Crosier Heritage vol 20.pdf - Canons Regular Blog

It appears that from an early date a distinction was madebetween those virgins who were solemnly consecrated by thebishop and those who simply lived a life of virginity withoutthis consecration. [19] St Eustochium, St Demetrias and StMarcellina, sister of St Ambrose, evidently belonged to theclass of consecrated virgins. Both classes lived originally inConsecratedvirginswere distinguished fromthoseunconsecrated.the privacy of the paternal home, and the custom continuedeven after the establishment of monasteries. The sister ofKing Clovis, for instance, who was a consecrated virgin, seemsnot to have lived in a monastery. Pope St Symmachusapparently made a distinction between these two classes ofvirgins in a decretal to St Caesarius, archbishop of Aries, inwhich he pronounces an anathema against those who espouse avirgin consecrated to God; while in the canon following hemerely forbids the marriage of virgins who have passed manyyear in a convent. [20] This supposition is evidently provedby the decision of the fifth council of Orleans (549), whichordains that in monasteries of women, where the cloister wasobserved, candidates should pass one year in probation, whilein those "ubi non perpetuo tenentur inclusae" they shouldreceive the monastic habit only after they had spent threeyears in probation, during which time they are to wear thesecular dress. If after that they return to the world andmarry they are to be excommunicated. The same penalty isdecreed against those widows and virgins who professed acelibate life in the world, if they married in spite of their vow.The fact that there is no mention made of virgins solemnlyconsecrated by the imposition of the veil Thomassin considersas evidence that they differed from those which are mentionedin the decrees of this council. [21] Probably the institutionsfor which the council prescribed a novitiate of three yearswere institutions in which the vita canonica was followed.[22]The early "canonical" virgins differed from the "monastic"virgins through the distinctly ecclesiastical functions whichthey performed in the churches to which they belonged. Theirparticular duties ranked them among the lower ranks ofecclesiastical officers, whence also their appellation "virginesecclesiasticae", or "parthenoi ecclestikai", as they are styledby the Greek historian Sozomen. [23] These duties were,however, of an inferior nature compared to those ofdeaconesses. In general, they seem to have consisted in theattendance at funerals, which still appears part of theirWe hear of canonessesadministeringHolyCommunion.function many centuries later, according to an annotation tothe Concordia Regularum of St Benedict of Aniane, "ubicanonicae sunt mulieres, quae funerum curam etiam gerebant."[24] A valuable item of information explaining the functionsof ecclesiastical virgins is obtained from an incidental noticein the enactments of a synod held at Paris in 829. It is statedthere that some women take the veil, i.e., enter the state ofsanctimoniales living in the world, in order to be able tobecome guards (excuba trices, i.e. doorkeepers) andadministratrices in their respective parish churches. [ 25 ] Wealso hear of their taking care of the altars and churchvestments, even of their administering Holy Communion to thefaithful: "Quorundam relatu didicimus in quibisdumprovinciis contra legem divinam canonicamque institutionedfeminas sanctis altarius se ultro ingerere sacrataque vasaimpudenter contingere at indumenta sacerdotalia presbiterisadministrare et . . . corpus et sanguinem Domini populisporrigere." [26] Although this report, made by the bishops toLouis the Pious in 829, is evidently intended to bring to hisnotice existing abuses, it is significant as an illustration of theoccasional extensiveness of the church functions ofcanonesses. The chief obligation of canonesses, however, inconnection with church service, was, at all times, that ofThe chief obligationof canonesses wasthe canonical hours.prayer in common which took early the form of the canonicalhours. Canon one hundred and three of the synod of Carthage,held in 398, ordains that the widows supported by the Churchare to be fervent in the service of God; [27] and the synod ofToledo (400) reminds the virgins and widows consecrated toGod that they are not permitted to chant the antiphonesprivately in their homes, and that they ought to sing thevespers in church, or at least in common with the bishop, priestor deacon. [28]Under the famous Rules of St Basil, St Benedict, and othersbased on them, the monastic life of women, like that of men,became established early on a regular basis. The same cannotbe said of canonesses. Their organizations decreased inimportance in proportion as the monastic life progressed amongwomen—and it will be remembered that the organization ofmonasteries for women kept due pace with the establishmentof monasteries for men. It is truly astounding how rapidly themonastic life propagated among the newly Christianizednations in the West. In Vienne alone and its vicinity therewere in the seventh century six monasteries for men and fivefor women. Of these, two called Saint Andre, numbered eachone hundred moniales. [29] Similar conditions prevailedwhereever the Christian faith produced the religious and moralconversion of the people.Though monasticism tended to absorb and supplant thecanonical life among women, there remained, nevertheless,numerous traces of it throughout the earlier centuries of theMiddle Ages. They are undeniable evidence that theinstitution at least maintained itself in spite of the growinginfluence of monasticism, and the attitude assumed towards itby the Church. The pre-Carolingian period, during which the

monastic movement developed so widely in Gaul and the BritishIsles, is the least known period in the history of canonesses.Many historians, who discard the theory of the origin ofcanonesses from the institution of the early Christian virgins,date the foundation of the institution of canonesses from theeighth or ninth century, from which time it is better known andbecomes first definitely organized. [30]In Italy, where the communities of the early Christianvirgins were so numerous [31] and renowned, the Rule of StBenedict early superseded the regula canonica. Thereexisted, however, several ancient communities in which thevita. canonica appears to have been continuously followed.The sanctimoniales of St Cyriaco at Rome, for instance, seemto have adopted the Rule of St Benedict only in the eleventh ortwelfth century; for before that time they enjoyed the use ofprivate property and were always called ancillae Dei insteadof monachae. Their institution furnished the model forGernrode, an institution of canonesses founded about 960. [32]Two very ancient institutions of canonesses existed also atPavia, one being established in a former palace of Theodoricthe Great. The most ancient community, however, ofsanctimoniales observing the vita canonica was that connectwith the Basilica of St Agnes on the via Nomentana in Rome.Its foundation goes back at least to the fifth century, if not toan earlier date. [33]Significant for the history of institutions of canonesses inItaly are several notices of the office of deaconesses, bothbecause the deaconesses were usually chosen from the ranks ofper diversa loca Domino militantes." [41] To this periodbelong also the foundations of some of the more famousinstitutions of canonesses in the Rhineland. Before thebeginning of the eighth century there existed the institutionsof St Radegund at Poitiers, founded originally under the"regula canonica"; St Glodesindis and St Peter at Metz, StMary and St Peter at Rheims, St Andrew at Vienne, St Julian atAuxerre, Baume les Dames in the diocese of Besancon; in thenorth the institutions of Nivelles, Andenne, Moustier on theSambre and Munster Belise in Belgium, Pfalzel and St Irminenat Trier, St Mary of the Capital at Cologne, probablyHohenberg in Alsace, Sackingen, one of the oldest and mostrenowned institutions of canonesses, and others not lessdistinguished. [42]From the eighth century onward foundations of institutionsof canonesses on the continent were mostly confined toGermany, where they were most prosperous and flourishedlongest. From the eighth and ninth centuries date thefoundations of the institutions of St Caecilia at Cologne,Moorsel near Alost, Grerresheim, Kaufungen, Fraumunster atZurich, St Ehrentrud at Salzburg, Marienmunster at Worms, SsCyprian and Cornelius at Buchau, Obermunster at Regensburg,and Andlau. [43] Judging from the number of foundations, weThe Merovingian formsan important epochin the development ofDeaconessescanonical institutions of women.were usually chosenfrom the canonesses.canonesses, [34] and because they appear regularly assuperiors of communities of ecclesiastical virgins. [35]There is still preserved a manuscript of the deaconessTheodora of Pavia, dated from the year 539; [36] deaconesseswere also present at a synod held at Rome in 743, [37] andtook part in the procession which graced the entry ofCharlemagne into the city of Rome in the year 800. [38]They are further mentioned in several documents of the tenthand eleventh centuries. [39] These notices clearly provethat in Italy, where we would naturally expect least evidenceof the existence of canonesses, the institution not onlymaintained itself, but also that canonesses were sufficientlynumerous, and their position in the Church of such importance,as to merit at least official recognition.In France and Belgium communities of women, organizedunder the regula canonica, were probably numerous during theMerovingian period. The rules of St Benedict and St Columbagained the ascendency over other rules only in the seventhcentury, and probably not as readily in convents of women as inthose of men; for there were still in the ninth centurynumerous churches in France connected with institutions ofcanonesses. [40] Of the two institutions of canonesses in thediocese of Le Mans, one was converted into a Benedictineconvent only in the ninth century. In other places they wereprobably more numerous, for we hear of "canonicae virginesmust admit that the Merovingian period forms a very importantepoch in the development of canonical institutions of women.Even if details concerning them are rare, the notices whichprove their existence and, apparently, their rapid increasealso, show that the institution prospered in spite of theattitude assumed towards it by the Church.As in Italy, so also* in France, we meet with communities ofsanctimoniales, observing the regula canonica, which wereruled by deaconesses. The institution seems, however, tohave met with much less favor there than in Italy, for we findfrequent rulings of synods, at an early date, which aimed at itssuppression. Particularly noteworthy in this respect are thecanons enacted by the synods of Oranges (441), of Epaon(517), and of Orleans (533). That the institution was notentirely abolished is due to the fact that this legislationaffected only a number of provinces. While we find as late asthe tenth century, in the city of Rome alone, six abbessesrecorded who had received the consecration of deaconesses,there were relatively few who had receive this consecration inFrance. [44]Institutions of canonesses became more firmly establishedand definitely organized after the promulgation of the rule anddecrees of the synod of Aachen in 816. It appears thatregular discipline had relaxed considerably in Benedictineconvents as well as those of the canonical order. TheBenedictine Rule had evidently suffered in many convents ofwomen such extensive modifications that their mode of lifediffered little from that of canonesses. [45] In some

In Ireland St Patrickinstituted canons regularand St Bridget was the firstof numberless canonesses.first of numberless canonesses." [58] St Brigid and thevirgins in the various communities which she organized have attimes been styled Canonesses of St Augustine, evidently,however, without sufficient reason. That they werecanonesses regular might be deduced from the fact that theywere probably consecrated virgins, [59] as St Brigid was, [60]and lived under a rule which that saint had compiled for themfrom the ecclesiastical regulations affecting consecratedvirgins. [61] That, at times, they have been calledCanonesses of St Augustine evidently rest upon the suppositionthat the rule of that saint may have formed the basis of theRule of St Brigid, for we know that the Rule of St Augustinewas known at an early date in Gaul, and thus may have beenknown also by St Patrick and other saints of the so-called FirstOrder. This, however, is a mere conjecture, and as far as isknown has not been substantiated by any proofs. Steven, onthe authority of Allemande, Histoire monastique de l'Irlande,enumerates a large number of early Irish communities underthe title of canonesses. [62] As the old foundations for menare said to have been "exclusively for canons," [63] so wemight, probably, with equal reason affirm that the earlyinstitutions for women were exclusively of the canonical order.Similar observations may be made for the canonicalinstitute of women in England. If religious communities ofthe canonical order existed there before the arrival of theSaxon conquerers, they were swept away, as almost was thevery faith of Christ itself. The canonical life was firstdefinitely introduced into England by St Augustine and theclerics sent by St Gregory to reconvert the country, for PopeGregory commanded St Augustine to establish the canonicalorder "as a new plantation among the nations entrusted to hiscare." [64] In the North, St Columba and his disciples aresaid to have introduced the order together with the Gospel ofChrist. It is therefore reasonable to suppose that thecanonical life was also followed early by communities ofwomen, for we generally observe, in the history of monasticfoundations, that one began with the other. We hear, indeed,that the first monastic establishments in England were modeledon the seventh century communities of France, where Englishgirls went to be trained in monastic discipline as well asstudies. [65] Most French monasteries of women in theseventh century were organized under the rule of St Columba.[66] But even that does not exclude the possibility of theexistence of canonical institutions of women in England at anearly date. On the contrary, we find direct evidence thatthey existed. The Venerable Bede tells us that when St Hildaassumed the direction of the monastery called Heortheu(Hartlepool), she "began immediately to reduce all things to aregular system, according as she had been instructed bylearned men." [67] Her chief instructor was St Aidan, thefamous disciple of St Columba, who is accredited with theintroduction of the canonical life in the North. Very likely,therefore, the "regular system" implies the regula canonica."Canonicae" are mentioned twice in the Penitential of Egbert,archbishop of York, [68] and the name also occurs in thetreatise of Bede, entitled De Remediis Peccatorum. [69]These evidences are very significant, since they obviouslyprove that the canonical life of sanctimoniales was wellestablished at the time in England, and because they are amongthe first instances in the Western Church which mentioncanonical virgins under the name of canonesses. [70] InEngland, however, the institute in the earlier centuries of theMiddle Ages did not attain the celebrity it acquired inGermany.The twelfth century, which has been called the golden ageof monasticism, constituted a very flourishing period in theThe twelfth centurywas a flourishing periodforcanonesses.history of regular canonesses. The rejection of the canonicalrules for men and women by the great Lateran synod of 1059inaugurated the monastic reform in the canonical orderthroughout the countries in Europe. In consequence of thislegislation many chapters of secular canons renounced theirright to personal property and took solemn vows, usuallyaccording to the Rule of St Augustine. Canonesses, with theexception of most institutions in Germany, likewise adoptedthe reform and became canonesses regular. Those institutionsin Germany, and the neighboring French and Belgianterritories, which did not submit to the reform relaxed moreand more in regular observance. At the same time regulardiscipline increased proportionately in institutions of regularcanonesses. From this period, therefore, date the definitedistinction between canons and canonesses regular and canonsand canonesses secular. [71]The twelfth century also witnessed the foundation of anumber of new religious and canonical orders. Among theCanonesses regular of St Augustinebecame very numerousafter the twelfth century.former were the strictly monastic orders which branched offfrom the order of St Benedict. They included the orders ofCluny, Citeaux, Chartreuse and Grandmont, of which the lattertwo developed no corresponding order of women. Of thecanonical orders, the Premonstratensian and Augustiniangained the greatest renown. In England alone no fewer thanfifty-four houses of regular canons were established, from theConquest to the death of Henry II. Although the number ofhouses of canonesses founded in England during the twelfth

numerous institutions of Augustinian canonesses in France andGermany. In the diocese of Rouen, for instance, thereexisted six institutions of regular canonesses under the Rule ofSt Augustine. [84] In France there were, besides, aconsiderable number of institutions of regular canonesseswhich followed the Rule of St Benedict. To this orderbelonged the chapters of Leigneux [85] and Alix, [86] in thediocese of Lyons, and Bouxieres-aux-Dames, in the diocese ofNancy, which became a chapter of secular canonesses in thetwelfth century. [87] One of the most ancient and mostfamous chapters of Benedictine canonesses was that ofChateau-Chalons, founded in 670 in the diocese of Besancon.[88] For Germany are mentioned as institutions ofcanonesses, following the Rule of St Augustine, Quedlinburg,since 1184, Wetter in Hessen, St Stephen at Strassburg, and StStephen at Augsburg. Hohenburg was organized as aninstitution of regular canonesses under the Rule of StAugustine in 1156. [89]Institutions of canonesses, as well as monastic institutions,generally, prospered or declined in a degree corresponding tothe observance of regular discipline and the perfection withwhich they fulfilled the purpose of their foundation. It is aninstance where the saying, "History repeats itself,1' hasfrequently proved true. A degeneration in the religious spiritof a monastic institution must, therefore, be regarded as a signof decay, and whatever influences promote its spiritual lifeand the end of its foundation as means promoting its prosperityandgrowth.Influences affecting the life of an institution might,moreover, be internal or external. Considered under the firsthead, it must be admitted that the prosperity of an institutionThe Prosperity of institutionsreflected the abilitiesof those governing them.was determined, in a great measure, by the abilities andqualifications of those charged with its government.Generally, a community which gained special distinction as areligious or educational center was governed by an abbess ofsuperior acquirements. Thus, Ste Croix at Poitiers attainedgreat prosperity under St Radegund, probably the mostremarkable woman of her time, [90] Chelles under St Bertile,[91] Whitby under St Hilda, [92] Gandersheim under Gerberg,[93] Hohenburg under Reglindis and Herrad, [94] and theconvent of the Paraclete under Heloise. [95] Each of thesewomen was not only remarkable in literary acquirements, butdistinguished also for superior qualities of character,administrative ability, and almost without exception forintense devotion to religion.Of the external influences which contributed mostefficaciously to the growth and prosperity of canonicalinstitutions, probably the most powerful was the patronageextended to them by the nobility. We observe, for instance,that by far the greater number of them owed, in the first place,their origin to some aristocratic or royal family. [96] Theyprovided, besides, for their material prosperity by richendowments and extended to them a powerful protectionagainst lawless nobles and unscrupulous ecclesiastics. [97]Noble and royal families furnished also, as we have seen, alarge contingent to the membership of these institutions.Frequently the aim of these noble aspirants was not purelyreligious, which fact, in course of time, conduced to therelaxation of monastic discipline, even of communities notedfor their regular observance and excellent religious discipline.A remarkable instance of such influence tending to thedeterioration of monastic observance is found in the history ofGandersheim. [98] If the presence of princely and nobleladies did not always foster the religious spirit in canonicalinstitutions, it contributed generally very much to theirtemporal prestige and prosperity. Under the patronage ofroyal and nobles houses a large number of canonicalinstitutions became so-called free abbeys. Very frequentlythey were exempt not only from episcopal jurisdiction, buteven from civil jurisdiction as well; the abbess, generally adaughter of the royalty or the highest nobility of the land,holding the abbey directly "of the king and from the king,"under the protection of the Holy See. [99] In consequence ofthese close relations existing between canonical institutionsand the secular nobility, there arose customs which in theireffect proved prejudicial to monastic discipline. It imposedupon such abbeys in particular "the obligation of entertainingthe king and his retinue in return for privileges granted tothem, and as the king had no fixed place of residence he stayedat his various palaces (palatia) in turn, and usually spentholiday time at one of the religious centers." [100]Another very important feature, which conduced greatly tothe prosperity of institutions of canonesses, was thearrangement of double monasteries. Also in this respect, wenote that all canonical institutions which acquired a highdistinction in literary endeavors and maintained a goodreligious discipline—with few exceptions [101]—belonged tothis type of monastery. "The vicinity of the monasteries/'says Michelet in his scholarly treatise, Memoire sur lf Educationdes Femmes au Moyen Age, "the abuses of which have certainlybeen exaggerated, created between the brethren and sisters ahappy emulation of study as well as of piety. The mentempered their seriousness by sharing in the moral graces ofwomen. They, on their side, took from the austere asceticismof the men a noble flight towards divine -things. Both,according to the noble expression of Bossuet, helped eachother to climb the rugged path." [102]Much credit for the success of a considerable number ofinstitutions, notably the early Anglo-Saxon monasteries, is dueto a large number of prelates and monastic legislators, whodevoted themselves with singular zeal to the interest ofindividual institutions and to the advancement of religious lifein general. St Gregory the Great, for instance, took as muchinterest in the discipline and prosperity of convents of womenas in those of men. He provided with fatherly solicitude forthe three thousand nuns who had taken refuge at Rome fromthe ruined monasteries of Italy. His zeal for convents ofwomen was probably greatly stimulated by his familyconnections with them, for three sisters of his father seem tohave been "nuns of some domestic order.*1 In speaking ofthem St Gregory says, "Tres pater metis sorores habuit, quaecunctae tres sacrae virgines fuerunt ... uno omnes adoreconversae, uno eodemque tempore sacratae, sub districtioneregulari degentes, in domo propria socialem vitam ducebant."[ 103 ] There seems to be reason for the supposition that theybelonged to some institution organized under the regulacanonica.In England St Wilfrid rendered lasting service to themonastic order by the introduction of the Benedictine Rule,—8

which was then established only at Canterbury,—by thecharters and exemptions which tie secured from Rome, andfrom the Saxon kings and parliaments, for many of the greatmonasteries, and especially "by the strongly woven links ofintimate and active association between the numberousmonasteries who regarded him as their head." [104] He, inparticular, never relaxed in his zeal for the well-being of StEthelreda—whose vocation he had so steadily fostered—andher community at Ely. "It was he who instituted her abbess,who gave the veil to her nuns, and who regulated all thatconcerned the government and interest, temporal or spiritual,of the new community. He paid her frequent visits, and neverceased to give consolation and enlightenment to her for whomhe must have felt more than ever responsible." [105] StCuthbert (d 687), likewise, kept up the most friendly relationswith the nuns whose numbers and influence rapidly increasedamong the Anglo-Saxons, and especially in Northumberland.St Etheldreda, who entertained a great friendship for him,frequently availed herself of his advise while he was prior atLindisfarne. He took care to visit and instruct Ebba and hernuns at Coldingham and maintained an intimate and constantfriendship with Elfleda of Whitby. His last visit was to themonastery of Verca, on which occasion abbess Ethelfridoffered him, as a last token of her spiritual affection, theshroud so frequently mentioned in narratives of his life. [106]The zeal and interest which St Boniface [107] and St Aldhelm[108] displayed in their connections with convents of women iswell known and will frequently be alluded to in the followingpages. Many other names, famous in monastic history, areintimately associated with the foundation and growth ofreligious institutions of women. It will suffice to recall thenames of St Aidan and his relation with the monastery ofWhitby, [109] the interest of St Romaric in the foundation ofRemiremont, [110] of St Gilbert, [ill] of St Norbert, [112]of Robert Arbrissel, [113] among many others, to appreciatetheir influence in behalf of monastic institutions of women.Finally, ecclesiastical legislation, which brought about areform in many institutions of canonesses in the ninth andeleventh century, contributed greatly to their spiritual, andA number of communties showeda remarkable intellectualactivity.incidentally, also to their material prosperity. It accounted,no doubt, to a great extent for the remarkable intellectualactivity which we observe in a number of canonicalinstitutions, in which the reform was carried out mostextensively. In the institution of Hohenburg, for example, aperiod of great intellectual activity followed the introductionof the reform by the famous abbess Reglindis. [114] Itcontributed in particular to the rapid increase and prosperousreligious life of the various kinds of regular canonesses. Ithas been shown with what marvelous rapidity the number ofPremonstratensian canonesses increased; similarly, theAugustinian canonesses multiplied rapidly after thepromulgation of the reform. [115]In noting the various observances of individual institutions,it is often difficult and almost impossible to distinguish clearlywhether they are to be ranked as regular or secularinstitutions. At times the obligations of regular canonesseswere so extensively modified by special statues and customsthat, although organized under a regular religious rule, veryfrequently that of St Benedict, they hardly differed in theirmode of life from secular canonesses. Thus, for instance, thecanonesses of Notre Dame d'Avesnes, while organized underthe Rule of St Benedict, lived from the beginning rather assecular canonesses than as religious or regular canonesses;they inherited and disposed of private property and did not atall observe the common life. [ 116 ] So also in the Benedictineconvent at Geisenfeld, established about 830, existed a numberof observances which are distinctly characteristic of canonicalinstitutions; the sanctimoniales possessed their own prebendsand private property; their church was at the same time aparish church—which was regularly the case in institutions ofcanonesses [117]—and canons were charged with the pastoralfunctions of the church. [118] Similar deviations from theordinary observances of the regular religious life are found innumerous other instances.Most institutions of regular canonesses were foundedsimultaneously with the corresponding establishments ofcanons. The canonesses of the Lateran have evidently beenRegular canonesses were foundedwith corresponding canons.founded in connection with the canons of that order. Manyclaim that Pope Geiasius prescribed for them the observance ofthe Rule of St Augustine as early as 440. [119] Thecanonesses regular of the Holy Sepulchre were founded inJerusalem, under the pious Prince Godfrey, in connection withthe canons of that name. The congregation extended laterinto Spain, Germany, France, and other European countries.[120] The canonesses of the Holy Cross at Coimbra inPortugal corresponded to the congregation of canons of theHoly Cross, founded in 1132 by Tellon, archdeacon of thecathedral at Coimbra. [121] The canonesses of the HolyGhost, whose duties and dress resembled that of the canons ofthe Holy Ghost, founded at Montpellier towards the end of thetwelfth century, were especially numerous in Italy and France,but they also possessed houses in Germany, Poland and Spain.Their chief duty was the care of the sick, and in particular thecare of sick children, especially foundlings. [122] Thecanonesses of St Victor, corresponding to the canons of thatname, owned several convents in Flanders. [123] If we addthese various congregations of regular canonesses, those of thecongregation of Aroasia, the canonesses secular, so widelyestablished in the latter part of the early Middle Ages, and thenumerous canonesses established under the Rules of StBenedict and St Augustine, it will be evident how considerablea part of the monastic order at large canonesses formed priorto the thirteenth century.If canonesses varied greatly according to thecongregations and orders to which they belonged, they variedeven more as to the extent of monastic observance anddiscipline. In this respect there was no uniformity evenamong the institutions established under the same rule. Itmust be observed, that what has been said of the monasticorder at large, during the early Middle Ages, is true in

particular of institutions of canonesses—each developed itsown monastic observances, each adhered to its peculiarstatues, customs and privileges, which modified so extensivelythe rules, under which the institution was originallyestablished, that the variety of observances was almost asgreat as the number of institutions themselves. [124]—It has been observed, and probably very correctly, thatthe title "Benedictine," or that of another order, does notalways prove that the institution belonged to that order. [125]While the name may be indicative that some institutions at onetime or other observed the Benedictine rule and discipline,their canonical character is evidently proved by theobservances and privileges which are recorded for them.As in monasteries of men, so also in those of women,monastic discipline declined under the stress of degeneratinginfluences. Already towards the close of the fifth century weobserve a notable decrease in the enthusiasm whichMonasticdisciplinedeclined under thestress of degenerating influences.characterized the first ages of monastic life in the West."Except in Ireland and Gaul, where in most of the provincessome new foundations rose, a general interruption wasobservable in the extension of the institution." [126]Evidently, the final triumph of the barbarian invasionseffected—besides the destruction they had wrought inmonastic life and property—also a decrease in the zeal andenthusiasm for the monastic order. However, with conditionssomewhat stabilized, and under the energetic impulsefurnished by the inspiration of the Benedictine institute, newlife and vigor come to be infused into the monastic order.From the latter part of the sixth, during the seventh andearlier part of the eighth century monasticism flourished verywidely throughout the Western Church.From the latter half of the eighth century, and evensomewhat earlier, extensive evidence proves the decline ofmonastic discipline, both in institutions of the monastic and ofthe canonical order. The liberality and munificence ofMerovingian and Anglo-Saxon rulers towards the monasticinstitute, shown in their lavish grants of privileges, exemptionsand rich endowments, had conduced greatly to the temporalprosperity of monasteries. But this rapid increase in wealthand influence contributed very effectually also to laxity in theobservance of the rule. Besides, those valuable privilegesoffered a powerful inducement to the propagation of "laymonasteries,1' [127] an evil which brought much discredit onthe monastic order and terminated only with the Danishinvasions.Relaxation, in fact, had so far progressed in Anglo-Saxonmonasteries as to evoke the severe censures, not only of theVenerable Bede, who witnessed its progress, [128] but also ofthe intrepid Boniface, in distant Germany, who did not relax inhis interest for the welfare of the Church in his native land.[129] In consequence of these remonstrances, "andespecially because of the severe orders of Pope Zacharias,"Rapid increase in wealthcontributed very effectuallytolaxity.the second council of Cloveshove, "the most important of theAnglo-Saxon assemblies of the eighth century," was convenedfor the repression of abuses. In accordance with the adviceof St Boniface, monks, and especially nuns were forbidden "tomake any change in their dress, shoes, or headdress, whichwould assimilate their costume to that of lay members of thesociety," and " to frequent the houses of secular persons, or todwell in them; it commanded the abbots and abbesses toneglect no means of preserving in their communities, and theschools attached to them, the love of study and reading, as thebest preservative against the vanities and lusts of the world,and to make their monasteries an asylum for silence, study,prayer and work; it reproved and forbade the introduction ofpoets, minstrels, musicians and clowns into religious houses:the prolonged visits of secular persons, who were allowed topenetrate into and wander about the interior of the cloister;the prolonged and luxurious meals mingled with buffooneries;and especially that fatal leaning towards drunkenness, whichled them not only themselves to drink to excess, but to forcetheir lay companions to drink with them." [130] How far thereform contemplated by the prelates assembled in this councilwas carried into effect seems impossible to ascertain. Theenactments, at least, which aimed to improve conditions in"lay monasteries" proved ineffectual; for we know that thedisturbances and abuses arising through them continued to theend of the Anglo-Saxon period.On the continent, particularly in Gaul, early ecclesiasticalEcclesiasticallegislationendeavored to maintainmonasticdiscipline.legislation endeavored to maintain the observances ofmonastic discipline according to the spirit of the canonsenacted by the general council of Chalcedon in 451. [131] Inconsequence monasteries remained more directly under thesupervision of the bishops—although we find also here manyexemptions from episcopal jurisdiction recorded; probably forthat reason they did not, in general, deviate as far from theobservance of regular discipline. Significant from theviewpoint of exemptions accorded to canonical institutions atthis early date, is canon fourteen of the Concilium Latuenense(673-675). It confirms in every respect the privileges whichin course of time had been acquired by institutions organizedunder the regulations of the Fathers. [132] However,towards the end of the eighth century monastic observance in10

convents of women evidently required reform; for the fortyseventhcanon of the synod of Frankfurt in 794 ordained thatthe conduct of abbesses, who did not live canonically andregularly should be reported to the king, that they might bedeposed from their office. [133] Furthermore, in theassembly of orders held at Aachen in 802, the bishops evidentlyhad as much reason to inquire into the monastic observance ofnuns and canonesses as they had to examine that of monks andcanons; and it is noteworthy that also in their case thebishops made a distinction between the observance of the Ruleof St Benedict and that based on the canons of the Church.[134] So also the synods of Mainz [135] and Chalons surSaone [136] occupied themselves with regulations forsanctimonials living either according to the Rule of StBenedict or according to the regulations of the canons.The first definite reform of the canonical institute ofwomen dates, however, from the synod of Aachen in 816 (or817). From the ninth canon of the synod held at Aschheim,between 748 and 763, it appears that some convents of womenordained the execution of the reform under ecclesiasticalpenalties. Canon four of this synod enjoins that the canonessesliving under the Rule of St Benedict or St Augustine shouldcorrect the irregularities incompatible with the religious life.[140] Similar injunctions, tending to establish the reform,were passed by many other synods, especially the two synodsheld at London in 1127 [141] and 1138, [142] that of Rheims,in 1157, [143] and that of the Lateran, in 1139. [144] Fromthe eleventh and twelfth centuries, therefore, regularmonastic observance came to be established in mostinstitutions of canonesses, except in the greater number ofSome institutions resisted reformand secularization progressed,some becoming Protestant.Convents of womenadopted the rule of Chrodegang.had adopted the rule which St Chrodegang, bishop of Metz, hadcompiled for clerics living in community. This rule continuedto be observed, even after the council of Aachen, in conventsof nuns. [137] As a result of the reform contemplated byLouis the Pious for the monastic order at large, also theinstitutes of canonesses were placed on a more regular basis.Amalarius of Metz (d 857) compiled, for the betterorganization of canons, a collection of regulations drawn fromthe old canons and writings of the Fathers, which is known asthe De institutione canonicorum, and for the benefit ofcanonesses a similar collection, entitled De institutionesanctimonialium. These statutes, embracing twenty-eightchapters, were henceforth to be the fixed rule for religiouswomen known as canonesses. [138]German institutions, and in some of the Neighboring Frenchand Belgian territories, where the reform was perseveringlyresisted. In these institutions secularization progressedsteadily; in fact, at the time of the Reformation, many ofthem, in Germany, readily adopted the new creed and becameProtestant institutions. [145]In concluding this brief historical survey, it seemsimportant to point out the epochs which have during the courseof study naturally suggested themselves as a suitable divisionof time for the period treated, and which, in general, havebeen adhered to in this dissertation. The first period in thehistory of canonical institutions is very decidedly the age ofthe Fathers of the Church. During this era, the canonical lifeof widows and virgins developed its peculiarly ecclesiasticalcharacter which distinguished them from widows and virginswho led a regular monastic life. During this period also thecanonical life of women, generally directed by the counselsand exhortations of the Fathers, and regulated by the canonsWhile the reform thus promulgated among institutions ofcanonesses evidently effected a temporary reform there werein the provisions of the rule itself the germs of a far-reachingdeterioration in the order. The canonesses were allowed theright to dispose of their private property and to have theattendance of servants. The former indulgence, especially,led early to a disregard for the common life, so strictlyenjoined by the rule of canonesses. Relaxation, in fact,progressed so rapidly that the Lateran synod of 1059 rejectedboth the rule of canons and that of canonesses, as unfit topromote the ideals of the religious life and enjoined the regularobservance of a strictly monastic order. [139]The legislation of this synod inaugurated the second, widelyspread reform of the institutions of canonesses. Manycommunities, following the example set by the canons, took theregular vows of religion according to the Rule of St Augustine,becoming thereby regular canonesses of that order. Thereform continued to spread during the twelfth century inconsequence of successive legislation to enforce theenactments of the Lateran Synod in the previous century.Thus the synod of Rheims held under Eugene III, 1148, not onlyspeaks disparagingly of the life of canonesses, but alsoThe Age of the Fathersset the basic principlesof feminine educationthroughout the Middle Ages.of councils and synods, was first definitely legislated for bythe Rule which St Augustine compiled for the community ofvirgins at Hippo. Educationally, it is important for havingfurnished the basic principles which governed feminineeducation throughout the Middle Ages.The second, or Merovingian period, ordinarily looked uponas an age of violence and confusion, constitutes, nevertheless,a very flourishing time of monasticism in ancient Gaul, Irelandand Anglo-Saxon England. It is the period during which theBenedictine Rule gained the ascendency over the religious11

ules on the continent and came to be firmly established inEngland. In the history of education it is the period of Irisheminence in learning, the influence of which spread widely inEngland, France, and Germany. Although it is an establishedfact that the canonical order of women continued to existduring this period, we have, because of the scarcity of records,very little evidence of its progress and development as amonastic institution. It constitutes, therefore, the epochleast known in this history of canonesses.The Carolingian period, and especially the reigns ofCharlemagne and Louis the Pious, was, as has been show, aperiod of reform in the canonical as well as in the monasticorder at large. The latter half of the ninth, and the tenthcentury, which, broadly speaking, may be designated as the ageof the Ottos, formed a most prosperous period in the history ofcanonesses in Germany. While in France, in England andIreland the Danish invasions proved most disastrous tomonastic life and property, there the strong rule of the Saxonhouse and its interest in monastic institutions greatly promotedtheir increase and progress.From the middle of the eleventh to the end of the twelfthcentury dates, finally, the second and great period of reform,which brought about a clear distinction between regular andsecular canonesses. It is also the period which witnessed alarge increase in canonical institutions through theestablishment of new orders and congregations under the Ruleof St Augustine.Footnotes[I] Cf Shafer, Die Kanonissenstifter ira deutschenMittelalter, 26ff, 120ff. Stuttgard, 1907; Martigny, Dicionnairede Antiquites Chretiennes, 99. Paris, 1865; Bingham, OriginesEcclesiastical I, 48 f. London, 1843.[21 Schafer, ut supra.[3] Ibid 12Iff.[4] Heimbucher, "Das Kanonissen-Instttut." Roloff, Lexiconder Padgogik, II, 1082. Freiburg i Br, 1913.[5] Cf Wilpert, Die Gottgeweihten Jungfrauen in den erstenJahrltunderten der Kirche, Iff. Freiburg, 1892.[6] Ep 52. Migne, Fiat Gr, XXXII, 391.[7] Ibid, 647.[8] Nicene and Fbst-Nicene Fathers, ed. Schaff, VIII, 219,note 4 (Sec Series); Thomassin, Discipline de l'Eglise, P II, 134.[9] Cabrol, Dicionnaire d'Archeologie Chretienne et deLiturgie, "Chanoinesses," by H. Leclercq. Paris, 1913.[10] Cf Schafer, 57.[II] Migne, Pat Lat, IV, 434 ss.[12] Ibid, Plat Lat, XVI, 187 ss.[13] Ibid 205.[14] Ibid, Pat Lat, XXIII, 1340.[15] Ibid, Pat Lat, XXXIII, 362.12[16] Ibid, 1069 s.[ 17 ] Mansi, Collectio Arapllssiraa Conciliorun, 111, 885. Paris,1901.[18] Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, II, 71.[ 19 ] Esser, "Nonnen." Wetzer u Welte, Kirchenlexikon, IX,436; Thomassin, op clt, P II, 127.[20] Thomassin, ut supra.[21] Op cit, 128; Mansi, Coll Con, IX, 133 s.[22] Schafer, 42.[23] Historia ecclesiastica, lib i. c 23 in Migne, Pat Gr,CLXVII, 1574s.[24] Ibid, Pat Lat, CHI, 950; Schafer, 33.[25] Schafer, 30; Mansi, Coll Con XIV, 564.[26] Quoted by Schafer, 32.[27] Hefele, op cit, II, 76.[28] Ibid, II, 79.[29] Besse, Premiers Monasteres de la Gaule Meridionale, inRevue des Questions Historiques, LXXI, 399 f; Mabillon,Annales Ordines S Benedict!, I, 96. Lucae, 1703-39.[30] Cf Helyot, II, 59; Stepehn, II, 68; Allaria, op cit, III,289; Leclercq, op cit, III, 253.[31] Cf Heimbucher, I, 197 ff; S Augustini, De moribuseccles, c 33, in Migne, Pat Lat, XXXII, 1339.[32] Schafer, 4, 23, 74.[33] Ibid, 94.[34] Ibid, 50, note 2.[35] Ibid, 51 ff, 60.[36] Ibid, 48.[37] Loc cit.[38] Liber Pontificalis, ed. Duchesne, II, 6; Schafer, loc cit.[39] Cf Schafer, 48; ughelli, Italia Sacra, I, 121, 124.[40] Schafer, 6.[41] Ut supra.[42] Schafer, 6, 70ff.[43] Ibid, 72f. For particulars concerning the dates offoundations, founders and available sources see Schafer, 70-74and 233-242.[44] Schafer, 53, 56.[45] Cf Helyot, VI, 397ff.

[46] Monasticon Beige, I, 327 s. Bruges, 1890.[47] Ordinum Religiosorum in Ecclesia Militant! Catalogue,P. II, XXIII.[48] Quoted by Shafer, 19.[49] Ibid, 18ff.[50] Ibid, 73f.[51] Ibid, 4ff.[52] Eckenstein, Woman under Monasticism, 145. Cambridge,1896.[53] Ibid, 151 f.[54] Cf Schafer, 241f.[55] Ibid, 74 f.[56] Ibid, 75.[57] Bonanni, op cit, P II, XXIII.[58] Allaria, op cit, III, 296.[59] Cf Schafer, 6f on the consecration of nuns andcanonesses.[60] Lanigan, Ecclesiastical History of Ireland* Second Ed,I, 385. Dublin, 1829.[61] Ibid, I, note 34, p. 387, 458.[62] Monasticon Hibernicum, 342ff. London, 1722.[63] Allaria, op cit, III, 291.[64] Lingard, The Antiquities of the Anglo-Saxon Church,The First American, from the Second London Edition, 49.Philadelphia, 1841; cf Bede, The Ecclesiastical History of theEnglish Nation, 44. Trans 1 Giles. London, 1840.[ 65 ] Torchet, Histoire de 1*Abbaye Royale de Notre Dame deChelles, I, 14f, 48. Paris, 1889.[66] Ibid, 47.[67] Eccles History, 242.[68] Hadden and Stubbs, Councils and EcclesiasticalDocuments of Great Britain and Ireland, III, 417, 422. Oxford,1869; Migne, Pat Lat, LXXXIX, 444, 449.[69] Ibid, XCIV, 569, 572.[7U] Schafer, 120 f.[71] Heimbucher, II, 79ff.[72] Dugdale, Monasticon Anglicanum, Vol IV, London, 1830;Stephen, II; Tanner, Notitia Monastica, Cambridge, 1787.Dugdale, VI, Part II, 918, 936; CollectaneaAnglo-Premonstratensia, arranged and edited by F. A.Gasquet, I, Pref VIII; II, 106, 267. London, 1904-06.[74] Hugo, The Medieval Nunneries of the County ofSomerset and Diocese of Wells, 2ff, lOlff. London, 1867.[75] Schafer, 100, note 13.[76] Gra ha m, St Gilbert of Sempringham and the Gilbertines,57, 67. London, 1901.[77] Ibid, 40; Heimbucher, II, 30.[78] Heuser, "Canonica regulares". Kirchenlexikon, II, 1832;Heimbucher, 25 f.[79] Lanigan, IV, 185; Archdall, Monasticon Hibernicum,172. London, 1786; Steven, 342.[80] Walsh, The Church of Erin, 423. New York, 1885;Lanigan, ut supra.[81] Kirkfleet, History of St Norbert, 123. St Louis, 1916.[82] Ibid, 124; Wurm, "Pramonstratenserorden", Kirchenlexikon, X, 271.[83] Heimbucher, II, 84.[84] Schafer, 7.[85] Ducas, 71.[86] Ibid, 7ff.[87] Ibid, 32f.[88] Ibid, 37.[89] Schafer, 10.[90] Cf (Wontalembert, The Monks of the West, I, 487ff.Boston, 1872.[91] Torchet, 46.[92] Montalembert, II, 262ff.[93] Eckenstein, 160.[94] Wiegand, "Relind." Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie,XXVIII, 186; Woltmann, "Herrad." ibid, XII, 206ff.[95] Histoire Litteraire de la France, IX, 128; 629ff.[96] Cf Schafer, 238ff.[97] Cf Eckenstein, 148; Schafer, 261ff; Montalembert, II,629ff.[98] Cf Die Lebensbeschreibung Barn wards und Godehardsvon Hildesheim. Geschichtschreiber der deutschen Vorzeit,XLV, 41ff; Agius, Leben der Abtissin Hathumoda vonGanderheim. Ibid, XL, 32ff, 117ff, 140ff.[99] Cf Ducas, Les Chapitres Nobles des Dames. Paris, 1843;Eckenstein, 152f; Bentham, The History and Antiguities of theConventual and Cathedral Church of Ely, 55 f. London, 1812.[100] Eckenstein, 153.[101] Montalembert, II, 696ff.13

[102] Quoted by Montalembert, I, 634.[103] Horn 38, in Evang Migne, Fiat Lat, LXXVI, 1290s.[104] Montalembert, II, 446.[105] Ibid, 372f.[106] Ibid, 473ff.[107] Cf Eckenstein, 118ff.[108] Ibid, 112ff[109] Cf Bede, Ecclesiastical History, Bk 4, ch 23.[110] Montalembert, I, 636.[Ill] Cf Eckenstein, 213ff.[112] Cf Ibid, 195.[113] Cf Ibid, 193f.[114] Cf Eckenstein, 238ff; "Rilindis et HerradisHohenburgensis Abbatissae-Notitia et Fragmenta." Migne, PatLat, CXCIV, 1537 ss.[133] Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, III, 692.[134] Mon Germ Hist, Leg 1, fol 100.[135] Hefele, III, 761.[136] Mansi, Coll Con, XIV, 105.[137] Heimbucher, I, 389f.[138] Ibid, II, 5, 78.[139] Cf Heimbucher, II, 79f.[140] "Ut sanctimoniales et mulieres, quae canonicaenominantur et irregulariter vivunt, juxta bb Benedicti etAugustini rationem vita suam in melius corrigant et emendent,superfluitatem et inhonestatem vestium recidant et in claustrosint assidue permanentes, choro, refectorio et dormitorio sintcontente et relictis praebendis et aliis propriis earumnecessitatibus de communi provideant. Quodsi usque adproximum apostolorum festum non adimpleverint, divinaprohibemus officia celebrari; et si quo ipsarum mortua fuerit,Christianorum careat sepulture." Mansi, Coll Con, XXI, 714s.[115] Cf Heimbucher, II, 81 ff.[116] Ducas, 14.[117] Cf Schafer, 76ff.[118] Ibid, 23.[145] Cf Heimbucher, II, 80f; Heuser, "Canonissae,11 op citII, 842ff. d[119] Bonanni, op cit, pars sec XXIV; Heuser, "Canonissae,"op cit, II, 1844; Helyot, op cit, II, 61.[120] Bonanni, ut supra, XXXI; Helyot, II, 124f.[121] Heuser, "Canonici Regulares" op cit, 1832; Ibid,"Canonissae," ut supra.[122] Ut supra, 1844; Heimbucher, II, 82f.[123] Heimbucher, loc cit.[124] Cf Besse, op cit, LXXI, 406; Bentham, 54.[125] Schafer, 20.[126] Montalembert, I, 303.[127] Cf Lingard, 89f.[128] Cf Montalembert, II, 560ff.[129] Ibid, 635.[130] Ibid, 636; for the original see canons 4, 7, 20, and 29 inHadden and Stubbs, Councils and Eccl Documents, III, 364ff.[131] Cf Montalembert, I, 452.[132] "Privilegia vero, que antiquitus vel moderno temporemonasteriis juxta sanctorum patrum regulas viventibus indultasunt, ut propria vivant firmitate, per praesentem institutionemmodis omnibus sanximus." Mon Germ Hist, Leg III, Cone I,218.14

The Regular Canonesses ofthe Holy SepulchreAnonymousNEW HALL SCHOOL, BOREHAM, Nr. CHELMSFORDNew Hall is not only one of the largest Catholic boardingschools for girls in England with over three hundred boardersplus day pupils, it is also one of the oldest religiouscommunities in this country. There are thirty-two religiousin the community, ranging in age from their mid-eighties tolate twenties. We are a stable community following the Ruleof St Augustine and part of the Association of the RegularCanonesses of the Holy Sepulchre. The Resurrection is thesource of our life and Apostolate. We have to bear witness tothe risen Lord through our community of love growing each dayin unity of mind and purpose, respecting each other's individualpersonality; by our prayer reaching its climax in theeucharist, continued in the celebration of the Liturgy of theHours, it is the expression of our unity of heart and mind on ourway to God; by our apostolic service within the community,in our school and in our new pastoral center.In 1641 during the uncertainty and turmoil which led to theCivil War in England a young girl of only eighteen, SusanHawley wished to found a religious community for EnglishCatholic women who were unable to follow this life in theirown country because of the Penal Laws. She thereforeentered the monastery of the Regular Canonesses of the HolySepulchre at Tongres in Belgium.The order of the Holy Sepulchre was founded by thecrusaders on their arrival at Jerusalem in 1099. The ordertherefore grew out of the new interest in the humanity ofChrist which developed in the eleventh century; a new focus onthe importance of his life and death as a man; a spiritualitywhich centered on the land where these events took place andon the Christian as one who is a pilgrim. The traveller toJerusalem imitated Christ's attitude and actions on his way tothe land where his Lord lived out the gospel. Having takenthe city on 15 July 1099 Godfrey of Brouillon installed latincanons to serve the church of the Holy Sepulchre.In 1114 the patriarch of Jerusalem, Arnulph of Choques,acting in the spirit of the current Gregorian reform, obligedthe canons to introduce the practice of common life and adoptthe Rule of St Augustine as the spiritual basis of their regularlife. The special status of the Holy Sepulchre in the eyes ofthe crusaders was reflected in the esteem shown to the canons.The prior had first place among all abbots and priors in the holyland and the priorship was frequently a stepping stone to thehighest positions in the church of Syria.15

Devotion to the Sepulchre led to a large number of giftsbeing made to the canons. They became one of the greatestlandowning bodies in the Frankish east. Gifts of churchpatronage and property were made all over Europe so that theHoly Sepulchre Priory became the center of a multinationalorder. The most dramatic evidence for the devotion in thewest to the Sepulchre and the defense of the holy land to befound in the will of Alphonso I, king of Aragon and Navarrewho, in 1134, left his kingdom to be divided between theHospitallers, the.Templars and the Holy Sepulchre. However,despite such devotion the canons had to leave the holy land in1291 with the fall of the realm, with Perugia then becoming thearchpriory. The houses in Europe continued to exist althoughmany fell into ruin.Himi fibrinJiinroob JThe canonesses of the Holy Sepulchre continue to live atNew Hall and continue to run a school. However in Octoberof this year [1986] the community is broadening its work ofeducation and beginning a new form of service for the church,alongside the school, by opening a pastoral center inconjunction with the local diocese. This will provide apeaceful, rural setting for day retreats and conferences, andenable those, who wish to join in the prayer of the New Hallcommunity to do so.Just as Susan Hawley at a time of instability stepped intoan uncertain future as an act of faith, so now the communityshe founded is asked to express its faith in the future. Againwe are dependent on the help of others to establish a work ofservice for the church—benefactors who will certainly beremembered in our prayers. In new circumstances wecontinue to try to live out age-old ideals of faith and trust."We are the spiritual heirs of the regular canons of theChapter of the Resurrection in Jerusalem, for whom theresurrection was the source of their life and apostolate.Therefore through our communion of cultus and caritas wehave to help build up the Church and by our community-life,our prayer and apostolic service, bear witness to the risenLord11 (Constitutions 3). Now we are setting out on a newstage of our pilgrimage as one in mind and heart we journey inthe one Christ on the way to the Father.The establishment of the canonesses is to be found in thelate medieval religious revival of the Low Countries. Acertain canon, Jan van Abroek, wishing to revive the order wasresponsible for the foundation of a house of canonesses atKinroi in Belgium in 1480. It was to this house that Tongres,the convent entered by Susan Hawley in 1641, owed its origin.On October 8, 1642, just as the Civil War was breaking outin England, Susan Hawley left Tongres on the day of herprofession with another English girl to set up what becametheir own English convent in Liege. As the community grew,a flourishing school also grew up to educate English Catholicgirls despite the penalties imposed by English law on thosecatholics who sent their children to be educated abroad.Susan Hawley's act of faith had borne fruit.However, after years of peace and growth, notably underMother Christina Dennett who was regarded as almost a secondfoundress, the wars of the French Revolution forced theEnglish canonesses to make another journey forward in faith.In 1794 the community from Liege returned to England tocontinue their religious life and re-establish their school;eventually, through the generosity of a benefactor, thecanonesses were able to settle at New Hall near Chelmsford in1799. This house was part of a former palace of Henry VIII,yet with the advent of the nuns it returned to its originaldesignation, for in 1062 Earl Harold (later king and killed atHastings in 1066) had granted New Hall to the canons ofWalthamabbey.Maarsseto°v* r NeJirtaiuC1952Hew&aff(jreat ^Britairo1642»rfi662hlijmea en16

AUGUSTINUSThe Association of Canonesses Regularof the Holy Sepulchre:A Description from Public Relations Materialsof the AssociationSpiritualityCommitment. We commit ourselves to God to serve theChurch, in and through our religious community, promising tolive the common life, according to the Gospel of our Lord JesusChrist. Common life is the center of our living as RegularCanonesses of the Holy Sepulchre. In the canonical tradition,"vita coramunis" means that we ought to live the mystery ofthe Church, vitally linked with the local Church and its bishopwithin the universal Church.So in our Way of life, inspired by the example of thecommunities of the early Church, we endeavor to be a sign tothe world of the brotherhood of all men and to make ourselvesavailable for the service of our fellow-men.The Order of the Holy Sepulchre has its origins inJerusalem. A revival of the Order in the Low Countries in the15th Century led to the establishment of a community ofCanonesses of the Holy Sepulchre at Kinrooi in 1480. Thiswas the Origin of subsequent foundations, seven of which haveformed today the Association of Regular Canonesses of theHoly Sepulchre united in purpose and the same spirituality."Of one hear and soul...they had everything in common"(Acts 4:32)...attending the temple together." (Acts 2:46)The Resurrection is the source of our life and apostolate. Wehave to bear witness to the risen Lord through our communityof love growing day by day in unity of mind and purpose,respecting each one's individual personality; by our prayer,"reaching its climax in the Eucharist, continued in thecelebration of the Liturgy of the Hours," it is the expression ofour unity of heart and mind on our way to God; by our apostolicservice "all of us cooperate in this work, each in her ownassigned task." Liturgical celebration with apostolic serviceof our fellow men constitute our principal task as regularcanonesses.Canonesses are religious dedicated to the mission andupbuilding of the Church. They live in community, celebratethe liturgy together and they are at the service of theirfellowmen. Their communities are traditionally known asChapters.JERUSALEMIn 1099 after Jerusalem was captured by the Crusaders,Godfrey de Bouillon installed a chapter of canons to serve theChurch of the Holy Sepulchre, known also as the Church of theResurrection of the Lord. By order of Arnulf, Patriarch ofJerusalem, these canons adopted the Rule of St Augustine in1114 and henceforward lived in community, sharing their lifeand possessions. From this original group of "guardians of theHoly Sepulchre" there developed in the Church a religiousorder, namely the Order of Regular Canons and canonesses ofthe Holy Sepulchre. Eventually in the vicissitudes of historythe canons disappeared and it is in the communities of theRegular Canonesses of the Holy Sepulchre that thedevelopment of the Order has continued until the present time.Seal of the Canons Regular of the Holy Sepulchreused in 1175 by Peter, Prior of the Chapter.Grateful for the redemption we live the paschal mystery,sing the glory of the Resurrection, spread the Good Newseverywhere. As Christ was sent into the world to bring theGood News so does He send us to help establish the Kingdom ofGod in the family of mankind, to pass on to others by thewitness of a genuine Christian and religious life what we havereceived in prayer.17

BilzenThe chapter of the Holy Sepulchre at Hasselt, founded in1638 was suppressed in 1798 but revived by sisters fromHasselt, Maastricht, Luik at Bilzen 1837. The priory Sion nowhas communities at Bilzen, Kinrooi and Kuringen. Alongsideprayer, liturgy and community life they devote themselves tothe Christian education of youth in boarding and day schools ofBilzen and Kinrooi. To meet the needs of the times, in 1974 aretreat house was opened in the old abbey of Herkenrode,Kuringen. Here, the sisters receive guests and guide themduring reflection days; also people can find rest andenrichment.MaarssenAugustine"Unus in Unoad Unum—One together, in the one Christ, onthe way to the Father.""In the first place:live in the house in unity of spirit,having one soul and one heartentirely centered upon God.Is it not for this very reasonthat you have come to live together?"The priory Emmaus is a daughter of "Jerusalem" Turnhout.Starting in Nijmegen (1922), it became autonomous in 1939.Forced by World War II to fee from place to place, we thenlived eight years in "the Cloese", Lochem; but since 1957 weare in the heart of the Netherlands. Here we endeavor to beChurch and to build Church:—in pastoral concern and in contributing to thedevelopment of conscious faith;—in forming and training young adults.In 1948, together with young Brazilian sisters, we formed aflourishing center in Brazil."So now let us sing 'Alleluia',not in the enjoyment of heavenly rest,but to sweeten our toil.Such as travellers sing along the road:but keep on walking.Solace your toil by singing—Go forward then in virtue,in true faith and right conduct.Sing up—and keep on walking.""We have not yet reached the Lord, but we have ourneighbor with us... his burden to share."New HaUThe New Hall Community was founded by Susan Hawley on8 October 1642 at Liege for English women who by the penallaws were denied religious freedom in their own country. TheEnglish community increased steadily, a school was establishedand both continued to flourish until danger from the French in1794 forced them to leave Liege and seek refuge in England.After a time of uncertain destination the nuns found theirresting place at New Hall in 1799. The years have seen manychanges but in the age-long canonical tradition of our Order,we continue to serve the Church Today through: ourLiturgical Celebration, our "open" Community andApostolate of Education. [During the last year or more theNew Hall Community, in accordance with their revisedConstitutions and the Renewal which has followed the 2ndVatican Council, have been seeking ways in which they mightmore fully support the Bishop and the Diocese by undertakingwork in addition to the School. In response to this search theBishop has asked if we would open a Diocesan Pastoral Centerhere in New Hall—a facility which the Diocese lacks and badlyneeds. ]18MaleSt Trudo Abbey, Male near Bruges grew out of the 12thcentury PauperesChristi movement, through which a communityof men and women was established in Bruges. This developedinto a regular chapter. In 1149 the sisters moved into the StTrudo Convent outside the town; in 1248 this communitybecame an autonomous abbey and joined the Congregation of StVictor. In 1456 the Abbey went over to the Congregation ofWindesheim and since 1952 has belonged to the Order of theHoly Sepulchre. The community strives to make theirconsecration to God and man a living reality by celebration ofthe liturgy and practice of hospitality in their guest-house.ZaragozaZaragoza was founded in 1276 to be, in the spirit of theCrusades, a "living Jerusalem", linked with Canons of the HolySepulchre at Calatayud. The community now, in response to acall for renewal, cherishing its heritage, is a witness to therisen Christ in our own time.Nijmegen [Closed in 1985]The pilgrim house Casa Nova is situated near the biblicalmuseum "heilige Landstichting". Here in 1936 the HolySepulchre Baden-Baden founded a daughter house taking overfrom Turnhout who had a small community there since 1928.In 1938 it became an autonomous priory. A year later thesisters were able to purchase the house from the H.Landstichting. The community offers hospitality to those whoare in need of rest for body and soul or to any wishing to take aholiday in beautiful woodlands. Each year many gladly comeback to us. Outside the summer season there is also theopportunity for groups to organize week-end courses, study orreflection days.

TurnhoutOur priory Jerusalem was founded in 1662. Then began itsstory of joy and sorrow. Although education has continued tobe our main apostolate, some religious, according to personalcharisma, devote themselves to catechetical work with adults,to caring for the sick and assisting the "drop-outs" of society.At the request of the parishes our daughter houses came intobeing. Our missions in Zaire were founded in 1928. Eachsister can be herself; we find one another always again in ourchoral prayer and in the atmosphere characteristic of ourhouse. We hope that as we work together the risen Lord willbecome a reality in our lives, in our community and for all whoare entrusted to us.Zaire [tr from Dutch by H. Dorrusen]Our mission in Zaire was established more than 50 years agoand reflects the history of Zaire, its growth and its poverty.In the hospital and school at Aketi in the beautifulcountryside, missionaries struggle against hunger, sickness,and ignorance. In Walungu we have a good sized in-landcommunity where native sisters are helping their own peoplemove toward the future.Campinas, Brazil [tr from Portuguese by J. Makoutz]The first sisters left Holland for Brazil in 1948. In thecolony Holambra-I they worked for fourteen years among theimmigrants. In 1960 they realized their wish to live and workamong the Brazilian people, and the catechetical and liturgicalcenter, Lumen Christi, was built. The Canonesses of the HolySepulchre continue praying the office in choir, giving coursesin formation for pastoral ministers, teaching catechists, andteaching basic doctrine. They live among their neighbors,rich and poor, with whom they celebrate the great festivals ofthe Church, nJLeifersDear Editor, September 9, 1986 Dear Editor,Thanks for your invitation to the Symposium in May, 1987.I will plan to attend the Congress, and can combine it with avisit to my sister to is living in New Jersey, and perhaps I canvisit some Crosier communities, too.Meanwhile, I have received Number 18 of CROSIERHERITAGE, and I congratulate you and the editorial staffwith such an achievement. May the following issues be of thesame quality! For your information I enclose a leaflet of the"Centre europeen de Recherches sur les Congregations etOrdres monastiques." Best wishes.September 1986I was very happy to receive Number 19 of CROSIERHERITAGE--I anticipate each new issue with keenexcitement and I am never disappointed with its content.CROSIER HERITAGE, while I complete my book on the RomanCanons Regular of the Lateran, is always an educativeexperience.I was glad to learn of your well-deserved rest in Guam. Itoo will be travelling in October: Vienna, Prague, Budapest,Cracow, Warsaw. My best wishes to you and much heart-feltthanks.Con fraternally,Faithfullyyours,Gerard Reijners, O.S.C.Bonn-Beuel, West GermanyBruce KupelnickCambridge, Massachusetts19

Dear Editor, October 29, 1986 Dear Editor, November 15, 1986I am hoping to attend the Symposium in Kalamazoo, and wasthinking it would be nice to have a session on St Odilia, duringthis 700th anniversary of the exhumation of her relics. I amworking up a slide presentation on the reliquary. The slidesare quite good, and I am familiar enough with them. Maybethis could be part of an evening informal session.Fraternally,-**•**?V Rev Jim Hentges, O.S.C.New Rochelle, New YorkDear Editor, October 8, 1986I thought you would be interested to hear that the CanonsRegular of the Immaculate Conception has organized, in honorof the Centenary year of the Conversion of St Augustine, amass at Waltham Abbey at which all Canons and Canonesses areinvited. This is probably the first time since the reformationthat a Catholic mass has been celebrated there.Would it be possible for you or one of your brothers to writea short article on the Crosier Canons in the USA? It couldcontain the amount of houses that you have, the type of workthat you do, perhaps a short history. It needn't be long, onlya few sides would be great! We know very little about theCrosier Canons in America. Anytime you would like to visitEngland, you are more than welcome to stay with us.In St Augustine,ill, ).T'TDora Garry A. Murphy, C.R.L.London, EnglandC/ZCDear Editor, July 30, 1986I want to thank you so much for CROSIER HERITAGE. Ireally do enjoy it and with my work centered in Belgium 1 findmany of the articles extremely valuable.You are wondering whether there had been any archeologyundertaken at the site of the Crosier Monastery in Huy. Idon't know the answer off-hand, but I will be in Belgium inJanuary for one year on an NEH and am certain to turn up withsomething on it since my work is architectural andarcheological. If I discover anything in the way ofbibliography, you will be the first to know! Likewise,anything you might want me to look for, let me know.I return to Kalamazoo next year to talk about beguinesagain. This time, I'll be examining early planning of thebeguine-parishes (hopefully using some archeology there, too).I hope to see you again next spring, and again thank you foryour thoughtful (and useful!) journal.My ancester was Sir John Bartholomew of London,sometimes spelled Bartlemewe, an ivory turner. He died in1442, designed Guildhall, London, and was a member of theCrutched Friars. He paid for a stained glass windowportraying, I believe, John the Baptist to be put in themonastery church in "Crutched Friars" Lane near the tower ofLondon. I am also researching the effigies of two knights inthe church at Watiington, Norfolk, as there is also a stainedglass window and my coat-of-arms there surrounding a statueof St Cecilia. These people would have lived earlier circa1300 and may hve been associated with your order. Theircoat-of-arms was surmounted by goat's heads varying innumber up to three. Apart from my own family I aminterested in learning of the history and traditions of thecommunities should you wish to tell me of same. Kindestregards.Yourssincerely,Richard Hayward, TrusteeChambercombe Trust, DevonDear Editor, October 16, 1986It was a pleasure speaking to you on the phone, and I'mlooking forward to our Symposium in Kalamazoo in May.As a background for my paper, you might like to know that Ihelped organize a conference on the Spirituality of Love in the12th Century and Today that was held in France last June.Present were some twenty-five scholars from the various worldreligions. In my paper I hope to explore further some of theissues that emerged at the conference. My gratitude for yourconsideration of this paper.Sincerelyyours,UmJ%Ewert H. CousinsProfessor, Fordham UniversityDear Editor, July 27, 1986I heard from John Fricker of Womersley Road that you wereinterested in hearing about canonesses as there are none in theUnited States. 1 am therefore enclosing some informationabout the history of my own community and order. A leafletwas produced by our Association for our Quincentenarycelebrations in 1980, which has material in several languages.This year is a particularly important one of this community,not only are we celebrating the year of St Augustine but weare beginning a new form of apostolate alongside our school.Please do contact me for further information.20Yourssincerely,rz.-Joanna E. Ziegler, Ass't ProfessorCollege of the Holy CrossYours sincerely,Anne-Marie, C.R.S.S.Chemsford, Essex, U.K.

Dear Editor, August 27, 1986Thank you for your various missives: Crosierite June 24,Call for Papers, and especially, CROSIER HERITAGE ofJanuary, 1986. This last item is extremely interesting, in thatit resolves certain problems regarding the author of theCommentary on the Rule of St Augustine by Letbert of St Ruf,and not by Hugh of St Victor, as is commonly believed.But it is also very interesting for the questions that itraises regarding those which you raise in your article,"Contemporary Canonical Problems and Paths to Solutions".It is not easy to answer such a question in an exhaustive andsatisfactory manner. I think what one must remember that weare essentially clerics who wish to live the evangelicalcounsels (sequella Christi) while at the same time puttingourselves at the service of the people of God. We claim tocontinue the life which Jesus led with his apostles. Well,Jesus preached the gospel, he prayed a great deal, and he liveda life of poverty, chastity, and obedience to the will of hisFather. The forms of the exterior apostolate are of littlesignificance, provided that we do the work of spreading thegospel, that we devote a reasonable amount of time to prayer,and that we really live the evangelical counsels!St Augustine instituted a monasterium clericorum. Amonastery, yes, but one not of monks, but of clerics. It isobvious that clerics must accomplish clerical tasks:evangelization in all its forms, public prayer, especiallyliturgy: office, mass, sacraments. As monks, they mustimitate the example of Christ, chaste, poor, and obedient.The relative division of activity between prayer and apostolatewill depend a great deal on circumstances of time and place, onthe importance of community, etc. The essential element is inthe spirit.During your stay at Martigny, did I give you the Declaratioconsilii primatialis de Vita communi? If not, 1*11 send it toyou.On page 8, you mention twice the "Congregation" forcanons regular. It is a matter of the "Confederation" formedin 1959 by four congregations, joined by two more since. Andthe door remains open... Shortly there will be established inFrance a Congregation of Canons Regular of diocesan right, inthe diocese of Laval; this congregation has already asked foradmission to our Confederation. I am pleased to inform youthat the Confederation has a new Abbot Primate, as of July 1,1986. He is Dr Abbe1 Karl Egger, of the Congregation ofWindesheim. His address is, C. P. 91, Tor Lupara, 00010 RomaITALY. I point out to you a book which is very interestingfor the history of the community life of the clergy: La VidaApostoltca del Clero by Pedro Balzategui, Canonigos RegularesLaterenses, Avd. Cordoba 3329, Buenos Aires, Argentina.-f"With my friendly respects,+Angelin Lovey, C.R.B.Great Saint Bernard Abbey aCROSIER HERITAGE is the official publicationof the Crosier Heritage Association. ThePresident of the CHA is the Rev Michael Cotone,O.S.C., Padri Crocigeri, Via del Velabro, 19,00186 Roma, ITALY, Phone (06)679-3335.The Editor is the Rev Myron Effing, O.S.C., 3204E 43rd Street, Minneapolis MN 55406, U.S.A.Phone (612)722-2223.Dues payments should be sent to Rev JamesMoeglein, O.S.C., Treasurer, Crosier HeritageAssociation, Box 400, Onamia MN 56359, Phone(612)532-3103.The Editorial Board is:Rev Myron Effing, O.S.C., EditorRev Ted An try, O.Praem.V Rev Jerome Rausch, O.S.C.Rev Martin Schoenberg, O.S.C.You are welcome to send material forpublication. Membership in the Association isopen to all, and the annual membership fee is$20. Memberships from other continents thanNorth America may need an additional mailingfee. Institutional subscriptions are available atthesame rates.The Board of Directors of the Crosier HeritageAssociation is comprised of:Rev Michael Cotone, O.S.C, PresidentRev Myron Effing, O.S.C, EditorRev John Hawkins, O.S.C.V Rev Jerome Rausch, O.S.C.Rev Robert Zylla, O.S.C.Rev Lyle Ehmke, O.S.C21

ews o o oO.S.C. and O.S.O. Again!Kalamazoo—1987The Symposium on Canons Regular will be held at the 22ndInternational Congress on Medieval Studies sponsored by theMedieval Institute of Western Michigan University. The datesfor the Congress are May 7-10, 1987.Papers submitted and approved include:Kaspar Elm, PhD, Freie Universitat Berline, "The Variety ofOrders of the Holy Cross in the 12th and 13th Centuries".Michael Hayden, PhD, University of Saskatchewan, "TheCrutched Friars Rediscovered11.Lelja Dobronic, PhD, University of Zadar, "Augustinians inMedieval Croatia".Rev E. Francis Gabriele, OPraem, PhD, St Norbert College,"Bernard Henry Pennings—First American Norbertine Abbot".Ewert Cousins, PhD, Fordham University, "Mutual Love inRichard of St Victor and William of St Thierry".Rev Hugh Feiss, O.S.B., PhD, University of Iowa, "The Officeof Circatores".Rev Gerard Reijners, O.S.C., PhD, Historisches Institut derKreuzherren, "Contemporary Crosier Historiography".Those wanting registration forms and information shouldwrite The Medieval Institute, Western Michigan University,Kalamazoo MI 49008, U.S.A. Phone (616)383-4980.Additional evening programs for those attending theSymposium are still in the planning stages.[ In Number 19 we reported that the Belgian Crosiers andthe Coimbra Crosiers had decided on using the letters O.S.C.and O.S.Cr., respectively. Subsequently we have received thefollowing information from Rev Michael Cotone, ProcuratorGeneral of the Belgian Crosiers. —ed.]In the letter of our Master General Graus, he explained toour confreres that the Portuguese Crosiers had generously leftthe choice of abbreviation for ourselves, the Canons Regularof the Order of the Holy Cross, up to us, and we have decidedto use the abbreviation "O.S.C." exclusively. No mention wasmade of what abbreviation the Portuguese will use, the Orderof Canons Regular of Holy Cross.On September 19, 1986, the Portuguese Crosiers informedthe editorial staff of ANNUARIO PONTIFICIO that theirchoice of abbreviation would henceforth be "O.R.C", and not"O.S.Cr.", which will not be currently used by any religiouscommunity. This information was communicated to ourGeneralate on September 24, 1986, by the PortugueseProcurator General, Fr Wolfgang Knupfer, who indicated thatthey have decided to use the sigillum "O.R.C." from OrdoCanonicorum Regularium Sanctae Crucis.aProfessor Elm on Vatican ColloquiumProfessor Kaspar Elm of the Free University of Berlin, andauthor of recent articles about the Red Heart Crosiers, hasbeen invited to give a paper at the Colloquium which will beheld by the Pontifical Committee for Historical Sciences inRome on June 24 to 26, 1987. This Colloquium is being calledin express desire of the Holy Father, Pope John Paul II, as partof the celebration of the 600th anniversary of theChristianization of Lithuania, the last part of Europe toreceive the Gospel. Scholars from various nations,distinguished by their competence in this field, have beeninvited to read papers at the Colloquium. In theannouncement of those giving papers in the article announcingthe Colloqium (L'Osservatore Romano (Weekly English edition,9 Feb 1987), Professor Elm is called "The well-knownresearcher into the religious orders in the middle ages".Professor Elm's articles appeared in CROSIER HERITAGENumber 19.Some may wonder what canonesses have to do withCrosiers! There have never been female Belgian Crosiers (hesays with fingers crossed), probably because of the theology ofthe Cross: Crosiers identify with the suffering Christ, a manwho was crucified. The suffering and martyrdom of Mary wasvicariously related to the bloody suffering of her son. In StOdilia we have the feminine expression of the passion of theCross.But there is an interest in the feminine today, and theorigins of the Crosiers are related to the Canons Regular of theHoly Sepulchre who are survived today only by the canonesses.Comparisons of living spirituality are interesting. The Canons22Regular of the Holy Sepulchre are witnesses for theresurrection, as the various Canons Regular of the Holy Crossare witnesses for the crucifixion. Can there be any doubtabout the Crosiers1 constant meditation on the passion and itsinstruments? Or about the fact that the resurrection is noteven mentioned in some early Belgian Crosier materials? (See"The Earliest Rules of the Crosiers", CROSIER HERITAGENumber 11, January 1984).1 would like to see and consider for publication in Englishearly expressions of the spirituality of the Canons Regular ofthe Holy Sepulchre, who so impressed our founders, a

c amomicoFTiiioiA Series of Articles from the jubilary album of the Canonical Orderpublished at the Sixteen Hundredth Anniversary of the birth of St. Augustine at Stift Vorau, Austria, in 1954and edited by Pius Fank, C.R.The CanonessesRegularby Dom Alois van Ette, C.R.L.TheirOriginIn the Xllth century the great religious enthusiasmdisplayed by women as well as by men, drew them to the life ofthe cloister. However, monasteries of women were stillextremely rare, so new foundations had to be made for theirbenefit. At this time double monasteries were very popular,and many communities of men attached a community of womento their own in which the religious were at first calledconverse sisters. But this system led to many difficulties,consequently at the beginning of the Xlllth century mostmonasteries of men tried to assemble their converse in aseparate community which was removed to a suitable distance.It was at this moment that the name of canoness was adopted.I. The Order of Saint AugustineIn this Order there are, on the one hand, a certain numberof isolated monasteries, on the other a variety ofCongregations, Federations or Unions.A. The Canonesses of Convents independent.As the Monasteries of Canons, the monasteries ofCanonesses were formerly independent. Nowadays, there arestill such convents in France and Spain, Holland and England.The Canonesses lead the contemplative life (choral Office,perpetual adoration) and find livelihood in manual work(Vestments, church laundry, making of Altar bread &c.) aswell as in teaching.B. The Canonesses of the Lateran CongregationThe Canons of the Lateran have not neglected thereformation of the convents of Canonesses. The first Conventadmitted into the Congregation was that of Genoa (1460).Some 20 years later, they were 8 in number. Others followed.All these Monasteries were suppressed in the time of therevolution. A few have been able to be restored. For thepresent, the Canonesses of the Lateran have 5 convents inItaly. Three English monasteries (the "English Union11) havebeen affiliated to them. The Canonesses lead thecontemplative life (choral Office) and also teach young girls inprimary and secondary schools.C. The Canonesses of Notre DameThis Congregation was founded in 1597 by Saint PeterFourier and Blessed Alix Le Clere. The aim of theseCanonesses is twofold: the recitation of the Divine Officeand the education of young girls which is the object of a fourthvow. At the time of the French Revolution the Congregationcounted 88 monasteries few of which survived the disaster.When peace was re-established the nuns set about the work ofrestoration which met with great success to their energy.Except for one isolated monastery the Canonesses of NotreDame have given up the previous independence of theirindividual monasteries so as to form three separate Unions; itis the most important event in their recent history. Thesethree Unions are: a) Union of Jupille: Roughly drawn up atthe foundation of Lede in 1897, this union was definitelyapproved by the Holy See in 1910; b) German Union, formed1927; and c) Roman Union, founded 1928.The work of education of the Canonesses among young girlsis most varied; they have primary schools, secondary schools,Higher schools, teachers' schools of all kinds (with workshops)and give evening lectures. They attend to works of "socialaction", run kindergartens and homes for the female studentsof secondary schools and universities.23

D. The Canonesses Hospitaller of the Mercy of JesusAbout 1625 the Augustinian nuns of the hospital of Dieppewere cloistered for the first time and from thence forwardbecame Canonesses. The great number of vocations whichfollowed this act of submission to the Council of Trentpermitted them to make a number of new foundations, amongwhich must be mentioned that of Quebec (1639). The lattermade the Canonesses survived the French revolution.Nowadays the European and African houses have formed aUnion, the Canadian houses all remained independent.The Nuns have a very wide action on behalf of Charity:they run hospitals, Sanatoriums, childbirth establishments,nursing homes, kindergartens, homes for female students andfor family board and homes for abandoned children. They alsohave schools and orphanages in Africa.E. The Missionary CanonessesIn 1897 two canonesses of Ypres left their monastery tomake a foundation in India. They were soon joined by severalyoung Belgian girls so that the house was able to open anovitiate. Nevertheless to safeguard the future of this workit was judged wiser to establish a house in Europe for thetraining of new members. This foundation was made atRoulers in 1908. Rome approved the Congregation ofMissionary Canonesses in 1926.This Congregation has been very specially blessed as iswitnessed by the long list of foundations.They teach Catechism and attend to the Christianeducation of girls in schools of all kinds (primary and mediumschools, Higher schools, teachers' schools, schools for theformation of nurses, profession schools, housekeeping schools,homes for the blind or deaf, lunatic asylums). They also servecharity on a wide scale in social and medical assistance, inhospitals, dispensaries, in the care of the sick at home, inleprosariums, young girls' homes and orphanages.F. The Canonesses Hospitaller of TournayThe most recent Federation of the Canonesses of SaintAugustine is that of the Canonesses Hospitaller of Tournay,formed in 1950.II. The Premonstratension CanonessesThe participation of the woman in the original communitylife of Premontre realized itself in a conscientious imitation ofthe apostolic life. Rievere of Clastres, a noble widow, wasthe first to ask St Norbert for admission. Premontre and manyother monasteries had been double monasteries since thebeginning. The convent of women was strictly separated fromthat of the men. The nuns, who shortly increased to largenumbers, did not take active part in the choral office, butdevoted themselves more to domestic works. They wereimmediately under the abbot and even obtained at timesparticipation in his election. To avoid all eventualdefamation, the general chapter, held c. 1140, voted theabolition of all double monasteries. Thus the cloisters of24women religious were erected at a distance from the abbeys.As a result the convents of women totally disappeared inFrance. In England, on the contrary, double houses of theOrder never existed. Exterior direction, undertaken in thename of the abbot, was in the hands of a priest canon namedprovost or prior, according to the degree of dependence of theconvents of the abbey. To this juridical state, correspondedthe title of prioress or mastress for the nuns. Thisdevelopment provoked very often the solution of theirdependence. The fact is that often these houses owed theirexistence to founders who had no connection with the abbey.The nuns would proceed to the election of their prior, whowould receive confirmation from the father abbot and he evenattained the dignity of a prelate. According to the reform ofthe Council of Trent, convents in Spain and Poland weresubmitted to the jurisdiction of the Bishop.After the abolition of double convents, the nuns passed to astate of pure contemplative life and were divided into choirnuns (sorores cantantes) and lay nuns (sorores non cantantes).The convents of women of the Middle Ages were placed notedfor heroic renunciation and the imitation of Christ, and oftenwitnessed mystical manifestations. A few of these religiousalso engaged themselves in scientific studies and in the tedioustask of copying various manuscripts. Today, we still havesacred ornaments artistically embroidered, by them in the lastcenturies.Very few convents survived the Reformation andsecularization. However, there were new foundations in theXVlIIth and XlXth centuries. Presently three convents ofthe second Order are under the jurisdiction of the abbeys inBelgium, Holland and Brazil. Four, however, are directlysubject to the Bishops in Poland and Spain.Since 1928, there exists a congregation of sisters of thethird Order of St Norbert in Czechoslovakia, France, andAustria. These religious offer themselves to the works of themodern apostolate.III. The Order of the Holy SepulchreThe Order, recognized as such by Calistus II in 1122, had,at least from the XHIth century, some houses for women whichwere apparently of little importance. It was a Sepulchrinecanon from the Netherlands, Jan van Abrock, who establishedthe Sepulchrine canonesses in his country: he died in 1510.In the XVIIth century van Abrock's foundation was greatlyextended, especially in the diocese of Liege. Though it wasalmost completely destroyed by the French revolution, thefeminine branch of the Order received a new impetus duringthe XlXth century.The Nuns lead the contemplative life (choral Office,perpetual adoration) but especially give themselves toteaching: grammar schools, secondary schools, teachers'schools and professional schools of all kinds. They exercizeapostleship and, in Africa, run schools, general hospitals,childbirth hospitals and homes for leprosy.IV. The Order of Saint VictorThe Abbey of St Victor near Paris, founded in 1108, soonbecome the head of the Order. During the XlVth century theCanons of the Order of Saint Victor disappeared but theVictorine Canonesses have continued as a separate Order downto our own day.They perform the choral Office and run grammar schoolsand secondary schools.

The Canons Regular of St Maurice of Agaunumby Leon Dupont Lachenal, C.R.Basilica of martyrs and Monastery of Monks. St Eucher,Bishop of Lyon (449), relates that some Christian soldiers,commanded by the officer Mauritius, were ready to acceptdeath rather than abandon their Faith. About 370, StTheodorus, first Bishop of the Valais, erected a small basilicain their honor at the foot of the rock of agaunum. He thusgave origin to a pilgrimage which, already in the followingcentury, was a great favour. It is probable that Priestsattended to the Basilica and to the local pilgrimage, butinformation on this point is deficient.In SIS, Sigismund, son of the king of the Burgunds, convertedto the Catholic faith by St Avitus, Bishop of Vienne, founded,near the Basilica, a monastery which he filled principally withmonks taken from other monasteries in the country. On theblessing day of the new monastery, St Avitus preached a homilywhich we have in a manuscript of the Vlth century.George of Plinval, the ecclesiastical historian of Fribourg,distinguishes three types amongst the monasteries of the Vthand Vlth centuries; first the intellectualistic type, destinedfor deeper studies. Of this type, the Community founded byCassiodorus at Vivarium, in Italy, as an example. Then, thevoluntarian type which lays a stress upon the forsaking of whatis individual. Lastly, the "praying" type whose ideal is thedivine office with prayer and psalmody. This type St Benedictestablished at Subiaco and Mount Cassino. The monastery ofAgaunum is more recent than Lerins and more ancient thatMount Cassino. It partakes of these three types, yet, cannotbe classed exclusively in any.Between 501 and 529, St Benedict founded his firstcommunity of monks at Subiaco. It consisted of twelve groupsof them.—The monastery of Agaunum also included severalgroups. Its main and essential reason of being is choralpsalmody. The monks of Agaunum (and this is the first case inthe West) send up to Heaven unbroken prayer: "lausperennis", for each group, in its turn, takes up the psalmody.Such then, as writes the learned Bishop of Lausanne, Genevaand Fribourg, Mgr Marius Besson, is the greatest glory of themonastery of Agaunum. This monastery became the model forall the French monasteries which, from the Vlth to the VHIthcentury, were founded "ad instar Agaunensium".Canonical reformations in the IXth and XII centuries. Lateron, the monastery of Agaunum could not avoid feeling theeffects of political changes in the country. Charles "theHammer", in the somewhat rough manner which was his wont,imposed one of his officers upon it as a superior. About acentury later, between 762 and 858, these prelates were atonce Bishops of Sion and Abbots of St Maurice of Agaunum.When the Abbey of St Maurice was violently wrenched from thePrelate by Duke Hubert, it became a plaything in the hands oflay lords. From 864 to 1032, the dynasty of the Rudolphs ofBurgundy treated the Abbey as their private property. Afterthem came the House of Savoy.What became of Regular Life During those troubled times?It is believed that the Rule of St Benedict was in force in theV11 Ith century. Though uncertain, this is possible consideringthat this Rule was then brought into many of the Westernmonasteries and that, formerly, a chapel in the Abbatialchurch of Agaunum was dedicated to St Benedict. Be that as itmay, between 820 and 830, the monastery underwent a crisis inconsequence of which canons took the place of monks. Thesecanons were probably under the statutes of St Chrodegang,Bishop of Metz. These statutes had been given to all collegialchurches as, a general rule of life by decision of the Synod ofAachen. It is known that St Chrodegang's rule differs fromother monastic rules by allowing the canons to dispose of theirincome.It is likely that the cathedrals of Sion, Aosta, Lausanne andGeneva followed the same rule, but, towards the end of theXlth century, those churches had, little by little, forsakencommunity life.A renovation took place in the beginning of the Xllthcentury under the influence of the prelates "who, bred at theschool of Gregory VII, were totally devoted to the Holy See;thence their unceasing efforts to free the Church from thedisastrous influence of the feudal system which had invaded it"(Victor van Berchem). St Hugh, Bishop of Grenoble, obtainedfrom Count Amedeus III of Savoy that the latter shouldabandon his claims upon the abbatial church of Agaunum andshould restore its splendour by establishing the Rule of StAugustine. On the 30th of March 1128, Amedeus III himselfgave the Abbey of St Maurice its statute of reformation laterconfirmed by Pope Honorius II.—The reformation set ingradually. To the middle of the century, there were secularcanons next to the regular; but since then, the chapter itself isregular and newcomers must accept the rule.The Abbey becomes a Collegial Church. Prosperity lasted toabout the end of the XUIth century. Under Abbot James ofAyent (1292-1313) began a slow evolution working themonastery into the establishment of a collegiate church.Thus it names itself. The Prioral charge, which no morebecame the canons of a collegial chapter, disappeared aboutthe middle of the XIVth century. By the distribution ofappointed emoluments, different charges were created: e.g.especially sacristan, chorister and Chaplain. The abbot istemporal lord of several valleys and villages.This state of things lasted three centuries. The politicalchange which took place in the valley of the upper Rhodanumand around the Lake of Geneva in the XV Ith century robbedthe Abbey of its spiritual influence in the region of Waadt andin the Western Chablais which were occupied by the Bernese.The Abbey was even compelled to acknowledge the dominationof the Valais. Having become dependent, the abbots wereobliged to have their temporal lordship bestowed upon them, asa fied, by the States of Valais, Bern and Fribourg. Fire, anearthquake, and lastly the gliding of a mountain ruined theabbey which seemed to have come to the end of its existence.The Abbot Peter III du Nant de Grilly, in June 1614, laid thefirst stone of a new abbatial church: the building of it,however, was soon interrupted through want of money. Hissuccessor, George I de Quartery, received the abbatialblessing in 1620 in the Church of St Sigismund, near by.Back to the Rule. To gather the funds needed for thecompletion of the Basilica, the canons decided to diminishexpenditure. To this end, they abandoned, for the time being,their right to live separately and returned to Community life.Thus, it was necessity which brought on the restoration offormer statutes. This restoration was hesitating andtemporary at the start but was destined to last. The NounceAlexander Scappi strongly favored such tendencies. In the25

eginning of 1627, he came to St Maurice to consecrate theabbatial church which had at length been completed. On thisoccasion, he planned the reorganization of the abbey. Heintended to order the "clausura" with obligation of communitylife and to restore the prioral duties. A great step forwardwas taken in 1637 when the abbot and canons defined therights of the Prelate and those of the Chapter and wrotestatutes.On July 20th 1642, the Nounce Jerome Farnese blessed PeterIV (Mauritius Odet), one of the most virtuous of the prelateshaving ruled the abbey. Mgr Farnese confirmed theconstitutions, insisted upon the suppression of appointedemoluments and ordered Community life to be maintained.Canon Berody has sketched the work of Nounce Farnese asfollows: "in antiquum atqu pristinum splendorem cunctarestituit."This reformation accorded in spirit with the restorativeaction displayed by St Peter Fourier among the canons ofLotharingy. Of course, as it had its protagonists, it alsoencountered opposition for those who were accustomed toregard the abbey as a collegial church. Many a time, thestatute of the abbey had to be defined more exactly and therespective rights to be more clearly delimited. Thus, in 1657,the Nounce Frederic Borromeo decided that the prior should beelected by the chapter and confirmed by the abbot, while theabbot, with his council, was to name the procurator("oeconomus Generalis"). Lastly, the prelate was allowedfree choice and appointment of his vicar general.In 1715; at the Nounce's earnest request, the decrees andcustoms of the abbey were written down. Thus wereelaborated the Constitutions which the Nounce DominicoPassionei edicted in 1722. The Swiss revolution and theannexation of the Valais by France deeply changed theorganization of the country and consequently that of theAbbey of St Maurice. A trace of these disturbances is to befound in the constitutions which were written over again in1820 and underwent new handling in 1870 and 1931.Present times. In the XlXth century, two causes have giventhe abbey its present mode of life. It must first be notedthat, in the Vlth century, it possessed a claustral school.Notes written in the XVth century show how the abbotattended to the improvement of the schooling. About themiddle of the XVIth century, the Diet of the Valais decidedthe erection of a College at St Maurice. In 1806, this collegewas placed nearer the abbey which, from that time, secured itsexistence. Thus, teaching is, since then, one of the mainactivities of the Canons of St Maurice.Secondly, since the high Middle Ages, the abbey possessessuch exceptional privileges that the monastery of Agaunum ismentioned with Lerins and Farfa as the type of an independentmonastery. From early times, the abbey did its best to securethe ministry of souls in its estates and vicinities. To this end,it erected the first parishes in the region. Pope Gregory XVIbestowed on the abbot the dignity of bishop by uniting for everthe episcopal tital of Bethlehem to the abbot's see. Theabbatial and cathedral church is, since 1949, a minor basilica.Besides many remains of ancient culture and precious artisticmonuments, the basilica includes the relics of St Mauritius andhis martyr companions to whom the abbey is dedicated.Four words enshrine the activities mentioned in theConstitutions of the Abbey: liturgy, teaching, ministry andmissions. Most of the canons teach in the collegeincorporated to the abbey. It includes the Literary, thePhilosophical, and the Commercial sections and bestowsofficial diplomas (Foderalmatura). Besides the College, thecanons run schools at Porrentruy, Sierre, and Bagnes. Thecanons also collaborate to periodicals and newspapers orpublish literary or scientific works as well as pious books andworks of historial investigation.The abbey ever was a center of pastoral ministry, as itproved by an old baptismal font dating from about the year600. Its venerable remains were recently discovered byunderground excavations. Down to the XVIIth century, theabbatial church alone had baptismal right, so that a tabellioncould, in year 1505, call it "ecclesia Parochialis...atque materet baptismalis." In the course of ages, the abbey has builtmany churches and chapels and erected parishes in thesurrounding villages.By its present juridical statute (created by a "bulla" of PiusXI in 1933) the abbey is a "abbatia nullius" under the exclusiverule of the abbot-bishop. It includes six parishes. Besides,five parishes and one Rectory situated in the Diocese of Sionare incorporated "pleno jure" with the abbey. It also runstwo other parishes by agreement with the Bishop of Sion. It isto be mentioned that, each Sunday and feast day, many canonsgo forth to help the parochial clergy, especially in themountain villages and hamlets who have no resident priest.Lastly, in 1937, the Apostolic Prefecture of Sikkim, at thefoot of the Himalaya, was entrusted to the abbey by the HolySee. This prefecture includes a part of Darjeeling and theState of Sikkim. The prefect resides at Kalimpong.a26

o o oStephen Paesani, O. Praem., "The Premonstratensian Liturgy ofthe Hours", The Communicator, vol IV, no 2 (December, 1986),Viale Giotto 29, 00153 Roma. This paper looks at Canons.Regular from the perspective of the modern reforms, and hopesto show how the responsibility for edification, present at thefoundation of the Order of Preraontre, has found modernexpression.The Conversion of Saint Augustine: Light For Our Paths, Amessage from the Superiors General of the Augustinian Familyfor the Sixteenth Centenary of Saint Augustine's Conversionand Baptism (24 April 1986), Augustinian Press, 1986. tr fromItalian by Matthew J O'Connell. Augustinian Press, P.O. Box338, Villa nova PA 19085.J. E. Ziegler, The Word Becomes Flesh, Canor Art Gallery,College of the Holy Cross, Worcester, Massachusetts, 1985.An essay and catalog about the art form known as the "Pieta",with pictures. "Why did the Pieta originate—and in essenceremain—a sculptural, rather than painted, type?""Celebrating Liturgy: Morning and Evening Prayer", NationalBulletin on Liturgy (Canada), No 90 (Sept-Oct 1983), pp 150-161.QCorrections[Apologies to Dr Elm and to readers that we had to go topress before his corrections of the article "The Penitents ofthe Holy Martyrs" (CROSIER HERITAGE, Number 19) werereceived, which were many. The substance of the article isnot affected, however, but these are important corrections:(Please note, too, that our computer system does not handlediacritical marks, unfortunately, so words from languagesother than English may sometimes look ridiculous. Forexample, "Sv Kriz" is the best we can do for "Holy Cross" inCzech!)—ed]Line 13, drop "even though their foundation cannot be proved"Line 18, drop "an engraving of"Line 25, Add "ordo" before "canonicus"Line 29, read "cuiaviense" for "Cuiavien",and read "Germany" for "German".Col 2, line 19, read "certain German nobleman named Martin"for "certain Martino", and replace "Martin" for "Martino"-whereever it occurs.Line 22, drop "intercessory"Col 3, line 14, place "of all mendicant orders founded after thefourth council of Lateran, including" after "abolition"Line 48, drop "was not in their possession and"Line 50, read "other monasteries" for "another monastery"After [20], remove the rest of the paragraph from "Aremarkable" through "etc."After [23], add "The Crociferi di Bologna" to the list of ordersmentioned,and read "alleged" for "most ancient" in that sentence.Last paragraph on page 13, 14 lines from bottom, read"Regensburg" for "Ratisborna"Last paragraph of article, read "the" for "194 religious"Dr Nichipor offers the following corrections to thetranslations of the Latin letters, appendices of "An HithertoUnknown 17th Century Correspondence Between Bohemian andBelgian Crosiers (1673-1674)", CROSIER HERITAGE, Number19):line 14, read "armies. Lest" for "armies, lest"paragraph 2, line 2, read "Divine" for "Devine"Appendix V:Paragraph 3, line 11, read "angelic" for "angelia"line 16, read "our" for "are"Appendix VI:Intro para, read "informs Provost Kopidlensky that" for "takesthe side of Provost Kopidlensky, so that"Body of letter line 6, omit "house"line 6, read "positive" for "improving"Para 5, line 3, read "affectionate" for "affection",read "if we maintain a mutual" for "if a mutual"Appendix II:line 3 of body of letter: read "address" for "addressed"line 10: omit "of Canons Regular"line 11: omit "flower"Appendix III:line 4 of body of letter, read "by this present letter" for "bythis presents"in #1, line 2, omit "break-up"in #3, after "Leucae" add "(New Benatky)"in #4, line 1, read "rightly" for "right by"Appendix IV:line 1, read "informs Provost Kopidlensky that" for "takes theside of Provost Kopidlensky, so that"Intro para, line 2, read "there will be consultation" for "hewill be consulted"line 5, read "informs him" for "inquires"Body of letter, line 7, read "sort" for "sore"27

CROSIER HERITAGEASSOCIATIONFIRST CLASS MAILBox 400 Onamia, MN 56359United States of Americathis^ssue:1 Survey of Canonesses15 Holy Sepulchre Canonesses19 Letters22 News & Editorial23 Canonesses25 St Maurice of Agaunum27 Bibliography