka Seiichi, Hasegawa Kaoru, Sato Minoru, Kawano SumioRapid non-destructive determination of fat content in frozen skipjack using a portable nearinfrared spectrophotometerFisheries Science 69 (4), 856–860, 2003http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1444-2906.2003.00698.xShimamoto, J., Hasegawa, K., Sato, M., Kawano, S.Non-destructive determination of fat content in frozen and thawed mackerel by near infraredspectroscopy.Author Affiliation: Shizuoka Prefectural Fisheries Experiment Station, Yaizu, Shizuoka 425-0033,Japan.Fisheries Science, Vol. 70, No. 2, Pages 345-347, 2004http://www.cababstractsplus.org/google/abstract.asp?AcNo=20043082919Website Last Updated: 10/01/2007Page 39/40

Toussaint Caroline A 1 * , Médale Françoise 2 , Davenel Armel 1 , Fauconneau Benoît 1 ,Haffray Pierrick 1 , Akoka Serge 1Determination of the lipid content in fish muscle by a self-calibrated NMR relaxometrymethod: comparison with classical chemical extraction methodshttp://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgibin/abstract/88513699/ABSTRACT?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0Website Last Updated: 10/01/2007Velasco Leonardo 1 , Möllers Christian, and Becker Heiko C.Screening For Quality Traits In Single Seeds Of Rapeseed By Near-Infrared ReflectanceSpectroscopy.10 th international rapeseed conference, Canberra, Australia, 1999http://www.regional.org.au/au/gcirc/1/396.htma, b, c,Viljoen M. a, b , Hoffman L.C. b and Brand T.S.Prediction of the chemical composition of freeze dried ostrich meat with near infraredreflectance spectroscopya Department of Animal Sciences, Elsenburg Agricultural Research Centre, Private Bag X1,Elsenburg 7607, South Africab Department of Animal Sciences, University of Stellenbosch, Private Bag X1, Matieland 7602, SouthAfricac Department of Anatomy & Physiology, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X04, Onderstepoort0110, South AfricaMeat Science, Volume 69, Issue 2, Pages 255-261, February, 2005.Received 8 June 2003; revised 12 July 2004; accepted 16 July 2004. Available online 11September 2004.http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T9G-4D98JYP-3&_user=10&_coverDate=02%2F01%2F2005&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=cb7c9464d64490df7a2f681e9b0bff9bVogt, A., Gormley, T.R., Downey, G. and Somers, J. (2002).A comparison of selected rapid methods methods for measuring the fat content of herrings(Clupea harengus).Cited on the website of Ashtown Food Research Centre, Irelandhttp://www.teagasc.ie/ashtown/research/preparedfoods/overviewofseafoodtechnology.htmWebsite Last Updated: March, 2006Zhang Hui-Zhen and Lee Tung-Ching *Rapid Near-Infrared Spectroscopic Method for the Determination of Free Fatty Acid in Fishand Its Application in Fish Quality Assessment* Department of Food Science, Center for Advanced Food Technology, and Institute of Marine andCoastal Sciences, Cook College, Rutgers University, P.O. Box 231, New Brunswick, New Jersey08903J. Agric. Food Chem., 45 (9), 3515 -3521, 1997.Copyright © 1997 American Chemical SocietyReceived for review August 23, 1996. Revised manuscript received May 27, 1997. Accepted May28, 1997.http://pubs.acs.org/cgi-bin/abstract.cgi/jafcau/1997/45/i09/abs/jf960643r.htmlWebsite Last Updated: 10/03/2007Page 40/40

Appendix 10.7NAFC Marine CentreImproving the Marketing of Shetland CaughtVelvet CrabsJavier UnibazoNovember 2007

Improving the Marketing of Shetland Caught Velvet CrabsJavier UnibazoDisclaimer:2

To the best of our knowledge the information in this report was accurate at the time of writing. As thisinformation was obtained from online sources KIMO cannot be held responsible for any omissions orinaccuracies in the data.Contents1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY……………………………………………………………………………………………………………....52 BRIEF……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…....63 METHODOLOGY…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....74 RESULTS……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...…84.1 Contacted Companies..................................................................................................................................................…...84.2 Feedback from contacted companies……………………………………………………………………….………………........104.3 Quotes………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………….……….124.4 Pictures……………………………………………….……………………………………………………………………..………..164.4.1 Pictures of Boxes…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………174.4.2 Pictures of Labels………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...184.4.3 Pictures of Tags…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..225 ANALISYS AND DISCUSSION……………………………………………………………………………………………………….233

5.1 Boxes……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…..235.2 Tags……………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………245.2.1 Small Size Tags…………………………………………………………………………………………………………...…………….245.2.2 Medium Size Tags………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………255.2.3 Large Size Tags…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…...265.2.4 Extra Large Size Tags…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..275.3 Labels……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..285.4 Quality Assessment…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..295.4.1. Pictures of labels and tags after durability test…………………………………………………………………………… …306 CONCLUSIONS……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...317 RECOMMENDATIONS……………………………………………………………………………………………………………...………338 BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..344

1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARYThe report details the research of products which can represent the best way to label the boxes used to transport the Shetland caughtVelvet Crab (Necora puber), so they can be easily identified as from Shetland.Plastic boxes and waterproof tags and labels were researched using the internet.Thirty-six companies, which were found that have suitable products, were contacted. Eighteen submitted quotes based on similar preprintedinformation. Fifteen companies send samples and pictures of them are included in the reportA quality assessment was executed to observe the performance of the samples in wet conditions. The evaluation shows that allsamples meet the required conditions of durability and ink permanence.An analysis, base on the quotes received, was conducted and all prices presented, organized by product and sizeWaterproof tags shows difference on prices from 58% up to 82%, depending of the size.Labels show differences on prices up to 87% and boxes 34%, between the most economical and the most expensive alternatives.5

Considering the prices given by the suppliers, waterproof tags represent the most economical solution to label the Shetland caughtvelvet crab. Prices differ according with the size and is recommended to define the information required on the tag to decide theappropriate dimension.2. BRIEFFollow, the Brief submitted by NAFC Marine Centre:KIMO Home Working/Data Trawl ProjectImproving the marketing of Shetland caught Velvet CrabsBackgroundThe velvet crab fishery in Shetland is important to the inshore sector. All of the crabs caught are shipped live to the market in Spain bya vivier operator. Velvet crabs in Shetland are naturally larger than in other areas and Shetland also has a higher minimum landingsize than the rest of Scotland, these factors result in Shetland velvets being better quality than others from the UK. Although they arenot marked in any way as being from Shetland the vivier operator stores and sells Shetland velvets in different coloured boxes fromthe rest of his stock. Buyers on the continent have been asking for the better quality velvets but not realising their source.At a recent meeting between the vivier operator and the fishermen it was suggested that the local industry could be doing more tomarket the produce as being from Shetland. The velvets are transported from the fishermen in plastic boxes approximately 30cm x 15cm x 15 cm. This project would be to identify the best way to label the boxes so that they were easily identified as from Shetland andcould also potentially include information like the vessel name and SSMO licence number. There are various options from disposablelabels to buying boxes for each fishermen that have permanent labels and would remain their property (thus preventing them being6

used for any other fisheries). These various options would be researched and costed, and recommendations made on the mostappropriate option.3. METHODOLOGYThe research was done over the internet using the search engines Google, Live Search and the more specifics for the seafoodindustry, fis.com and seafoodsource.com. The words used in these engines were “tag”, “waterproof tags”, “plastic boxes”, “plasticlabels” and “waterproof labels”All companies found that seem to have suitable products for the purpose of the project were contacted by an email indicating the aimof the research and the product needed. For labels and tags the most important requirement was that they need to be waterproof andallow hand written. For boxes, the size and the possibility to have a permanent label attached.As a second stage, the tags and labels producer companies who replied the email were asked to send samples to test them underanalogous conditions than during the transport and commercialisation at the final market. The plastic boxes producers were asked tosend quotes of the boxes selected.The received labels and tags samples were written by hand with a “Sharpie” permanent marker and tested using seawater in abucket, leaving them for five days.At the end of the trial, the samples were washed using a hand brush to test the robustness of the material and the permanence of theink.Finally, quotes were requested for all the tags and labels producers. Quotations were base on Black and White colour and with thefollowing pre-printed information:7

VELVET CRABProduct from ShetlandVessel Name:SSMO Number:It was specified to the supplier that the last two details will be hand written.4. RESULTS4.1. Contacted CompaniesIn total, thirty-six companies were contacted.From Google, twenty six companies were found that can have suitable products for the purpose of this project. Four companies werefound using fis.com and five with seafoodsource.com. One local company was also directly contacted.The name, country of origin and the web site address of the contacted companies is showed on Table 1.Table 1: Contacted companies.Company Country Product Web Site Address Search EngineIPL Inc. Canada Boxes www.ipl-plastics.com GoogleCraemer Holding GmbH Germany Boxes www.craemer.de fis.comKlöckner Pentaplast GmbH Germany Boxes www.kpfilms.com fis.com8

Alison Handling Services Ltd UK Boxes www.alisonhandling.com GoogleBoxshop Euro Ltd UK Boxes www.boxshop.co.uk GoogleHerculean Industrial Products UK Boxes www.herculean.co.uk N/ALINPAC Allibert UK Boxes www.linpac.com GooglePlastic Box Shop Ltd. UK Boxes www.plasticboxshop.co.uk GoogleSolent Plastics UK Boxes www.solentplastics.co.uk GoogleCoastal Aquacultural Supply USA Boxes www.coastalaquacultural.com fis.comTable 1 cont’.Company Country Product Web Site Address Search EngineKetchum Manufacturing Inc. Canada Tags www.ketchum.ca Seafoodsource.comSentinel Printing Limited Canada Tags www.waterprooftags.com GoogleAnglo-Scottish Packaging Ltd. UK Tags www.angloscottish.net GoogleAquascribe UK Tags www.aquascribe.com GoogleBeechman & Co. UK Tags www.beechman.co.uk GoogleDaymark Ltd. UK Tags www.labelsandtags.com GoogleGreenfield Software Ltd UK Tags www.greenfieldsoftware.co.uk GoogleIML Labels & Systems Ltd. UK Tags www.iml-labels.co.uk GoogleISA Print UK Tags www.isaprint.co.uk GoogleQuickLabel Systems , Inc UK Tags www.quicklabel.com GoogleTags Ltd UK Tags www.tagsltd.co.uk GoogleThe Kite Packaging Group UK Tags www.kitepackaging.co.uk GoogleAllen-Bailey Tag & Label, Inc. USA Tags www.abtl.com Seafoodsource.comAmerican Tagmaster Inc. USA Tags www.americantagmaster.com GoogleM & M Label Company, Inc USA Tags www.mmlabel.com Seafoodsource.comSev-Rend Corporation USA Tags www.sev-rend.com fis.comTek ID USA Tags www.tekid.com Seafoodsource.comWise Tag & Label Co.,Inc USA Tags www.wisetaglabel.com Seafoodsource.com9

D.Cole Self Adhesive Labels Ltd. UK Labels www.dcolelabels.co.uk GoogleDBM Packaging UK Labels www.dbm-ltd.co.uk GoogleGavin Watson Limited UK Labels www.gavinwatson.co.uk GoogleLabel Planet Ltd UK Labels www.labelplanet.co.uk GoogleMercian Labels Limited UK Labels www.selfadhesivelabels.com GoogleMinilabel Ltd UK Labels www.minilabels.co.uk GoogleVine Lodge Products UK Labels www.stickylabels.com GoogleElectromark Ltd. USA Labels www.electromark.com GoogleTwenty three companies replied the email. Seven companies did not respond the email and were contacted by phoneOne local company was contacted by person. Eighteen companies submitted quotes. Two companies were unsuitable to supply therequired product.Fifteen companies send samples.4.2. Feedback from contacted companiesThe names of the companies, including contact details, who did reply the email, are showed on Table 2.Table 2: Companies who did send feedback.Company Contact E-mail address ProductAlison Handling Services Ltd Glenn Dawes glenn.dawes@alisonhandling.com BoxesCoastal Aquacultural Supply Brian Bowes bbowes@coastalaquacultural.com BoxesCraemer Holding GmbH Chris Neill chris.neill@craemer.com Boxes10

Herculean Industrial Products Gordon Laurenson enquiries@herculean.co.uk BoxesIPL Inc. Christine Lecours clecours@ipl-plastics.com BoxesLinpac Allibert Stacey Morgan stacey.morgan@linpac.com BoxesSolent Plastics Ltd. Rachel King rachel@solentplastics.co.uk BoxesTable 2 cont’Company Contact E-mail address ProductAllen-Bailey Tag & Label, Inc. Christine O'Brien cobrien@abtl.com TagsAmerican Tagmaster Inc. Jonh Ciaramella taglabel@aol.com TagsAnglo-Scottish Packaging Ltd. sales@angloscottish.net TagsAquascribe Nadia Long sales@aquascribe.com TagsBeechman & Co. Brian Beechman sales@beechman.co.uk TagsDaymark Ltd. Kevan Palmer kevan@labelsandtags.com TagsGreenfield Software Ltd Daniel Harris DanielH@greenfieldsoftware.co.uk TagsIML Labels & Systems Ltd. Sue Elwis selwis@iml-labels.co.uk TagsISA Print Trevor Watsham trevor@isaprint.co.uk TagsKetchum Manufacturing Inc. Claude Lalonde ketchum@sympatico.ca TagsM & M Label Company, Inc mmlabel@mmlabel.com TagsQuickLabel Systems , Inc Derek Stillingfleet dstillingfleet@astromed.com TagsSentinel Printing Limited Dick Davis info@waterprooftags.com TagsSev-Rend Corporation info@sev-rend.com TagsTags Ltd Mark Hockedy sales@tagsltd.co.uk TagsTek ID Eric Schaller eschaller@tekid.com Tags11

Company Contact E-mail address ProductD.Cole Self Adhesive Labels Ltd. sales@dcolelabels.co.uk LabelsDBM Packaging packaging.sales@dbm-ltd.co.uk LabelsElectromark Ltd. customerservice@electromark.com LabelsGavin Watson Limited Stacey Duffy staceyduffy@gavinwatson.co.uk LabelsLabel Planet Ltd David Worgan labelplanet@btopenworld.com LabelsMercian Labels Limited Claire Roney claire@selfadhesivelabels.com LabelsMinilabel Ltd sales@minilabels.co.uk LabelsVine Lodge Products Gideon Hall sales@stickylabels.com Labels4.3. QuotesTable 3 shows the quotes submitted by plastic boxes suppliers.Company Code Model Colour Size Min Unit Conditions(millimetres) Order Price (ex VAT)FOB Plant (St-Damien,FOB Plant (St-Damien,P1IPL Inc.FN 3220-15 Optional L 813 x W 508 x D 381 308 £19.44 1 QC, Canada)P2SN 2416-6 Optional L 610 x W 406 x D 356 2480 £2.43 2 QC, Canada)Alison HandlingP3Services LtdM204C Green L 400 x W 300 x D 220 1000 £5.90 C. & F. AberdeenCraemer Holding GmbH P4 C432 Optional L 400 x W 300 x D 235 1000 £4.35 C. & F. AberdeenHerculean IndustrialProducts P5 11052 Grey L 600 x W 400 x D 300 1000 £14.00 C. & F. LerwickLINPAC Allibert P6 SN431302 Blue L 400 x W 300 x D 135 1000 £7.90 C. & F. AberdeenP7 SN431802 Blue L 400 x W 300 x D 180 1000 £5.15 C. & F. AberdeenP8 ES431701 Green L 400 x W 300 x D 175 1000 £4.75 C. & F. AberdeenP9 15018 Green/ Blue L 400 x W 300 x D 200 1000 £6.58 C. & F. Aberdeen12

P10 OPE90 Clip 3 SS L 13 x 76 W x D 19 1000 £0.85 C. & F. AberdeenP11 OPEA6 Holder 4 Clear L 171 x W 108 1000 £1.66 C. & F. AberdeenTable 3: Quotes from Box SuppliersPrice given in Canadian Dollars as $38.11 (1 CAD = 0.510 GBP at 8/11/07). 1Price given in Canadian Dollars as $4.76 (1 CAD = 0.510 GBP at 8/11/07). 2Clip 3 : Made from stainless steel. Could be fitted to the box. Appropriate to hold labels. Cost to be added to the price of the box.Label Holder 4 : Clear Plastic. Could be fitted to the box. Appropriate to hold labels. Cost to be added to the price of the box.Table 4 show the quotes submitted by the Tags producers.Company Code T18 Model 120 x 60 Size – 440mic 6000 Min £0.130 Unit Conditions C. & F. Aberdeen ObservationsRound corners and single hole.T19 120 (millimetres) x 60 – 650mic Order 6000 £0.144 Price C. & F. Aberdeen Round corners and single hole.T20 150 x 100 – 440mic 6000 £0.192 C. & F. Aberdeen Round corners and single hole.Sentinel Printing Ltd. T1 T21TuckNTug 115 150 x 100 25 – 650mic 3000 6000 £0.056 £0.216 1 Including C. & F. Aberdeen shipping cost to Aberdeen Self Round Tie. corners and single hole.Allen-Bailey Tag & Label, Inc. T22Crate 7.5pt Valeron Tag 115 230 x 76 43 6000 1000 £0.089 £0.042 24 Including shipping cost to Aberdeen No Self holes. Tie. Fix IPL FN3220-15 (See Table 3)T3 T23Crate 1079 Tyvek Tag 115 250 x 76 25 6000 1000 £0.070 £0.045 35 Including shipping cost to Aberdeen Single Self Tie. holeAnglo-Scottish Packaging Ltd. T4 T24 Woodruff 250 132.5 x 25 x 67 1000 £0.061 £0.029 C. Including & F. Aberdeen shipping cost to Aberdeen Self 3/16" Tie. metal eyelet/26-12" wire attached.Aquascribe American Tagmaster Inc. T5 T25 LT3 Tyvek 191 134 x 66 25 1000 6000 £0.084 £0.072 C. Including & F. Aberdeen shipping cost to Aberdeen Square One metal corners eyelet and single hole.T6Daymark LtdT26 LT2Perma7070 x 504060001000 £0.055£0.066C.C. &F.F.AberdeenAberdeenSquareDrilled Holecornerswithand6” loopedsingle hole.stringsT7T27 LT3ST 191 25 1000 £0.045 C. F. Aberdeen Self Tie.Beechman & Co. T8Tie-on Perma 150 x 100 6000 £0.121 C. & F. Aberdeen Drilled Hole with 6” looped strings102 100 5000 £0.079 C. F. Aberdeen Two holes (12 x 3) Top and Bottom of Tag. 9T28T9 Perma tag 102 245 x 61 100 10000 6000 £0.049 £0.083 C. & F. Aberdeen Two Self looking. holes (12 x 3) Top and Bottom of Tag. 9Tek IDT10 T29152 139.7 x 100 x 82.5 5000 6000 £0.267 £0.083 C. Including & F. Aberdeen shipping cost to Aberdeen Two 1/4 brass holes eyelet (12 x 3) Top and Bottom of Tag. 9T11 152 x 100 10000 £0.067 C. & F. Aberdeen Two holes (12 x 3) Top and Bottom of Tag. 9T12 181 x 100 5000 £0.092 C. & F. Aberdeen Two holes (12 x 3) Top and Bottom of Tag. 9T13 181 x 100 10000 £0.078 C. & F. Aberdeen Two holes (12 x 3) Top and Bottom of Tag. 9Greenfield Software Ltd T14 Polyplas 191mm x 25 10000 £0.025 C. & F. Aberdeen One-off artwork change per colour £60T15 Tyvek 191mm x 25 10000 £0.028 C. & F. Aberdeen One-off artwork change per colour £60ISA Print T16 70 x 50 – 440mic 6000 £0.124 C. & F. Aberdeen Round corners and single hole.T17 70 x 50 – 650mic 6000 £0.131 C. & F. Aberdeen Round corners and single hole.13

Table 4: Quotes from Tags producersAll prices exclude VAT.All quotes based on B/W print.Quoted price is FOB Plant (Yarmouth, NS, Canada) and given in Canadian Dollars as CAN$ 0.08. Producer quoted CAN$ 0.03 per unitas shipping cost using International Express Post. (1 CAD = 0.510 GBP at 8/11/07). 1Quoted price is FOB Plant (Yarmouth, NS, Canada) and given in Canadian Dollars as CAN$ 0.053. Producer quoted CAN$ 0.03 perunit as shipping cost using International Express Post. (1 CAD = 0.510 GBP at 8/11/07). 2Quoted price is FOB Plant (Yarmouth, NS, Canada) and given in Canadian Dollars as CAN$ 0.059. Producer quoted CAN$ 0.03 per unitas shipping cost using International Express Post. (1 CAD = 0.510 GBP at 8/11/07). 3Quoted price is FOB Plant (Caledonia, NY, USA) and given in US Dollars as U$ 0.15. Estimated U$ 0.04 per unit as shipping cost usinginternational courier (UPS United State, 2007). (1 U$ = 0.47 GBP at 8/11/07). 4Quoted price is FOB Plant (Caledonia, NY, USA) and given in US Dollars as U$ 0.1. Estimated U$ 0.04 per unit as shipping cost usinginternational courier (UPS United State, 2007). (1 U$ = 0.47 GBP at 8/11/07). 5Quoted price is FOB Plant (Caledonia, NY, USA) and given in US Dollars as U$ 0.09. . Estimated U$ 0.04 per unit as shipping costusing international courier (UPS United State, 2007). (1 U$ = 0.47 GBP at 8/11/07). 6Quoted price is FOB Plant (Seaford, NY, USA)) and given in US Dollars as U$ 0.139. Estimated U$ 0.04 per unit as shipping cost usinginternational courier (UPS United State, 2007). (1 U$ = 0.47 GBP at 8/11/07). 7Quoted price is FOB Plant (Telford, PA 18969, USA) and given in US Dollars as U$ 0.53. Estimated U$ 0.04 per unit as shipping costusing international courier (UPS United State, 2007). (1 U$ = 0.47 GBP at 8/11/07). 8One Off Origination Charge per Plate/Colour £55 for fist order. 914

Table 5 show the quotes submitted by labels producers.Company Code Size Min Unit Conditions Observations(millimetres) Order PriceLabel Planet Ltd L1 100 x 140 6000 £0.067 C. & F. Aberdeen Plain label. 1Mercian Labels LimitedL2183 x 97 3000 £0.115FOB Plant (Staffordshire, WS110BD, UK)£ 50.24 One off for printingblocks and art.L3151 x 101 3000 £0.104FOB Plant (Staffordshire, WS110BD, UK)£ 50.24 One off for printingblocks and art.Vine Lodge ProductsL4120 x 60 6000 £0.264 C. & F. AberdeenArtwork/setting-up/proof:£15.95L5150 x 100 6000 £0.513 C. & F. AberdeenArtwork/setting-up/proof:£15.97L650 x 70 6000 £0.146 C. & F. AberdeenArtwork/setting-up/proof:£15.97Table 5: Quotes from Labels producers.All prices exclude VAT.All measure in millimetres (mm).All quotes based on B/W print.Plain Label 1 : Not printed. Laser printer needed.15

4.4. Pictures4.4.1. Pictures of BoxesExamples of boxes quoted:Picture 1: Box Code P1. Picture 2: Box code P2 (but with no holes).16

Picture 3: Box code P5. Picture 4: Box code P9.17

4.4.2. Pictures of TagsExamples of tags received:Picture 5: Tags codes T12 (Top) and T10 Picture 6: Tag code T4. Picture 7: Tag code T24.(Centre and Bottom).18

Picture 8: Tags code T23 (Top) and T22 (Bottom). Picture 9: Tags codes T3 (Left) and T2 (Right).19

Picture 10: Tag code T1. Picture 11: Tag codes T17 (Top), T19 (Bottom left) andT16 (bottom right).20

Picture 12: Tag code T25. Picture 13: Tag code T4.21

4.4.3. Pictures of LabelsExamples of the labels received:Picture 14: Label code L6. Picture 15: Label code L1.22

5. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION5.1 BoxesP5 is the most interesting alternative of box, considering the price given and the fact that the dimensions are quite similar than the boxesused at the moment by fishermen. They can not be nested, increasing considerably the volume to be transported in a return travel.P9 emerge as good alternative to P5. 8 % more expensive and can be nested, same as P8 and P10, facilitating return transport. All boxesfrom LINPAC Allibert can be ordered with a clip or label holder.P10 have almost the same specification than P8 and it is 22% more expensive.P1 and P2 are bigger boxes and not similar than the ones used at the moment. They are especially designed for transport of live crabsand lobster. They are the only ones that have lids incorporated. Also manufacture with a label holder, as standard.Table 6 shows the prices given by boxes providers.Company Code Model Colour Size Min Unit Conditions(millimeters) Order Price (ex VAT)LINPAC Allibert P7 SN431302 Blue L 400 x W 300 x D 135 1000 £7.90 C. & F. AberdeenLINPAC Allibert P9 ES431701 Green L 400 x W 300 x D 175 1000 £4.75 C. & F. AberdeenLINPAC Allibert P8 SN431802 Blue L 400 x W 300 x D 180 1000 £5.15 C. & F. AberdeenLINPAC Allibert P10 15018 Green L 400 x W 300 x D 200 1000 £6.58 C. & F. AberdeenAlison Handling Services Ltd P3 M204C Green L 400 x W 300 x D 220 1000 £5.90 C. & F. AberdeenCraemer Holding GmbH P5 C432 Optional L 400 x W 300 x D 235 1000 £4.35 C. & F. AberdeenHerculean Industrial Products P6 11052 Grey L 600 x W 400x D 300 1000 £14.00 C. & F. LerwickIPL Inc.P2SN 2416-6 Optional L 610 x W 406 x D 356 2480 £2.43 2 FOB Plant (St-Damien, QC, Canada)IPL Inc.P1FN 3220-15 Optional L 813 x W 508 x D 381 308 £19.44 1 FOB Plant (St-Damien, QC, Canada)Table 6: Cost of boxes23

Note: No shipping cost was given for P1 and P2. Price is FOB Plant (St-Damien, QC, Canada)5.2 TagsTags samples were divided in four different categories depending the size***:Small: 190 to 250 x 25Medium: 40 to 50 x 70Large: 115 to 134 x 60to 76Extra Large: 43 to 100 x 102 to 230*** All sizes in millimetres5.2.1 Small Size TagsIn this category, there is a fluctuation of £0.047 between the cheapest and the most expensive tag. It is observed that T14, T15 and T4 arethe most economic alternative.Manufacture materials are similar for all of them. No samples were received for T14 and T15 but, by specification, they are similar than allthe tags in this category..All tags are self – tie except T5, which need to be attached with a tie wire. T5 is also the most expensive of the small tags, together withT23, probably because of the shipping cost.24

The quotes for the small sizes tags, organized by cost, are showed on Table 7. Unit price include shipping cost to Aberdeen- UKCompanyCodeModel Size Min Unit(millimeters) Order Price (ex VAT)Greenfield Software Ltd T14 Polyplas 191 x 25 10000 £0.025Greenfield Software Ltd T15 Tyvek 191 x 25 10000 £0.028Anglo-Scottish Packaging Ltd. T4 250 x 25 1000 £0.029Aquascribe T7 LT3ST 191 x 25 1000 £0.045Sentinel Printing Ltd. T1 TuckNTug 115 x 25 3000 £0.056Allen-Bailey Tag & Label, Inc. T23 1079 Tyvek 250 x 25 1000 £0.070Aquascribe T5 LT3 191 x 25 1000 £0.072Table 7: Cost of small sizes tags.5.2.2 Medium Size TagsT6 represent a cheaper alternative than T16 and T17 for a similar product, explainable because of the bigger thickness of these two lastones. T6 is 150 microns thick. Table 8 show the quotes from the medium size tags suppliers. Unit price include shipping cost to Aberdeen- UKTable 8: Cost of medium sizes tags.Company Code Model Size Min Unit(millimeters) Order Price (ex VAT)Aquascribe T6 LT2 70 x 40 1000 £0.055Daymark Ltd T26 Perma 70 x 50 6000 £0.066ISA Print T16 70 x 50 – 440mic 6000 £0.124ISA Print T17 70 x 50 – 650mic 6000 £0.13125

5.2.3 Large Size TagsFor large size tags it is observable that T3 is £ 0.016 cheaper than followed priced tag T24. This represent 26% increase in price for T24compared with T3.T2 is not self-tie and have not holes. Only works and it is specially designed for IPL boxes FN3220-15 (See Table 3).T18 and T19 are 35% and 42% more expensive, respectively, than the nearest in cost, T25. This increase is attributable, again, to thethickness of the products from ISA Print.Table 9 show the quotes for large sizes tags. Unit price include shipping cost to Aberdeen- UKCompany Code Model Size Min UnitPrice (ex(millimeters) Order VAT)Sentinel Printing Ltd. T2 Crate Tag 115 x 76 6000 £0.042Sentinel Printing Ltd. T3 Crate Tag 115 x 76 6000 £0.045Allen-Bailey Tag & Label, Inc. T24 Woodruff 132.5 x 67 1000 £0.061American Tagmaster Inc. T25 Tyvek 134 x 66 6000 £0.084ISA Print T18 120 x 60 – 440mic 6000 £0.130ISA Print T19 120 x 60 – 650mic 6000 £0.144Table 9: Cost of large sizes tags.26

5.2.4 Extra Large Size TagsThe most economical proposal came from Beechman & Co. Prices differ according with the size and volume ordered. All tags in thiscategory have holes and need to be attached by a wire tie, except T22, which is self tie. The cost of a 100mm length x 2.5 mm width, tiewire was quoted as £0.01 (RS component, 2007) demonstrating that Beechman’s products are still the cheapest ones, even if the price ofthe tie wire is included in the total cost.Table 10 show quotes for extra large tags. Unit price include shipping cost to Aberdeen- UKCompany Code Model Size Min Unit(millimeters) Order Price ( ex VAT)Beechman & Co. T9 100 x 102 10000 £0.049Beechman & Co. T11 100 x 152 10000 £0.067Beechman & Co. T13 100 x 181 10000 £0.078Beechman & Co. T8 100 x 102 5000 £0.079Beechman & Co. T10 100 x 152 5000 £0.083Daymark Ltd. T28 Perma Tag 61 x 245 6000 £0.083Allen-Bailey Tag & Label, Inc. T22 7.5pt Valeron 43 x 230 1000 £0.089Beechman & Co. T12 100 x 181 5000 £0.092Daymark Ltd T27 Tie-on Perma 100 x 150 6000 £0121ISA Print T20 100 x 150 – 440mic 6000 £0.192ISA Print T21 100 x 150 – 650mic 6000 £0.216Tek ID T29 82.5 x 139.7 6000 £0.267Table 10: Cost of extra large tags.27

5.3 LabelsL1 is substantially cheapest that the rest of the labels. This is reasonable considering that it is a plain label which needs to be printedwith a normal laser printer.L2 and L3 are both the second positioned in terms of price. No sample was received.L4, L5 and L6 increase consecutively their prices according with the increment of sizes. The largest label from Vine Lodge Products, L5,is 80% more expensive than the similar, L3 from Mercian Labels Limited.Table 11 shows the cost submitted by labels producer, organized by prices. Unit price include shipping cost to Aberdeen- UKCompany Code Size Min Unit(millimeters) Order Price ( ex VAT)Label Planet Ltd L1 140 x 100 6000 £0.067Mercian Labels Limited L2 183 x 97 3000 £0.115Mercian Labels Limited L3 151 x 101 3000 £0.104Vine Lodge Products L6 70 x 50 6000 £0.147Vine Lodge Products L4 120 x 60 6000 £0.264Vine Lodge Products L5 150 x 100 6000 £0.513Table 11: Cost of labels.28

5.4 Quality AssessmentAfter tags and label samples were received, a test was conducted to prove the durability of the material and the permanence of the ink underwet conditions.Labels and tags were written by hand with a permanent “Sharpie” marker and submerged for 5 days in a 25 lt. bucket filled with seawater.Tags were submerged loose inside the bucket and labels attached to the sides.At the end of the test, the tags showed no evidence of damage. All pre- printed detail remains intact, same as the hand written information.The labels were fully attached to the sides of the bucket and the written information intact.As a second test, all labels and tags were brushed using a handheld brush and seawater.After the second test, all labels show no evidence of damage.29

5.4.1 Pictures of labels and tags after durability testPicture 16: Examples of tags after test.Picture 17: Labels after test.30

6. CONCLUSIONSLabelling the boxes used to transport the Shetland caught Velvet Crabs could improve the marketing of the product as being from Shetland.Waterproof labels or tags could provide the adequate solution to promote this product and, also, develop a traceability system wereinformation like vessel name, date caught and SSMO number could be included.After tested the received labels and tags under wet and extreme handling conditions, all printed and hand written details remains intact andmaterials, undamaged, indicating that all of them are suitable to work under the conditions required and were not affected after been fullysubmerged in seawater for a prolonged period of time.For all the tags samples received and tested, the materials components are similar, polyplas and tyvek.All labels are made from self adhesive polyethylene which has a marine adhesive.Difference on prices up to 65% were observed for the small size tags, 58% for the medium sizes, 70% for large sizes and, finally, 82% forextra large tags sizes.Labels show differences of prices up to 87%For boxes with the size currently in use, the difference on price is about 34% between them.31

Greenfield Software Ltd. provides the most economic solution in the category of small tags, £0.025 per unit (ex VAT) for tag code T14.Aquascribe brought the cheapest medium size tag quote, £0.055 per unit (ex VAT), and Sentinel Printing Ltd., the cheapest for the large sizetags, £0.042 per unit (ex VAT).Beechman & Co present the most economic quote for the extra large size tags, £ 0.049 per unit (ex VAT) for code T9 Tag.Label Planet Ltd., with code L1, presents the less expensive alternative for waterproof labels, at £ 0.067 per unit (ex VAT) and AlisonHandling Service Ltd. the most economic solution for suitable size boxes at £5.90 per unit (ex VAT).32

7. RECOMMENDATIONSBased on the quotes received and the performance on the quality assessment executed, waterproof tags represent the mosteconomical solution to label the Shetland caught velvet crab. Prices differ according with the size, being the smaller ones the lessexpensive.It is recommended to define the text and information required on the tag to decide the appropriate size.Self- tie or tags with holes, to be wire tied, shows no substantial difference on prices, and the first ones are preferred, if a small size tagis required, considering that no extra products are needed (tie wires).Only one tag sample with a wire attached was received, code T24. Considering the price, represents an average for large size tagsand is recommended if a bigger tag is needed.Boxes with an attached permanent label were not found during the research, and only extra attached devices suitable to hold labelswere offered (clip and label holder). The acquisition of boxes with clips or label holder is recommendable if new boxes are needed and,in conjunction with a chosen label or tag from the already presented.Under the tested environment, marine adhesive labels demonstrate an acceptable performance and, considering the price and size, L1represent an economical solution, if is compared with similar tags size. They can be printed with a normal laser printer facilitating theflexibility of the information written. It is recommended to test this label under real conditions of transport.33

8. BIBLIOGRAPHYUPS United State, 2007 http://wwwapps.ups.com/calTimeCost (accessed November 2007).RS Component, 2007. Catalogue n 0 1, page 197.34

Contact Details:Javier Unibazo112 St. Olaf StreetLerwickZE1 0ESShetlandUKMobile: 44-785993106835

Appendix 10.8Kommunenes Internasjonale MiljorganisasjonLocal Authorities International Environmental OrganisationGeospatial tools for visualizing themarine and coastal environment to aidin communication and publicparticipation for Integrated CoastalZone Management (ICZM)/MarineSpatial Planning (MSP)By Jacqueline M Brown,KIMO Home Working Data Trawl Pilot ProjectFor David R GreenCentre for Marine and Coastal Zone Management (CMCZM)Department of Geography and EnvironmentUniversity of Aberdeen24 th October 2007

Geospatial tools for visualizing themarine and coastal environment to aidin communication and publicparticipation for Integrated CoastalZone Management (ICZM)/MarineSpatial Planning (MSP)Disclaimer:To the best of our knowledge the information in this report was accurate atthe time of writing. As this information was obtained from online sourcesKIMO cannot be held responsible for any omissions or inaccuracies in thedata.2

Contents1 Executive Summary 12 Brief 13 Methodology 14 Geospatial Visualization Tools 14.1 Remote Sensing 14.1.1 Satellite and Airborne remote sensing 14.1.2 Ship remote sensing 14.2 Global Positioning Systems (GPS) 14.3 Geographical Information Systems (GIS) 14.4 Cartography 14.5 Internet 14.5.1 Web Mapping 14.5.2 Virtual Globes 14.6 Modelling and Simulation 14.7 Software Utility Tools 15 Case Studies and Discussion 16 Conclusions 17 Bibliography 13

Geospatial tools for visualizing the marine and coastal environment report1Executive SummaryDue to the constant and increasing pressures from natural and anthropogenic sources,such as coastal erosion, storm flooding, increasing human populations along coastal areasand the significance of this, for example, building developments and pressures on naturalresources, and in addition, the risks from climate change now and in the future, it is moreimportant than ever to find ways of accurately and effectively communicating the complexand intricate processes of the marine and coastal environments to the coastal scientist, thecoastal manager, the policy maker and the public. Also it is important to understand how theimpact of any decisions made regarding the present and the future prosperity of thesesensitive environments will play out. The role of geospatial visualization tools, such asremote sensing, Global Positioning Systems (GPS) and Geographic Information Systems(GIS), internet, cartography, modelling and simulation, and software packages, in IntegratedCoastal Zone Management (ICZM) and Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) is growing rapidly.The aim of this report was to give a comprehensive overview of the geospatial visualizationtools that currently exist by using the internet for research purposes. It was intended thatthis report also give some practical guidelines for the coastal scientist, coastal manager,practitioner and others e.g. educators, as to the uses of these visualization tools and howthey can be utilized to raise awareness, to educate and communicate coastal and marineissues. There are a variety of visualization tools available, these tools are continuallydeveloping and evolving, and becoming more readily accessible. The need for an in-depthknowledge of many of these tools is becoming less and less necessary thus allowing avariety of people to be able to competently use them. The uses of these tools to visuallyimpart complex information is extremely valuable, as to see a visualization that takes a fewminutes to view and comprehensively understand is worth a thousand words.4

Geospatial tools for visualizing the marine and coastal environment report2 BriefThe Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) states that the objective ofIntegrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) is to establish sustainable levels of economicand social activity in our coastal areas while protecting the coastal environment. It bringstogether all those involved in the development, management and use of the coast within aframework that facilitates the integration of their interests and responsibilities. Defra hasalso suggested a definition of a Marine Spatial Plan (MSP) as a strategic plan for regulating,managing and protecting the marine environment that addresses the multiple, cumulativeand potentially conflicting uses of the sea.The aim of this report was to provide a comprehensive overview of the range of geospatialvisualization tools that currently exist by undertaking internet-based research. From theresearch it was hoped to identify the potential of these tools in aiding the coastal scientist,the policy maker, and the public in studying and understanding the coastal environment,including the physical, anthropogenic and environmental aspects. The intention of thisreport was to also demonstrate how the latest visualization tools could be practically appliedto ICZM and MSP issues, and used to enable the public a greater understanding of theseissues and thus lead to a greater participation in planning and decision making. From theoverview it was also hoped that the report would provide a set of practical guidelines for thecoastal scientist, coastal manager, practitioner and educators to help them identify suitablegeospatial visualization tools, their uses and applications for use in raising awareness,education and communication.5

Geospatial tools for visualizing the marine and coastal environment report3MethodologyFor the purposes of this report the principle internet search engines used were Google TM(http://www.google.co.uk) and Google TM Scholar. (http://scholar.google.co.uk). Onlyinformation that could be validated to be from a reliable source was used. Searches thatresulted, for example, in an independent individual’s website were rejected. A reliablesource was classed as a website personally known to the writer and felt relevant for thisreport or found by following a link such as Wikipedia the free Encyclopaedia(http://en.wikipedia.org), or a search resulting in a list of information from a University, andthen any links thought to be relevant to this report were further investigated.Full online PDF scientific papers were considered and used if they were published in aknown scientific journal, and again scientific abstracts found through Google TM Scholar werefelt to be again from a good source, especially if found in Science Direct(http://www.sciencedirect.com), or Elsevier (http://www.elsevier.com) for example. Anyreferences available online via this method of searching again would be followed if thoughtto be relevant.6

Geospatial tools for visualizing the marine and coastal environment report4 Geospatial Visualization ToolsFor the purposes of this report, geospatial visualization tools are classed as includingremote sensing, GPS, Ghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPSIS, Internet, modelling andsimulation techniques and software, cartography techniques and software and any otheruseful visualisation software packages. These tools all go towards providing, whetherindividually or in a variety of combinations, a means to enabling the visualization of thecoastal and marine environments.1.1Remote SensingRemote sensing is the use of technologies that either record or collect data in real-time on asmall or large scale. It is a form of data collection that is not in direct contact with an object.4.1.1Satellite and Airborne remote sensingThe images from several satellites, such as IKONOS, Landsat 7, Terra (EOS AM), Aqua(EOS PM), Jason-1 and Quickbird are regularly used to form the basis of coastal zonemanagement applications. The imagery, for example from Quickbird, can be imported intoremote sensing image processing software, as well as into GIS packages for analysis. Theimagery can also be used as a backdrop for mapping applications, such as Google TM Earthand Google TM maps (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quickbird).IKONOS satellite is a high-resolution satellite operated by GeoEye. It was launched inSeptember 1999. It is equipped with a 3.2m multispectral 1 , near-infrared sensor and 0.82mpanchromatic 2 sensor. Its applications include mapping of natural resources and naturaldisasters, agriculture and forestry analysis, construction, and change detection. It can yieldrelevant data for nearly all aspects of environmental study. Its high resolution data makesan integral contribution to coastal monitoring and facilitates 3D terrain analysis.(http://www.satimagingcorp.com/satellite-sensors/ikonos.html).1Multispectral - the ability of a remote sensing device to detect electromagnetic energy in at least two or more individual wavelengthintervals.2Panchromatic - the ability of a remote sensing device to detect electromagnetic energy in only one very broad band, which includes mostof the area of visible light.7

Geospatial tools for visualizing the marine and coastal environment reportLandsat 7 is the latest satellite of the Landsat program. It was launched in April 1999. Theprimary goal of Landsat 7 is to refresh the global archive of satellite photos, providing up-todateand cloud free images. The satellite is equipped with a thematic mapper (TM), which isan advanced, multispectral scanning, earth resources sensor. The TM sensor has sevenbands that simultaneously record reflected or emitted radiation from the Earth's surface inthe blue-green (band 1), green (band 2), red (band 3), near-infrared (band 4), mid-infrared(bands 5 and 7), and the far-infrared (band 6) portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. TMband 1 can penetrate water for bathymetric mapping along coastal areas, and TM band 4 isideal for detecting water-land interfaces (http://www.satimagingcorp.com/satellitesensors/landsat.html).MODIS 3 is a key instrument aboard the Terra (EOS AM) and Aqua (EOS PM) satellites.Terra's orbit around the Earth is timed so that it passes from north to south across theequator in the morning, while Aqua passes south to north over the equator in the afternoon.Terra MODIS and Aqua MODIS are viewing the entire Earth's surface every 1 to 2 days,acquiring data in 36 spectral bands (Error! Hyperlink reference not valid.). They aredesigned to provide measurements in large-scale global dynamics including changes inEarth's cloud cover, radiation budget and processes occuring in the oceans, on land, and inthe lower atmosphere (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MODIS).Quickbird is a high resolution satellite owned and operated by Digital Globe. It was launchedin October 2001. The satellite collects panchromatic imagery at 60-70 centimetre resolutionand multispectral imagery at 2.4- and 2.8-meter resolutions. From these images processingtechniques can be used to enhance, for example, coastal seafloor features and monitorenvironmentally sensitive areas such as coral reefs (http://www.satimagingcorp.com/satellitesensors/quickbird.html).Another satellite worth mentioning is Jason-1; this is the successor to TOPEX/Poseidon,both of which are satellites with radar altimeters. Radar altimeters collect data by measuringthe bulges of water caused by gravity, they map features on the seafloor to a resolution of amile or so. Since 1992 NASA (United States) and CNES (France) space agencies haveconducted a joint project to measure the ocean surface topography. This project has had3MODIS – Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer.8

Geospatial tools for visualizing the marine and coastal environment reportnear global coverage of almost all of the ice-free oceans.(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_level_rise).New and improved satellites are continually being planned, built and launched, to name buta few, are DigitalGlobe’s WorldView-1 earth imaging satellite, which has a high capacity,panchromatic imaging system featuring half-meter resolution imagery. Operating at analtitude of 496 kilometres, the satellite will have an average revisit time of 1.7 days and willbe capable of collecting up to 750,000 kilometres per day of half-meter imagery. GeoEye’sGeoEye-1 satellite to be launched in the third quarter of 2007 will feature the mostsophisticated technology every used in a commercial remote system. The satellite will becapable of acquiring image data at 0.41m panchromatic and 1.65m multispectral resolution.It will also feature a revisit time of less than 3 days, as well as the ability to locate an objectwithin 3m of its physical location (http://www.satimagingcorp.com/satellite-sensors/geoeye-1.html).Airborne sensors include LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) sensors such as laserscanners and digital scanners which measure variations in electromagnetic waveinteractions with objects on the surface of the earth. Since remote sensing systems operatein various parts of the electromagnetic spectrum it is possible to record large volumes ofinformation about the earth and use it for geospatial mapping and surveying applications.Airborne LIDAR bathymetry, sometimes known as airborne laser altimetry, is particularlyuseful for sea areas too shallow for http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrographicsurvey ships(http://en. wikipedia.org/wiki/Lidar#Applications). An example of this type of equipment isOptech's SHOALS Airborne Laser Bathymeters. SHOALS combine LIDAR and high-speedelectronics on an airborne platform. Operating at altitudes of 200-400 meters, SHOALS hasa typical maximum depth penetration of 40-50m in clear water, 20-40m in coastal waters,and up to 20m in more turbid inland waters. SHOALS gathers shallow water, shoreline andtopographic data simultaneously, integrating land and water measurements in the samedata set. The unit can identify underwater objects as small as 2x2x2 meters resting on theocean floor (http://www.optech.ca/prodshoals.htm).Airborne multispectral (MS) camera systems are a complex system of sensors incorporating9

Geospatial tools for visualizing the marine and coastal environment reportmultiple cameras, different storage solutions, airborne inertial measurement units 4 (IMU),Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS), and specialized software for georeferencing,mosaicing, and colour balancing. These multispectral systems can collectstereo black and white, colour infrared, and true-colour imagery(http://www.csc.noaa.gov/crs/rs_apps/sensors/aerialmulti.htm).Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (IfSAR) is an airborne sensor designed tomeasure surface elevation, this is used to produce topographic imagery. Radar pulses areaimed at targets on the Earth, and the return ground signals are received by two antennasthat record elevations at specific ground coordinates. The ground coordinates aredetermined by GPS and IMU technology. Post-processing of this data producestopographic information in the form of orthorectified radar imagery (ORRI)(http://www.csc.noaa.gov/crs/rs_apps/sensors/ifsar.htm).Airborne thermal infrared radiometers (TIR) are used to map and measure thermalcharacteristics of landscapes and seascapes. This type of equipment is beneficial forapplications such as mapping and monitoring sea temperatures. These instruments areoften components of complex remote sensing systems that incorporate visible sensors,airborne IMU, DGPS, data storage devices, and specialized software for geo-referencing(Error! Hyperlink reference not valid.).Airborne sensors and related products from Leica Geosystems include the ADS40 AerialDigital Sensor and ALS50 Airborne Laser Scanner (http://gi.leicageosystems.com/LGISub1x0x0.aspx).4.1.2Ship remote sensingSingle beam echo sounders collect measurements of the seafloor. These sensors collectpoint or raster data derived from the strength and time of the acoustic return. Single beamsensors consist of a transducer, mounted on or towed by a boat. The transducer emits a4Inertial Measurement Unit - works by sensing its own rate and direction of motion using a combination of accelerometers, (for measuringexternal forces) and gyroscopes, (for measuring or maintaining orientation), which then allow a guidance computer to track its position.10

Geospatial tools for visualizing the marine and coastal environment reportsingle sound pulse with a narrow field of view into the water column at specific intervalsdirectly below the transducer. The sound wave bounces off the seafloor and the return iscaptured by the transducer.Single beam sonar data are collected along transect lines, however the disadvantage of thistype of equipment is that it cannot provide continuous coverage of the seafloor. The outputresolution of the data is determined by the footprint size of the transducer, sampling interval,sampling speed, and distance between transects.Different systems analyze the returns of the sound waves very differently - some systemsonly analyze the first return to measure bathymetry, while others use one or more returns toderive classifications of the seafloor or subsurface sediments(http://www.csc.noaa.gov/crs/rs_apps/sensors/single_beam.htm).Multibeam echosounders are used to collect data of seafloor depth and character.Multibeam sensors pulse the bottom with a series of soundings normal to the track of theboat and record the reflected echoes in an orientation parallel to the boats track. Thisproduces a swath of data of the seafloor. Like other acoustic sensors, multibeamechosounders normally collect data in a series of transect lines that allow sufficient sidelapto avoid gaps in coverage. As a rule, the deeper the water, the wider the swath of datacollected.A unique aspect of multibeam echosounders is the integration of the boats position into thecollection of the data. This is accomplished through a GPS and data from an IMU. Byintegrating boat positioning with the timing of the sonar echo, an accurate bathymetricrecord can be produced regardless of the echo path through the water.Because of its ability to produce highly accurate depth measurements over a wide swath,multibeam echosounder is most often used for bathymetric surveying and mappingapplications. In addition, the backscatter intensity of the acoustic return can be used toderive seafloor characteristics from multibeam data and this resulting data can in turn beused for habitat mapping applications(http://www.csc.noaa.gov/crs/rs_apps/sensors/multi_beam.htm).11

Geospatial tools for visualizing the marine and coastal environment reportDepending upon the application, it can make sense to combine 2 or 3 multibeaminstruments with different frequencies into one system. A higher frequency instrument willhave a better resolution and accuracy than a lower frequency instrument for a certain waterdepth (http://www.km. kongsberg.com).Side scan sonar is a specialized system for searching and detecting objects on the seafloor.Like other sonars, a side scan transmits sound energy and analyzes the return signal thathas bounced off the seafloor or other objects. In a side scan the transmitted energy isformed into the shape of a fan that sweeps the seafloor from directly under the towfish toeither side, typically to a distance of 100 meters. The strength of the return echo iscontinuously recorded creating a "picture" of the ocean bottom where objects that protrudefrom the bottom create a dark image (strong return) and shadows from these objects arelight areas (little or no return). While the shape of the seafloor and objects on it can be welldepicted, most side scan systems can not provide any depth information(http://chartmaker.ncd.noaa.gov/HSD/wrecks.html).12

Geospatial tools for visualizing the marine and coastal environment report4.2Global Positioning Systems (GPS)The Global Positioning System (GPS) is the only fully functional Global Navigation SatelliteSystem (GNSS). Utilizing a constellation of at least 24 medium Earth orbit satellites thattransmit precise microwave signals, the system enables a GPS receiver to determine itslocation, speed/direction, and time. The GPS receiver calculates its position by measuringthe distance between itself and 3 or more satellites. By measuring the time delay betweentransmission and reception of each GPS microwave signal gives the distance to eachsatellite. By determining the position and distance to at least 3 satellites, the receiver cancalculate its position. Receivers typically do not have perfectly accurate clocks andtherefore track one or more additional satellites, using their atomic clocks to correct thereceiver's own clock error. Receivers can interface with other devices using methodsincluding a serial connection, USB or Bluetooth 5(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Positioning_System).Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS) is an enhancement to GPS that uses anetwork of fixed ground based reference stations to broadcast the difference between thepositions indicated by the satellite systems and the known fixed positions. These stationsbroadcast the difference between the measured satellite pseudoranges and actual(internally computed) pseudoranges, and receiver stations may correct their pseudorangesby the same amount (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DGPS).The Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) is a system of satellites and ground stationsthat provide GPS signal corrections. It consists of approximately 25 ground referencestations positioned across the United States that monitor GPS satellite data. Two masterstations, located on either coast, collect data from the reference stations and create a GPScorrection message. This correction accounts for GPS satellite orbit and clock drift plussignal delays caused by the atmosphere and ionosphere. The corrected differentialmessage is then broadcast through one of two geostationary satellites, or satellites with afixed position over the equator. The information is compatible with the basic GPS signal5Bluetooth - provides a way to connect and exchange information between devices such as mobile phones, laptops, PCs, printers anddigital cameras over a secure, globally unlicensed short-range radio frequency.13

Geospatial tools for visualizing the marine and coastal environment reportstructure, which means any WAAS-enabled GPS receiver can read the signal.WAAS signal reception is ideal for open land and marine applications. WAAS providesextended coverage both inland and offshore compared to the land-based DGPS. Anotherbenefit of WAAS is that it does not require additional receiving equipment, while DGPSdoes.Other governments are developing similar satellite-based differential systems. In Asia, it'sthe Japanese Multi-Functional Satellite Augmentation System (MSAS), while Europe hasthe Euro Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS). Eventually, GPS usersaround the world will have access to precise position data using these and other compatiblesystems (http://www8.garmin.com/aboutGPS/waas.html).GPS receivers are a commonly used tool for geospatial survey work and map making.Popular makes of GPS receivers are Garmin, Magellan, and Leica to name but a few.14

Geospatial tools for visualizing the marine and coastal environment report4.3Geographical Information Systems (GIS)GIS is a collection of computer hardware, software, and geographic data for capturing,storing, managing, analyzing, and displaying all forms of geographically referencedinformation (http://www.gis.com/whatisgis/index.html). GIS is a tool that allows users tocreate interactive queries, analyze the spatial information for patterns, relationships andtrends that are not normally apparent. This tool can be applied to scientific investigations,coastal and marine management, environmental impact assessment, cartography, andmany more applications.Modern GIS technologies use digital information. This can be from existing paper mapswhich can be scanned to produce digital data. The scanning of a map results in raster datathat could be further processed to produce vector data. Digital data from remote sensors,survey instruments and GPS receivers can be entered into a GIS system. After enteringdata into a GIS, it usually requires editing to remove errors, or further processing. For vectordata it must be made ‘topologically correct’ before it can be used for some types ofadvanced analysis.GIS technology is becoming an essential tool in the effort to understand coastal and marineprocesses. Once data has been entered into a GIS system and corrected/processed,visualization can be used to produce images - not just maps, but drawings, models,animations, digital elevation models and other cartographic 2- and 3-dimensional images.Geographic information can be accessed, transferred, transformed, overlaid, processedand displayed using numerous software applications. Within industry, companies such asESRI and Mapinfo dominate, offering an entire suite of tools. ESRI, for example, offers theArcGIS software suite which can be used to develop marine GIS systems and aidunderstanding of the processes of the marine environment The geodatabase and ArcSEDallow for new storage and access to data and provide great potential for modelling oceanfeatures, while ArcGIS extensions such as ArcGIS Spatial Analyst and ArcGIS GeostatisticalAnalyst are utilised to produce sea floor surfaces and contours based on interpolation.These new technological tools allow marine researchers to better understand and represent15

Geospatial tools for visualizing the marine and coastal environment reportthe marine environment (http://www.esri.com/industries/marine/business/oceanography.html).Another useful tool from ESRI is the ArcGIS Explorer which allows the user to utilize avariety of maps and layers. These maps and layers are provided free and include imagery,topographic maps, physical features, shaded relief, historical maps, and more. Layers canbe combined with local data to create customised maps. This is a very useful tool for coastalmanagement applications.Many GIS tasks can be accomplished with free or open-source software 6 . Well-known opensource GIS software includes GRASS GIS, Quantum GIS, MapServer, uDig, OpenJUMP,gvSIG and many others. Most GIS software gives the user substantial control over theappearance of the data (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_information_system).With the widespread adoption of GPS, GIS has been used to capture, update, analyze, andintegrate data, and to display geographic information in the field. Mobile GIS integrates oneor more of the following technologies, a mobile device such as a personal digital assistant(PDA) or laptop, GPS system, wireless technology for internet GIS access. For example,Trimble have combined a GPS receiver with a field computer in the form of GeoXMhandheld, running Microsoft® Windows Mobile software(http://www.trimble.com/mgis_fcgps.shtml). ESRI also have a mobile GIS system softwarepackage, for use on a laptop or such like, which encompasses ArcGIS Mobile and ArcPad.6Open source software – computer software in which the source code is available under a license (or arrangement such as the publicdomain) that meets the Open source definition (whether or not a software license can be considered open-source). This permits users touse, change, and improve the software, and to redistribute it in modified or unmodified form. It is often developed in a public, collaborativemanner. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_source_software).16

Geospatial tools for visualizing the marine and coastal environment report4.4CartographyCartography or map-making is a valuable tool for visualizing and communicatinginformation effectively and quickly. The rapid advancement of computer technology hasrevolutionized cartography. Current trends in the field of cartography are moving away fromanalogue methods of mapmaking and towards the creation of increasingly dynamic,interactive maps that can be manipulated digitally (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartography).Maps can be static, animated or interactive, and all have benefits to communicatinginformation.GIS maps are similar to static maps, but in addition can be interactive. GIS allows data frommany sources to be integrated into interactive map displays. This type of mapping andvisualization can help identify patterns in the data and the underlying environmentalprocesses that created those patterns(http://www.csc.noaa.gov/benthic/mapping/analyzing/gis.htm). GIS software packagessuitable for Coastal and Marine mapping applications include STEMgis Discovery Softwarewhich is a temporal GIS that handles all common requirements for mapping software plusthe additional dimensions of time and depth(http://www.discoverysoftware.co.uk/STEMgis.htm). Fledermaus software packages by IVS3D uses the software to interact with large geographical datasets of numerous data typesfor ocean mapping and land based projects (http://www.ivs3d.com/products/) such ascoastal zone applications.17

Geospatial tools for visualizing the marine and coastal environment report4.5InternetAs more and more high-resolution satellite imagery and aerial photography becomeaccessible for free online, there are a wide variety of web mapping and virtual globeapplications available, many again also for free on the internet, however these softwareapplications most likely have a limited functionality.4.5.1Web MappingWeb mapping is the process of designing, implementing, generating and delivering mapson the World Wide Web. Mobile maps displayed on mobile phones, smart phones, PDAs,GPS etc, can be generated from a Web map. Google TM Maps for mobile can be combinedwith GPS providing a faster and easier way to access information(http://www.google.com/gmm/gps.html).There are a variety of web maps in use. Some of the many types available are static webmaps which are ‘view only’ thus have no animation or interactivity, they are usually createdonce. Dynamically created web maps are created on demand each time the user reloadsthe web pages, often from databases. The web server generates the map using a web mapserver or a self written software. Animated maps show changes in the map over time byanimating one of the graphical or temporal variables. Various data and multimedia formatsand technologies allow the display of animated web maps: SVG, Adobe Flash, Java,Quicktime, etc., also with varying degrees of interaction. Examples of animated web mapsare maps displaying dynamic natural or other phenomena, for example, weather forecasts,water currents. Analytic web maps offer GIS analysis, either with geodata provided, or withgeodata uploaded by the map user (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_mapping).4.5.2Virtual GlobesA virtual globe is a 3D software model or representation of the Earth or another planet. Thissoftware provides the user with the ability to freely move around in the virtual environmentby changing the viewing angle and position. Some virtual globes are capable of rotation,zooming and at times horizon tilting. These virtual globes have been developed with the18

Geospatial tools for visualizing the marine and coastal environment reportpurpose of displaying visually accurate representations of Earth and thus often use satelliteimage servers. As a result these types of virtual globes can also give worldwide coverageup to a very detailed level and can have the option of providing simplified graphical overlaysto highlight man-made features (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_globe).Google TM Earth is a virtual globe program that was originally called Earth Viewer and wascreated by Keyhole Inc. It maps the earth by the superimposition of images obtained fromsatellite imagery, aerial photography and GIS 3D globe. It is available under three differentlicenses: Google TM Earth, a free version with limited functionality; Google TM Earth Plus,which includes additional features; and Google TM Earth Pro, which is intended forcommercial use (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Earth).Google TM Earth is able to show all kinds of images overlaid on the surface of the earth.Among its many features the program allows users to enter their own coordinates and data.The program has digital elevation model (DEM) data and this means features can beviewed in three dimensions. Google TM Earth supports managing three-dimensionalgeospatial data through Keyhole Markup Language (KML) 7 . The user can also add theirown 3D buildings and structures using Google TM SketchUp, a 3D modelling program, whichis also compatible with ArcGIS. Google TM Sketchup is a useful tool for visualizing, forexample, future coastal development plans.The Google TM Earth Plus edition has a GPS integration feature. This allows tracks andwaypoints from a GPS device to be added. Google TM Earth Plus provides direct support forthe Magellan and Garmin GPS devices. Google TM Earth Pro has additional add-on softwarefor movie-making and GIS data importing (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Earth).Google TM Earth, at the time of writing this report, could not produce sea-floor models andhad a limited ability to produce topography map overlays, but current topographic maps canbe added as KML add-ons (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_globe).A virtual globe developed by Microsoft called Virtual Earth TM provides highly interactiveonline geo-mapping solutions by enabling users to create applications with complexinformation that they can visually interact with.7KML – an XML-based language for describing 3D geospatial data and its display in application programs.19

Geospatial tools for visualizing the marine and coastal environment reportThe features of the Virtual Earth TM package include Bird’s eye view imagery; this isexclusive to Microsoft and allows unique views of real-world locations. Users can pancontinuously across the map. Aerial imagery gives access to high-resolution imagery and 3-D imagery enables three-dimensional, photorealistic views of buildings and landscapes.Map data gives access to all supported countries and regions through a single applicationprogramming interface. Map rendering is a useful tool for presenting maps. There are 33map styles available within this feature with adjustable fonts for labelling, the ability todisplay maps in resolutions up to 2000 x 2000 dpi, plus support for .gif, .wbmp, and .png fileformats. Maps can also be easily customized and modified for presentation purposes with avariety of built-in tools. Proximity search is a feature that returns a list of points of interestbased on the proximity of a certain location. This would be useful for drawing attention tospecial features for that geographic area. Geocoding 8 is a feature that can attain veryaccurate locations through the integration of multiple geocoders and datasets with MapView(http://www.microsoft.com/virtualearth/platform/). Microsoft® Virtual Earth TM does notsupport topography map overlay or sea-floor model features and cannot integrate data froma GPS receiver (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_globe).NASA World Wind is a free open source virtual globe developed by NASA and the opensource community for use on personal computers running Microsoft Windows. The programoverlays NASA and United States Geological Survey (USGS) satellite imagery, aerialphotography, topographic maps and publicly available GIS data on 3D models of the Earthand other planets (http://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Nasa_world_wind).The World Wind application provides the user with the ability to freely move around in thevirtual environment by changing the viewing angle and position. The user can rotate, tilt andzoom in and out of the virtual environment. World Wind provides the ability to browse mapsand geospatial data on the internet using the Open Geospatial Consortium's 9 Web MapService servers. The software also has the capacity to import ESRI shapefiles and kml/kmzfiles.8Geocoding - the process of assigning geographic identifiers (e.g., codes or geographic coordinates expressed as latitude-longitude) tomap features (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geocoding).9Open Geospatial Consortium - an international industry consortium of 333 companies, government agencies and universitiesparticipating in a consensus process to develop publicly available geoprocessing specifications(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_information_system#The_future_of_GIS).20

Geospatial tools for visualizing the marine and coastal environment reportWorld Wind has a full copy of the Blue Marble Next Generation, a true colour image of theentire earth. It is put together from data of a variety of satellites and can be seen at 1km perpixel resolution. The application also has Landsat 7 images collected from 1999-2003 at a15m per pixel resolution. USGS provides topography maps of the United States down to1:24K scale, and Zoom It is also included which includes additional areas of high resolutionimagery, such as New Zealand (http://www.worldwindcentral. com/wiki/World_Wind).World Wind uses DEM data collected by NASA's Shuttle Radar Topography Mission(SRTM). In addition, World Wind has bathymetry data which allows users to see oceanfeatures, such as trenches and ridges, in 3D.Incorporated into World Wind software is a Web Mapping Server (WMS) browser tool. Thisallows the user to connect to any WMS server, a good example is the ScientificVisualization Studio (SVS), which has access to many animations from the Goddard SpaceFlight Centre (GSFC). The goal of SVS is to make NASA Earth Science data and researchresults directly available to students, educators, and the general public through broadlyuseful applications. The GSFC has produced a set of animations that demonstrate a varietyof subjects such as hurricane dynamics and seasonal changes across the globe. WorldWind can take these animations and play them directly on the world. A user canimmediately see where the event is taking place as World Wind rotates automatically intoview. All images and movies created with World Wind using Blue Marble, Landsat, or USGSpublic domain data can be freely modified, re-distributed, and used on web sites, even forcommercial purposes (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_Map_Service).21

Geospatial tools for visualizing the marine and coastal environment report4.6Modelling and SimulationComputer modelling and simulation are powerful tools for ICZM and MSP applications asthese tools can provide an approach for modelling and simulating any coastal and/ormarine issues, for example the rate of coastal erosion, and the areas most at risk from this.These geospatial tools could also provide a system of investigating and evaluating anysolutions suggested for an ICZM/MSP issue.There are many modelling and simulation tools being developed around the world and therange of applications that they can be applied to is diverse. The tools can range from 1D to3D hydrodynamic modelling, sediment transport and morphological modelling, and extendto decision support systems, environmental impact assessments and socio-economicalmodels (http://www.netcoast.nl/tools/rikz/rikztools.htm).Digital elevation and terrain models (DEM, DTM) are extremely good forms of visualizationtools and can be used in various coastal and marine applications. These models are digitalrepresentations of ground surface topography or terrain. The differences between the twotypes of models are that the DEM is a representation of the earth's surface, includingfeatures such as vegetation, buildings, bridges, etc. The DEM often comprises much of theraw dataset, which will have commonly come from remote sensing sources. A DTM on theother hand is generally a filtered version of this surface, and hence can be a postprocessedversion of what was originally a DEM. The DTM provides a so-called bare-earthmodel, devoid of landscape features(http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Digital_elevation_model&oldid=156631071).A computer simulation is an attempt to model a real-life or hypothetical situation so that itcan be studied to see how the system works. By changing variables, predictions may bemade about the behaviour of the system.Net Coast and the National Institute for Coastal and Marine Management (RIKZ) in theNetherlands have developed a decision support model for Coastal Zone Management(CZM) plans called COSMO. This simulation model allows coastal zone managers toevaluate potential management strategies under different scenarios, including long-term22

Geospatial tools for visualizing the marine and coastal environment reportclimate change. COSMO demonstrates the main steps in the preparation, analysis andevaluation of CZM plans. The program is an interactive tool that allows coastal zonemanagers to explore the impacts of development projects and, environmental and coastalprotection measures. The user can explore a number of predefined cases as an educationtool, or specify new development scenarios and combinations of measures as a decisionmakingtool.The Tyndall Centre for Climate Change and Research has an ongoing project to improvecommunication in environmental management by developing Virtual Reality GIS. Thisallows virtual reality simulations to be produced that depict how environments may look inthe future. Users are able to explore these simulations and gain their own understanding ofhow the environments will change(http://www.tyndall.ac.uk/research/theme4/summary_t2_43.shtml).23

Geospatial tools for visualizing the marine and coastal environment report4.7Software Utility ToolsThe aim of this section is to mention a few software utility tools that may be useful formanipulating, animating and presenting information. The range of software packages outthere is enormous, and so this section will only touch the tip of the iceberg.There are a number of commercially available graphics editors which can be used tomanipulate images on a computer. Software such as Adobe Photoshop, and CorelPhotopaint, which is included in the CorelDRAW graphics suite are all capable of imagemanipulation.Daz® Bryce software is a 3D modelling, rendering and animation program. Included in itsrange of tools is an animation import tool, a random replicate tool, an advanced terrainediting tool and High Dynamic Range Images (HDRI) support. The animation support toolenables the user to import an animation into a virtual environment. The random replicatetool allows the user to quickly duplicate existing items in a scene with a random distribution,for example, create more convincing tree-lines and forests. The HDRI support tool enablesthe user to add the realism of lighting from the real world to rendered images.Google TM SketchUp, which has already been mentioned, is another 3D modelling program.Add-ons can be downloaded from the SketchUp Web Site's Plug-ins page. One such addonallows the user to export the 3D model as a .kmz file which can then be opened inGoogle Earth. This allows accurate geo-referencing of SketchUp models and accurateplacement of those models in Google Earth.Leica Geosystems have a range of software tools such as the Leica photogrammetry suitewhich has a wide choice of imagery formats, orientation and GPS data, vector data andprocessed imagery. Leica ImageEqualizer is a tool for processing scanned aerialphotography, or unbalanced satellite images. The ImageEqualizer is used to correctvariations and flaws in imagery due to hot spots, atmospheric effects and film processing.Another useful product is the Leica Imagine VirtualGIS which is an easy to use visualanalysis tool that offers GIS functions and capabilities in a 3D environment. As well assimple 3D renderings and basic fly-throughs, it enables the user to create accurate 3D24

Geospatial tools for visualizing the marine and coastal environment reportinterpretations of projects for interactive presentations. These tools can be used for a broad rangeof geospatial imaging applications (http://gi.leica-geosystems.com/LGISub1x30x0.aspx).Visual Nature Studio by 3D Nature creates detailed and realistic 3D models fromanimations. This tool allows geo-referencing based on latitude and longitude coordinates.Visual Nature Studio can be used to create 3D massing models of a place directly from GISinformation for analysis in both 2D and 3D.A useful utility tool is Integration and Application Network Conceptual Diagrams (IAN)designed by William Dennison (http://www.ian.umces.edu/symbols/). This is a symbol librarytool that contains over 1500 custom-made vector symbols, divided into 32 self-installinglibraries. The tool is designed specifically for enhancing science communication skills. Thelibraries are designed primarily for use with Adobe Illustrator. The symbols allowdiagrammatic representations, such as posters and presentations, of complex processes tobe developed easily.25

Geospatial tools for visualizing the marine and coastal environment report5Case Studies and DiscussionThe following are examples of how the geospatial visualization tools, whether individually orin combination have been applied to various studies and projects. These examples werechosen as it was hoped that they illustrated how the resulting geospatial visualizations aidedin the understanding of the coastal and/or marine environments in question and how thesevisualisations then led onto aid any decision/policy making.Coastal and marine environments and their resources are constantly under changingpressures from various sources. These environments are continually at risk from erosion,pollution, habitat destruction, land and resource use, and extreme natural events. On top ofthat there is the continuing threat of climate change and with it all the repercussions posedsuch as sea-level change, alterations in precipitation patterns, increased oceantemperatures, increased concentrations of CO 2 to name but a few. Therefore geospatialvisualization tools can assist in the effort to understand all these processes and theresulting implications on, and responses of, the coastal and marine environments.Remote sensing has a wide range of uses for coastal and marine visualization applications.Images from high resolution satellite sensors and moderate resolution sensors, airborneand shipborne sensors can provide researchers and scientists with data for visualassessment and analysis of, for example, water temperature, salinity, phytoplankton,hydrology, shoreline changes and bathymetry (http://satimagingcorp.com). Due to theinaccessibility of many coastal and marine areas, satellite and airborne imagery can providea system of regularly observing large areas of marine and coastal environments all at onceand from this can enable long term consistent monitoring of these areas in question.Before satellite or aerial images can be used for mapping or in a GIS system, the imagesmust be corrected for distortion. A map is an orthogonal representation of the earth’ssurface, thus they are directionally and geometrically accurate. Satellite and aerial imageswill have a certain degree of radial distortion as a consequence of the topography of theearth’s surface and the tilt of the remote sensor itself. This will as a result affect the distancewith which features on the image are displayed. Therefore it is necessary to use a process26

Geospatial tools for visualizing the marine and coastal environment reportcalled orthorectification which will correct the distortion and allow the image to be used to make directand accurate measurements of distance, angles, positions and areas. There are various softwarepackages that can orthorectify images and most GIS systems can correct for distortion, such asIMAGINE Advantage, part of the ERDAS IMAGINE suite from Leica Geosystems GIS & Mapping(http://gi.leica-geosystems.com/documents/pdf/imagineadvantage_WP.pdf).Roelfsema et al. 2006 monitored a toxic cyanobacteria bloom in Moreton Bay, Australia byusing images from the Landsat 7 ETM+ 1 in conjunction with datasets of the toxic bloomsand major substrate types collected in the field from a boat-based survey using point-basedGPS positions to map the extent of the harmful bloom. The field sampling was timed tocoincide with an overpass of the Landsat 7 satellite. When the results of a field surveydetected more than 25% cyanobacteria coverage in the study area, a cloud free Landsat 7ETM+ image was acquired for that date. The combined visual approach outlined in thestudy was adopted as a standard operating procedure for monitoring, understanding andmanaging the toxic blooms in Moreton Bay.Satellite and airborne remote sensors that can send and receive light can provideinformation on near-shore benthic and shallow water habitats. These sensors can providevisual information of seafloor features such as sand, coral reefs, shellfish beds and algae.Airborne remote sensing has an advantage over satellite images in that the images will beclearer as there is no interference from weather/cloud cover. Airborne remote sensing hasan advantage over shipborne remote sensing in that data can be collected from shallowwater areas. But where possible, it is an advantage to use shipborne remote sensors asthey are well suited to detailed seafloor and marine habitat mapping, providing visual mapssuch as substrate classification maps.A case study using a combination of remote sensing technology to aid beach nourishmentmonitoring and management is the ongoing NOAA Coastal Services Centre project to mapnatural resources in the San Diego region’s nearshore coastal zone in order to producevisual images and maps to give information as to the distributions and extents of differentnearshore habitats. The coastal zone had been subject to persistent natural beach erosion.1ETM+ - Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus is an eight-band, multispectral scanning radiometer capable of providing high-resolutionimaging information of the Earth's surface. It detects spectrally-filtered radiation in VNIR, SWIR, LWIR and panchromatic bands from thesun-lit Earth in a 183 km wide swath when orbiting at an altitude of 705 km (http://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov/about/etm+.html).27

Geospatial tools for visualizing the marine and coastal environment reportThe practice of beach nourishment by pumping in sand from offshore deposits is commonaround the world, but is also a short-term solution therefore requiring periodicalmaintenance. The environmental consequences of this type of practice are still poorlyunderstood. It was felt that monitoring of the area was necessary, and in order to achievethis accurate baseline information for future comparison purposes was required byproducing an underwater habitat classification scheme from habitat maps. The zonebetween the shoreline and the 10-meter water depth was mapped using a bathymetricLIDAR sensor and an airborne digital multispectral sensor, between the 10 and 36 meterwater depth a multibeam echosounder was used along with position recording equipment.Comprehensive bathymetry, substrate and vegetation data sets were derived from theremote sensing instruments and will be used to produce habitat maps along with a habitatclassification system. These final maps can be used to monitor the regional effects of beachnourishment on nearshore habitats overtime, as well as to perform potential environmentalrisk assessments (http://www.csc.noaa.gov/crs/rs_apps/issues/nearshore.htm).Historical data and local knowledge can be used in conjunction with geospatial visualizationtools to aid identifying vulnerable species, habitats or zones that are under pressure. Hall &Close, (2007) conducted a study to develop a process of identifying marine harvestlocations from local knowledge of spiny lobster and queen conch fisheries in the Turks andCaicos Islands. Maps of the fishery harvest areas were transferred from paper copymapping to digital form and input into a multi-harvester multi-layer GIS database, which wasused to produce a map of the harvest areas most likely to be fished. This map was thenused to identify high-pressure harvest zones for the spiny lobster. This is an example of howthe fishery scientist, government officials and the local people, who made a living from thefishery, all contributed to a visual application to allow them to recognise vulnerable fisheryareas and to manage this to ensure a sustainable future.Another example of using GIS to assist coastal managers in making informed decisions wasa thesis study undertaken by Nguyen (2000). Situated of the west coast of Vietnam is thePhu Quoc archipelago. This area was under increasing pressure from a growing population,fishing, and tourism development, and it was felt that there was a requirement to formulatean integrated coastal management plan. At the time of the study no distribution maps of28

Geospatial tools for visualizing the marine and coastal environment reportbenthic habitats such as coral reefs and sea grass beds in Phu Quoc existed. For the studythere were three major components, firstly, the baseline GIS data of Phu Quoc wasgenerated from a 1:50,000 scale topography map, included were shorelines, rivers,elevation contours, road networks, bathymetry and a digital elevation model. The secondcomponent, by using historical data, was mapping of the benthic habitats, focusing on threesites using Landsat TM imagery acquired in 1992. To maximize the chance that theupwelling signals recorded by the Thematic sensor contained useful information about theseabed, the study areas were restricted to a depth of less than 6 meters. The resultsindicated that benthic features of large coverage such as seagrass beds could be mappedusing Landsat TM. The third aspect of the study was to demonstrate how GIS could supportmarine resources management in Phu Quoc. Coral reefs are susceptible to nutrient excessand sedimentation caused by run-off water. A GIS-based model was developed to assessthe environmental sensitivity of coastal watersheds impacting the nearby coral reefs via thesedimentation process. The model incorporated vegetation cover, terrain steepness, andwatershed area, and took into account the proximity of benthic habitats and estuarineareas. Vegetation cover was extracted from the TM 1992 image. Slope and area bywatershed were extracted from the 1969 topographic map. It was concluded that theresulting sensitivity visualization maps could assist coastal managers in making informeddecisions on landuse activites to ensure the viability of the nearby coral reefs.A study that demonstrated the usefulness of mobile GIS was undertaken by Niu et al.(2004). It was felt that coastal mapping and shoreline change detection were critical to manyapplications, including coastal zone management, coastal environmental protection andsustainable development. Field surveying and on-site investigation become inevitable toensure the quality of coastal decision making. This study saw the development of a wirelessmobile GIS and applied it to on-site decision making for coastal management. The wirelessmobile GIS system had three components; a shoreline erosion awareness subsystem, acoastal-structure permit subsystem, and the third component was the wireless on-sitespatial subsystem. The shoreline erosion awareness subsystem was developed to aid localresidents in making land-use decisions. This sub-system used a shoreline prediction modelusing historical and predicted shoreline data. Coastal residents would be able to access this29

Geospatial tools for visualizing the marine and coastal environment reportsubsystem from their homes through the internet and be able to view the current and futurestatus of shoreline erosion, including its impact on their properties. This would allowresidents to inquire about coastal erosion conditions in an extended vicinity of their area,enabling them to take a proactive approach for structure protection. The coastal-structurepermit subsystem was implemented to simulate, in a GIS environment, the decision-makingprocess for granting construction permits for coastal protection structures. It utilized highresolutionorthorectified satellite images and DEM data therefore enabling 3D visualizationsof proposed coastal erosion control structures in a virtual environment. This type ofvisualization would reduce the requirement for on-site inspections and it would also enablemore efficient coastal management decisions to be made. The wireless on-site spatialsubsystem helped government officials remotely access and update spatial data from thefield, thus allowing for decision making in real time. This system was developed in theUnited States based on the environment at Lake Erie, Ohio but the writers noted that thissystem could be adapted and employed in other coastal areas. It was concluded that whenintegrated, spatial information and relevant technologies could be utilized to improve theefficiency of coastal management activities and to make more objective decisions.Mobile GIS systems have an advantage over ‘office’ based systems in that GIS informationcan be updated in the field, quickly and accurately. Before mobile systems were developed,field data collection and editing were often quite time-consuming and prone to errors as theinformation had to be recorded on paper maps by using sketches and notes and then takenback to the office where the data was then at some point entered into a GIS database.Jude et al. (2005) conducted a case study of a new GIS system known as a virtual realityGIS on the Norfolk Coast, England. It had been recognised that organisations involved incoastal management needed to improve the way in which stakeholders of the coastal zone,and the public were involved in coastal decision making. It was particularly felt that moreemphasis should be placed on improving participation, consultation and informationprovision throughout the decision making process. Therefore it was decided that there wasa need to develop new techniques that could aid the communication of coastal informationto the public. It was noted that GIS was a widely used system in coastal management, buthowever that the output product of these systems were highly technical. However, a newly30

Geospatial tools for visualizing the marine and coastal environment reportdeveloped system, virtual reality GIS, enabled the likely effects of coastal managementdecision to be presented in a format that would be suitable for widespread consultation anddistribution. This system enabled the production of virtual reality representations of a currentsite environment and simulations of how management decisions would affect the area in thefuture. Static and interactive visualizations were produced as they contributed well to bothpaper and electronic publications. From the study it was concluded that the newvisualization techniques had the potential to stimulate meaningful discussion during theconsultation process.GIS visualizations can create very accurate and realistic looking images of coastal andmarine environments. Recent advances in mapping and visualizing the data in threedimensions have resulted in very clear and vivid methods of presenting spatial information.These styles of maps and images help effectively communicate results to coastalmanagers, researchers and the public.Virtual globes are visualization tools that are transforming a flat 2D world into a moreexciting 3D world. Along with faster computers, their success has been greatly helped bythe development of broadband resulting in a faster and more reliable internet service thusallowing the public greater access to virtual globes. Wright et al. (2006) presented a methodto help visualize and distribute large amounts of LIDAR and digital photography data bymaking the data available via Google TM Earth. The NASA Experimental Advanced AirborneResearch Lidar (EAARL) provides excellent technology for surveying coral reefs, nearshorebenthic habitats, coastal vegetation and sandy beaches. Google TM Earth kml files werecreated for each EAARL multispectral and processed LIDAR image. An organized structureof network links allows the user to download high-resolution images within the region ofinterest. The first network link downloaded contains a colour coded flight path and ‘minutemarker’ icons along the flight path as well as flight navigation information. Layers of falsecolour-codedLIDAR DEM data are made available in 2km by 2km tiles. These layersinclude submerged topography. The user has the option to download a DEM in the Geotiffile format for each tile.An example of how geospatial visualization tools can be used for hazard assessment andprevention was a study conducted by Webster et al. (2006). Coastal flooding from storm-31

Geospatial tools for visualizing the marine and coastal environment reportsurge events and sea-level rise was a major issue in Atlantic Canada. Airborne LIDAR hadthe spatial density and vertical precision required to map coastal areas at risk of flooding.For the study, a large area of the New Brunswick coast along the Northumberland Straitwas surveyed in 2003 and 2004 using two LIDAR systems. Water levels from a major stormsurgeevent in January 2000 were surveyed using GPS and used as a base mark for floodriskmapping. Flood risk maps were created using a GIS to determine the spatial extent offlooding for a given water-level. From the LIDAR imagery a DEM was created and thisshowed embankments such as raised roadbeds that could prevent flooding inland. Anyroadbeds that appeared on the DEM that were in fact bridges, thus allowing water to flowbeneath, the DEM was corrected to simulate the connection between the sea and upstreamlow-lying areas in the GIS. The GIS was then used to generate maps of flood extent forwater levels at 10cm increments from 0 to 4m above mean sea-level. It was found from fieldvisits of the area that the flood simulations were generally accurate to within 10-20cm. TheLIDAR-derived maps produced from the study are now available to coastal communitiesand regional planners for use in the planning process and to assist in development of longtermadaptation strategies.What does the future hold for geospatial tools? In recent years an active geospatial toolsmarket has evolved and resulted in lower costs and continual improvements in hardwareand software components. The developments will result in a much wider use of the tools bya range of organizations that in turn will use these tools for a wide range of applications(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GIS). The user of geospatial tools is no longer required to be aGIS expert due to the ease of access to information and the advancement of softwareprograms. Many users can now easily retrieve, analyse, manipulate and visualize datausing relatively simple, user-friendly desktop tools.Mobile technology is also continually advancing, for example, integrating GPS and GISsystems onto PDAs and laptops along with wireless communications in some cases, thusproviding a system for recording accurate and up-to-date geospatial information in the field.This advancement means that any data recorded is entered directly into a GIS system, thusreducing the risk of errors. This has led to the development of real-time, interactive andmobile GPS/GIS tools which have resulted in new real-time geographic analysis. Geospatial32

Geospatial tools for visualizing the marine and coastal environment reporttechnologies and tools are now at the heart of a vast array of real-time interactive mobilecomputing, geolocation applications, along with wireless geographic services that arerevolutionizing the role of geography and geospatial information analysis (Nellis, 2004).Geospatial visualization tools will be required to deal with an ever increasing amount ofcomplex data. The continued development of GPS/GIS systems, including mobile systems,modelling and simulation tools, and virtual software programs, for example, will beextremely important for visualization predictions of how coastal and marine environmentswill react to climate change and the other pressures placed on these systems, but also as tohow management decisions in response to the pressures will fit into the prediction scenarioand thus enable managers to visually test these decisions. These visualization tools areessential for ICZM and MSP by facilitating a means to raising awareness, educating andcommunicating complex information to people from many different groups and thusencouraging them to participate in discussions regarding the future of these areas, andfrom this make informative choices to ensure the sustainable development andmanagement of our coastal and marine zones for the future.33

Geospatial tools for visualizing the marine and coastal environment report6ConclusionsIt can be concluded that there is a wide and varied range of geospatial visualization toolsthat currently exist, and that this area is constantly improving and evolving. This report hasmerely touched the tip of the iceberg. It was felt that each category/type of visualization toolcould have been examined and discussed in a lot more detail, but due to the aim of thereport being an overview, it was endeavoured to keep the information concise wherepossible. It is hoped that the report illustrates what the main geospatial visualization toolsfeatures and uses are, and how they can be beneficial to ICZM and MSP by the use of casestudy examples to give ideas of how others have applied a variety of tools andcommunicated their coastal and marine issues.By using various combinations of geospatial visualization tools the visualization ‘product’can be tailored to different audiences, whether it be the coastal scientists, who would have agood knowledge base, the policy makers, who would have different questions to the coastalscientist or the general public. The visualization could be a static map or an animated sceneof the area in question, it would again depend on what type of issues and how detailed thisinformation needed to be that was being delivered. The issue in question may be newbuilding developments along the coast, how would this visually impact the area? In this casea static 3D scene of the coastal area may be all that is required. Or it could be deliveringinformation about a potential future risk situation, for example, sea-level rise or stormflooding, therefore what areas would be most vulnerable? For these types of issues ananimated movie would quickly and effectively deliver the predicted results.The uses of geospatial visualization tools for helping the scientist, the coastal manager, thepolicy maker, and the public to raise awareness, educate and communicate the coastal andmarine pressures and processes, and the testing of decisions on these environments toagain understand any resulting impacts, whether positive or negative, is an absolutenecessity. This is particularly due to the varied and increasing everyday pressures inflictedon the coastal and marine environments from man and nature and the risks created by thethreat of climate change now and in the future.34

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Appendix 11.1KIMO Datatrawling Pilot ProjectEvaluation Form for Home Working Datatrawlers.Communications.How did you hear about the KIMO Pilot?Newspaper advertisementHave you any suggestions as to other places KIMO might have advertised forTrawlers?Relevant websites such as environmentjobs.co.uk etcPlease comment on your contact with the Coordinator eg was it timely, clear,appropriate, supportive etc ? How could it have been improved?Coordinator was friendly, helpful and clear throughout the project. The project wasexplained so well that there was minimal contact needed.

The BriefsPlease comment on the briefs that were generated. eg. were they along the linesthat you were expecting? Simpler? More complex?It was very relevant to the field in which I have studied and am currently working.The project itself ended up being more time consuming that I first expected.Given that it took KIMO longer than expected to generate the briefs, do you haveany suggestions as to how this process could be improved?No, I guess its all down to the willingness of organisations to submit the briefs.How did you feel about the ‘self-selection’ method of distributing the trawls? Doyou have any suggestions as to other methods of allocation?The selection of trawls is a two way thing. While the trawler may prefer selectedtrawls it is probably just as important for the coordinators to ensure that trawls aregiven to people trained within the relevant area of expertise as far as possible. Thisincreases the chances of customers being satisfied with the end product. There areprobably trawls which were mentioned that I would not have felt comfortable orknowledgeable enough to participate in.

The Trawling ProcessDid you contact your client during the trawling process? If so, please indicate:roughly how many times; whether the client was receptive to your contact;whether the contact was useful to you; any further observations in this area.Yes, twice. It took a while to get a response but when I did it was helpful. The contactwas necessary to clarify the finer points of the project and was very helpful in ensuringthe project was heading in the right direction.Please comment on the trawling itself. eg was it straightforward, difficult,enjoyable, frustrating etc.Less straightforward than first anticipated. This was mainly due to the nature of thetrawl; downloading large amounts of data rather than looking for information on aspecific subject. The trawl itself was reasonably enjoyable as I was directly interestedin the subject myself.

What were the main challenges you came up against? How would you suggestthe Trawler / KIMO could best meet these challenges?Finding the time to finish. I don’t think I did the final report justice as I ran out of timeat the end. It’s a difficult one to sort out because when you begin the trawl you neverreally know how long it will take and what problems you may encounter. Possiblymore flexibility in finish dates would be good although there is a tendency for thingsto never get done if there is not a deadline!How difficult was it to find the appropriate data?Data was easy to find as it was all contained on three websites. The format of the dataand that is what presented the biggest challenge.Please estimate how many hours you spent on the trawling.36

The ReportWhat were the main challenges you found in writing the Report?The time limit was the only real challenge writing this report. I got the most importantpart done, the results, as that is what the brief was specifically asking for. I felt I couldhave spent a bit more time on the discussion.Any other comments or observations?I enjoyed writing the report and was very interested by some of the trends in data thatemerged.Please estimate how many hours you spent on writing the report.23

The FutureWould you consider working on further trawls in the future?yesComments:As mentioned above it would probably need to have some relevance to my studyinterests in order for me to do it justice.Can you suggest any further improvements to the systems we used for the Pilot?eg in our publicity, communications, method of allocation of briefs, support andguidance for the trawlers, payments etc.More flexibility in the time taken for projects in order to ensure reports are to a highstandard. Also flexibility in payments as the project may end up taking longer thanoriginally thought .Financial RewardDid you consider the price you were offered to do the work:on the low sideComments:Probably on the low side simply because of the hours that were put into it.

Please add anything else that you think might be helpful for the evaluation egyour overall impressions of the Pilot and your part in it; your hopes andsuggestions for the future; any ideas or contributions that you have not alreadycovered elsewhere.I would be really interested in participating in future. I thought the trawl I undertookwas relevant, worthwhile and will provide useful information for the organisation thatsubmitted it.Name: Paul MacdonaldDate: 4/11/07Trawl Undertaken: Regional trends in fisheries data in England since 1900THANK YOU FOR YOUR INVOLVEMENT AND FOR THE TIME YOU TOOK TOCOMPLETE THIS EVALUATION

Appendix 11.2KIMO Datatrawling Pilot ProjectEvaluation Form for Home Working Datatrawlers.Communications.How did you hear about the KIMO Pilot?I saw an advert on the local newspaperHave you any suggestions as to other places KIMO might have advertised forTrawlers?I think the newspaper was the best media for advertising the project; other places couldbe NHS clinics as maybe there are carers than could be interested.Please comment on your contact with the Coordinator eg was it timely, clear,appropriate, supportive etc ? How could it have been improved?The contact with the coordinator was excellent; she answered all my questions clearlyand quickly. She also has been very helpful during the trawling.

The BriefsPlease comment on the briefs that were generated. eg. were they along the linesthat you were expecting? Simpler? More complex?The briefs were more of less that I expectedGiven that it took KIMO longer than expected to generate the briefs, do you haveany suggestions as to how this process could be improved?I would set a date to have the briefs in and I would agree with the trawler and theagency submitting the brief a reasonable timescale to do the trawling and writing thereport.How did you feel about the ‘self-selection’ method of distributing the trawls? Doyou have any suggestions as to other methods of allocation?I do think that it was a good method, because I selected a subject that I wascomfortable and happy to write about.

The Trawling ProcessDid you contact your client during the trawling process? If so, please indicate:roughly how many times; whether the client was receptive to your contact;whether the contact was useful to you; any further observations in this area.Yes, I contacted my client three times regarding the report, he answered very quicklyand very supportive. It has been very useful contacting him.Please comment on the trawling itself. eg was it straightforward, difficult,enjoyable, frustrating etc.The trawling was a bit difficult because there was not very much on the internet aboutthe subject as such, so it was a bit frustrating at times to spend too much time lookingfor information and finding so little. However I also enjoyed working in somethingrelated to my degree.

What were the main challenges you came up against? How would you suggestthe Trawler / KIMO could best meet these challenges?Finding information using databases to access to journals was difficult as I work fromhome, I think KIMO should have a way of getting that information through Athens.I found it difficult to look for information following a line of thought as I look aftermy 10 months old daughter.How difficult was it to find the appropriate data?The general data was not difficult to find but when looking for information about costsit was not possible as the suppliers wanted to know the size of the mussel farm and itsproduction in order to do an estimate.Please estimate how many hours you spent on the trawling.I spent about 35 hours doing the trawling

The ReportWhat were the main challenges you found in writing the Report?The fact that English is my second language made my writing slower and my husbandhad to proofread it to correct some grammatical errors.Also I am my 10 months old daughter’s only carer during the day and it makes verydifficult to write it down properly without being interrupted.Any other comments or observations?Please estimate how many hours you spent on writing the report.I spent about 40 hours writing the report

The FutureWould you consider working on further trawls in the future?yes / noComments:Yes, although it has been difficult to do I really enjoyed the fact that I was able of usemy knowledge.Can you suggest any further improvements to the systems we used for the Pilot?eg in our publicity, communications, method of allocation of briefs, support andguidance for the trawlers, payments etc.Financial RewardDid you consider the price you were offered to do the work:generous / reasonable / on the low side ?Comments:I think the price is on the low side, I spent 75 hours in total and getting paid 300£means that I worked for something more than 4£ per hour which is way under theminimum wage. We have to remember that it is a report written by a person withknowledge and expertise.

Please add anything else that you think might be helpful for the evaluation egyour overall impressions of the Pilot and your part in it; your hopes andsuggestions for the future; any ideas or contributions that you have not alreadycovered elsewhere.Name: Maria Consolación Cadavid CarrascosaDate: 29 th October 2.007Trawl Undertaken: Mussel Resocking ReviewTHANK YOU FOR YOUR INVOLVEMENT AND FOR THE TIME YOU TOOK TOCOMPLETE THIS EVALUATION

Appendix 11.3KIMO Datatrawling Pilot ProjectEvaluation Form for Home Working Datatrawlers.CommunicationsHow did you hear about the KIMO Pilot?An advert in the Shetland Times.Have you any suggestions as to other places KIMO might have advertised forTrawlers?Please comment on your contact with the Coordinator eg was it timely, clear,appropriate, supportive etc? How could it have been improved?My contact was mainly through email. I was kept informed of the progress of theThe project. Briefs My queries were answered promptly and efficiently. The contact I had wasgenerally very supportive, especially in connection with the tight deadline for myparticular brief.Please comment on the briefs that were generated. eg. were they along thelines The that briefs you were were more expecting? or less what Simpler? I was expecting, More complex? except that many of them were morecommercially biased than I was expecting – although, on reflection, this should not havebeen surprising.

Given that it took KIMO longer than expected to generate the briefs, do youhave any suggestions as to how this process could be improved?Sorry, I do not have any suggestions for improvement.How did you feel about the ‘self-selection’ method of distributing the trawls?Do you have any suggestions as to other methods of allocation?From the point of view of the datatrawler, it is probably better to be able to choose asubject, as an interest in the subject matter may be more motivating and yield betterresults. On the other hand, there is a risk that the personal interest of the datatrawler maybias the outcome of the report, when taking on a preferred subject. Having said that, thealternative method of allocating trawls purely by matching the briefs to a datatrawler’sparticular skills and experience may not necessarily achieve better results.The Trawling ProcessDid you contact your client during the trawling process? If so, please indicate:roughly how many times; whether the client was receptive to your contact;whether the contact was useful to you; any further observations in this area.I contacted the client once, briefly by phone, at the start of the trawling process. Theclient was very amenable. I discussed my initial findings and was able to gauge howuseful the type of information I had initially found was going to be to her.Please comment on the trawling itself. eg was it straightforward, difficult,enjoyable, frustrating etc.It was not straightforward. Although there were many ‘hits’ in connection with the areaof research, it was difficult to find specific pieces of information that would be directlybeneficial to the client and relevant to the primary aim of the brief. One particularlyfrustrating aspect of the research was in finding the source documents for citedreferences. It was quite often the case that a useful piece of information found within aparticular paper or journal would be an external reference to another source, whichcould be found online but would invariably be inaccessible (other than through paymentof a subscription or a one-off fee).

What were the main challenges you came up against? How would yousuggest the Trawler / KIMO could best meet these challenges?As mentioned in the previous comment, the problem of not being able to obtain sourcedocuments free-of-charge was the main stumbling block. The way round this was to usethe term ‘cited in’ when referencing the external source document. Nevertheless, to beable to access the original source document directly would be preferable to relying on athird-party interpretation of it. Would it be possible for KIMO to subscribe to one ortwo electronic databases of scientific papers and journals, thereby allowing datatrawlerssome access to subscription only sites?How difficult was it to find the appropriate data?Notwithstanding the difficulties mentioned in the previous two comments, there was animmense amount of information available. Hence, as with any search on the Internet, themain problem was in filtering the results in order to find the relevant data - a processthat I found particularly time consuming.Please estimate how many hours you spent on the trawling.51 hours.

The ReportWhat were the main challenges you found in writing the Report?I found the main challenge to be in adapting the results of the trawling process to fit therecommended report format. However, once this had been achieved, I felt that thequality of the report was improved as a result of using the recommended format. Forexample, the client was given more information on the whole aspect of the datatrawlingprocess than I would have included had I not used the given format.Any other comments or observations?No other comments.

Please estimate how many hours you spent on writing the report.42 hours.The FutureWould you consider working on further trawls in the future?Yes / noComments:Although I have answered ‘yes’, I am not entirely sure whether or not I would want todo another trawl. I suppose it would depend on my circumstances at the time. However,I am certainly glad that I took part in the pilot study.Can you suggest any further improvements to the systems we used for thePilot? eg in our publicity, communications, method of allocation of briefs,support and guidance for the trawlers, payments etc.I would have found it personally beneficial to meet with other datatrawlers at somestage in the process, if not in person then perhaps through an online forum.

Financial RewardDid you consider the price you were offered to do the work:generous / reasonable / on the low side ?Comments:In terms of an hourly rate, the payment was low, but I expected this to be the case. Inthis type of work, I tend to give more weight to the importance of ensuring a satisfactoryoutcome to the project than in trying to complete the work within a given number hoursto guarantee a reasonable rate of pay. Perhaps with more experience in datatrawling, Ican reduce the overall time without affecting the quality of the results.

Please add anything else that you think might be helpful for the evaluation egyour overall impressions of the Pilot and your part in it; your hopes andsuggestions for the future; any ideas or contributions that you have notalready covered elsewhere.On the whole, I have enjoyed taking part in the pilot study. I would be interested inlearning of the experiences of the other datatrawlers; I’m sure it would be useful to poolthis knowledge for future projects.

Name:Mike ScrimshawDate: 3 November 2007Trawl Undertaken:Building Public Support for Marine Protected AreasTHANK YOU FOR YOUR INVOLVEMENT AND FOR THE TIME YOU TOOKTO COMPLETE THIS EVALUATION

Appendix 11.4KIMO Datatrawling Pilot ProjectEvaluation Form for Home Working Datatrawlers.Communications.How did you hear about the KIMO Pilot?From an advertisement in the Shetland Times newspaper.Have you any suggestions as to other places KIMO might have advertised forTrawlers?Local radio or appropriate websites.Please comment on your contact with the Coordinator eg was it timely, clear,appropriate, supportive etc ? How could it have been improved?Contact with the Coordinator was always timely, clear and supportive, although groupmeetings including other trawlers and the coordinator would have been very beneficialto establishing how to go about datatrawling and how best to write the report. Suchearly planning measures would have been valuable.

The BriefsPlease comment on the briefs that were generated. eg. were they along the linesthat you were expecting? Simpler? More complex?The briefs were similar to what I was expecting but given the time allocated to us, Ifeel my brief required far too much work for a part-time trawler. The scope of theproject was huge and could have been much more specific. So much time is neededjust for planning, referencing and final polishing, not to mention the main body ofwork that I feel twice as much time (at least) would have been necessary.Given that it took KIMO longer than expected to generate the briefs, do you haveany suggestions as to how this process could be improved?Early planning and advertising for briefs. Briefs for projects could be sought at the sametime (or before) datatrawlers are sought.How did you feel about the ‘self-selection’ method of distributing the trawls? Doyou have any suggestions as to other methods of allocation?I feel the self-selection method was the best method possible.

The Trawling ProcessDid you contact your client during the trawling process? If so, please indicate:roughly how many times; whether the client was receptive to your contact;whether the contact was useful to you; any further observations in this area.I did not contact the client during the trawling process.Please comment on the trawling itself. eg was it straightforward, difficult,enjoyable, frustrating etc.The trawl itself was frustrating at first as guidelines/tips/explanations were notgiven/adequate for a quick and straightforward start.Piecing together information from reliable sites took longer than expected, especiallywhen specific information (figures etc.) was required. Up to date statistics wereparticularly difficult to obtain.

What were the main challenges you came up against? How would you suggestthe Trawler / KIMO could best meet these challenges?Piecing together information from reliable sites took longer than expected, especiallywhen specific information (figures etc.) was required.Verifying statements with multiple references took so long (or seemed impossible) itseemed like an unrealistic goal, given the time allowed.How difficult was it to find the appropriate data?Up to date statistics were particularly difficult to obtain.Market trends/ price information was often complex and took a lot of time and effortto obtain and re-present in the report.Please estimate how many hours you spent on the trawling.20-30

The ReportWhat were the main challenges you found in writing the Report?Lack of time and lack of direction in the beginning.Any other comments or observations?More advice and a general protocol for report writing would have been helpful.Please estimate how many hours you spent on writing the report.20-30

The FutureWould you consider working on further trawls in the future?yesComments:The delay in starting caused problems for me, in that I did not have much warning as towhen we could begin (I was on holiday when the briefs came through and had otherthings planned for when I returned, which cut my available working time significantly).In any future projects, trawlers must be kept up to date as to when work is likely tocommence so as to allow them to plan around the undertaking of a datatrawl.Can you suggest any further improvements to the systems we used for the Pilot?eg in our publicity, communications, method of allocation of briefs, support andguidance for the trawlers, payments etc.Support and guidance for trawlers was poor in my opinion, therefore much attentionshould be paid to this in any future projects of this kind.In the allocation of briefs, if time is limited, there could be something along the lines ofa ‘list of priorities’, giving the most important points to be covered in the report andadditional research that can be carried out should the main report run smoothly and toschedule.Financial RewardDid you consider the price you were offered to do the work:/ reasonable /Comments:

Please add anything else that you think might be helpful for the evaluation egyour overall impressions of the Pilot and your part in it; your hopes andsuggestions for the future; any ideas or contributions that you have not alreadycovered elsewhere.I was unhappy with my submission as I did not have enough time to produce a wellresearched, highly polished report.More support/advice would have increased the work rate (especially in the earlystages).Unfortunately I am more wary of taking part in future projectsName: Daniel GearDate:05/11/07Trawl Undertaken: Aquaculture Species DiversificationTHANK YOU FOR YOUR INVOLVEMENT AND FOR THE TIME YOU TOOK TOCOMPLETE THIS EVALUATION

Appendix 11.5KIMO Datatrawling Pilot ProjectEvaluation Form for Home Working Datatrawlers.Communications.How did you hear about the KIMO Pilot?Through the local press – The Shetland TimesHave you any suggestions as to other places KIMO might have advertised forTrawlers?New Scientst magazine?BBC wildlife/focus magazines?Please comment on your contact with the Coordinator eg was it timely, clear,appropriate, supportive etc ? How could it have been improved?Yes the contact was fine. From what I can recall, there was a bit of a delay betweeninitially applying for KIMO and meeting the coodinator but this wasn.t really aproblem.

The BriefsPlease comment on the briefs that were generated. eg. were they along the linesthat you were expecting? Simpler? More complex?I felt that some areas of my brief were not fully explained and certain terms used notdefined.This meant that I had to interpret them in my own way, which might not have been inthe interest of the client.I would have liked to have found more relevent data on my project than I did.. So inmy view the brief was rather limiting.Given that it took KIMO longer than expected to generate the briefs, do you haveany suggestions as to how this process could be improved?No I haven’t. I was not involved in the processHow did you feel about the ‘self-selection’ method of distributing the trawls? Doyou have any suggestions as to other methods of allocation?This worked well. There were a few projects which I did not like or indeed felt were abit too far from my own area of expertise.I certainly would wish a choice of an area of project briefs - rather than have a specificproject thrust upon me

The Trawling ProcessDid you contact your client during the trawling process? If so, please indicate:roughly how many times; whether the client was receptive to your contact;whether the contact was useful to you; any further observations in this area.No I didn’t, as I assumed it wouldn’t be appropriate. It was not mentioned that we couldso I did not free to do soLooking back on the nature of my report I wish I had contacted the client as I think Iwould have done a far better and more focused report than I did – re the interptretationof the brief above.Please comment on the trawling itself. eg was it straightforward, difficult,enjoyable, frustrating etc.Some of it was fairly straitforward. However it was frustrating when one had located agood source but found out that only the abstract was available - the full source beingonly available to members.Most of the periodical souces were not readily available in Shetland. This was a pityas some potentially relavant sources were not investigated. I did not have time, in theend, to go through interlibrary loan .The occasional crashes of internet explorer. I don’t think broadband is quite asefficient as it might be down south.

What were the main challenges you came up against? How would you suggestthe Trawler / KIMO could best meet these challenges?Unable to access certain sources on-lineMaybe give trawlers a pin-number or a password to enable one to access certainsources. It would give the trawler slightly more authority.For example if one belongs to a college /University one can easily access otherinformation souces quite easilyHow difficult was it to find the appropriate data?I found it very difficult. There was a paucity of information on my brief’srequirements.Consequently, I had difficulty in meeting the needs of the brief and even now I amunsure whether I did.Please estimate how many hours you spent on the trawling.This is difficult. But I would have said about 10-12 hours altogether.

The ReportWhat were the main challenges you found in writing the Report?Trying to stay focused on the needs of the brief.Assuming I had interpreted the brief correctly.Making sure all the relevant information had been included as well as leaving out datatrawled that wasn’t.Keeping the report as succinct as possible.Any other comments or observations?As mentiond above I would have benefited from contact with the client.For example a discourse with the client would have enabled me to be sure that ourexpectations of the report were the samePlease estimate how many hours you spent on writing the report.About 40 hours. This would include reading and interpretating all the sources, rankingthem in terms of relevence and planning the form of the report.The actual physical writing and formating the report took about 10-15 hours

The FutureWould you consider working on further trawls in the future?yes / noComments:A reserved yes. Now I know I can contact the client I feel more confident aboutsubmitting a report that meets the needs of the client..I did learn a great deal from the pilot, which will mean I will make more efficient use ofmy timeCan you suggest any further improvements to the systems we used for the Pilot?eg in our publicity, communications, method of allocation of briefs, support andguidance for the trawlers, payments etc.As mentioned above I did not realise that I could have contacted the client. Thisinformation would have been useful in order to clarify certain areas of the brief..Financial RewardDid you consider the price you were offered to do the work:generous / reasonable / on the low side ?Comments:I produced a 5000 word report. So this is about 10p per word. This I think isreasonable in terms of the actual written finalised reportHowever, it did take quite a lot of my time.and in terms of an hourly rate, it waspossible on the low side i.e approx £10/hour. Saying this I felt much of my time wasspent inappropritately (possibly due to the learning curve) so maybe not too relevent.

Please add anything else that you think might be helpful for the evaluation egyour overall impressions of the Pilot and your part in it; your hopes andsuggestions for the future; any ideas or contributions that you have not alreadycovered elsewhere.A support system to allow KIMO trawlers a bit more authority in accessing materials(e.g. passwords, pin-numbers etc) would be useful in the future. But,. I don’t know ifthis could be done.More access to the clientName: Paul FeatherstoneDate: 20 th November 2007Trawl Undertaken:Comparison between grazed and ungrazed saltmarshesTHANK YOU FOR YOUR INVOLVEMENT AND FOR THE TIME YOU TOOK TOCOMPLETE THIS EVALUATION

Appendix 11.6KIMO Datatrawling Pilot ProjectEvaluation Form for Home Working Datatrawlers.Communications.How did you hear about the KIMO Pilot?Shetland TimesHave you any suggestions as to other places KIMO might have advertised forTrawlers?Please comment on your contact with the Coordinator eg was it timely, clear,appropriate, supportive etc ? How could it have been improved?I loved the initial interview.A meeting a couple of weeks into the project or halfway through would have beenhelpful.

The BriefsPlease comment on the briefs that were generated. eg. were they along the linesthat you were expecting? Simpler? More complex?More complex but that wasn’t obvious from the brief itself without more experienceof analysing actual briefs or an initial internet check on the topics contained.It was effectively two separate briefs in one.Given that it took KIMO longer than expected to generate the briefs, do you haveany suggestions as to how this process could be improved?Possibly to accept briefs on an ongoing basis but to match them with two or three datesduring the year for the research on them to actually start.How did you feel about the ‘self-selection’ method of distributing the trawls? Doyou have any suggestions as to other methods of allocation?It was fine. I liked your giving deadlines for handing in our choices so that it wasn’t‘first come, first served’ in choosing briefs. This meant that each researcher had theopportunity to check out preferred briefs briefly on the internet before making achoice.

The Trawling ProcessDid you contact your client during the trawling process? If so, please indicate:roughly how many times; whether the client was receptive to your contact;whether the contact was useful to you; any further observations in this area.Yes, we talked by telephone twice. Niall was very helpful. His information made adifference to how I handled the brief especially in the write up.I sent Niall an email at the end of the write up of the first two parts of the brief to givehim estimates and contact details for the companies manufacturing NIRS machines.Please comment on the trawling itself. eg was it straightforward, difficult,enjoyable, frustrating etc.A mixture! There was some areas where I had to settle for information from abstractssince the actual reports would have had to be bought from the internet sites. It wasinteresting finding out information about the topic both from internet sites and peoplein other places working in that field.I got a physical reminder that glasses and wrist rests etc made it a comfortable andunstressed experience, since I found it easy to get immersed in the trawl.

What were the main challenges you came up against? How would you suggestthe Trawler / KIMO could best meet these challenges?Is KIMO allowed some kind of professional recognition on at least one academicsource of journals so that these can be read off the internet. The research is still validwithout this, since many abstracts are available on the internet, but it would be veryhelpful. This online access may be possible to negotiate with the NAFC librariansince their students have access to these journals and would be worth traveling toScalloway for.The library can get photocopies of some articles with a limit of 6 at a time and up to20 in a year. These can take about a week to obtain the photocopies.How difficult was it to find the appropriate data?On NIRS and kits for biotoxins, fairly difficult just off the internet. Some informationwould have had to be tentatively reported without confirmation by email andtelephone with individuals and companies. Some of the necessary contact detailswere obtained from the internet and from Niall at NAFC.Please estimate how many hours you spent on the trawling.I haven’t got this to hand but it took longer than may be viable for future projects. Thiswas mainly due to the lower level of information directly available on the internet. I wasunwilling to write a report which could be viewed as skeletal and skewed due to onlycertain information/facts being available. My background knowledge and ‘hints’ from theinternet showed that there had to be more information on the topics available.

The ReportWhat were the main challenges you found in writing the Report?It took longer than expected! Its been a while since I wrote a formal research report.The skeletons of this report make it adaptable for future research projects whichshould make future write-ups quicker.Any other comments or observations?Please let me know if the structure of the write up was acceptable for future research.I compromised between your recommendations and the format of reports found on theinternet e.g. a WHO report, which was excellent. The compromise was because thestructure of the write up used particularly suited the brief and the information foundon the internet.Please estimate how many hours you spent on writing the report.Please see my comments at the top of the page.

The FutureWould you consider working on further trawls in the future?yes /Comments:Yes, I would be interested in future trawls. I found the trawling interesting. I havemore confidence in analysing briefs and in contacting peopleCan you suggest any further improvements to the systems we used for the Pilot?eg in our publicity, communications, method of allocation of briefs, support andguidance for the trawlers, payments etc.It might be useful to have some way of renegotiating a brief and its requirements after ithas been accepted for a trawl. This would help with briefs which, either, proveunrealistic in terms of time for the researcher, or in terms of the level of informationavailable for the commissioner of the report.Financial RewardDid you consider the price you were offered to do the work:generous / reasonable / on the low side ?Comments:I wasn’t worried for this brief since it was the first one and I earn enough from othersources. However, it was an unrealistic brief in terms of the time needed to produceenough information for the commissioner to feel that it had been worthwhile. It mighthave benefited from an early negotiation into two briefs.

Please add anything else that you think might be helpful for the evaluation egyour overall impressions of the Pilot and your part in it; your hopes andsuggestions for the future; any ideas or contributions that you have not alreadycovered elsewhere.A meeting with other researchers on proposed briefs (maybe in workshop format) todiscuss them would be useful before we choose our preferences (which could be donein private contact with Jane).A meeting later on in the research with other researchers would be fun andinformative.Name: Diana WinfieldDate: 21 November, 2007Trawl Undertaken: 15.06.07 Methods Evaluation KIMO Project[1]THANK YOU FOR YOUR INVOLVEMENT AND FOR THE TIME YOU TOOK TOCOMPLETE THIS EVALUATION

Appendix 11.7KIMO Datatrawling Pilot ProjectEvaluation Form for Home Working Datatrawlers.Communications.How did you hear about the KIMO Pilot?Advert at The Shetland Times.Have you any suggestions as to other places KIMO might have advertised forTrawlers?NonePlease comment on your contact with the Coordinator eg was it timely, clear,appropriate, supportive etc ? How could it have been improved?Contact very clear. Interview exact to the point and very informative.

The BriefsPlease comment on the briefs that were generated. eg. were they along the linesthat you were expecting? Simpler? More complex?They were along the line that I was expected.Given that it took KIMO longer than expected to generate the briefs, do you haveany suggestions as to how this process could be improved?Probably having the briefs ready in advance, before the search of candidates.How did you feel about the ‘self-selection’ method of distributing the trawls? Doyou have any suggestions as to other methods of allocation?None

The Trawling ProcessDid you contact your client during the trawling process? If so, please indicate:roughly how many times; whether the client was receptive to your contact;whether the contact was useful to you; any further observations in this area.I did contact the client , NAFC Marine Centre, once for clarification. Theinformation given by the client was very useful.Please comment on the trawling itself. eg was it straightforward, difficult,enjoyable, frustrating etc.The trawling was very enjoyable. I did contact a lot of people/companies and Ifound very interesting the research and the process involved. From contactingthe suppliers that can have a suitable product to, finally arrive with arecommendation on the appropriate product to use.

What were the main challenges you came up against? How would you suggestthe Trawler / KIMO could best meet these challenges?Because my research involved contact companies, I found that, sometimes, Ineed to use the telephone which I did not considered before starting theproject.How difficult was it to find the appropriate data?None difficult because the data in on the web. I found difficult how to collateand discard the one that is not appropriate for the aim of the project.Please estimate how many hours you spent on the trawling.56 hours

The ReportWhat were the main challenges you found in writing the Report?NoneAny other comments or observations?NonePlease estimate how many hours you spent on writing the report.15 hours

The FutureWould you consider working on further trawls in the future?yes / noComments:Yes. I will consider to take part on future trawls.I found that very interesting and flexible. With the possibility to work from home,which suit perfect to me.Can you suggest any further improvements to the systems we used for the Pilot?eg in our publicity, communications, method of allocation of briefs, support andguidance for the trawlers, payments etc.None.Financial RewardDid you consider the price you were offered to do the work:generous / reasonable / on the low side ?Comments:Reasonable

Please add anything else that you think might be helpful for the evaluation egyour overall impressions of the Pilot and your part in it; your hopes andsuggestions for the future; any ideas or contributions that you have not alreadycovered elsewhere.I would really like to see KIMO allocating more trawls in the future, and myselftaking part on them.Name: Javier UnibazoDate: 17/11/07Trawl Undertaken: Improving the Marketing of Shetland Caught Velvet CrabsTHANK YOU FOR YOUR INVOLVEMENT AND FOR THE TIME YOU TOOK TOCOMPLETE THIS EVALUATION

Appendix 11.8KIMO Datatrawling Pilot ProjectEvaluation Form for Home Working Datatrawlers.Communications.How did you hear about the KIMO Pilot?I read about the KIMO Pilot in the Shetland News Website.Have you any suggestions as to other places KIMO might have advertised forTrawlers?I don’t exactly know all the places KIMO advertised for trawlers to answer.Please comment on your contact with the Coordinator eg was it timely, clear,appropriate, supportive etc ? How could it have been improved?I think contact with the co-ordinator was all of the above, although we had a few e-mail blips, I’m not sure exactly why this happened, probably ‘gremlins’ in thecomputer system!

The BriefsPlease comment on the briefs that were generated. eg. were they along the linesthat you were expecting? Simpler? More complex?The briefs were along the lines I was expecting. I think it is only when you start toreally begin the trawling that you can have an idea of how simple/complex the brief isgoing to be. I feel that the brief I undertook was quite complex and in-depth andneeded a lot of time given to it. However, another brief might have been relativelystraight forward.Given that it took KIMO longer than expected to generate the briefs, do you haveany suggestions as to how this process could be improved?It’s probably just a case of advertising in as many relevant places as possible that thistype of ‘service’ is available – as it became more wider known about then the briefswould come in quicker through time.How did you feel about the ‘self-selection’ method of distributing the trawls? Doyou have any suggestions as to other methods of allocation?I think the self-selection method was a good idea as then the briefs would be done bysomeone who is genuinely interested in the topic. The only thing I felt was that itmight not always be possible/practical to get someone who is an ‘expert’ in thesubject, it may be a case of someone who has had some experience of the subject area,and from this has a reasonable idea, but is not necessarily an ‘expert’.

The Trawling ProcessDid you contact your client during the trawling process? If so, please indicate:roughly how many times; whether the client was receptive to your contact;whether the contact was useful to you; any further observations in this area.I did contact the client once during the trawling process. The client seemed happy toanswer my questions. The contact was useful, the client requested/suggested morethings that he wanted in the report which led to more trawling being required and thereport being added to.Please comment on the trawling itself. eg was it straightforward, difficult,enjoyable, frustrating etc.At times the trawling was frustrating as it was difficult to get access to full scientificpapers. It was easy enough to gain access to abstracts, but of course the abstractdidn’t always give enough info, and you were left wondering that if you could accessthe full paper, the info you were looking for might be there. The abstract didsometimes give the info you were after, but not enough detail, i.e. results, andtherefore the full paper would have been required. Some full papers could beaccessed if you paid for them, or if you paid a subscription/membership to thewebsite, ie Science Direct. I wonder if the trawlers could do this and claim this typeof expense back? Maybe something that could be considered if the pilot was tocontinue?Another thing I felt was that you were never sure if you were on the right track as yourunderstanding of what was wanted by the client from the brief was your interpretationof the brief.

What were the main challenges you came up against? How would you suggestthe Trawler / KIMO could best meet these challenges?Not being sure if I was on the right track, I think some type of support network fromKIMO themselves and other trawlers would be good, ie some sort of internet forum,noticeboard idea.How difficult was it to find the appropriate data?It wasn’t difficult – I think the opposite, there was an abundance of information,maybe too much! But then it could have been the subject area of this particular brief,for another brief it might have been more difficult to find relevant information.Please estimate how many hours you spent on the trawling.I kept a note, approximately 34 hours – a bit more than what I thought it would be.

The ReportWhat were the main challenges you found in writing the Report?I felt the suggested layout for this particular type of brief didn’t work. From readingthe brief I felt that it was more of an overview of the information that was out thereand not particularly a scientific report with facts and figures for results etc. Thereforeit was difficult to fit the report into sections like results, analysis, discussion, as thisdidn’t seem relevant to an overview/review of geospatial visualization tools that werecurrently available.Any other comments or observations?Nothing I can think of.Please estimate how many hours you spent on writing the report.Approximately 50 hours. It ended up being a long report, probably went on for too long.

The FutureWould you consider working on further trawls in the future?yes / noComments:Yes, I would consider working on further trawls. However time might sometimes belimited as in my particular case I have a toddler, right now he takes up a lot of my time,but then in a few months he would be going to nursery giving me more time toconcentrate on working from home.Can you suggest any further improvements to the systems we used for the Pilot?eg in our publicity, communications, method of allocation of briefs, support andguidance for the trawlers, payments etc.I think it would be good to have communication with other trawlers, just to have supportand reassurance. I felt that sometimes I wasn’t on the right track, and simply to havehad someone else look at what I was doing and see if they thought the same as mewould have been a great reassurance.Financial RewardDid you consider the price you were offered to do the work:generous / reasonable / on the low side ?Comments:Probably on the low side now, but then this was a very in-depth brief that took a lot oftime, and probably even now I would trawl and write the report completelydifferently.

Please add anything else that you think might be helpful for the evaluation egyour overall impressions of the Pilot and your part in it; your hopes andsuggestions for the future; any ideas or contributions that you have not alreadycovered elsewhere.The pilot has been good and overall I have enjoyed it, at times it was challenging, butthat was more to do with my situation of working from home with a toddler present.Also the brief was quite in-depth and it was easy to get ‘bogged-down’ so to speak.I would certainly hope that this pilot project could continue as for many people who forwhatever reason can’t work a normal structured job this is ideal and it enables them touse their education for something relevant to their qualification and it’s not beingwasted.For writing the report, I wasn’t too sure about the legal side of things for putting inphotos, diagrams, drawing, images, etc from webpages and also mentioning companynames and products – maybe a tutorial/lecture regarding this area would be useful.I also think that in-depth briefs such as the one I did, that it would be necessary to haveregular contact with the client to ensure and be confident that the trawler is on the righttrack.And as I mentioned earlier, I do feel that it won’t always be easy to match an expert toa brief, it maybe a case of a trawler on the books that is most likely to have had someexperience of that subject area.Name: Jacqueline BrownDate: 6 th November 2007Trawl Undertaken: Geospatial tools for visualizing the marine and coastalenvironment to aid in communication and public participation for IntegratedCoastal Zone Management (ICZM)/Marine Spatial Planning (MSP)THANK YOU FOR YOUR INVOLVEMENT AND FOR THE TIME YOU TOOK TOCOMPLETE THIS EVALUATION

Appendix 12.1Evaluation for Clients who submitted briefs to the PilotThe KIMO Datatrawl Pilot is an innovative project to determine the practicalities ofusing highly educated home workers to undertake research using the internet. Clearly thiscould be done for any discipline but the Pilot has concentrated on information pertainingto the marine environment.The trawlers, all graduates in their field, used the internet to gather and sift through theinformation they could find relevant to the research areas they were allocated. In effectthey were involved in small scale consultancy work, using their skills, training andexperience to make professional judgements in order to construct the reports.In order to evaluate the Pilot I would appreciate it if you would take a few minutes toanswer the following questions. Please be as honest as possible. This evaluation will beincorporated into the final project report due out early next year.Thank you.Jane MacaulayCoordinator

Title of Brief:Regional trends in fisheries data in England since 1900Communication:How did you hear about the Pilot?Through the CMS e-mail alert system run by Bob EarllHave you any advice about how this could have been done better, or how wemight have reached a wider audience?Bob’s e-mail alert system is probably the most comprehensive set of contacts foranyone working in marine science, so it is probably the best way of getting word outto a diverse range of organisations and individuals. I would imaging with the offer of‘free work’ you would be inundated with potential projects. The difficulty I wouldimagine will be competing in the ‘consultancy marketplace’.How did you feel about your communication with the coordinator? eg was ittimely, clear, appropriate? How could it have been improved?Fine – no problems – co-ordinated the work, then left the data trawler to et on with it.

How did you feel about your communication with the trawler (if any)? eg was ittimely, clear, appropriate? How could it have been improved?All communication was by e-mail. Personally I feel I was unable to respond quicklyenough for the data trawler, due primarily to being out of the office most of the time. Isuggested phone calls to discuss the work, but (presumably intentionally) there wasnever any phone contact. Although this might be appropriate for home workers, itmade it difficult to give clear instructions or guidance, and could potentially result inmisunderstandings on the work requiredThe Report.Did the trawler meet the timescale as communicated to you via the coordinator?Comments:Not sure – never received a timescale, but certainly the work progressed well and fast.Were you happy with the presentation of the report?Comments:Happy doesn’t adequately cover my thoughts about the product – the report is superb,amasses a huge data set and presents it in a clearly logical way. Importantly, it alsohighlights deficiencies with the data, and suggests further areas of work which couldbe undertaken with such a huge data set

Were you happy with the content of the report?Comments:As above – content is superb. This is a piece of work I have been tryin to get done fora couple of years, so to at last have it achieved is amazing.Did the finished product and the way it was constructed meet your expectations?Comments:More than met my expectations – exceeded them by a substantial marginIf you had paid for such a service please give some indication of what you wouldhave been willing to pay.Using standard consultancy routes, I would imagine this piece of work would havecost in excess of £3,000. Certainly normal consultancy rates are around £250 per day.

General: (Please use a separate sheet if necessary)Would you be interested in using a service like this again?Comments:I was extremely impressed with the service provided, and in particular the quality ofthe report produced. Yes this service would certainly be useful, but I think the keydifficulty it will face will be in competing with the general consultancy market. Interms of the service offered it will be necessary to pitch the cost below that of thegeneral consultancy market, or offer a service which is demonstrably different. I’mnot quite sure how this could operate, but certainly by building up a clear reputationfor a collection of outworkers who have good data collection, management analysisand interpretation skills it should be possible to generate a unique way of working.If the answer is ‘yes’ please estimate the likely volume of work that you mightwant researched eg one report per week, two per month, one every six monthsetc.Estimation and comments:Probably only one every 6 months or so – really depends on knowing a data set thatneeds looking at and needing the answers enough to pay or the service.

In your opinion is there a market for such small scale trawling?Comments:Again, I’m sure there is a market, but it will require careful positioning in the market,and may not be sufficient to generate full time employment for many staff.Are you aware of other agencies, of any disciplines, who might be interested?Comments:I’m sure most organizations who work with scientific data will be interested, not onlymarine science but other social sciences, land based sciences and management etcWhat, in your opinion, could be done to improve this service?If it was permanently free, you’d be over-run with work. The difficulty will be makingit pay.

Do you have any further thoughts that might help KIMO plan and develop aPhase 2?I think the key thing will be to develop a market and ensure the project carves a nichewhich is clearly different to established consultancies.Name:Roger CoveyDate: 20 November 2007Job Title: Senior Marine Specialist, SW Regional Advocacy andPartnerships TeamAgency / Organisation submitting the brief: Natural EnglandTHANK YOU VERY MUCH FOR YOUR FEEDBACK

Appendix 12.2Evaluation for Clients who submitted briefs to the PilotThe KIMO Datatrawl Pilot is an innovative project to determine the practicalities ofusing highly educated home workers to undertake research using the internet. Clearly thiscould be done for any discipline but the Pilot has concentrated on information pertainingto the marine environment.The trawlers, all graduates in their field, used the internet to gather and sift through theinformation they could find relevant to the research areas they were allocated. In effectthey were involved in small scale consultancy work, using their skills, training andexperience to make professional judgements in order to construct the reports.In order to evaluate the Pilot I would appreciate it if you would take a few minutes toanswer the following questions. Please be as honest as possible. This evaluation will beincorporated into the final project report due out early next year.Thank you.Jane MacaulayCoordinator

Title of Brief:Review of ‘resocking’ practices for the Mussel Industry.Communication:How did you hear about the Pilot?Direct approach to organisation by letter – 6 th June 2007. Forwarded on byDevelopment ManagerHave you any advice about how this could have been done better, or how wemight have reached a wider audience?Advertising on the KIMO WebsiteHow did you feel about your communication with the coordinator? eg was ittimely, clear, appropriate? How could it have been improved?Initial liaison with NAFC Development Manager who advises thatcommunication with co-ordinator was excellent

How did you feel about your communication with the trawler (if any)? eg was ittimely, clear, appropriate? How could it have been improved?Resocking practices for the mussel industry:Communication with the trawler was appropriate and thorough and coveredany problem in a timely manner.The Report.Did the trawler meet the timescale as communicated to you via the coordinator?Comments:YesWere you happy with the presentation of the report?Comments:Yes: Well laid out in an appropriate fashion.

Were you happy with the content of the report?Comments:As above. An excellent comprehensive report which covers more ground thanI expected.Did the finished product and the way it was constructed meet your expectations?Comments:Yes. A professional approach ensured an excellent end product.If you had paid for such a service please give some indication of what you wouldhave been willing to pay.I would expect a commercial rate of between £2,500 - £5,000 for a consultantsreport such as this although we would be unlikely to outsource much of thistype of work unless it was part of a funded project.

General: (Please use a separate sheet if necessary)Would you be interested in using a service like this again?Comments:Yes – depending on priceIf the answer is ‘yes’ please estimate the likely volume of work that you mightwant researched eg one report per week, two per month, one every six monthsetc.Estimation and comments:Approximately 1-2 per yearIn your opinion is there a market for such small scale trawling?Comments:Yes. Judging by the caliber of this report – a worth while exercise.

Are you aware of other agencies, of any disciplines, who might be interested?Comments:What, in your opinion, could be done to improve this service?Allow researchers to use other medium other than internet – for example faceto-faceand telephone interviewsDo you have any further thoughts that might help KIMO plan and develop aPhase 2?

Name:Kenny GiffordDate:Job Title:Aquaculture Development ManagerAgency / Organisation submitting the brief: NAFC Marine CentreTHANK YOU VERY MUCH FOR YOUR FEEDBACK

Appendix 12.3Evaluation for Clients who submitted briefs to the PilotThe KIMO Datatrawl Pilot is an innovative project to determine the practicalities ofusing highly educated home workers to undertake research using the internet. Clearly thiscould be done for any discipline but the Pilot has concentrated on information pertainingto the marine environment.The trawlers, all graduates in their field, used the internet to gather and sift through theinformation they could find relevant to the research areas they were allocated. In effectthey were involved in small scale consultancy work, using their skills, training andexperience to make professional judgements in order to construct the reports.In order to evaluate the Pilot I would appreciate it if you would take a few minutes toanswer the following questions. Please be as honest as possible. This evaluation will beincorporated into the final project report due out early next year.Thank you.Jane MacaulayCoordinator

Title of Brief:Building Public Support for Marine Protected AreasCommunication:How did you hear about the Pilot?I heard about the pilot from the CMS email circular.Have you any advice about how this could have been done better, or how wemight have reached a wider audience?No. CMS reaches a huge number of relevant organisations and individuals.How did you feel about your communication with the coordinator? eg was ittimely, clear, appropriate? How could it have been improved?Communication with Jane Macaulay was efficient and effective. Due to an externaldeadline (I planned to use the report as the basis for a conference presentation towhich I was already committed) and periods of annual leave (mine and theresearchers), we were working to a tight schedule. As such, it was important that theproject was agreed as early as possible and started promptly.

How did you feel about your communication with the trawler (if any)? eg was ittimely, clear, appropriate? How could it have been improved?Due to the time constraints mentioned above, communication with the trawler wasrestricted to the outset and end of the project. With more time, it would have beenuseful to communicate during the research period, particularly to pick up on gaps, thedirection the research was taking, or areas of particular interest.The Report.Did the trawler meet the timescale as communicated to you via the coordinator?Comments:Yes. This was impressive given the tight timescale.Were you happy with the presentation of the report?Comments:Yes. The report was to be used internally only (to inform my conference talk) sopresentation was not terribly important. However, the report was well structured andpresented, succinct and very well written. Had we wished to publish it, it would haverequired little further work.

Were you happy with the content of the report?Comments:The content of the report was generally very good. The researcher had developed anexcellent understanding of the issues and presented a clear and well-referencedanalysis. The examples and case studies were relevant, up to date and wide-ranging,while the analysis and discussion were comprehensive and well-structured. It wasstraightforward to extract general points and specific examples for the purposes of myconference presentation. On submission of the final report, I requested details of onepaper that was cited, and the researcher forwarded it to me straightaway. This paper,which I was not previously aware of, ended up being one of two key pieces ofevidence that formed the basis of my presentation.My only negative comment is that no UK examples or case studies were included inthe review, is spite of being specified in the project brief. Had there been more time, Iwould have followed this up with the researcher.Did the finished product and the way it was constructed meet your expectations?Comments:Yes, largely. See above.If you had paid for such a service please give some indication of what you wouldhave been willing to pay.Had I paid for the service, I would expect to have paid up to £1500.If I had paid for it, I would have committed more time to communicating with theresearcher during the research drafting phases, to ensure that the report was exactly asrequired.

General: (Please use a separate sheet if necessary)Would you be interested in using a service like this again?Comments:Yes. From time to time we commission small research projects, and increasingly thesecould be undertaken through internet-based research.Being a charity, our budget for this sort of work is typically small, so the service youoffer (remote and internet-based, therefore keeping costs down) could potentially meetour needs.If the answer is ‘yes’ please estimate the likely volume of work that you mightwant researched eg one report per week, two per month, one every six monthsetc.Estimation and comments:One or two reports per year.In your opinion is there a market for such small scale trawling?Comments:Yes. I initially had doubts as to whether the researcher might be able to ‘get on top ofthe subject’ in the short space of time, but this proved unfounded and the end-productwas of a high quality. As such, I think there is a market for this type of service.

Are you aware of other agencies, of any disciplines, who might be interested?Comments:Local Wildlife Trusts, other NGOs.What, in your opinion, could be done to improve this service?Providing profiles of the researchers.Do you have any further thoughts that might help KIMO plan and develop aPhase 2?

Thank you very much – you saved my skin! The research that you conducted made allthe difference to my conference presentation, which was very well received.I was very impressed that you were able to provide such a high quality piece of workin such a short space of time and with so little guidance.Name: Lisa ChiltonDate: 8 Nov 2007Job Title: Marine Development ManagerAgency / Organisation submitting the brief: The Wildlife TrustsTHANK YOU VERY MUCH FOR YOUR FEEDBACK

Appendix 12.4Evaluation for Clients who submitted briefs to the PilotThe KIMO Datatrawl Pilot is an innovative project to determine the practicalities ofusing highly educated home workers to undertake research using the internet. Clearly thiscould be done for any discipline but the Pilot has concentrated on information pertainingto the marine environment.The trawlers, all graduates in their field, used the internet to gather and sift through theinformation they could find relevant to the research areas they were allocated. In effectthey were involved in small scale consultancy work, using their skills, training andexperience to make professional judgements in order to construct the reports.In order to evaluate the Pilot I would appreciate it if you would take a few minutes toanswer the following questions. Please be as honest as possible. This evaluation will beincorporated into the final project report due out early next year.Thank you.Jane MacaulayCoordinator

Title of Brief:Aquaculture Species Diversification.What is the next species with potential for Shetland?Communication:How did you hear about the Pilot?Direct approach to organisation by letter – 6 th June 2007. Forwarded on byDevelopment ManagerHave you any advice about how this could have been done better, or how wemight have reached a wider audience?Advertising on the KIMO WebsiteHow did you feel about your communication with the coordinator? eg was ittimely, clear, appropriate? How could it have been improved?Initial liaison with NAFC Development Manager who advises thatcommunication with co-ordinator was excellent

How did you feel about your communication with the trawler (if any)? eg was ittimely, clear, appropriate? How could it have been improved?Aquaculture species diversification:Communication with the trawler was appropriate and thorough and coveredany problem in a timely manner.The Report.Did the trawler meet the timescale as communicated to you via the coordinator?Comments:Yes.Were you happy with the presentation of the report?Comments:Yes. Well laid out in a clear, concise fashion.

Were you happy with the content of the report?Comments:Generally yes. Could perhaps have taken this further but has raised pertinentareas for discussion and identified potential aquaculture species with Shetlandin mind.Very interesting ideas and practical conclusionsDid the finished product and the way it was constructed meet your expectations?Comments:Yes.If you had paid for such a service please give some indication of what you wouldhave been willing to pay.I would expect a commercial rate of between £2,500 - £5,000 for a consultantsreport such as this although we would be unlikely to outsource much of thistype of work unless it was part of a funded project.

General: (Please use a separate sheet if necessary)Would you be interested in using a service like this again?Comments:Yes – depending on priceIf the answer is ‘yes’ please estimate the likely volume of work that you mightwant researched eg one report per week, two per month, one every six monthsetc.Estimation and comments:Approximately 1-2 per yearIn your opinion is there a market for such small scale trawling?Comments:Yes. Judging by the caliber of this report – a worth while exercise.

Are you aware of other agencies, of any disciplines, who might be interested?Comments:What, in your opinion, could be done to improve this service?Allow researchers to use other medium other than internet – for example faceto-faceand telephone interviewsDo you have any further thoughts that might help KIMO plan and develop aPhase 2?

Name: Kenny GiffordDate:Job Title:Aquaculture Development ManagerAgency / Organisation submitting the brief: NAFC Marine CentreTHANK YOU VERY MUCH FOR YOUR FEEDBACK

Appendix 12.5Evaluation for Clients who submitted briefs to the PilotThe KIMO Datatrawl Pilot is an innovative project to determine the practicalities ofusing highly educated home workers to undertake research using the internet. Clearly thiscould be done for any discipline but the Pilot has concentrated on information pertainingto the marine environment.The trawlers, all graduates in their field, used the internet to gather and sift through theinformation they could find relevant to the research areas they were allocated. In effectthey were involved in small scale consultancy work, using their skills, training andexperience to make professional judgements in order to construct the reports.In order to evaluate the Pilot I would appreciate it if you would take a few minutes toanswer the following questions. Please be as honest as possible. This evaluation will beincorporated into the final project report due out early next year.Thank you.Jane MacaulayCoordinator

Title of Brief:Comparison of Grazed and Ungrazed SaltmarshCommunication:How did you hear about the Pilot?An email newsflash from Bob Earl’s CMSHave you any advice about how this could have been done better, or how wemight have reached a wider audience?CMS provided a targeted service to individuals working in the marine field, but thenews letter was a single shot which may not be read at the time. If people need to thisservice there should be an internet presence. This site should be optimised to be easilyfound by search engines looking for reviews/reviewers etc. Advertising in appropriateenvironmental publications (both paper and online) would also be advantageous (butmay be costly), some environmental news letters have community pages where theadds are relatively cheap.It would be also valuable to make the “DEFRA family” (Departmen of Environmentand its associated organisations aware of this service.

How did you feel about your communication with the coordinator? eg was ittimely, clear, appropriate? How could it have been improved?Communication with the coordinator was fine.How did you feel about your communication with the trawler (if any)? eg was ittimely, clear, appropriate? How could it have been improved?No communications !! I would expect clarification and checks on target (eg a list ofthings currently being reviewed). It would have been useful to have at least got anemail to confirm the brief had been understood (eg “this is what I understand youwant and these are the sort of search areas I will investigate”). In the report it wasobvious some things were ambiguous and the trawler made decisions on what toconcentrate on; I think if in doubt contact the customer would be a good motto.The Report.Did the trawler meet the timescale as communicated to you via the coordinator?Comments:

It was later than expected, however I understand there were mitigating circumstancesand in this case the delay did not impact on my priorities. Again early notification ofanypotential delays would be useful to the customer.Were you happy with the presentation of the report?Comments:Overall I was happy with the presentation of the report.The executive summary did summarise the report well.In the contents the sections could have had hyperlinks to aid navigation.References were inserted as footnotes on each page, but these often overran to the top ofthe following page and made it difficult to read. A list of refs at end useful (just the authorand date could be included in the footnote). The references at the end would also give aclear and quick indication of how much material had been consultedAs mention the formatting of comments slipped over the pages and there were some basictypos. I assume that if there was less of a rush to finish this project these would have beencaught and tidied upWere you happy with the content of the report?Comments:In general yes. If there was early communication with the customer the report couldhave been better focused to the needs of the project. (alternatively maybe the briefneeds to be more specific, but I’d prefer talking to the individual).That aside this trawl was initiated because we did not have time to extensively searchthe literature but felt the subject was not well document. The trawler found at leastone very good report we were unaware of and provided a good executive summary ofhis findings and conclusions. The later were based on his own opinions (slightlyspeculative) with no reference to the customer so could have been more appropriatelyfocused.Did the finished product and the way it was constructed meet your expectations?Comments:

For a trial yes. A final “polished” service would allow easy access around thedocument (hyperlinks to sections) and full appreciation of the literature searched (egrefs at back maybe with hyperlinks to the source material. Again this would dependon the target audience who may be technically aware people who want all the detailsor science manager who want clear simple conclusions or both groups (hence theimportance of a good executive summary and or detailed appendices). Checking whothe main audience will be is important for this service.If you had paid for such a service please give some indication of what you wouldhave been willing to pay.This is difficult to say accurately as it depends on the size, detail and use of the reportand services. A the top end detailed technical reports produced by “consultancy” firmson which large financial and environment decisions are made would be in the order of£1000s (top end £5-10K), however smaller reviews for which in house or temporarystaff are called in would be likely to be in the order of £100s (top end £2k)General: (Please use a separate sheet if necessary)Would you be interested in using a service like this again?Comments:Yes, especially at the cheap for an initial review of the literature, or for searching forspecific answers to problems (the answer may be there is no published work on thesubject)If the answer is ‘yes’ please estimate the likely volume of work that you mightwant researched eg one report per week, two per month, one every six monthsetc.

Estimation and comments:I personally may have 5-15 per year depending on funds, but the Environment Agencyand its sister organisation may have many more. Again it depends on the quality ofthe product and available reseachers.In your opinion is there a market for such small scale trawling?Comments:YesAre you aware of other agencies, of any disciplines, who might be interested?Comments:In my field of marine science: The countryside agencies (Natural England, CCW,SNH) other environment agencies (eg EHS NI, SEPA, CEFAS). There may also beinterest from the regulated industries (eg Water Companies and the power sector) –however they may be higher legal liabilities in this sector. Other disciplines toconsider would include environmental economics and policyWhat, in your opinion, could be done to improve this service?

Better communication and ensuring target on track. Expectation management.Logging of previous requests /search (successful and unsuccessful outcomes) helpspersonalise service (compare with Any Question Answered text service).Do you have any further thoughts that might help KIMO plan and develop aPhase 2?Maybe a database of the background skill set of the trawlers, so the customersunderstand the potential trawlers view.Need to spread the work and get buy in from a wider audienceName: Mike BestDate:22/11/07Job Title: Marine Technical Advisor (Environmental Monitoring and AssessmentProcess)Agency / Organisation submitting the brief: Environment AgencyTHANK YOU VERY MUCH FOR YOUR FEEDBACK

Appendix 12.6Evaluation for Clients who submitted briefs to the PilotThe KIMO Datatrawl Pilot is an innovative project to determine the practicalities ofusing highly educated home workers to undertake research using the Internet. Clearly thiscould be done for any discipline but the Pilot has concentrated on information pertainingto the marine environment.The trawlers, all graduates in their field, used the Internet to gather and sift through theinformation they could find relevant to the research areas they were allocated. In effectthey were involved in small-scale consultancy work, using their skills, training andexperience to make professional judgements in order to construct the reports.In order to evaluate the Pilot I would appreciate it if you would take a few minutes toanswer the following questions. Please be as honest as possible. This evaluation will beincorporated into the final project report due out early next year.Thank you.Jane MacaulayCoordinator

Title of BriefTesting Methodologies - Comparison of Near InfraredSpectroscopy with Soxhlet for Percentage Fat Analysis inFish. Comparison of Near Infrared Spectroscopy with GasChromatography for Fatty Acid Analysis in Fish.Communication:How did you hear about the Pilot?Via NAFC Marine Centre and local news (Shetland Times)Have you any advice about how this could have been done better, or how wemight have reached a wider audience?Possibly a more concise document however it did contain all necessary information

How did you feel about your communication with the coordinator? e.g. was ittimely, clear, appropriate? How could it have been improved?Phone and email, good communication.How did you feel about your communication with the trawler (if any)? e.g. was ittimely, clear, appropriate? How could it have been improved?Some parts missing however it was a first attempt in a very cagey industryThe Report.Did the trawler meet the timescale as communicated to you via the coordinator?Comments:Yes

Were you happy with the presentation of the report?Comments:Could have been presented betterWere you happy with the content of the report?Comments:Yes contained information we were looking forDid the finished product and the way it was constructed meet your expectations?Comments:Yes

If you had paid for such a service please give some indication of what you wouldhave been willing to pay.Very difficult to sayGeneral: (Please use a separate sheet if necessary)Would you be interested in using a service like this again?Comments:Yes. I think I would focus on a particular topic and maybe less general as I realized itis / was quite a large chunk of workIf the answer is ‘yes’ please estimate the likely volume of work that you mightwant researched e.g.: one report per week, two per month, one every six monthsetc.Estimation and comments:2 annually possibly

In your opinion is there a market for such small scale trawling?Comments:Yes if there was better access however as said before the scientific industry can becagey in what it wants to discloseAre you aware of other agencies, of any disciplines, who might be interested?Comments:Not that I’m awareWhat, in your opinion, could be done to improve this service?More concise topics, smaller range of areas

Do you have any further thoughts that might help KIMO plan and develop aPhase 2?Closer collaboration within the EU i.e. funding and projectsName: Niall O’RourkeDate: 27/11/07Job Title: Analytical Service ManagerAgency / Organisation submitting the brief: SSQCTHANK YOU VERY MUCH FOR YOUR FEEDBACK

Appendix 12.7Evaluation for Clients who submitted briefs to the PilotThe KIMO Datatrawl Pilot is an innovative project to determine the practicalities ofusing highly educated home workers to undertake research using the internet. Clearly thiscould be done for any discipline but the Pilot has concentrated on information pertainingto the marine environment.The trawlers, all graduates in their field, used the internet to gather and sift through theinformation they could find relevant to the research areas they were allocated. In effectthey were involved in small scale consultancy work, using their skills, training andexperience to make professional judgements in order to construct the reports.In order to evaluate the Pilot I would appreciate it if you would take a few minutes toanswer the following questions. Please be as honest as possible. This evaluation will beincorporated into the final project report due out early next year.Thank you.Jane MacaulayCoordinator

Title of Brief:Improving the Marketing of Shetland Caught Velvet CrabsCommunication:How did you hear about the Pilot?The NAFC Marine Centre was contacted direct.Have you any advice about how this could have been done better, or how wemight have reached a wider audience?

How did you feel about your communication with the coordinator? eg was ittimely, clear, appropriate? How could it have been improved?Communication with the coordinator was good, although there were problems withreceiving the final report (these may well be technical problems with our e-mailsystem).How did you feel about your communication with the trawler (if any)? eg was ittimely, clear, appropriate? How could it have been improved?Communication with the trawler was very good. Initial information was shared byemail and then a meeting was organised to go over the finer detail. After this thetrawler completed the work without any further need for information.The Report.Did the trawler meet the timescale as communicated to you via the coordinator?Comments:Yes

Were you happy with the presentation of the report?Comments:YesWere you happy with the content of the report?Comments:The report was very thorough and I was particularly impressed with the practical trialsof the equipment that were carried out. This was not part of the brief, but was veryuseful information, and showed good initiative.Did the finished product and the way it was constructed meet your expectations?Comments:Yes

If you had paid for such a service please give some indication of what you wouldhave been willing to pay.It is likely that this kind of work would have been carried out in house, however, thisservice has proved to be very efficient and a very thorough investigation was carriedout. Perhaps something in the region of £1000 for a small scale graduate consultancy.General: (Please use a separate sheet if necessary)Would you be interested in using a service like this again?Comments:YesIf the answer is ‘yes’ please estimate the likely volume of work that you mightwant researched eg one report per week, two per month, one every six monthsetc.Estimation and comments:Perhaps one report per year.In your opinion is there a market for such small scale trawling?

Comments:I do feel that there is a market for this work, particularly where specialist graduatescan be matched to clients.Are you aware of other agencies, of any disciplines, who might be interested?Comments:What, in your opinion, could be done to improve this service?Overall I am very happy with the service provided. It was very efficient and fulfilledthe brief provided, with some additional information provided.

Do you have any further thoughts that might help KIMO plan and develop aPhase 2?It might be useful for a potential client to be able to match a trawler to their needs.This need not be by name, but the backgrounds of trawlers could be made available togive the client a more active role in selecting a trawler.A web based portal for this service could also be beneficial, whereby clients could logon and see the progress of reports, not in terms of actual content but key milestones.The trawler details could also be made available through a website.Name: Dr Beth LeslieDate: 28 th November 2007Job Title: Shellfish BiologistAgency / Organisation submitting the brief: NAFC Marine CentreTHANK YOU VERY MUCH FOR YOUR FEEDBACK

Appendix 12.8Evaluation for Clients who submitted briefs to the PilotThe KIMO Datatrawl Pilot is an innovative project to determine the practicalities ofusing highly educated home workers to undertake research using the internet. Clearly thiscould be done for any discipline but the Pilot has concentrated on information pertainingto the marine environment.The trawlers, all graduates in their field, used the internet to gather and sift through theinformation they could find relevant to the research areas they were allocated. In effectthey were involved in small scale consultancy work, using their skills, training andexperience to make professional judgements in order to construct the reports.In order to evaluate the Pilot I would appreciate it if you would take a few minutes toanswer the following questions. Please be as honest as possible. This evaluation will beincorporated into the final project report due out early next year.Thank you.Jane MacaulayCoordinator

Title of Brief:Geospatial tools for visualizing the marine and coastalenvironment to aid in communication and publicparticipation for Integrated Coastal Zone Management(ICZM)/Marine Spatial Planning (MSP)Communication:How did you hear about the Pilot?EmailHave you any advice about how this could have been done better, or how wemight have reached a wider audience?No. I think it has worked so far. Maybe a little more communicationbetween all parties would have made the process quicker, and maybe alittle more contact with the person carrying out the work would have beenuseful.

How did you feel about your communication with the coordinator? eg was ittimely, clear, appropriate? How could it have been improved?Good – maybe a little more frequent.How did you feel about your communication with the trawler (if any)? eg was ittimely, clear, appropriate? How could it have been improved?A little more frequent just to clarify topic, coverage etc.The Report.Did the trawler meet the timescale as communicated to you via the coordinator?Comments: Yes

Were you happy with the presentation of the report?Comments:Yes – well written and presented and fair coverage.Were you happy with the content of the report?Comments:Yes – a useful overview.Did the finished product and the way it was constructed meet your expectations?Comments:Yes.

If you had paid for such a service please give some indication of what you wouldhave been willing to pay.Academics are never willing to pay!!! Probably the rate of an RA per hour.General: (Please use a separate sheet if necessary)Would you be interested in using a service like this again?Comments: YesIf the answer is ‘yes’ please estimate the likely volume of work that you mightwant researched eg one report per week, two per month, one every six monthsetc.Estimation and comments:Would depend on projects – maybe one every six months – but could beone every two months.

In your opinion is there a market for such small scale trawling?Comments:Yes. Could be a useful component of university research projects wheresuch a service would fit in very well where scoping/reviews etc wererequired.Are you aware of other agencies, of any disciplines, who might be interested?Comments: Not sure.What, in your opinion, could be done to improve this service?Nothing really.

Do you have any further thoughts that might help KIMO plan and develop aPhase 2? Not offhand – but would be willing to participate again – veryhelpful and useful approach for me.Name: David R. GreenDate: 9 th November 2007Job Title: Senior LecturerAgency / Organisation submitting the brief: CMCZM, Department ofGeography and Environment, University of AberdeeenTHANK YOU VERY MUCH FOR YOUR FEEDBACK