BENNION ON STATUTORY INTERPRETATION - Francis Bennion

Section 72. Commencement on passing of Act 280Section 73. Commencement on date specified in Act 280Section 74. Commencement on date or dates specified by government order 283Section 75. Commencement of different provisions on different days 286Section 76. Preparatory orders etc 286Amendment of acts 287Section 77. Meaning of 'amendment' 287Section 78. Textual amendment 288Section 79. Indirect express amendment 292Section 80. Implied amendment 293Section 81. Amendment by delegated legislation 293Section 82. Consequential amendment 295Section 83. References to an amended enactment 298Section 84. Extra-statutory concessions 299Repeal or expiry of acts 300Section 85. Meaning of 'repeal' 300Section 86. The practice of 'double' repeal 302Section 87. Implied repeal 304Section 88. Generalia specialibus non derogant 306Section 89. Savings on repeal 307Section 90. Commencement of substituted provisions 310Section 91. Repeal and re-enactment (adaptation of references) 310Section 92. Repeal and re-enactment (preserving delegated legislation) 311Section 93. Repeal and re-enactment (preserving other things done) 311Section 94. Expiry 311Section 95. Desuetude 312Transitional provisions 314Section 96. Transitional provisions on repeal, amendment etc 314Retrospective operation of acts 315Section 97. Presumption against retrospective operation 315Section 98. Retrospective operation: procedural provisions 320Section 99. Retrospective operation: events occurring over a period 322Section 100. Retrospective operation: delegated powers 324Section 101. Retrospective operation: cause of doubt 325Part V. Extent and Application of Acts 327Territorial extent of an Act 327Section 102. Basic rule as to extent of an Act 327Section 103. The 'extent' of an Act 329Section 104. Uniform meaning throughout area of extent 330Section 105. Composition of an enactment's territory 334Section 106. Presumption of United Kingdom extent 335Section 107. Extent to Her Majesty's independent dominions 338Section 108. Meaning of 'associated state' 340Section 109. Meaning of 'baseline' 340Section 110. Meaning of 'Berwick upon Tweed' 341Section 111. Meaning of 'British Islands' 342Section 112. Meaning of 'British possession' 343Section 113. Meaning of 'The Channel Islands' 343Section 114. Meaning of 'colony' 345Section 115. Meaning of 'England' 346Section 116. Meaning of 'Great Britain' 346Section 117. Meaning of 'Her Majesty's dominions' 348Section 118. Meaning of 'Her Majesty's independent dominions' 350Section 119. Meaning of 'high seas' 350

Section 120. Meaning of 'internal waters' 351Section 121. Meaning of 'Isle of Man' 351Section 122. Meaning of 'Monmouthshire' 352Section 123. Meaning of 'Northern Ireland' 354Section 124. Meaning of 'Scotland' 355Section 125. Meaning of ‘territorial waters’ or 'territorial sea' 356Section 126. Meaning of 'United Kingdom' 358Section 127. Meaning of 'Wales' 359Application of an act to persons and matters 360Section 128. General principles as to application 360Section 129. Application to foreigners and foreign matters within the territory 364Section 130. Application to foreigners and foreign matters outside the territory 371Section 131. Application to Britons and British matters outside the territory 378Section 132. The high seas and other unappropriated territories 385Section 133. Deemed location of an omission 387Section 134. Deemed location of composite act or composite omission 387Section 135. Deemed location of an artificial person 389Part VI. The Enactment and the Facts 391Preliminary 391Section 136. Applying the enactment to the facts 391What an enactment is 394Section 137. The unit of inquiry in statutory interpretation 394Section 138. Nature of an 'enactment' 396Section 139. Selective comminution 401Section 140. Challenging an enactment's validity 404Section 141. Precise and disorganised enactments 409Section 142. Drafting presumed competent 413Section 143. The factual outline 416Section 144. The legal thrust 421The facts of the instant case 423Section 145. Relevant and irrelevant facts 423Section 146. Proof of relevant facts 427Section 147. Judicial notice of relevant facts 428Section 148. Questions of fact and degree 428Section 149. Opposing constructions of an enactment 429Division Two. The Legal Meaning of an Enactment 439Part VII. Grammatical and Strained Constructions 441The legal meaning 441Section 150. Nature of the legal meaning 441The grammatical meaning 443Section 151. Nature of the grammatical meaning 443Section 152. Grammatical ambiguity (application of interpretative factors) 444Section 153. Grammatical ambiguity (general and relative ambiguity) 447Section 154. Grammatical ambiguity and the opposing constructions 448Section 155. Semantic obscurity and the 'corrected version' 451Section 156. Use of the phrase 'literal meaning' 455Strained construction 456Section 157. Nature of strained construction 456Section 158. When strained construction needed 458Section 159. Strained construction as former 'equitable construction' 463Section 160. Repugnancy within the Act 465Section 161. Enactment repugnant to descriptive component of Act 466Section 162. Term or phrase with differing legal meanings 466

Part VIII. Legislative Intention 469Section 163: Legislative intention as the paramount criterion 469Section 164. Is legislative intention fictitious? 472Section 165. Legislative intention and the nature of legislation 474Section 166. The duplex approach to legislative intention 477Section 167. Legislative intention and delegation to the court 479Section 168. Where no actual intention existed 480Section 169. Unforeseen facts and accidental fit 482Section 170. Intention distinguished from purpose or object 483Section 171. Intention distinguished from motive 484Part IX. Filling in the Textual Detail 487Section 172. Nature of a legislative implication 487Section 173. Is it legitimate to draw implications? 491Section 174. When legislative implications are legitimate 494Section 175. When legislative implications affect related law 499Section 176. Dynamic processing by the court (stare decisis) 502Section 177. Interstitial articulation (general) 504Section 178. Interstitial articulation by the advocate 505Section 179. Interstitial articulation by the court 505Part X. Interpretative Criteria and Interpretative Factors 511Interpretative criteria 511Section 180. Nature of the criteria: rules, principles, presumptions, canons 511Section 181. Ascertaining the cause of doubt 515Section 182. Strict and liberal construction 516Interpretative factors 519Section 183. Nature of an interpretative factor 519Section 184. Positive and negative interpretative factors 520Section 185. Interpretative factors all pointing one way 521Weighing the factors 523Section 186. Nature of the weighing operation 523Section 187. Where legislator has indicated a view about weighting 528Section 188. Dealing with grammatical ambiguity 529Section 189. Dealing with semantic obscurity 531Section 190. Where strained construction needed 533Section 191. Coping with changes in legal policy 537Division Three. Rules of Construction 541Part XI. Rules of Construction (General) 543Section 192. Nature of rules of construction 543Section 193. Basic rule of statutory interpretation 544Section 194. Duty to respect the juridical nature of an enactment 548Section 195. The plain meaning rule 548Section 196. Rule where meaning not 'plain' 551Section 197. The commonsense construction rule 551Section 198. The rule ut res magis valeat quam pereat 558Part XII. Rules of Construction Laid Down by Statute 561Section 199. Statutory definitions 561Section 200. The Interpretation Act 1978 575Part XIII. The Informed Interpretation Rule (General) 585Section 201. Statement of the rule 585

Section 202. The 'context' of an enactment 588Section 203. Need to avoid unpredictability and lengthening of proceedings 590Section 204. The two-stage approach to statutory interpretation 591Section 205. Interpreter's need for legal knowledge 593Section 206. Skeleton arguments 593Section 207. Admission de bene esse of matter bearing on interpretation 596Part XIV. The Informed Interpretation Rule (Legislative History) 597Preliminary 598Section 208. Legislative history as a guide to construction 598Pre-enacting history 599Section 209. The basic rule 599Section 210. The pre-Act law 599Section 211. Consolidation Acts 604Section 212. Codifying Acts 608Enacting history 609Section 213. Meaning of enacting history 609Section 214. The basic rule 610Section 215. Use of sources referred to in Act 612Section 216. Use of committee reports leading up to Bill 614Section 217. Use of Hansard 616Section 218. Use of amendments to Bill 640Section 219. Use of explanatory memoranda 641Section 220. Special restriction on parliamentary materials (the exclusionary rule) 644Section 221. Use of international treaties 682Section 222. Judicial use of enacting history 691Section 223. Inspection of by court of enacting history 691Section 224. Recitals of by advocates of enacting history 693Section 225. Adoption as part of advocate's argument 693Section 226. Use of enacting history to ascertain Parliament's view of pre-Act law 694Section 227. Use to ascertain mischief 696Section 228. Use of enacting history as an indication of Parliament's intention 697Section 229. Enacting history as persuasive authority only 698Section 230. Not binding authority 701Post-enacting history 702Section 231. The basic rule 702Section 232. Use of official statements on meaning of Act 702Section 233. Use of delegated legislation made under Act 706Section 234. Use of later Acts in pari materia 708Section 235. Use of judicial decisions on Act 710Section 236. Use of committee reports on Act 711Section 237. Use of commentaries on Act 712Part XV. The Functional Construction Rule 713Statement of the rule 713Section 238. Statement of the rule 713Operative components of Act 718Section 239. Nature of operative components 718Section 240. The section 719Section 241. The Schedule 721Section 242. The proviso 723Section 243. The saving 725Amendable descriptive components of Act 727Section 244. Nature of amendable descriptive components 727Section 245. The long title 727

Section 246. The preamble 731Section 247. The purpose clause 734Section 248. The recital 735Section 249. The short title 735Section 250. Examples 739Unamendable descriptive components of Act 741Section 251. Nature of unamendable descriptive components 741Section 252. Chapter number 741Section 253. Date of passing 744Section 254. Enacting formula 744Section 255. Heading 745Section 256. Section name (sidenote, heading or title) 747Section 257. Format 749Section 258. Punctuation 751Incorporation of provisions by reference 758Section 259. Nature of incorporation by reference 758Section 260. Archival drafting 759Section 261. Acts construed as one 762Section 262. Collective titles 764Division Four. Interpretative Principles Derived from Legal Policy 767Part XVI. Interpretative Principles (General) 769Section 263. Nature of legal policy 769Section 264. Law should serve the public interest 786Section 265. Law should be just and fair 795Section 266. Law should be certain and predictable 799Section 267. Law should not operate retrospectively 807Section 268. Law should be coherent and self-consistent 808Section 269. Law should not be subject to casual change 812Section 270. Municipal law should conform to international law 817Part XVII. Principle against doubtful penalisation 825Section 271. Principle against penalisation under a doubtful law 825Section 272. Statutory interference with human life or health 831Section 273. Statutory restraint of the person 836Section 274. Statutory interference with family rights 840Section 275. Statutory interference with religious freedom 842Section 276. Statutory interference with free assembly and association 843Section 277. Statutory interference with free speech 844Section 278. Statutory interference with economic interests 846Section 279. Statutory interference with status or reputation 851Section 280. Statutory interference with privacy 852Section 281. Statutory interference with rights of legal process 853Section 282. Other statutory interference with rights as a citizen 858Division Five. Interpretative Presumptions Based on the Nature of Legislation 861Part XVIII. Interpretative Presumptions (General) 863Section 283. Nature of interpretative presumptions 863Section 284. Presumption that text is primary indication of legal meaning 864Section 285. Presumption that literal meaning to be followed 864Section 286. Presumption that consequential construction to be given 869Section 287. Presumption that rectifying construction to be given 875Section 288. Presumption that updating construction to be given 889Part XIX. The Mischief and its Remedy 915

Section 289. Presumption that court to apply remedy provided for the 'mischief' 915Section 290. Meaning of the 'mischief' 916Section 291. The resolution in Heydon's Case 918Section 292. The social mischief 922Section 293. The legal mischief 923Section 294. Party-political mischiefs 927Section 295. Ambit of the mischief 929Section 296. The particular mischief of an enactment 930Section 297. The mischief for which Parliament actually legislated 931Section 298. Mischief arising only within context of the remedy 933Section 299. Phasing out a legal mischief 934Section 300. Discerning the mischief 935Section 301. Use of the mischief in interpretation 937Section 302. Remedy provided for the mischief 940Part XX. Purposive Construction 943Section 303. Presumption that enactment to be given a purposive construction 943Section 304. Nature of purposive construction 944Section 305. Purposive-and-literal construction 951Section 306. Purposive-and-strained construction 955Section 307. Statements of purpose 959Section 308. Where purpose unknown or doubtful 963Section 309. Judicial acceptance of legislator's purpose 963Section 310. Purposive construction not excluded for taxing etc Acts 965Section 311. British and European versions of purposive construction 966Part XXI. Construction Against 'Absurdity' 969Section 312. Presumption that 'absurd' result not intended 969Section 313. Avoiding an unworkable or impracticable result 971Section 314. Avoiding an inconvenient result 979Section 315. Avoiding an anomalous or illogical result 986Section 316. Avoiding a futile or pointless result 999Section 317. Avoiding an artificial result 1003Section 318. Avoiding a disproportionate counter-mischief 1006Part XXII. Construction Against Evasion 1009Section 319. Presumption that evasion not to be allowed 1009Section 320. Evasion distinguished from avoidance 1014Section 321. Tax avoidance 1017Section 322. Methods of evasion: doing indirectly what must not be done directly 1023Section 323. Methods of evasion: deferring liability 1024Section 324. Methods of evasion: repetitious acts 1025Section 325. Construction which hinders legal proceedings under Act 1026Section 326. Construction which otherwise defeats legislative purpose 1027Part XXIII. Application of Ancillary Rules of Law 1033Section 327. Presumption that ancillary rules of law apply 1033Section 328. Presumption that rules of constitutional law apply 1042Section 329. Presumption that public law decision-making rules apply 1050Section 330. Presumption that rules of equity apply 1064Section 331. Presumption that rules of contract law apply 1069Section 332. Presumption that rules of property law apply 1071Section 333. Presumption that rules of tort law apply 1073Section 334. Presumption that rules of criminal law apply 1077Section 335. Rules of evidence 1086

Section 336. Presumption that rules of private international law (conflict of laws) apply 1097Part XXIV.Application of Ancillary Legal Maxims 1101Section 337. Presumption that ancillary legal maxims apply 1101Section 338. Intentions deduced from actions: acta exteriora indicant interiora secreta 1104Section 339. Act of God: actus dei nemini facit injuriam 1104Section 340. Reliance on illegality: allegans suam turpitudinem non est audiendus 1105Section 341. Hearing both sides: audi alteram partem 1111Section 342. Double detriment: bona fides non patitur, ut bis idem exigatur 1116Section 343. De minimis principle: de minimis non curat lex 1116Section 344. Domestic sanctuary: domus sua cuique est tutissimum refugium 1124Section 345. Impotence: Impotentia excusat legem 1128Section 346. Impossibility: lex non cogit ad impossibilia 1129Section 347. Necessity: necessitas non habet legem 1133Section 348. Judge in own cause: nemo debet esse judex in propria causa 1136Section 349. Benefit from own wrong: nullus commodum capere potest de injuria sua propria1141Section 350. Presumption of correctness: omnia praesumuntur rite et solemniter esse acta 1144Section 351. Agency: qui facit per alium facit per se 1146Section 352. Vigilance: vigilantibus non dormientibus leges subveniunt 1149Section 353. Volenti principle: volenti non fit injuria 1150Division Six. Linguistic Canons of Construction 1153Part XXV. Linguistic Canons of Construction: General 1155Section 354. Nature of linguistic canons of construction 1155Section 355. Construction of Act or other instrument as a whole 1155Section 356. Interpretation of broad terms 1167Part XXVI. Linguistic Canons of Construction: Use of Deductive Reasoning 1171Section 357. Use of deductive reasoning 1171Section 358. Nature of deductive reasoning 1171Section 359. The hypothetical syllogism 1174Section 360. The ambiguous middle term 1175Section 361. The principle of contradiction 1177Part XXVII. Linguistic Canons of Construction: Interpretation of Particular Words andPhrases 1181Section 362. Interpretation of individual words and phrases 1181Section 363. Ordinary meaning of words and phrases 1181Section 364. Composite expressions 1193Section 365. Technical terms (general) 1197Section 366. Technical legal terms 1199Section 367. Technical non-legal terms 1203Section 368. Terms with both ordinary and technical meaning 1206Section 369. Neologisms and slang 1209Section 370. Archaisms 1213Section 371. Terms applied in a foreign context 1215Section 372. Abbreviations 1216Section 373. Homonyms 1217Section 374. Meaningless terms 1219Section 375. Judicial notice of meaning 1221Section 376. Evidence of meaning 1223Part XXVIII. Linguistic Canons of Construction: Elaboration of Meaning of Words andPhrases 1225

Section 377. Canon regarding elaboration of meaning of words and phrases 1225Section 378. Noscitur a sociis principle 1225Section 379. Ejusdem generis principle: description 1231Section 380. Ejusdem generis principle: nature of a 'genus' 1234Section 381. Ejusdem generis principle: single genus-describing term 1237Section 382. Ejusdem generis principle: genus-describing terms followed by wider residuarywords 1239Section 383. Ejusdem generis principle: genus-describing terms surrounding wider word 1241Section 384. Ejusdem generis principle: general words followed by narrower genus-describingterms 1242Section 385. Ejusdem generis principle: express exclusion of 1242Section 386. Ejusdem generis principle: implied exclusion of 1244Section 387. Rank principle 1245Section 388. Reddendo singula singulis principle 1247Section 389. Expressum facit cessare tacitum 1249Section 390. Expressio unius principle: description 1250Section 391. Expressio unius principle: words of designation 1252Section 392. Expressio unius principle: words providing remedies etc 1254Section 393. Expressio unius principle: words of extension 1255Section 394. Expressio unius principle: words of exception 1256Section 395. Expressio unius principle: where other cause for the expressio 1258Section 396. Implication by oblique reference 1259Section 397. Implication where statutory description only partly met 1262Division Seven. Europe 1271Part XXIX. Community law and the European Court 1273Section 398. Interpretation of Part XXIX 1273Principles of community law 1275Section 399. General principles of Community law 1275Section 400. Protection of human rights 1276Section 401. Solidarity 1277Section 402. Effectiveness of law 1277Section 403. Legal certainty 1277Section 404. Legitimate expectation 1278Section 405. Treatment of retrospectivity 1279Section 406. Proportionality 1280Section 407. Subsidiarity 1282Further provisions as to community law 1282Section 408. Status of Community law 1282Section 409. Proof of Community law 1283Section 410. Interpretation of Community law 1283Section 411. Direct effect of Community law 1287Section 412. Transposing of Community law 1290Section 413. Effect of Community law on UK enactments 1293Court of Justice of the European Communities ('CJEC') 1300Section 414. Constitution of CJEC 1300Section 415. Jurisdiction of CJEC 1302Section 416. References to CJEC under Article 234 (ex Article 177) of EC Treaty 1303Section 417. Remedies against Member States 1308Section 418. Convention on Jurisdiction and the Enforcement of Judgments 1309Part XXX. Human Rights Act 1998 1311Introduction to Part XXX 1311THE CONVENTION RIGHTS (GENERAL) 1317Section 419. Nature of the Convention rights 1317

Section 420. Duty to take account of Convention jurisprudence 1320COMPATIBILITY OF UK LEGISLATION WITH CONVENTION RIGHTS: I JUDGES’FUNCTIONS 1322Section 421. Compatible construction rule 1322Section 422. Judicial declaration of incompatibility (primary legislation) 1330Section 423. Judicial declaration of incompatibility (subordinate legislation) 1333Section 424. Effect of incompatibility declaration 1333Section 425. Joinder of Crown where incompatibility declaration expected 1333COMPATIBILITY OF UK LEGISLATION WITH CONVENTION RIGHTS: IIMINISTERS’ FUNCTIONS 1334Section 426. Ministers’ statements of compatibility regarding Bills 1334Section 427. Rectifying of legislation which is subject to incompatibility declaration 1335Section 428 Rectifying of legislation after finding by ECtHR 1335Section 429. Consequential amendment of power to make subordinate legislation 1336Section 430. Content, effect etc of remedial orders 1336Section 431. Parliamentary control of remedial orders 1337INCOMPATIBLE ACTS AND OMISSIONS OF UK PUBLIC AUTHORITIES 1338Section 432. Illegality of incompatible acts and omissions of public authorities 1338Section 433. Exceptions from liability for incompatible acts and omissions 1341Section 434. Proceedings for incompatible non-judicial acts and omissions 1341Section 435. Proceedings for incompatible judicial acts and omissions 1342Section 436. Relying on incompatible acts and omissions in legal proceedings 1343Section 437. Remedies for incompatible acts and omissions of public authorities: general1345Section 438. Remedies for incompatible acts and omissions: damages 1346Section 439. Saving for other rights 1347INDIVIDUAL CONVENTION RIGHTS 1347Section 440. Article 2 of Convention (right to life) 1347Section 441. Article 3 of Convention (prohibition of torture) 1348Section 442. Article 4 of Convention (prohibition of slavery and forced labour) 1350Section 443. Article 5 of Convention (right to liberty and security) 1350Section 444. Article 6 of Convention (right to a fair trial) 1353Section 445. Article 7 of Convention (no punishment without law) 1359Section 446. Article 8 of Convention (right to respect for private and family life) 1359Section 447. Article 9 of Convention (freedom of thought, conscience and religion) 1362Section 448. Article 10 of Convention (freedom of expression) 1363Section 449. Article 11 of Convention (freedom of assembly and association) 1364Section 450. Article 12 of Convention (right to marry) 1365Section 451. Article 14 of Convention (prohibition of discrimination) 1365Section 452. Article 16 of Convention (restrictions on political activity of aliens) 1367Section 453. Article 17 of Convention (prohibition of abuse of rights) 1368Section 454. Article 18 of Convention (limitation on use of restrictions on rights) 1368Section 455. Article 1 of First Protocol (protection of property) 1368Section 456. Article 2 of First Protocol (right to education) 1369Section 457. Article 3 of First Protocol (right to free elections) 1370Section 458. Article 1 of Thirteenth Protocol (abolition of death penalty) 1370Section 459. Article 2 of Thirteenth Protocol (death penalty in time of war) 1370Section 460. Special provision regarding Article 9 (freedom of thought, conscience andreligion) 1371Section 461. Special provision regarding Article 10 (freedom of expression) 1371INTERPRETATION OF PART XXX 1372Section 462. Meaning of terms defined in or connected with Human Rights Act 1998 1372Section 463. Meaning of ‘the Convention’. 1376Section 464. Meaning of ‘public authority’. 1377

Appendix A. Court technique 1381Appendix B. Checklist of interpretative criteria 1383Appendix C. Updated Text of Interpretation Act 1978 1387Appendix D Appendix to White Paper on Interpretation Act 1978 (C 30) 1409Appendix E. List of Terms 1419Appendix F. Human Rights Act 1998 1425Appendix G. Headings, Sidenotes etc 1453Appendix H. Some responses to Code s 288 (updating construction) 1457Appendix I. Official guide to European Union legislative drafting 1461Bibliography 1475Index 1509