Skills for Study Level 2 Teacher's Book - Cambridge University Press

Skillsfor StudyLEVEL 2Teacher’s Notes

IntroductionUnderlying principles of the courseThe importance of study skills for success in higher education is well establishedand is, perhaps, reflected in the large number of study skills publications whichdeal with the topic; most universities now offer, at the least, online study skillsadvice to their students. However, classroom experience has taught us that whilemany publications currently available give sound advice, relatively few offeraccessible practice activities to help students develop their skills successfully. Thiscourse of books is designed, therefore, to help students develop the functionalacademic, reasoning and linguistic skills they need for success within an Englishmediumuniversity.English for Academic Purposes is, by definition, not an area solely relevant to nonnativespeakers. Native or near-native speakers making the transition to universityor higher levels of study must also master modes of discourse and language usewhich are appropriate for academic purposes, and which may be unfamiliar to themin daily life. The course is therefore designed to provide discrete but complementaryacademic and linguistic skills, and it is for this reason that it is divided into separateSkills and Language texts. The Skills for Study books provide general academicskills such as library research, group work and essay planning, but they also touchupon aspects of academic language and discourse (such as hedging and structuringarguments) which are as vital for native speakers as they are for non-nativespeakers. The Language for Study books therefore concentrate on specific languageitems which present a challenge to non-native speakers but which would ordinarilyfall outside of the scope of a study skills text. This division allows teachers toprovide skills or language support appropriate to the linguistic and skill level oftheir students.Aims of the courseThe course is intended for classroom use with students preparing for, or currentlyenrolled on, undergraduate or postgraduate courses. In general terms, the Skills andLanguage for Study course, when used in combination, is designed to take studentsfrom a language proficiency level of CEFR B2 (IELTS equivalent of 5.0) to a typicalentry requirement of CEFR C1 (IELTS equivalent of 6.5).These books set out to help students develop confidence in their ability tounderstand and evaluate ‘authoritative’ sources of information, and a greaterawareness of, and ability to express, their own academic identity and position. Atthe same time, students are encouraged to consider who their audiences are, andproduce appropriate academic texts. Attention is paid to the importance of draftingand revising work, but this series adopts a genre rather than a process approachoverall. We have aimed to provide students with knowledge of the compositionand features of typical spoken and written discourse in an academic context,somewhat following Ken Hyland’s view that it is “both necessary and essential toprovide students with the frames that will help them to function and communicatesuccessfully in a higher education context” (Hyland, 2004, p.3).Teacher’s Notes Skills for Study 2 ∙ Introduction 2

IntroductionThe Skills and Language for Study course makes communicative activities central,with a view to helping students locate, understand, use and produce authenticwritten or spoken texts. Certain common features of generic study skills books aretherefore not included here. There is, for instance, no specific treatment of skillssubjects like organizing one’s study space, or time management; no advice is givenon how to boost memory or cope with exam stress. Rather, close attention is paidto functional performance in assessed academic contexts such as writing essays andreports, participating effectively in discussions, and giving presentations.Organization of the courseThe course is organized into three levels, with one Skills and one correspondingLanguage book at each level. There are four themed units in each level, withidentical themes uniting each Skills for Study and accompanying Language for Studybook. Source texts on the unit theme are provided in the Skills book, and languageitems are initially drawn from these texts and then analyzed and explored inadditional contexts in the Language books, therefore helping students to understandand use the language they are studying in an authentic academic context. Each unithas 5 Parts (A–E) based on different academic skill and language areas.For instance, in Level 1, Unit 1:Theme: Approaches to LearningPart Skills for Study Language for StudyA Understanding: speaking Understand types of listeningUsing note-taking techniquesUnderstanding strategies foreffective listeningUnderstanding the purpose oflecturesFollowing lectures effectivelyB Understanding: writing Understanding differencesbetween academic text typesChoosing appropriate readingstrategiesUsing skimming, scanning andintensive readingTaking notes while readingUnderstanding the use of stressin sentencesDeveloping strategies forlearning vocabularyUnderstanding modalsRecognizing different wordformsUnderstanding the language ofcomparisonForming and using comparativesand superlativesTeacher’s Notes Skills for Study 2 ∙ Introduction 3

IntroductionC Investigating Understanding more about thetypes of learning at universityFinding source materialsUnderstanding source referencesUsing library cataloguesD Reporting: speaking Participating in tutorialsGenerating and organizing ideasReflecting on your discussionskillsE Reporting: writing Understanding different types ofacademic writingUsing a process approach toessay writingUnderstanding essay questionsDeveloping a thesis statementUsing sources in your writingIdentifying and usingcollocationsUsing relative clauses toinclude essential information insentencesUsing relative clauses to includenon-essential information insentencesRecognizing and usingthe language of academicdiscussionsReferring to other people’s ideasin discussionsUnderstanding general featuresof academic writingStating aims in a formal registerUsing compound nounsWithin each Part, the initial sections explore specific functional skills or areas ofacademic language (e.g. Developing a thesis statement). These areas are exploredin detail using a series of controlled tasks which develop students’ awareness, andgive opportunities for discussion and practice of the skills and language used in thatarea. A further section within each Part (called the Unit Task in the Skills books,and the Lesson Task in the Language books) draws together the different skills orlanguage areas covered in that Part to give opportunities for use within the contextof authentic, frequently interactive, academic tasks. The Language books providea further section at the end of each Part entitled Review and Extension, whichallows students to consolidate and develop their understanding of the languageitems studied.Features of the courseTexts and dataIt is important that students engage with authentic academic texts, yet the linguisticand cognitive difficulty of fully authentic academic texts can interfere with thedevelopment of key skills if students are expected to use them from the outset. Forthis reason, many of the texts which appear in the course have been purposefullywritten to suit specific learning aims. In some cases, fully authentic texts have beenused, or slightly modified to allow a focus on specific language features. In mostTeacher’s Notes Skills for Study 2 ∙ Introduction 4

Introductioncases, even in texts which have been written by ourselves, we have tried to useauthentic data; however, in some instances, particularly where the teaching aiminvolves critical evaluation of an argument, texts with artificial data and referenceshave been used to avoid accidental misrepresentation of real writers’ work.Subject specificityThe academic skills and language focused on in the course are largely non-subjectspecific, although it is intended to provide a wide enough range of activities andperspectives on different topics to allow teachers to plot programs of study thattarget the specific needs of their students (e.g. tutors using books LS2 and SS2 canplot different pathways for students in humanities and business courses on the onehand, and the natural sciences on the other). The topics in the course have beenchosen for general interest, contemporary relevance, and overall accessibility tonon-specialists. It is hoped that they will encourage students to question the natureof the world around them and that of the near future in which they will act duringtheir studies and after graduation from university.Task authenticityAs far as possible, the tasks that students are engaged in are designed to beacademically authentic. Since most academic-related procedures (e.g. planning,researching and delivering an academic presentation) take place over an extendedperiod of time, it is not always possible to replicate this fully in the classroom;however, many of the tasks should either involve academically authentic processingof information and/or provide opportunities for some authentic academicallyrelated interaction (either person – person or person – text). On the basis that evenin academic contexts the overriding purpose is to communicate information andideas, many tasks are designed to have a genuinely communicative element.Critical thinkingThe course is designed to promote and enhance students’ critical thinking abilities.Beginning with basic awareness of critical thinking in Level 1, there is a steadyincrease in the focus on critical thinking throughout the three levels, as well as anincrease in the cognitive challenge that tasks present. Many activities are designedexplicitly to teach critical thinking, while in other authentic academic tasks use ofthis skill is necessary for successful completion of the activity. Students learn notonly to analyze logic and assess the validity of claims, but also to consider howlanguage use can be used to shape claims.RecyclingThe course as a whole offers opportunities for self-analysis, and peer and teacherfeedback. It also provides recycling of key targets throughout individual booksand the course. We recognize that the split between skills and language is notalways definitive, and therefore there are a number of features common to both (forinstance hedging and signposting language).ReferencesHyland, K. (2004). Genre and second language writing. Ann Arbor: Universityof Michigan Press.Teacher’s Notes Skills for Study 2 ∙ Introduction 5

IntroductionNoteSkills for Study 2 (SS2) is divided into four units with the following themes:Unit 1: Gender issuesUnit 2: WaterUnit 3: ProgressUnit 4: Art, creativity and designStudents should be made aware that recordings used in class will be availableonline for them to listen again as many times as they feel necessary after class.For easy reference, answers to activities are presented in these tutor notes in bold.Material in the blue information boxes introduces important points to be addressed.Tutors can choose to go over this material in different ways, according to the needsof their class. For example:• Elect a student to read out the text in the information box, then discuss itas a class.• Ask students to note the main point or points in the information box, and thencompare answers as a class.• Ask students to read the text in the information box individually, thensummarize what they have understood to a partner.AcknowledgementsWe’d like to thank staff and teachers at Kaplan International Colleges who havebeen involved with the development of the course.Teacher’s Notes Skills for Study 2 ∙ Introduction 6

Unit 1Gender issuesUnit OverviewPartABCThis unit will help you to …Understand data presentedin lecturesUnderstand and evaluate dataand graphicsKeep accurate records of yourresearchIn SS2 by improving yourability to …• understand descriptions ofdata in spoken language• understand references tographic data• understand and evaluate aspeaker’s interpretation ofdata.• recognize patterns andtrends in data• understand graphicpresentations of data• evaluate, compare andcritically analyze graphic data• incorporate graphicinformation and data intowriting.• prepare a list of references• use secondary citations• keep records of research.D Contribute to discussions • discuss the meaning andimplications of numericaldata• use statistical data insupport of claims• refer to graphics in supportof claims.EWrite standard academicreports• identify different types ofreport• understand the core featuresof a typical written report• write a literature review• build paragraphs inacademic writing• create a poster to reportresults.In LS2 by improving yourability to …• recognize different types ofnumerical data• understand and uselanguage to simplifynumerical data.• recognize and use verbs andadverbs for describing trends• use nouns and adjectives toshow trends• use prepositions to describetrends.• use punctuation correctly inreferences• paraphrase while notetaking.• use appropriate verb tensesfor describing trends• compare data using thediscourse markers while andwhereas• compare data using multiplevalues and fractions.• follow tense patterns inliterature reviews• build paragraphs using it asa subject• write definitions of keyterms using participlephrases.Unit 1 Gender issues ∙ Overview 7

Unit 1Gender issuesPart AUnderstanding spoken informationThe aim of this lesson is for students to improve their listening skills in lecturesthrough:• understanding descriptions of data in spoken language• understanding references to graphic data• understanding and evaluating a speaker’s interpretation of data.1 Understanding descriptions of data in spoken languageGeneral note on Unit 1Teachers should be aware that the topic of this unit has the potential to becontroversial, especially in classes which contain students from countries withdiffering levels of – and opinions towards – gender equality.1a Group discussion1.11bAnswersHealthEducation1cAnswersIssue Claim EvidenceHealthEducationWomen often livelonger than men.Men often have betteraccess to healthcare.More women thanmen are enrolled onuniversity coursesin Europe and NorthAmerica.At postgraduate level,as well as amongacademic staff, menvastly outnumberwomen.No evidence givenNo evidence givenOECD (2005) – 57%all university studentsin the UK are female,rising to 70% over thenext 20 years.54% of all studentsacross OECD nationsare female.No evidence givenUnit 1 Part A ∙ Understanding spoken information 8

Women are oftenenrolled on lessprestigious courseswhich tend to lead tolower salaries aftergraduation.OECD (2005) – 76%all education degrees,and 66% all arts andhumanities degreesawarded to women;40% of all sciencedegrees and only26% of engineeringdegrees go to women.1d See 1e for answers.1.21eAnswersArea Claim EvidenceSalaryJob satisfactionMen earn highersalaries than women.Women have higherjob satisfaction thanmen.No evidence givenBender et al. (2005) – of 1800adults interviewed, womenhad higher job satisfactionoverall.1f Student discussion1gSuggested answersb1hSuggested answers1.3Speaker A (Bruce)Claim 1There is some inequality infavour of women in highereducation.Speaker B (Anna)Claim 1There is an imbalance in thetype of subject that men andwomen study, with morewomen on ‘soft’ courses.Claim 2The number of senioracademic staff who arewomen is very low, comparedto the number of men.Supporting dataAccording to the OECD, more women thanmen have been enrolled in higher educationsince the beginning of the 21st century.In 2000, 52% of students were female.In 2005, 54% of students were female.The percentage is growing all the time: inthe OECD in the 1980s, less than 50% ofstudents were female, but over half are now.According to an OECD report, womenaccount for the following:only 26% of engineering degrees66% of all arts and humanities degrees76% of all education degrees.Study by Jasbir Singh – in the UK, just over10% of all professors are women.Just over 30% of senior lecturers arewomen.Unit 1 Part A ∙ Understanding spoken information 9

1iSuggested answers (based on this information)• 52% of students were women in 2000 and 54% by 2005.• 26% of engineering degrees are awarded to women, whereas 66% of arts andhumanities degrees and 76% of all education degrees go to female students.• The number of senior academic staff who are women is very low, comparedto the number of men.• A little over 10% of all professors are women, and for senior lecturers it’s justover 30%.• The percentage of graduates who are women was under 50% in the 1980s,and it’s well over half of all students now and predicted to keep rising (onaverage among OECD countries).• In the UK, it’s predicted to keep growing until 70% of all students in the UKare female, and so the numbers of women graduating with degrees will risetoo, over the next 25 years.1 T2 T3 T4 This is uncertain from the information given, particularly as the statementabove says ‘probably’. This is intended to get students to discuss their ownideas, and use their own interpretations of Anna’s claims and information tosupport their viewpoint.1j Group discussion2 Understanding references to graphic data2aSuggested answersa1 Bar chart2 Proportion of PhD graduates who are female in different fields3 Overall percentage; relatively low numbers of female engineering,manufacturing and construction PhD graduates.b1 Table2 Proportion of senior academic staff who are female3 Particularly low totals overall; particularly low total in Germany; relatively lowpercentage in the 55+ age group.c1 Pie chart2 Proportion of women in top-level academic positions3 Huge discrepancy between top-level male and female academics.d1 Table2 Female PhD researchers by field3 Relatively low numbers of female engineering, manufacturing andconstruction PhD researchers; relatively higher numbers of female educationand humanities graduates; largest growth between 2001 and 2006: education;smallest growth between 2001 and 2006: humanities and arts.e1 Pie chart2 Higher education students by level of study3 Big difference between percentages of full-time and part-time undergraduates;small difference between percentages of full-time and part-time postgraduates.Unit 1 Part A ∙ Understanding spoken information 10

2b Students take turns presenting the information in their graphics.1.42cAnswers1 a2 d3 c2dAnswersExcerpt Graphic Claim1 a) Women outnumber men in almost all fields, exceptin science, math and computing, and in engineering,manufacturing and construction.2 d) The number of women with PhDs in all fieldsincreased between 2001 and 2006.3 c) Only a very small percentage of senior professors(18%) were female in 2003.2e Students check their answers with a partner.2f Students write summary notes on the gender gap situation.1.53 Understanding and evaluating a speaker’s interpretation of data3a Students review what they have learned about the gender gap so far.3b Group discussion3c Note: The line About 70% of all education degrees awarded in 2005 … is heard asecond time in Audio 1.6. Please note that the Audio 1.6 version is slightly differentand is heard as About 70% of all education degrees awarded in the UK in 2005.The additional in the UK is indicated in the audio scripts but doesn’t affect the taskat this point.AnswersAccording to the lecturer, this gap is caused not only by bias, but also by thefact that more women choose university courses in ‘soft’ subjects, leading tocareers with lower rates of pay and chances for promotion.3dAnswersNotes on the gender pay gapMale and female employment rates in the UK in 2008UK women – 70% in work: UK Men – 80% in workWomen account for 49% of total workforce in 2008.Pay gap in average hourly earnings in the UK in 2003Male universitygraduateFemale universitygraduate£7/hr £18/hr £17/hr£7/hr £14/hr £14/hrUnit 1 Part A ∙ Understanding spoken information 11

Malenon-graduateFemalenon-graduate£6/hr £14/hr £14/hr£6/hr £9/hr £10/hrPossible reason for gap in earnings: Women choose university courses andoccupations associated with lower salaries.3eSuggested answers1 According to the lecture, male and female graduates do not earn similarsalaries. The speaker in fact states that by the age of 50, female graduatescan expect pay similar to male non-graduates.2 According to the lecture, despite the fact that female students outnumbermale students, the situation is reversed in the workplace, where males makeup more than 50% of the work force.1.63f Note: In excerpt 3 below, the speaker says About 70% of all education degreesawarded in the UK in 2005 – this is slightly different from Audio 1.5, where thespeaker says About 70% of all education degrees awarded in 2005 … .Suggested answersExcerpt 11 Women are enjoying better career opportunities than ever before.2 In 2008, roughly 70% of all women in the UK were in work, compared to 80%of all UK men. Women make up about 49% of the entire UK workforce.Excerpt 21 They are able to earn a decent salary without having a university qualification.Excerpt 31 Women are concentrated in lower-prestige and lower-salary occupations thanmen because they tend to study university courses which lead them to thesecareers.2 Women took 70% of all education degrees awarded in the UK in 2005, 66%of arts and humanities degrees, and 56% of business and law degrees, about40% of science degrees, and only 25% of engineering degrees. About 25% ofall working women are employed in education, 25% are employed in publicservices.3gSuggested answers1 Women’s career opportunities are the best they have ever been / restricted bytheir choice of university course.2 Men have less incentive to go to university because they can earn a decentsalary without it.3 Women tend to earn lower salaries than men because they go into low-salaryoccupations.3h Group discussionUnit 1 Part A ∙ Understanding spoken information 12

Note: There is a deliberate flaw in the speaker’s argument about the reasons forlower pay: the speaker claims that women have lower earnings because they studycourses at university which lead to lower-salaried careers, but this obviously doesn’taccount for women who have NOT been to university.3i Group discussionSuggested answersgender discriminationcultural traditions about what courses of study / occupations are appropriatefor different gendersscience and engineering departments having an unwelcome air for femalestudentsUnit Task: The gender gapa Group discussionb Answer provided in exercise c.1.71.8cNotes on the Suggested answersMethodology/framework:The speaker uses the World Economic Forum’s (WEF) gender gapdefinition, which analyzes it via four sub-categories: Health; Economicparticipation and opportunity; Education; Political empowerment.Key informationSupporting data orstatisticsClaims about the status of women in society:Women make uphalf of world’spopulation but stillsuffer significantdisadvantagescompared to men.In health and primaryeducation, males andfemales enjoy equalityin most countries.Gender gap isreversing in tertiaryeducation.Women’s economicopportunities in theUK are not very good.None1:1 ratio males tofemales in UK primaryschools.Women have higher lifeexpectancy than men inUK.1.4 females for everymale in UK highereducation.UK ranked 35th inworld for economicopportunities. Womenearn only about 65% ofwhat their male peers do.Names of othersources of informationNoneNot statedOECD/UNNot statedUnit 1 Part A ∙ Understanding spoken information 13

Women’s politicalparticipation in the UKis not very good.1:5 ratio of female tomale MPsNot statedGender parity variesby region and country.Claims about the gender gap overall:Overall, data froma variety of studiessuggests that thesituation for womenaround the world issteadily improving, butthere is still a long wayto go.Scandinavia has bestgender parity in theworld (Iceland best)Republic of Ireland –8th in worldUK – 15thItaly – 72ndNo specific supportinginformationWEFNonedStudents reflect on their notes, then share ideas in a group discussion.Note: Ask students to turn to the checklist on p.241 and read the tips relating toUnit 1 Part A. Encourage students to put these tips into practice in their studiesfrom now on. Tell them they will be asked to report back on this in a future lesson.Unit 1 Part A ∙ Understanding spoken information 14

Passage cGender gap in higher educationstudent numbers is reversing tofavour women.Significant negative gender gapsstill exist for women in academia.Across European Union mennow account for only 41% ofuniversity graduates (EuropeanCommission, 2009).Only 18% of senior professorsin Europe are female (EuropeanCommission, 2009, p.75).1dSuggested answers1 Parity more or less exists in terms of overall numbers – if anything it favourswomen. However, it should be remembered that the data here is mainly from theOECD and EC, so it is based heavily on European / industrialized nations. In termsof academic staff positions, there is still disparity to the disadvantage of women.2 Most predictions estimate that, in terms of student enrolments / graduations,women will increasingly outnumber men over the next few decades.3 Male students becoming marginalized in higher education overall; femalestudents are still heavily outnumbered on ‘masculine’ courses in naturalsciences and engineering; female academic staff severely under-represented.1eAnswersaClaims: There is persistent gender inequality in academic leadership.There has been relatively little data about this until recently.Support: 90% of Commonwealth universities are headed by men (Singh, 2008).In 65% of Commonwealth countries, ALL universities are headed by men.bClaims: Significant gender segregation between different academic staff levels.Support: Europe in 2006: only 44% of new Grade C academic staff are female;Grade B only 36%; Grade A (senior) only 18%.In 2007, only 13% of universities in the EU were headed by women.1fSuggested answersFemale students increasingly outnumber males at all levels.Continuing gender differences in subject type.Continuing gender gap in numbers of senior staff.1g Student discussion1h Group discussionSuggested answers1 Only very few women become heads of universities in either the EU orCommonwealth nations.2 Depends on student’s opinion. However, a suggested answer is that thoughwomen are still disadvantaged in terms of academic staff appointments andare under-represented on certain types of course, it would be incorrect to saythat all the disparities favour men: a significant and growing number of allstudents graduating with degrees are now women.Unit 1 Part B ∙ Understanding written information 16

2 Understanding graphic presentations of data2a Students rank different aspects of a job.2bSuggested answers1 Overall, promotion opportunities and job satisfaction are most important, andto an extent a good work-life balance.2 Overall, the results are similar, but job satisfaction and work/life balance havebecome slightly more important since 1995.3 Promotion opportunities; job satisfaction; being valued by the employer.4 Largely the same trend overall, though promotion opportunities and jobsatisfaction have become slightly less important. Status, work/life balanceand being valued by the employer have all grown in importance.5 The trend is largely the same. Both men and women rate promotionopportunities and job satisfaction highly. Men, however, seem to considerbeing valued by the employer as more important than women do.3 Evaluating, comparing and critically analyzing graphic data3aAnswersText 1One reason for the gap in earnings is that women are more likely to choosecareers in fields which tend to offer lower salaries.Text 2There is an evident gender wage gap during the entire working life of anindividual. Males tend to earn consistently more than females.3b Student discussionSuggested answers1 (Fig 6) is a line graph representing the difference between male and femaleearnings between 1999 and 2008. Though it clearly indicates that women havelower earnings than men, it doesn’t illustrate how this is connected to theircareer choices, and as such it doesn’t support the claim at all well.2 (Fig 7) is a bar chart which shows differential male–female earnings atdifferent life stages, and as such can be considered relevant support forthe claim.Note: This section presents some points to consider about the way that graphicdata is represented. It presents some of the more common errors and problems withdifferent types of data representation which students might be able to use to helpthem analyze graphics and presentations more critically. It is based on observationsmade in Edward Tufte’s seminal 1983 treatment of the issue ‘The visual display ofquantitative information’, but it is by no means an exhaustive analysis of issueswith data representation.3c Student discussionNote: The aim of 3c–3d is to make students aware that 3D bar charts are largelyineffective because they can distort the information or make it difficult to read thedata accurately. Ask students to cover up the bar charts below the first one,otherwise they may accidentally get the right answers.Unit 1 Part B ∙ Understanding written information 17

3dAnswersThe correct readings are:Full-timePart-timeMale 40.1 17.6Female 37.4 18.43e Note: In this activity, students are presented with a picture graphic of the sort oftenseen in newspapers, where a change in numbers is represented by two identicalpictures of different sizes. These are potential distortions of the data they represent,because the relative sizes of the two images often have no relation to the change inmagnitude that they are supposed to represent. (It is possible to make a relativelysmall increase appear ‘massive’ simply by placing a disproportionately large picturenext to a smaller one.)Suggested answers1 The proportion of female students studying science dropped between 1998and 2005, but only by 1.1%. The difference in the sizes of the two womenseems to imply a much bigger decrease.2 No: in order for it to be accurate, the second image of the woman wouldhave to be 1.1% smaller than the first one. The difference here is muchgreater than 1.1%.3 This could be used to give the impression that the decrease was muchgreater than it actually is.4 As the information being presented is so basic (only two percentage figures),you could reasonably say that it is a waste of space to put it in a graphic atall – it could be mentioned simply in one sentence of text.3fSuggested answers1 The graph seems to suggest that there is a rapid increase in the percentageof women in the workforce.2 Students can be left to suggest their own ideas. They may notice the problemwith the time intervals, or perhaps will not notice and try to imagine otherreal-world reasons to explain the increase.3 The x-axis does not show equal intervals of time – it is year by year until thevery end, when there is an 18-year gap between 1990 and 2008.4 This gives the impression of a sudden jump in figures. If the 18 years wererepresented with yearly intervals, the increase would be much more gradual.The information might have been presented in this way to emphasize theincrease.Unit 1 Part B ∙ Understanding written information 18

3g Student discussionSuggested answers1 Men earn more money in full-time work than women do. Full-time wagesare higher for both male and female workers than part-time wages. Men’spart-time earnings are lowest of all. As larger numbers of men tend to beemployed in full-time jobs, and larger numbers of women are employed inpart-time jobs, men tend to have higher average earnings overall.2 To an extent, this may help to explain the difference in earnings over thecourse of a career. On average, more women are employed part-time, andmore men are employed full-time; part-time salaries for women are muchlower than full-time salaries for men, therefore, on average, female earningstend to be lower. However, this alone is unlikely to be a sufficient explanationfor the earnings gap.3h Students write a paragraph explaining what the data in the graphics shows aboutthe earnings gap.Suggested answersThe two figures present information from the Office for National Statistics 2009Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings. Figure 11 presents the mean hourly earningsfor men and women in both full-time and part-time employment. Figure 12 focuseson the way the different genders are represented in the workforce. The graphicsboth illustrate the way in which males dominate full-time work both in numbersand in average earnings per hour. On the other hand, despite the fact that womenoutnumber men by more than three to one in part-time roles, pay in these rolesappears almost identical between the sexes.4 Incorporating graphic data into writing4aAnswers1 The reference to the source appears below the data.2 Titles appear above tables and below figures.4bAnswersPassage 1 is more effective for the following reasons:It gives explicit reference to the table “(See Table 3)”, where Passage 2 refersonly to the table.Passage 1 gives general summaries of the key trends, and allows the reader tolook to the table for specific figures, while Passage 2 unnecessarily repeats thefigures which the reader can see for themselves in the table.4c Students review the paragraph they wrote in 3h, to check that they have includedaccurate citations to any graphics that they mentioned.Unit 1 Part B ∙ Understanding written information 19

Unit Task: The gender gap1 Students read two general texts on the gender gap (Appendices 1 and 2) and takenotes on a separate piece of paper.Note: The aim of these texts is to help students build background knowledge for theunit task; as they read they should consider how the information connects to theirchosen title. This is also an opportunity for them to practise comparing the data inthe two sources to try to spot patterns or trends.2 Students compare any numerical data which the two sources offer, identifying anypatterns or trends in the data from the two.Note: It is possible that students will identify what they believe to be patterns ortrends here which teachers would disagree with; however, the aim is for them to beable to analyze the texts for themselves, even if they come to conclusions that theirteachers might disagree with, so no ‘correct’ answers are suggested here.3 Students make notes of key information.Note: Ask students to turn to the checklist on p.241 and reread the tips relating toUnit 1 Part A, before reading the tips to Unit 1 Part B. Encourage students to putthese tips into practice in their studies from now on. Tell them they will be asked toreport back on this in a future lesson.Unit 1 Part B ∙ Understanding written information 20

Part CInvestigatingThe aim of this lesson is for students to improve their researching skills through:• preparing a list of references• using secondary citations• keeping records of research.1 Preparing a list of references1aAnswersTo give proper acknowledgementReader may want to check original sourcesTo show teachers that your work is supported by appropriate academic sourcesTo help a reader distinguish between your own ideas and supportinginformation from others1bAnswers1 There is no final reference for the citation ‘Harrison (2008)’.2 A citation should include author surname, year and possibly page, while areference should include more complete bibliographical information.1c Student discussionAnswersThere are differences in the position of the date, the punctuation, and the waythe name is written. Author-title print sources also include the word ‘Print’ atthe end of the reference.1d Student discussionSuggested answers1 Agree2 Disagree: this depends on the house style in the university, common styles inthe academic discipline and personal preferences of course tutors.3 Agree4 Disagree1eAnswers1 Author surname, first initial. (year of publication). Title. Place of publication:Publisher.2 Author surname, first initial., & 2nd author surname, first initial. (year ofpublication). Title of article. Title of journal, volume number (issue number),pages.Note: Please see the Additional Resources section at the end of these notes forfurther information regarding the Harvard referencing system.Unit 1 Part C ∙ Investigating 21

1fAnswersFaiola, A. (2008, May 16). Women Rise in Rwanda’s Economic Revival.Washington Post. Retrieved from http://www.washingtonpost.comConnell, R. (2009). Gender. Sydney: John Wiley and Sons.UK Office for National Statistics. (2002). Full and part-time employment: bygender, 1984 to 1999: Social Trends 30. Retrieved from http://www.statistics.gov.uk/STATBASE/Shah, A. (2010). Women’s Rights. Retrieved from http://www.globalissues.org/article/166/womens-rightsClement, W. (2001). Who works? Comparing Labor Market Practices. In J. Baxter& M. Webster (Eds.), Reconfigurations of class and gender (pp.55–80). Stanford:Stanford University Press.The Scottish Government. (2009). Gender equality scheme annual report 2009.Edinburgh: The Scottish Government.Connell, R. (2005). Masculinities. Cambridge: Polity Press.1g This is an independent study activity. Students try to find guides to writingreferences produced by the academic institution that they are part of, or search inthe library for reference writing guides.2 Using secondary citationsNote: If secondary citations are given, no reference to the unread source should begiven in the final list of references.2aAnswersReid, 2010.2bSuggested answers1 Women have enjoyed more access to higher education in the past twodecades. This is one possible explanation for the rise in the number of womenworking in professional fields (Wooton, 1997, cited in Worth, 2001, p.206).2 Soames (1997, p.4, cited in Chen, 1998, p.94) claims that despite the risingproportion of female students, the actual number of male students continuesto rise, due to a larger number of universities and places available.3 Keeping records of research3a Student discussionSuggested answers1 Writing a report or essay a, b, c, d, g, h, j2 Preparing a literature review a, b, c, d, g, h, j3 Conducting a science/laboratory experiment a, c, d, f, g, h, i, k, l4 Conducting social science fieldwork e, f, g, h, i, k, lUnit 1 Part C ∙ Investigating 22

3b Student discussionAnswersThe logbook should be an honest record of what actually happened.3c Student discussionAnswersRequirement Should ShouldnotReasonsWrite in pen ✓ The logbook should be apermanent record.Write your name andcourse on the cover ofthe logbook✓Permanent, truthful record ofyour own work.Record the date andexperiment title atthe beginning of eachentryWrite neatly andclearly while theexperiment is going onWrite rough notes(using symbols andabbreviations) duringthe experiment andwrite them up neatlylater✓✓✓A chronological recordcould help shed light on thedevelopment of ideas or stepson the way to a discovery. Anexperiment may be composedof several different phasesconducted on different days.The record should be neatenough to read at a later date.Writing up later could lead toaccidental changes based onfaulty memory. The logbookshould be a record of whathappens, as it happens.Write in full sentences ✓ Unnecessary and timeconsuming. It’s a note book.Use a ruler to help youdraw any tables orgraphsTry to ‘fix’ strangeresults so they matchwhat you expectedChange informationwhich seems wrongafter you havewritten it✓✓✓The record should be neatenough to read at a later date.Using a ruler now helps toorganize the information andensure accuracy.Should be an honest record.Also, unexpected results maybe significant at a later date.Should be an honest record.Also, unexpected results maybe significant at a later date.Unit 1 Part C ∙ Investigating 23

Copy information directlyfrom a lab manual into alogbook✓Key theoretical information from alab manual could be noted down,but only in note form. Also, thelogbook should be a record ofwhat actually happened in thatparticular lab session.Cross out information ✓ Permanent, truthful record.Add notes, commentsand questions that youmight think of during theexperimentWrite down anyunexpected or apparentlyincorrect resultsTear pages out, or glue inpages from other places✓✓✓Will help the thought process, andinform the discussion in the labreport.Permanent, truthful record.Also, unexpected results may besignificant at a later date.Permanent, truthful record ofone’s own work. Also, unexpectedresults may be significant at a laterdate.3d Student discussionSuggested answersIt makes sense that the logbook should more or less follow the same sequenceas the lab report that will be written from it, therefore:1 Introduction2 Theoretical background3 Method and materials4 Results / observations5 Questions6 Sources of error7 Discussion8 Conclusion3e Group discussion3fAnswers1 Yes. Evidence suggests wide variation in taste sensitivity between individuals.2 There appears to be no evidence to support this.3g Student discussionAnswers1 See 3j below.2 There are multiple issues with this ‘experiment’, not least small sample size.Other possible issues are: taste-bud sensitivity may vary with age or physicalcondition; time of day – it is likely that a respondent may give differentanswers if they have just eaten. (In the experiment on the video, all thereadings were taken shortly before lunch, in order to minimize this.) Multiplereadings / repeats of the experiment are not carried out.Unit 1 Part C ∙ Investigating 24

3h Students complete table outline and make a note of sources of error in thelogbook pages.www.cambridge.org/elt/forstudy3i Students watch the video and make a note of the results in their logbook, as well asany questions or observations that occur to them while they are watching.AnswersThe following results are recorded in the video (1= correct; 0= incorrect):Female 0g 2.25g 4.5g 9g 18g1 1 0 1 1 12 1 0 1 1 13 1 0 1 1 14 1 0 0 0 15 1 0 0 1 1Male1 1 0 1 1 12 1 1 1 1 13 1 1 1 1 14 1 0 0 1 15 1 0 0 1 13j Group discussionUnit Task: The gender gapaAnswers1 journal article2 official report3 chapter in an edited book4 corporate authored report5 bookbAnswersReskin, B.F. & Bielby, D.D. (2005). A sociological perspective on gender andcareer outcomes. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 19(1), 71–86.Hausmann, R., Tyson, L.D., and Zahidi, S. (2009). The Global Gender Gap Report2009. Geneva: World Economic Forum.Blau, F.D., & Kahn, L.M. (2006). The gender pay gap: going, going … but notgone. In F.D. Blau, M. Brinton and D.B. Grusky (Eds.), The declining significanceof gender (pp.37–66). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Unit 1 Part C ∙ Investigating 25

European Commission. (2009). She Figures 2009: Statistics and indicators ongender equality in science. Brussels: European Commission. doi: 10.2777/10329OREuropean Commission. (2009). She Figures 2009: Statistics and indicators ongender equality in science. Brussels: European Commission. Retrieved fromhttp://ec.europa.eu/research/science-societyPadavic, I., & Reskin, B. (2002). Women and men at work (2nd Edition).Thousand Oaks: Sage.cThis is an independent activity to be completed outside class.Note: Ask students to turn to the checklist on p.241 and reread the tips relating toUnit 1 Parts A–B, before reading the tips to Unit 1 Part C. Encourage students to putthese tips into practice in their studies from now on. Tell them they will be asked toreport back on this in a future lesson.Unit 1 Part C ∙ Investigating 26

Part DReporting in speechThe aim of this lesson is for students to improve their speaking skills through:• discussing the meaning and implications of numerical data• using statistical data in support of claims• referring to graphics in support of claims.1 Discussing the meaning and implications of numerical data1aSuggested answers1 The gap is evident in two ways: women make up less than 50% of theworkforce overall, and they make up a very small percentage of seniormanagers. The situation appears to be changing only very slowly: the firstchart suggests a very slight increase in workforce numbers in the 1996–2007period in most countries (and a decrease in some).2 A significant gap exists. We might conclude that while more women areentering the workforce, it remains difficult for women to reach positions ofauthority.3 They tend to have a high level of gender equality (relatively speaking),in terms of both workforce representation and the percentage of women insenior positions.1b Group discussion. Point out that the group is not required to reach a consensus.1c Group discussion1d Group discussion to arrive at a group position on the question (accepted by allmembers of the group), which they can present to the rest of the class.2 Using statistical data in support of claims2a Group discussion2b Group discussionSuggested answers1 Probably not only discrimination. Also:Choice of careerType of education leading to choice of careerCultural expectations of a woman’s role may mean less time spent inworkforce / going for certain job typesTendency for women to do more part-time work2 Women may take years away from the workforce in order to raise children,thus losing earnings during that period. Also, when they re-enter theworkforce, it may be at a relatively low level, and harder then to catch up andreach a higher salary level.3 As above, women may tend to choose courses at school and university whichchannel them into certain career types (such as the education sector) whereearnings tend to be lower.Unit 1 Part D ∙ Reporting in speech 27

2cSuggested answersAccording to Figure 15, weekly earnings for Sales and customer service andAdministrative and secretarial jobs are low paid relative to Managers and seniorofficials. We have seen that women are relatively under-represented in the lattercategory. Also, according to these statistics, women tend to be paid less thantheir male counterparts in these more senior roles. This supports reason 1 in2b (above).According to Figure 16, having dependent children has an impact onemployment rates for women regardless of whether they have a partner. Thissupports reason 2 in 2b.According to Figure 17, there is a larger proportion of the male workforce inemployment than the female. This also appears likely to support reason 2 in 2b.2d Group discussion2e Group discussion3 Referring to graphics in support of claims3a Student discussionSuggested answersAs you can see in Figure 1 …Figure 1 shows …If you look at Figure 1 here …3bSuggested answersFigure 18Men and women tend to have different reasons for leaving their jobs. Amongmen, the main reasons for leaving a job are sickness, retirement, or being fired;for women, on the other hand, the main reasons for leaving a job are childbirthor retirement.Figure 19Male and female workforce participation rates are moving in oppositedirections. While a greater percentage of working-age males are employedthan working-age females, the percentage has declined by approximately 6%since 1980. For women, on the other hand, there has been a greater increase inworkforce participation rates, of about 14% since 1980.3c Students try to express the main trend again, using either of the two methodssuggested.3d Students work with a partner to create a presentation of the data in one of thegraphics from 3b.Unit 1 Part D ∙ Reporting in speech 28

Suggested answersFigure 18 presents the results of a survey investigating people’s reasonsfor leaving their previous job. Over a thousand men and women aged 15–65participated. The results focus on common reasons for leaving a job, such assickness and disability, retirement, leaving to have or care for children, comingto the end of a contract, or being fired. The only category in which women aremore represented than men is leaving for childbirth or childcare. Perhaps someof these women re-enter the workforce, but it is interesting to note that eighttimes as many women as men decided to leave their job when children arrived.The large difference between the sexes in this category may account in part forthe lower representation of women in the other categories. Men were twice aslikely to leave through ill health and a third more likely to have retired from theirlast job. Women are traditionally less likely to work in occupations which areassociated with illness or disability, such as heavy industry. They are also lesslikely to continue working until they reach retirement age. Perhaps the mostinteresting result is that men are twice as likely to have been fired from theirlast job. The reasons for this are not certain, but perhaps men are more likelythan women to be over-confident in their own abilities and therefore more likelyto apply for jobs that they are incapable of doing well.In Figure 19 we can see relative labour force participation rates for menand women in the UK between the years 1980 and 2008. The graphic clearlyshows us two things: firstly, that a higher percentage of working-age menwere employed in the workforce during those years compared to women.In 1980, for instance, just under 90% of working-age men were actually inemployment, compared to just over 55% for women. However, what the graphalso indicates is that the gap is narrowing: the percentage of working-age menin the population declined steadily during the period, while there was a steadyrise in the percentage of working-age women so that, in 2008, just over 80% ofmen were employed, compared with nearly 70% of women. But what explainsthese changing trends in employment? We can see that the change has beenmore marked for women: the percentage of men in the workforce declined byonly about 7% between 1980 and 2008, whereas the percentage of women roseby about 14% during the same period, with a particularly noticeable increasebetween 1984 and 1988. It’s possible that social attitudes to women at workbegan to change during this time, with more women seeking employment thanchoosing to remain in more traditional roles in the home.3e Students work with a partner who chose a different graphic, and take turnspresenting their graphics to each other.3f Group discussionUnit 1 Part D ∙ Reporting in speech 29

Suggested answersGraphic Strengths WeaknessesBar chartTableLine graphPie chartScatterplotUseful for showingmain trends andcomparing informationin different categories.Can show a lot ofprecise, detailed data,therefore it is oftenclaimed that tablesare best for analysis ofdata.Useful for showingchanges over time.Useful for showingchanges inquantitative data.Allows an easycomparison ofproportional data.Helps reader tovisualize a basicfeature of data.Good for showing arelationship betweentwo numericalvariables.There’s a limit to the number ofbars that can be presented beforeit becomes difficult to compare thedata in the bars.Using stacked or 3D bar chartscan make it difficult for a viewer toperceive the data accurately.It can be difficult to spot maintrends in data when presented in atable.Little impact if the change is small.Little use if the number of readingson x axis is small.Can only represent a very limitedamount of data.Not good for detailed analysis of thedata – studies show that people tendto be unable to accurately judgethe numerical value of pie chartsegments (all the more so if it’s a 3Drendering).Needs a large amount of data toeffectively communicate a trend.Unit Task: The gender gapIn groups of 3–4, students hold a discussion about different aspects of their chosenassignment title. In order to help focus the discussion, supplementary questionsare given for each separate title. No suggested answers are given here as studentsare encouraged to draw their own conclusions, supported by the data they havediscovered on the topic.Note: Ask students to turn to the checklist on p.241 and reread the tips relating toUnit 1 Parts A–C, before reading the tips to Unit 1 Part D. Encourage students to putthese tips into practice in their studies from now on. Tell them they will be asked toreport back on this in a future lesson.Unit 1 Part D ∙ Reporting in speech 30

Part EReporting in writingThe aim of this lesson is for students to improve their writing skills through:• identifying different types of report• understanding the core features of a typical written report• writing a literature review• building paragraphs in academic writing• creating a poster to report results.Note: Throughout SS2, Part E will introduce the features of different specific reporttypes. In this unit, a general introduction to reports is given. Posters are includedhere as an example of a written report type. The rationale for this is that scienceand engineering poster presentations are not, strictly speaking, presentations atall: the poster should stand on its own as a written presentation of information.In a poster session, the student would be standing by to respond to questions frompassers-by but not to give a prepared presentation to an audience.1 Identifying different types of report1a Group discussion1bAnswers1 c2 e*3 d4 a5 b* ‘General research reports’ would include both fieldwork reports as well as thekind of information reports on a specific topic produced by large organizationssuch as the EU or WEF. Therefore the Global Gender Gap Report 2009 citedelsewhere in Unit 1 would qualify as an example of a report of this type.2 Understanding the core features of a typical written report2a Student discussionNote: There is likely to be debate about the correct answers for this, but as a rule ofthumb, essays are considered here to be more discursive, and reports more neutraland factual; they tend to have more applied purposes.Unit 1 Part E ∙ Reporting in writing 31

Suggested answersFeatureStructures information using contents pages, headings,sub-headings, etc.Makes an original argumentAttempts to find solutions for a specific problemExplores ideas on a topicCollates available data on a subjectAttempts to define the parameters of a particular problemEvaluates data and makes a recommendationPresents the results of a piece of empirical researchDevelops an idea through argumentMay be personal in toneTends to be impersonal in toneOffers a personal opinion on a topic, then attempts topersuade the reader to accept the opinionReport (R) orEssay (E)RERERR / ERREERE2bSuggested answersPart of reportPosition insequenceConclusion 7Discussion of findings 6References 8Appendices 9Method and materials (or approach) used for gathering data 4Title page 1Introduction 3Abstract 2Results (findings) 52cAnswers1 b2 c3 aUnit 1 Part E ∙ Reporting in writing 32

2d Group workSuggested answersLab report: tends to be fixed. Deviations from this would be very unlikely.Feasibility / recommendation report: the requirements and presentationof options can be reversed, or even combined with the introduction andbackground.Progress report: the order given here is the most rational from a chronologicalpoint of view, but this is a very flexible report type, so arguably most of thesesections could be rearranged.2e Group discussion3 Writing a literature reviewNote: As the length and depth of analysis in a literature review will vary dependingon the type of text it appears in, this section is meant as a general introduction tothe concept of literature reviews rather than an exhaustive treatment of how towrite them.3aSuggested answers1 Definition and discussion of key terms2 Explanation of why the topic is important3 Identification of key problems4 Description of different solutions or approaches to answering the keyquestions that have been offered by other writers5 A conclusion summarizing the main points.Literature reviewJob satisfaction can be defined as a worker’s subjective assessment of theirhappiness with the work they do 1 . An understanding of what factors influence jobsatisfaction is critical for two reasons. Firstly, it can guide policy makers and thoseinvolved in the campaign for better working conditions, but also because higher jobsatisfaction is likely to lead to better work performance and lower turnover costs foremployers 2 .Clark and Oswald (1996) were the first to create a model of the factors involved injob satisfaction. They drew a link between earned income and satisfaction, but alsointroduced the importance of expectations: greater job satisfaction is found wherethe gap between actual and expected wages is small. Clark and Oswald thereforeclaimed that the amount of money earned is not, by itself, the most importantelement of job satisfaction. This has become particularly significant in the debateabout the sources of women’s satisfaction at work, and explanations for theso-called gender / job-satisfaction paradox 2 .It is widely accepted that women tend to have greater job satisfaction than men.This is often explained in part as being due to women having low expectations ofwhat they will be able to earn, or how likely they are to be promoted. If women donot have such high expectations of salary or career advancement as men do, thenit follows that they will be more satisfied with less attractive earnings and careeroutcomes. However, as Hammermesh (2000) notes, job expectations and actualwork experiences change during the course of a career, and so it is unlikely thatmale and female expectations are uniformly different. This would seem to undermineClark and Oswald’s claim for low expectations, though findings from a large body ofstudies following Clark suggest that it is at least part of the reason 3 .Unit 1 Part E ∙ Reporting in writing 33

Quite separately from the issue of low expectations, Clark and Oswald (ibid)suggest that another possible reason for women’s higher job satisfactiondespite lower earnings is because men and women value specific aspects oftheir work, such as pay or flexible work arrangements, differently (Clark, 1997).However, it is again unlikely that this is sufficient explanation for the gendersatisfaction gap, and may even underestimate the importance of the similaritiesbetween the genders. In a study of job attitudes among US lawyers, Muellerand Wallace (1996) find that the perception of fair pay between male and femaleworkers is a significant element of female job satisfaction 4 .Furthermore, women’s work experience levels are not uniform; for instance,younger female workers tend to have work experiences and expectations whichare similar to male colleagues of the same age. This is particularly evidentamong workers in professional jobs and with higher education (Royalty, 1998),which would seem to be supported by the findings of Mueller and Wallace (ibid).It therefore seems that different job expectations cannot account fully for thegender / job-satisfaction difference 4 .In conclusion, there is widespread agreement that a gender / job-satisfaction gapdoes exist. Following early studies by Clark and others (see, for example, Hodson,1989) it has long been assumed that this is a result of male and female workershaving different expectations of their career success, or indeed having significantlydifferent opinions about what aspects of a job are important for a feeling ofcontentment. However, these theories are challenged by studies which show thatlevels of expectation differ between women of different age, occupational type andeducational level. While most studies of age-dependent differences of expectationshave been carried out in the United States, little has yet been done to investigatewhether this is true in the UK. The aim of the present study, therefore, is to explorein more detail whether young female workers in the UK share career progressexpectations with their male colleagues 5 .3b Students check their answers with a partner.3cAnswersStructured by topic3dAnswersaOccupational type and job satisfaction – A, B, CFemale-dominated workplaces – DIdeas or expectations about men’s and women’s work – A, BbSources A, B, C and D all share the claim that women’s expectations aredifferent to men’s.cSources A and C indicate higher female job satisfaction, while Source Bsuggests it’s lower in some countries.3e Students create a literature review of their own using the sources in 3d.Unit 1 Part E ∙ Reporting in writing 34

4 Building paragraphs in academic writing4aSuggested answersThere have also been changes in women’s access to higher education, and thetypes of course they study.4b Students compare their answers in groups.4cSuggested answersPreceding paragraph: How education affects job satisfaction.Following paragraph: How concerns about fair wages affect job satisfaction.4dSuggested answers1 A link to a previous paragraph2 A topic sentence3 A more detailed explanation of the topic sentence4 Supporting information5 Comments about the meaning or implications of the supporting information6 A link to the next paragraph.Another possible reason (1) for the rise in women’s participation in the workforcehas been the reduction of discrimination in the workplace (2). Women in theOECD nations today benefit from greatly reduced sexual discrimination at work,which has encouraged increasing numbers of women to seek professionalcareers, a situation which differs markedly from the first half of the 20th century(3). For instance, according to Vincent‐Lancrin (2008, p.279), between the years1900 and 1950, women in the USA were barred from half of all jobs. The USA is byno means the only example of this sort, and it is likely that similar statistics canbe produced for almost all other nations until the very recent past (4). Changingattitudes to women’s roles in society mean that, even if full equality has not beenreached, it is now easier than ever for women to participate in the workforce in arange of careers (5), though discrimination does still exist in some areas (6).4e, 4f & 4g Students choose an essay title about one aspect of the gender gap, thenplan and write the essay.5 Creating a poster to report results5aSuggested answers1 Yes2 No3 No4 Yes5 No, this shouldn’t be the main reason for including visuals, though somevisuals can be included in order to ease comprehension (and perhaps makethe poster a bit more appealing to look at).6 No7 No. There should be a good balance of text, graphics and ‘white space’.8 No. It should present as much information as necessary in order for thereader to understand the principle and key findings of the research.9 No. See point 5 above.10 Yes (hence its inclusion here as a written text type rather than a simple visual aid).Unit 1 Part E ∙ Reporting in writing 35

5b Group discussion5c Students investigate the best font sizes for different elements of a poster, given thatit should be clearly visible from 1–2 metres away.Note: This is an independent study task, to be carried out outside the classroom.5d Group discussionSuggested answersThe poster should be concise and informative. Some text is necessary toexplain key points; however, the information density of text is normally quitelow compared to what can be achieved by presenting information in graphics.Graphics and white space are also necessary to make the poster visuallyappealing to passersby; it fails as a poster if it has so much information thatpeople are put off reading it.5eSuggested answers1Poster 1 is intended as a reasonable model of a simple poster. However, it isperfectly possible that other readers of this text will find points that they feelare stronger / weaker about it.2Poster 2 is not so clearly organized: there are no clear section headings, orthese are not numbered. There may also be too much white space. The benefitof the graphics is debatable (no one really needs to be shown a photograph of abottle of water or a spoonful of sugar).3Poster 3 probably has too much text compared to graphics / white space. Thelanguage could be more concise. The use of a grey background reduces thecontrast of the black text and could reduce the impact of the poster and makeit more difficult to read.Unit Task: The gender gapStudents write a short summary overview of the information they have gatheredabout the gender gap. This is not a full report, but merely a written text whichshould outline the main issues in the assignment title of their choice.Note: Ask students to turn to the checklist on p.241 and reread the tips relating toUnit 1 Parts A–D, before reading the tips to Unit 1 Part E. Encourage students to putthese tips into practice in their studies from now on. Tell them they will be asked toreport back on this in a future lesson.Unit 1 Part E ∙ Reporting in writing 36

Unit 2WaterUnit OverviewPartAThis unit will help you to …Follow discussions betweenmultiple speakersIn SS2 by improving yourability to …• follow seminar discussions• compare and synthesizeideas and arguments.B Read for a purpose • find texts which are at asuitable academic level foryour needs• skim read a report to decideif it suits your purpose• understand feasibility /recommendation reports.CDDevelop your ability to doacademic researchParticipate in groupdiscussions• understand the researchprocess• understand primary andsecondary research• analyze the process ofchoosing a research question• write research proposals.• participate in seminardiscussions• exchange and challengeideas appropriately inacademic discussion• express and defend opinions• change the direction of adiscussion• conclude a discussion.E Write academic reports • understand the mainfeatures of a primaryresearch report• understand the mainfeatures of a successfulfeasibility / recommendationreport• make choices about thebest way to structure yourreports.In LS2 by improving yourability to …• understand discoursemarkers• follow lab instructions.• identify text structure• identify different functionsin report introductions• identify recommendations.• understand the language ofresearch questions• understand the language ofresearch titles• understand the language oflab manuals and reports.• use expressions to managegroup dynamics• start and finish seminars.• match sentence structurewith purpose• use the past passive to reportprocedures• structure a technical (lab)report.Unit 2 Water ∙ Overview 37

Unit 2WaterPart AUnderstanding spoken informationThe aim of this lesson is for students to improve their listening skills through:• following seminar discussions• comparing and synthesizing ideas and arguments.1 Following seminar discussions1a Group discussion2.11bAnswers• Listen along and try to understand• Read up on the topic before the seminar• Have a clear purpose before listening: know your own opinion on the topicbefore you participate in the seminar and listen to judge other people’sopinions in relation to your own• Actively participate by joining in with the discussion and also by askingquestions(One speaker also suggests recording the conversation, but this is rejectedby the others as it will only aid comprehension when listened to later; it won’thelp to understand the conversation as it’s happening.)1c Group discussion1dSuggested answers2.2Excerpt 1: Showing disagreementExcerpt 2: Summarizing / recappingExcerpt 3: Showing agreement; Recapping; Adding to a point already made1e Students check their answers with a partner.1f Group discussion1gSuggested answers1 Showing agreement 2 Showing disagreementThat’s right!That’s true.Yes, I agree.I don’t see it like that!I see it differently.That may be true, but …That’s all very well, but …It’s possible, I suppose, but …Unit 2 Part A ∙ Understanding spoken information 38

3 Adding to a point already made 4 Changing the subjectIn addition, …Additionally, …I’d just like to add …As James just said …Another thing is …On top of that, …Building on what Anna just said, …Shall we move on?Can I raise a different point?A separate point is …To digress a little, …Shall we come back to this later?5 Summarizing and recapping 6 Referring to other sourcesWhat have we got so far?To recap then, … / Let’s recap.OK, let’s just summarize …So, what we’re saying is …So, to sum up …According to Harrison …Weber claims that …Chang showed that …1h Group discussion1iSuggested answers2.3Speaker Key ideas Supporting points or evidenceTonyLizWater is necessary tomaintain life.Pressure on water supplies isdue to overpopulation.Water is essential for nonfooddomestic uses.Water is essential not justfor domestic use, but in allhuman activities.Greater industrialdevelopment leads to morepressure on water resources.There are direct and indirectpressures on water fromoverpopulation.Needed for drinking andcookinge.g. more people directlyconsuming water, but alsomore water required forgrowing crops, etc.e.g. use for hygiene purposes(cleaning, laundry, bathroom,etc.)e.g. to grow crops andraise animals / industrialuse / hydro and tidal powergenerationNo evidence givenDirect – more people directlyconsuming water (e.g.drinking)Indirect – Farmers andindustry need more water toproduce products to meetincreasing demand.Unit 2 Part A ∙ Understanding spoken information 39

1jAnswersYes, I agreeOn top of that …Building on what [I] just said …To recap … / OK, let’s recapSo, to sum up …Shall we come back to [pressures] later?2 Comparing and synthesizing ideas and arguments2a Student discussionSuggested answersSynthesis is a valued skill because:It helps people manage and sort large amounts of informationIt assists with the creation of new ideasIt helps students develop an original stance on a topic.2b Group discussion2c & 2d2.4Suggested answersLecture 1IssueThe potential shortageof water available in theworldThe reasons why theworld’s supply of freshwater is put underpressureMain ideas / evidenceThere is relatively little fresh water available.Fresh water = 36 million km 3 (only 3% of allwater; the remaining 97% of all Earth’s wateris salt).Of that, 77% is locked up in ice caps / glaciers /icebergs. Less than 1% in lakes and rivers.Most fresh water is effectively out of our reach(in ice caps, etc.)Fresh water is under pressure from humanactivity in three spheres: demographic, economicand social.1 Demographic – e.g. population rise,urbanization, migration2 Economic – e.g. economic growth,industrialization, international trade(globalization, e.g. crops grown in Africa for salein other countries)3 Social – people’s behaviour in regard to the waythey use water (i.e. wastefully or not)Unit 2 Part A ∙ Understanding spoken information 40

2e Group discussion2fSuggested answers2.5IssueThe potential shortageof water available in theworldThe reasons why theworld’s supply of freshwater is put underpressureLecture 2Main ideas / evidenceClaims that there is plenty of fresh wateravailable for our needs.36 million km 3 fresh water in world, thoughapproximately 80% is stored in ice caps andglaciers which could be accessed.Most water for human use comes from threesources – lakes, rivers and groundwater, and ofthe total supply in the world we use only half.Water supplies are under pressure, not from anyinherent lack of water, but because:1 Water supplies are unevenly distributed aroundthe world, so many high-population areas arealso those which have relatively little water.2 Our methods of using water are wasteful / wedon’t use existing supplies efficiently, e.g. 70% ofall human water use goes to agriculture, whichoften uses highly inefficient irrigation methods.2gSuggested answers1 Both agree about the volume of fresh water and the amount which is stored inice caps / glaciers, etc.2 Both agree that there is pressure on water supplies, and that many peoplesuffer from a lack of it.2hAnswersSpeaker 1 – Interpretation a.Speaker 2 – Interpretation b.2i Students decide whether they agree / disagree or have alternative interpretations oftheir own.2j Student discussionUnit Task: Water research projectNotes and answers for the activities in Unit Task Part A are given separately below.Unit 2 Part A ∙ Understanding spoken information 41

Assignment 1aAnswersArid: A very dry region of the world. The UN defines arid and semi-arid regionsby the amount of precipitation divided by the amount of water / moisture lostback to the atmosphere or into plants before it can be used by humans. Aridand semi-arid areas are estimated to cover about 30% of the world’s surface.Source: UNSO/UNDP. (1997). An Assessment of Population Levels in the World’sDrylands: Aridity Zones and Dryland Populations. New York: Office to CombatDesertification and Drought.Evaporation: Water / moisture lost back to the air.Precipitation: Water falling from the atmosphere (rainfall, dew, snow, etc.)Irrigation: Using artificial means to water crops. There are two types ofagriculture: rainfed (all water used is from natural rainfall) and irrigated.Salinity: The amount of salt in water.Scarcity: Lack / relative absence of something desirable.bcStudent discussionAnswers2.6How arid and semi­arid regions are definedAreas of the world where a very dry climate means that there is constantscarcity of water. A ratio: average amount of yearly rain divided by the amountof that water which is lost back to the atmosphere before humans can use it.It’s lost back to the atmosphere when it evaporates off the land, or is breathedout by plants in a pair of processes known as ‘evapotranspiration’.Areas of the world classed as arid or semi­aridUNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) classes about 30% of thetotal land surface in the world as arid or semi-arid, including North Africa andthe Middle East; the Sahel region of Africa south of the Sahara; large partsof central Asia; western areas of the USA; some parts of south America; andAustralia.The water problems that these regions of the world faceThree main issues:1 Very little water available in the first place. Typical rainfall in the arid regionscan be 100 mm or less per year, compared with averages of 750 mm in otherregions of the world.2 Arid / semi-arid regions are very vulnerable to drought, and the impacts ofdrought tend to be more serious for the environment and the communitieswhich rely on the land for food.3 Arid / semi-arid regions tend to have wide variations in the reliability of theirwater supplies – in some years there might be a relatively high amount of rain,while in others, none at all, so it is hard to get a reliable supply.Also, a lot of water is needed for agriculture, and industry / economic growthbut as there is little precipitation, it must be sourced from elsewhere.Unit 2 Part A ∙ Understanding spoken information 42

deGroup discussionAnswers2.7Type of water source Problems BenefitsDig / drill forgroundwaterLarge-scalewater engineeringprojects – dams,river diversions,canals, etc.DesalinationRecycling wastewaterShipping waterby tanker / othermeansWater harvestingTakes a very long time toreplenish. The deepest ofgroundwater is a fossilresource and will never bereplenished; they are thereforea non-sustainable resource.Ease of access to thissource means it tends toget overused, and the waterbecomes contaminatedquickly.Need to relocate populationfrom area of planned works.Diversion / damming of waterimpacts the environment.Large reservoirs have beenassociated with an increasein earthquakes. Creation oflarge bodies of water in humidregions can also introducewater-borne disease.Must be near the coast.Until recently, too expensive tobe feasible.Public aversion to drinkingtreated sewage.Puts water supplies at themercy of other nations.Local level / small-scalesolutions, which may not beenough to guarantee a reliablesupply.Still depend on precipitation,which is low in arid / semi-aridregions.Plentiful supply,relatively easilyavailable.Provides amassive andreliable supply ofwater. Can helpwith economicdevelopment aswell.Can make freeuse of abundantseawater.Costs are fallingrapidly.Technology todo this existsand is proven inSingapore.Large volumescan be movedrelatively easily.Low environmentalimpact.Don’t need tocost much.Make maximumuse of availablewater withoutwaste, thereforesustainable.Unit 2 Part A ∙ Understanding spoken information 43

Assignment 2Note: The unit task for this assignment can work in one of two ways:1 Where equipment exists to conduct the experimentUnit Task Part AStudents watch a video of a demonstration of the experiment (Video SS2-2A1 –Part A), before conducting the actual experiment themselves.Unit Task Part BStudents read through a complete lab instruction for the experiment.Unit Task Part CStudents complete the experiment themselves.Unit Task Part DStudents create a poster for their results.Unit Task Part EStudents write a full lab report for the experiment.2 Where there is no equipment to conduct the experimentAll parts are the same as above, except Part C. If there is no equipment to conductthe experiment, then students watch a video of the experiment (Video SS2-2A1 –Part B) in which readings are taken for three different beaker sizes. They can usethis data to complete a logbook, and then create a poster and lab report from it.Note that the video recording is of the experiment, though the results recorded inthe experiment do not accurately match published data for the refractive index ofwater. This should be used to inform the discussion or limitations section of thelogbook and report.aAnswers1 Its direction of movement changes (or ‘bends’).2 Passing across a boundary between one medium and another (e.g. betweenair and water).3 It appears to be in a different position (higher in the water) than it really is.4 Real depth is the actual depth of the object; apparent depth is what it appearsto be when refracted. The refracted ‘apparent’ depth is what you see whenyou look into the water from above.www.cambridge.org/elt/forstudybcStudents watch the video demonstration of the experiment.Group discussion. Note: The text following activity c gives basic theoreticalbackground for the experiment.Note: Ask students to turn to the checklist on p.241 and read the tips relating toUnit 2 Part A. Encourage students to put these tips into practice in their studiesfrom now on. Tell them they will be asked to report back on this in a future lesson.Unit 2 Part A ∙ Understanding spoken information 44

Part BUnderstanding written informationThe aim of this lesson is for students to improve their reading and writing skillsthrough:• finding texts which are at a suitable academic level for their needs• skim reading a report to decide if it suits their purpose• understanding feasibility/recommendation reports.1 Finding texts which are at a suitable academic level foryour needs1aAnswersKondili, E., Kaldellis, J.K., & Papapostolou, C. (2010)1 A journal article2 Experts. The title of the text contains several examples of technicalvocabulary.3 This text is not likely to give a general introduction to the topic of watersupply.Young, G.J., Dooge, J.C.I., & Rodda, J.C. (1994)1 A book2 This appears to be a more general introduction to water resourcemanagement at large, and is therefore probably not aimed at an expertaudience.3 This text is more likely to give a general introduction to the topic of watersupply.1bSuggested answers1 University-level textbookShort introductory bookVery basic introductory bookArticle from a popular magazineWebsiteEncyclopaediaSubject-specific dictionary(Possibly also secondary school-level textbook)2 University-level textbookMonographResearch article from a journalGovernment/NGO research report3 Arguably almost any text type could be used for consolidation and review.Students might be encouraged to understand that considering informationfrom different sources might be a more effective way of consolidatingknowledge than simply memorizing information from one key text.4 University-level textbookResearch article from a journalMonographGovernment/NGO research reportUnit 2 Part B ∙ Understanding written information 45

1c Group discussion1dSuggested answersPassage 1 contains more advanced vocabulary, which goes unexplained, andis linguistically more complex. It is likely that Passage 1 is aimed at an expertaudience, or a non-expert one with assumed background knowledge on the topic.Passage 2 repeats the basic idea of Passage 1, but with more explanation ofkey terms. It may be aimed at non-experts either with or without backgroundknowledge on the topic.1e Students underline any words or phrases in 1d that they don’t understand.1f Student discussion1g This is an independent study activity.2 Skim reading a report to decide if it suits your purposeNote: Suggested introductory activityIn pairs, students think of the parts of a report that a busy reader could look atquickly to get an idea of whether the report was relevant.Suggested answersabstract; introduction; headings; sub-headings; captions; graphics; tables;conclusion; list of key words.2a Note: Give a fairly short time limit for this, e.g. 5 minutes, as students should relyon skimming only, rather than reading the whole report carefully.Suggested answersQuestionsWhat is the mainidea of this text?What aspectsof the topicdoes the authorconsider?What supportingevidence doesthe author give?What recommendationsdoes theauthor make?NotesThe text outlines the situation of access to cleandomestic water supplies around the world and dealswith the consequences of poor access to safe domesticwater supplies. The author argues that it has seriouseffects on health, economic status and education.State of domestic water supplies around the worldAccess differences (e.g. by region / urban vs. rural)Relationship of water to diseaseCosts of collecting waterTime lost for economic activitiesTime lost for schoolingStatistics about numbers of people without ‘improvedwater supplies’ around the world.Provision of a clean water supply for all should bemade a priority, not only because it helps to preventdisease, but because it can help to support economicdevelopment.Unit 2 Part B ∙ Understanding written information 46

2b Students compare their notes with a partner.2c Student discussionSuggested answers1 Possibly helpful as the text deals with poverty exacerbated by (andexacerbating) poor water access.2 Probably helpful, although it doesn’t deal directly with social effects. However,the consequences for education are mentioned.3 Unlikely to be very helpful, as it doesn’t deal with systems per se.4 Possibly helpful, though the text is not dealing with shortage, but rather withlack of access (to something which may in fact be abundant).2d Students make detailed notes as if preparing to write assignment 2.2e Students compare their notes from 2d with a partner.3 Understanding feasibility/recommendation reportsNote: This section is based on the understanding that there is a subtle differencebetween feasibility and recommendation reports. The difference which is assumedhere is that:a) feasibility reports evaluate a single proposed plan to determine whether it ispossible or advisable to carry it out.b) recommendation reports evaluate / compare at least two different options orsolutions to a problem in order to determine which one should be adopted.3aSuggested answers1 Recommendation2 Feasibility3 Feasibility4 Recommendation3b Group discussion3cSuggested answersFocus of reportWhether desalination is an economically feasible method of providing water toarid areas.Options consideredExploiting groundwater reservesDesalinationFindingsIn the past, the main objection to desalination was that it was expensive.Recently, costs of desalination are shrinking.RecommendationsShrinking costs of desalination mean that it is becoming more feasible as asource of water. Use of groundwater is ruled out as being environmentallyunsustainable.Unit 2 Part B ∙ Understanding written information 47

3dSuggested answers1 To determine whether desalination is economically feasible as a source oflarge-scale water supply.2 Arid regions of the world are under severe water stress, which is becomingworse because of increasing population. Existing groundwater reserves arebecoming depleted and contaminated through overuse.3 Yes. Shrinking desalination costs lead to the conclusion that it is likely to beeconomically feasible.4 Yes. As above.5 Desalination is suitable for Middle East / North Africa because of extremewater stress and proximity to the sea. Also, groundwater use is nonsustainable.6 Opinions on this may differ, but I would tentatively suggest that therecommendation addresses the problem.3e Students compare their answers.Unit Task: Water research projectAssignment 1aAnswersLarge-scale water infrastructure (dams; water transfers; reservoirs; pumpingdeep groundwater)Sustainable approaches to water supply (micro-dams; rainwater harvesting;non-conventional water sources; water management)bStudents read and take detailed notes relevant to the assignment title.Assignment 2abcStudents read through the complete set of lab instructions and make notes in theirlogbooks about the theoretical background and method.Student discussionStudents work together with their partner to think of solutions to the possiblesources of error.Note: This section focuses on researcher errors (blunders) rather than trueinstrumental sources of error.Unit 2 Part B ∙ Understanding written information 48

Suggested answersSource of errorYou may not view the images of thepins perpendicularly downwardsThe container might not be completelyfull of waterYou might include the thickness ofthe mirror in your measurement of theapparent depthThe temperature of the water in eachbeaker may be differentSolutionWork with a partner who canmonitor whether the point of view isperpendicular.Take more than one reading.Ensure that it’s completely filled.Measure from the surface ofthe water, not the top surface ofthe mirror.Take the water from a commonsource. Use a thermometer ifpossible.dSuggested answersParallax error in taking the reading against the ruler (students should ensurethat their point of view is perpendicular to the position of the pin againstthe ruler).Most rulers have a short section at either end where there are no markings.Students should be careful not to accidentally include this in their readings.Note: Ask students to turn to the checklist on p.241 and reread the tips relating toUnit 2 Part A, before reading the tips to Unit 2 Part B. Encourage students to putthese tips into practice in their studies from now on. Tell them they will be asked toreport back on this in a future lesson.Unit 2 Part B ∙ Understanding written information 49

Part CInvestigatingThe aim of this lesson is for students to improve their researching skills through:• understanding the research process• understanding primary and secondary research• analyzing the process of choosing a research question• writing research proposals.1 Understanding the research process1aSuggested answers1 Create a research question or hypothesis2 Research to gather data3 Decide if the data answers the question or proves the hypothesis1bSuggested answersQuestion/HypothesisHow feasible is a proposed new dam?How can the efficiency of paperproduction be improved so that lesswater is used in the process?What are the economic impacts offlood and drought in Ethiopia?How can the quality of drinkingwater in a municipal water supply beimproved?Children’s education in the poorestdeveloping countries is affected bythe amount of time that they spendtravelling to collect water each day.Household water use can be halvedby increasing taxes on water.Data neededData on local conditions; impacton local economy, environment,community; cost; technical issues;amount of water provided.What is current process? Dataabout current processes – howmuch water, energy, etc. used andwhy; alternative systems that exist;how much water they use.Data on previous floods; dataabout effect on household, localand national economies from lostbusiness; damage costs.Data on existing quality;comparative data with alternativesystems; data for quality in thosesystems.How much time children spendtravelling to collect water; howmuch time is lost from school asa result; how much time they losefrom school as a result of beingtired; how their concentration isaffected as a result of being tired.Water use statistics in a regionwithout water taxes; statistics fora region / regions where taxes areapplied.Unit 2 Part C ∙ Investigating 50

Water scarcity affects economicgrowth.Building large reservoirs can triggerearthquakes.Water availability data for differentregions; comparative GDP datafor those regions; data on maineconomic activities in thoseregions; data on water use inmain economic activities in thoseregions.Data from previous literature aboutearthquake rates near locationsof reservoirs both before and afterconstruction; information aboutwater volumes and earthquakeintensity (possibly).2 Understanding primary and secondary research2a Note: Public records can be a primary source if something new is being done withthe information, e.g. highlighting a correlation between infection rates and racialbackground. They are a secondary source if used in their existing form to supporta point.Suggested answersPrimary sourceexperimentfield testquestionnairedirect observationface-to-face interviewresearch by letter or email(public records)Secondary sourceencyclopaediajournal articlewebsitenewspapermagazine(public records)reportdictionarybook2b Group discussion3 Analyzing the process of choosing a research questionNote: This section tends to represent the process as being linear, which most peoplewould probably agree it is not. Teachers using this section might want to drawattention to this fact, particularly in activity 3b below.Unit 2 Part C ∙ Investigating 51

3aSuggested answersList all the possible questions that you want to answer about the topic 2Select a topic that interests you 1Focus on the most important question 4Proofread and revise the question 7Think about whether the question can be researched or not 6Define all key words and variables 3Consider whether the question is too broad or too narrow 53b Students compare their ideas in groups.Suggested answers1Probably inadvisable: as an economist, Max probably does not have theexperience to complete a study of technical feasibility in three months.2Probably inadvisable, as it is unlikely that a private corporation will releasepotentially damaging information about the state of their investment. It may beOK if she can find the information in some other way.3Might be possible, though Mario would have to think carefully about how hewould recruit his respondents.3c Student discussion3d Note: As context may make some questions more or less suitable, it is assumedhere that the period of study would be over, at most, several months, as part of auniversity course.Unit 2 Part C ∙ Investigating 52

Suggested answers1a Too broad: terms not defined; focus not defined; topic can be divided into awhole range of other sub-topics.b Probably OK.2a Probably OK.b Too broad: no definition of locality to be studied; no definition of how‘improvement’ is judged, or which criteria will be investigated; can be dividedinto a number of other sub-topics such as water quality, water volume, etc.3a Probably a bit too narrow: it would be difficult to say that any findings in thisstudy were valid in other locations; it focuses on only one weather state, ratherthan the change in the weather variable, so no comparison to other weatherstates is possible with this data.b Probably OK, as it is looking at a general relationship.4a Probably OK.b Possibly OK for a general report, though of course it is very broad and couldeasily be divided into a number of other topics. It would probably be difficult todo this question justice at the level expected in higher education.4 Writing research proposalsNote: This is a general introduction to some of the key features of written researchproposals. It is not an exhaustive guide to proposals.4aSuggested answersSectionIntroductionResearch questionsLiterature reviewMethodExpected results and outcomesTimelineBibliography / List of referencesPossible features to includeb, g, h, i, oea, d, g, m, of, j, l, mc, nkN/AUnit 2 Part C ∙ Investigating 53

4bSuggested answers1 introductory sentence2 brief, general background information to give context3 statement of a problem or issue that you want to investigate4 statement of what you aim to achieve by doing the project5 statement of the benefits of the research1It is widely recognized that sanitation and a clean supply of drinking watermay greatly improve the health of residents of slum and shanty areas 1 . A greatmany studies have conclusively linked improvements in water supply withdeclines in waterborne diseases and mortality, and general improvements inhealth overall. The UN’s Millennium Development Goals identify provision ofclean water, or improvements of supplies to a basic minimum, as priorities (UN,2009), though at current rates of improvement over 2.5 billion people aroundthe world will still be without sanitation by 2015 (WHO, 2008), far short of theMillennium Goal targets. This will have direct consequences for the health ofresidents in deprived areas 2 . An aspect of the sanitation problem which hasbeen less thoroughly investigated is the way that lack of access to clean waterand sanitation can increase poverty itself, thus trapping poorer residents oflow-income developing countries in a permanent state of poverty, poor wateraccess and ill health 3 . The aim of this project is to explore the water–poverty–health relationship by focusing on the way that lack of access to clean watercan exacerbate the problems of poverty 4 . It is hoped that the current studywill help to increase understanding of the complex dynamics of poverty whichfrequently make water development goals difficult to reach 5 .2Life for those who are not served with convenient water supplies poses manyhardships 1 . For many in remote communities, one of those hardships is theburden of making daily trips to wells or other water sources in order to collectwater for household use. According to the seminal study of water use in EastAfrica by White et al. (1972), up to four hours a day could be spent by villagerscollecting for their households. This burden falls particularly heavily on womenand young children, who are often charged with the water carrying task 2 . Timespent by children carrying water frequently means a loss of time spent at school(WHO, 2005, p.14), with consequent effects on educational opportunities, andultimately on the ability of poor families to lift themselves out of poverty througheducation 3 . Following on from studies such as that conducted by White et al.(ibid), and more recent investigations of the water-time burden in Africa (forinstance Thompson et al., 2000), the aim of this study is to investigate the timespent carrying water by school-age children in a rural village in Cambodia 4 .The data gathered in the study will be used to identify the effects that this dailyactivity has on the children’s educational attainment. This research will providefurther evidence for the argument that reliable water supplies are essential notjust for health, but also to provide poor communities with the hope of escapefrom the poverty trap 5 .Note: ‘Literature review’ – Literature reviews are covered in detail in Unit 1 Part E3,so no further activities are given here.Unit 2 Part C ∙ Investigating 54

4cSuggested answers1 Stages of data collection2 How the data will be gathered in detail3 How the data will be accessed / respondents recruited4 Approximate numbers of participants / measurements / times, etc.5 The type of approach or measurement instrument used6 An indication of how the data will be analyzed7 An indication of limitations of the method4d Students compare their ideas in groups.4eSuggested answerGiven the amount of existing literature on this topic which already draws stronglinks between water scarcity and poverty, this project will prove that waterscarcity leads both directly and indirectly to ill health. This research will showthat more investment is needed to improve the quantity, reliability and quality ofexisting water supplies in developing nations. The research will benefit policyplanners at government level, and lead to a better understanding of the relationof water and health.4fSuggested answerExpected results and outcomesGiven the amount of existing literature on this topic which already drawsstrong links between water scarcity and poverty, it is believed that this projectwill indicate that water scarcity leads both directly and indirectly to ill-health.The authors predict that this research will demonstrate the need for moreinvestment to improve the quantity, reliability and quality of existing watersupplies in developing nations. It is hoped that the research will benefit policyplanners at government level, and contribute to a better understanding of therelation of water and health.4g Note: This section gives the impression that this is a linear process, so it might beuseful to have a discussion about which parts are likely to be non-linear.Suggested answersStageTypical order of completionFieldwork / data gathering 3Do preliminary reading and write proposal 1Literature review 2Write first draft 5Analyze results 4Redrafting and completion of final report 6Unit 2 Part C ∙ Investigating 55

4hSuggested answerProbably not realistic. Carla has given herself too much time, perhaps, tocomplete the proposal and analyze her results, while she seems to haveunderestimated how long it will take to write drafts of the completed work. Shemight struggle to recruit so many respondents in just three days, and interviewthem in two. She has left no time for revisions.4iSuggested answersType of sourceReferences for texts by key thinkersReferences for the texts which you know you will definitely use inthe final reportReferences to useful texts which you have not read yet but areplanning to useReferences only for texts which you have read thoroughlyReferences to texts which give general background information onthe topicInclude?YesYesYesNoYes4jSuggested answers• Introduction is reasonable: it gives background, sets the context for the study,and outlines the aim.• Research questions seem reasonable: they are the kind of questions thatwould need to be asked to yield the data needed; they are neither too broadnor too narrow (though there is an issue with practicality given the timeline).• Literature review is problematic. It identifies key works, but does not explainor compare them in enough detail, or give a sense of how the proposedresearch fits into the literature. It is much too short.• Method section explains the approach chosen, and the reasoning for it. Itclearly explains the sample and procedure for the study, but does not explainlimitations. It could arguably also go into more detail about exactly how therespondent households will be recruited. One big problem with the method (orpossibly the design of the study) is that there is no explanation of exactly howthe respondents will measure exactly how much water they are using, thoughpresumably this is a key part of the study.• The expected results section is written in incautious language and is thereforeinappropriate.• It is debatable whether the timeline is realistic; however, the time frameoverall seems rather short for such an ambitious study, and this hasconsequences for the amount of time budgeted for each stage. Also, theauthor has overlooked a number of important steps in the timeline (analyzingdata, completing a first draft and so on), which gives the impression that ithas not been very carefully thought through.Unit 2 Part C ∙ Investigating 56

Unit Task: Water research projectAssignment 1abcdeGroup discussionThis is an independent study task.Group information sharingGroup-work taskClass information sharingAssignment 2Note: In this stage of the unit task, students either carry out the lab experiment tomeasure the refractive index of water, or watch the complete experiment on video.a Students review the information about keeping a logbook in Unit 1 Part C3.bcdStudents read through the lab instructions again.Students prepare pages in their logbook, including noting any background ormethod information that they will need during the lab session.Students conduct the experiment (or watch Video SS2-2A1) and record results in alogbook.Note: The original experiment instructions include a page of graph paper on p.90for plotting results.AnswersThe actual published refractive index for water is 1.3330. The results recordedin the experiment on the video are therefore inaccurate. Students who are notactually conducting the experiment themselves would therefore need to includea discussion of possible reasons for this in their lab report. The results given inthe video are:Container Real depth (cm) Apparent depth(cm)Refractive index(n)1 13.7 11.5 1.1912 12.4 10 1.243 8.6 7.2 1.19efgAfter completing the experiment, students reflect on their logbook notes to addquestions or comments.Student discussionStudents design an experiment to measure the refractive index of water at differenttemperatures.Note: Ask students to turn to the checklist on p.241 and reread the tips relating toUnit 2 Parts A–B, before reading the tips to Unit 2 Part C. Encourage students to putthese tips into practice in their studies from now on. Tell them they will be asked toreport back on this in a future lesson.Unit 2 Part C ∙ Investigating 57

Part DReporting in speechThe aim of this lesson is for students to improve their speaking skills through:• participating in seminar discussions• exchanging and challenging ideas appropriately in academic discussion• expressing and defending opinions• changing the direction of a discussion• concluding a discussion.1 Participating in seminar discussions1a Group discussion1b Student discussion1cSuggested answersIn favour of recycled drinking water:• In a time of water scarcity, it makes sense to look for alternative supplies inorder to meet demand.• Reclaimed water is treated to remove impurities.• It is often cleaner than municipal tap water supplies.• It has already been used successfully for drinking water in Singapore.Bottles of NEWater have become very popular in Singapore / there is highpublic acceptance among the population of Singapore.Against recycled drinking water:• There is public resistance to the idea of drinking treated sewage.• People do not trust it.• People find the idea distasteful.1d Group discussionNote: If students are struggling to think of anything to discuss, they might bereminded that it is a feasibility study, so they could consider such things as publicacceptance, economic or technical feasibility, etc.1e, 1f & 1g Student discussion1h & 1i Group discussion and observation. The group arranges itself so that half willspeak, and half will observe, with one observer concentrating on a single speaker,evaluating their contribution to the discussion using the scoring criteria from 1i.1j Student discussion1k Group feedback sessionUnit 2 Part D ∙ Reporting in speech 58

2 Exchanging and challenging ideas appropriately inacademic discussion2a Group discussion2bSuggested answers2.8InterruptionsBelittling other people’s contributions (e.g. “You can’t just say ‘Give them facts’.That’s meaningless.”)Rejecting other people’s suggestions out of handUsing value-laden language (e.g. Sam claims his idea is ‘intelligent’ and Leila’snaive or a no-brainer)Criticizing other ideas without suggesting how to take the discussion forward(e.g. ‘that won’t work’).Simplistic – or even lazy – suggestions (e.g. ‘Give them facts and data’).(Also, saying things like ‘how should I know?’ can be seen as being deliberatelyunhelpful, or not trying to help take the discussion forward.)2c Students compare their answers in groups.2d Group discussionSuggested answers‘That won’t work.’ – Criticizing other people’s ideas without suggesting how totake the discussion forward‘That’s a complete no-brainer.’ – Using value-laden language‘Don’t be naive.’ – Using value-laden language‘You have to have a more intelligent strategy …’ – Using value-laden language‘Give them facts and data, …’ – Simplistic – or even lazy – suggestions‘You can’t just say “Give them facts”. That’s meaningless.’ – Belittling otherpeople’s contributions‘How should I know?’ – Being deliberately unhelpful, or not trying to help takethe discussion forward3 Expressing and defending opinions3a Group discussion3b Students review the five sets of data to find evidence.Note: No suggested answers to what the data represents are given here; encouragestudents to come up with their own ideas.3c Group discussion (5–10 minutes is suggested)3d Student discussion4 Changing the direction of a discussion4aSuggested answers1 You want to change the topic completely.2 You want to go back to a topic that was considered earlier in the discussion.3 You want to move the discussion on to a different aspect of the topic.Unit 2 Part D ∙ Reporting in speech 59

4bSuggested answersYou want to go back to a topic that was considered earlier in the discussion.Can we just go back to the point that Liz made?I’d like to return to …Returning to the point about …Can we come back to what Liz said?You want to move the discussion on to a different aspect of the topic.Why don’t we look at … in more detail?Can we consider another aspect of that?I think it’s worth considering …A related point is …Another thing is …There’s another aspect of that which is important.You want to change the topic completely.A separate point I’d like to discuss is …To go off topic a bit, …Changing the subject, …Can we change the topic for a moment?Can we go off topic slightly?4c Group discussion4d Group discussion (5–10 minutes is suggested)Note: Each student should be encouraged to steer the conversation towards theirpreferred topics. However, it’s important that they have a meaningful discussion, sothey should try not to simply ignore what others are saying in order to compete toget their own topic discussed.5 Concluding a discussion5a Student discussion5bSuggested answersYou want to suggest to the other members of the group that it’s time to finishthe discussion.Shall we think about winding this up now?Shall we draw this to a close / conclusion?Would everyone agree that we should end here?You want to summarize the important details of the talk.Shall we summarize what we’ve got then?So, shall I summarize what we’ve got?Would anyone like to summarize / recap the main points?Shall we just quickly recap the main points?You want to invite the other members of the group to add any extra comments.Does anyone have something else to add?Is there anything else that anyone wants to say?Is everyone happy with that, then?Unit 2 Part D ∙ Reporting in speech 60

5cAnswerStudents are asked to prepare a feasibility report about introducing a newbottled water product made from recycled waste water.5d Group discussion. Please note that this is just a context for a practice discussionexercise – students are not expected to complete the imagined feasibility report aspart of this course.Unit Task: Water research projectAssignment 1abcStudents work in small groups and choose one of two discussion questions.The group prepares a poster. This may need to be done outside class.Groups who chose the same title participate in a seminar discussion. Teachersshould determine the length of the discussion.Assignment 2abcdStudents prepare a poster. This can be an individual poster, or a group one if theoriginal experiment was done in a group.Students in pairs evaluate their posters.Students in groups anticipate questions they might be asked and consider answersto them.Students participate in a poster presentation session. At the discretion of the teacher,this can either be run as a series of presentations using the poster as a visual aid, or,somewhat more authentically, all posters are set up around the room at once, andothers are invited to come and look at the posters / question the students who willbe standing by ready to respond.Note: Ask students to turn to the checklist on p.241 and reread the tips relating toUnit 2 Parts A–C, before reading the tips to Unit 2 Part D. Encourage students to putthese tips into practice in their studies from now on. Tell them they will be asked toreport back on this in a future lesson.Unit 2 Part D ∙ Reporting in speech 61

Part EReporting in writingThe aim of this lesson is for students to improve their writing skills through:• understanding the main features of a primary research report• understanding the main features of a successful feasibility/recommendationreport• make choices about the best way to structure your reports.1 Understanding the main features of a primary research report1a Group discussion1bSuggested answersTitleAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionConclusionReferencesNote: A note is given here about the use of passive voice in lab reports. Somesources claim that this is not essential, or that the requirement is graduallychanging. However, as this is a somewhat controversial claim, teachers are free toignore it if it seems to conflict with the conventions recognized in their institution.2 Primary research reports – the introduction2aSuggested answersA research report introduction might include:1 A general introduction to the topic ✔2 A description of background information or theory relevant tothe study3 A description of aspects of the study already investigated byother researchers✔✔4 A consideration of the strengths and weaknesses of theseother studies5 A statement that an area of the subject needs moreinvestigation✔6 A statement of the objective of your study ✔7 An explanation of why you chose the method that you usedfor your study8 A justification of the value of the studyUnit 2 Part E ∙ Reporting in writing 62

9 An explanation that the experiment was successful10 A brief summary of the methods used ✔11 A hypothesis that you will test in the research ✔(if ahypothesistestexperiment)12 A brief discussion of the results of the experiment13 An explanation of special equipment used in the experiment2bSuggested answersA Accurately measuring the density of waterIntroductionDensity is an intensive property: in any pure substance it remains constant ata given temperature, regardless of size. However, due to expansion caused byheating, the density of a substance will change at different temperatures.The density of an object depends on its mass and volume, where 2Density = mass/volumeIn this experiment the density of pure water was determined using a volumetricpipette and an accurate balance, and the results compared to published datafor given temperatures 6/10 .B Studying pressure changes in pipe flowIntroductionUnderstanding the flow of fluids under pressure along pipes is important in civiland chemical engineering 1 . Static pressure is the pressure of water at rest ina pipe. Water will flow along a pipe only under a pressure difference, with thepressure difference determining how fast the water flows. Pressure measuredwhile the fluid is moving is referred to as dynamic pressure 2 . This experimentinvestigated the way that pressure drops along a pipe while water flows throughit. The objective of the experiment was to determine whether pressure dropvaries with the length or diameter of the pipe, or the flow rate of the water 6 .C Improving agricultural yields through water run-off irrigationIntroductionIrrigation for agriculture is vital for food production, food security, humanhealth and rural livelihoods (de Fraiture et al., 2009). Irrigated agricultural landareas around the world more than doubled between 1960 and 2003 (FAO, 2007),accompanied by rising food production yields. As world population continuesto grow, securing food supplies becomes ever more critical. However, despite ahalf century of increasing agricultural yields, and clear evidence that irrigationis an effective means by which to increase output from farmland, researchindicates that the productivity of most agricultural land relying on rainwater isfar below possible yields, with some agricultural land in arid regions producingless than 20% of potential yields under irrigation (World Water AssessmentProgramme, 2009, p.108) 1 . This paper reports the results of an investigationof an irrigation scheme in Yemen using water run-off and low-impact drylandfarming techniques. It was found that crop yields could be improved by up to15% under irrigation compared to traditional non-irrigated farming methods aspractised in the area 6/10 .Unit 2 Part E ∙ Reporting in writing 63

2cSuggested answersDetermining the solubility of sodium chloride in water at room temperatureSodium chloride (NaCL), which is commonly known as salt, is an importantnatural substance. It occurs in nature as the mineral halite, and contains theminerals sodium (Na + ) and chloride (Cl − ). It occurs naturally in human bodiesas well as in the environment. Sodium and chloride are vital because humansrequire a particular concentration of salt in their bodies to stay healthy.Sodium chloride gathered from seawater has been used throughout humanhistory. Salt is well known as an effective way to preserve and also to improvethe flavour of food. It is an interesting but little known fact that sodium chlorideis also used to help make soap and produce paper. It is also very useful inwinter because it is used to de-ice roads and pathways.In this experiment the solubility of sodium chloride in water was determined bydissolving a given amount of sodium chloride in water in a glass beaker, andweighing the solution on a scale both before and after heating to evaporatethe water.2d Students compare their answers.3 Primary research reports – the methods section3aAnswersaEquipmentApparatusbProcedureMethodology3bAnswersA methods section might include:1 Diagrams ✔2 The results you obtained using the method3 Explanation of the reasons for your method ✔4 An explanation of any controls that you use ✔5 Separate subsections for ‘Materials’ and ‘Methods’ ✔6 A list of instructions for how to carry out the experiment * Seebelow7 Detailed explanations of all the equipment you used + Seebelow8 Detailed explanations of any non-standard equipment orprocedures that you use✔9 The precision of any measuring equipment you use ✔10 A discussion of how you could improve the method in future11 Citations for standard procedures created by other people ✔Unit 2 Part E ∙ Reporting in writing 64

* The methods section is not a list or recipe for the experiment, but rather adescription of the procedure that was used – hence its being written in the past tense– and so a list here would not be appropriate.+ The methods section does not need to give detailed explanations of all equipmentused, as some of it is so common that it can be taken for granted, e.g. you would notwrite ‘cloth to wipe up spilled water’, as this is evidently necessary.3c Students compare their answers.3dSuggested answersAn example of a more concise section is given below. Some of the unnecessaryinformation in this section is:Writing the purpose of each piece of equipment in the materials listDescriptions of the materials unless necessary for the experiment (e.g. ‘small,thin pieces of Blu-Tack’ might be considered unnecessary)Information which is obvious (e.g. the results were recorded ‘in the logbook’ – itstands to reason that they would be recorded in the logbook)Names of participants (e.g. ‘It was recorded by my partner William.’)Obvious actions which are not directly relevant to the experiment (e.g. ‘spiltwater was mopped up with a cloth.’).Example of the rewritten section:Materials and MethodsMaterialsHeader tankControl valveTwo metal pipes of different length and diameter (0.6m long by 9.9mm diameterand 2.58m by 3.85mm)Three tall, transparent plastic tanksBlu-TackLarge glass beakerLarge glass measuring cylinderTape measureStopwatchMethodThe length and diameter of the two pipe sections were measured and recorded.Small, thin pieces of Blu-Tack were stuck onto each vertical tube to show thelevel of the water when the flow rate was zero.The header tank was filled with water and the control valve was opened to allowwater to flow.The control valve was adjusted so that there was a gentle flow of water into thefinal tank. The water levels in the vertical tubes were observed until they settled.Water from the overflow was collected in a large beaker for 1 minute.The water was poured into a large measuring cylinder and the flow rate in cm 3was recorded.The measurement was repeated three times to ensure a reliable and consistentflow rate.The height of the water above the Blu-Tack marks was measured.The measurements were repeated in the same way to obtain data for fivedifferent flow rates.3e Students compare their answers.3f Student discussionUnit 2 Part E ∙ Reporting in writing 65

3gExample of the rewritten sectionEquipment and ProcedureEquipment1 Grade A volumetric pipette2 Chinagraph pencil3 Pipette filler4 Beaker5 Balance6 ThermometerProcedure1 The temperature of the deionised water was recorded.2 A small beaker was placed on the balance, and the mass registered to zero inorder to account for the weight of the beaker.3 25.00 cm 3 of deionised water was measured with the volumetric pipette, anddispensed into the beaker.4 The beaker and water were weighed again to determine the mass of water.5 The mass of the water was recorded to 2 decimal places.6 The water was poured away and the procedure repeated five times.4 Primary research reports – the results section4aAnswersA results section might include:1 Tables of raw data ✔2 Tables or figures presenting analyzed data3 Units of measurement in column headings of tables ✔4 Conclusions about your results5 Observations of any changes that you see (e.g. a change in colour) ✔6 A summary of the main findings of your research ✔7 Figures (charts, diagrams, graphs and maps) ✔8 Paragraphs suggesting the reasons for your results9 Paragraphs summarizing the main trends in your data ✔4b Students compare their answers.4cSuggested answersExample A is not very successful for the following reasons:Table 1 and Figure 1 are not explicitly referred to in the text at all.The text only reiterates raw data that is already clear in the graphics / tables.The tables and graphics do not give any units of measurement (e.g. °C) in thecolumn headings.The bar chart basically repeats the information which is presented in Table 2.Example B is more successful for all the reasons that A is not. Where textappears in this example it is to summarize main trends in the data.Unit 2 Part E ∙ Reporting in writing 66

4d Students rewrite the results section for example A.5 Primary research reports – the discussion section5aSuggested answersADiscussion7When calculating the density of each sample of water the units were converted intoSI units.mass in kgDensity =volume in m = mass in g × 10 −33 volume in cm 3 × 10 −6The average density was then calculated as 995.3 ± 1.6 kg/m³ at 24°C.As Table 3 shows, the density result for the second measurement was noticeablylower than for the other measurements. It had been observed that air bubbles werepresent in the pipette when measuring out the 25.00 cm 3 water for this reading. 6 Thiswould have caused a systematic error in the volume, and hence reduced the densitycalculated, so this measurement was discounted.4Figure 2 shows the average density of water obtained in this experiment (includingerror bars indicating the range of values) in comparison with published data (Lide, 1990).The average density in the results was lower than the accepted value for waterdensity at that temperature.6This may be due to the researcher’s inexperience using the pipette, which allowedair bubbles to enter, or drops of water remaining in the beaker between recordings.These errors would both affect the mass of water measured, and hence the density.6Another consideration is the accuracy of the pipette used to measure the volumeof the water. The manufacturers state that the grade A pipette used is accurateto ± 0.03cm 3 . 7 Allowing for this increases the uncertainty in the average densitymeasurement quoted above to ± 2.9 kg/m³. If the error bars on the data point inFigure 2 were extended to include this greater spread, then the published dataat 24°C now lies within the range of the experimental results.Density of water (kg/m 3 )10051000995990985980975970965960955Published dataExperimental results0 50 100Temperature (°C)150Figure 2: CRC Handbook data for density of waterLide, D. R. (Ed.) (1990). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (70th Edn.). BocaRaton (FL): CRC PressUnit 2 Part E ∙ Reporting in writing 67

BDiscussionFlow rate increases with a larger pressure drop. The results in Table 1 indicatethat both the flow rate (Q) and length of the pipe (L) are simply proportional to thepressure, while the diameter of the pipe is inversely proportional to the pressure.3Pressure drops along the pipe because of friction with the pipe walls. The largerdiameter pipe was found to have a smaller pressure difference than the smallerdiameter pipe. For a wider pipe there is less friction because the ratio of the volumeof water to its surface area in contact with the pipe wall is lower. 6 The results mayhave been affected by an error in the measurements of the water heights in themanometers, or inaccurate measurement of the outflow in the beaker because ofparallax error.7Table 1. Calculation of pressure drop for water flowing through pipe of9.9mm diameterPipe length (m)Flow rate Q(× 10 –5 m 3 s –1 )h 1– h 2(m) ΔP (kPa) L / ΔP2.60 3.84 0.15 1.47 1.770.60 3.84 0.04 0.39 1.532.60 5.36 0.24 2.35 1.110.60 5.36 0.0 6.85 1.112.60 7.19 0.45 4.41 0.590.60 7.19 0.12 1.17 0.512.60 10.0 0.70 6.78 0.380.60 10.0 0.23 2.21 0.277The pressure drop ∆P along each length of pipe was calculated for each flow rateby using the relationshipΔP = (h 1– h 2) p g (1)7It can be seen that the ratio of the pipe length to the pressure drop is reasonablyconsistent, provided that all the other variables (pipe diameter, and flow rate) arekept constant.e.g. for a flow rate of 7.19 x 10 –5 m 3 s –1 , the average ratio is 0.55 ± 0.044As the pressure drop is caused by friction between the water and the pipe walls(Bengtson, 2010), it would be expected that a longer pipe produces more friction.4This finding is consistent with the Darcy-Weisbach equation, in which pressure dropΔP is proportional to pipe length L:ΔP = f LD = pV 2(2)22The variability in the ratio is more pronounced at very high or very low flow rates.In this experiment, it was observed that the water flow coming out of the end of thepipe was smooth for the lower flow rates, but jerky and uneven at the highest flowrate. This indicates that the character of the water flow is changing from laminar toturbulent, which alters the value of the friction factor, f in equation (2).8As only two readings were taken at each flow rate, further experiments should bedone using a wider variety of pipe lengths. This would give more reliable results.Unit 2 Part E ∙ Reporting in writing 68

5bSuggested answerExample B is more effective. Example A is a brief summary of the findings.It contains little or no analysis of the raw data, and no calculations orre-analyzed data.6 Primary research reports – the conclusion6aSuggested answersA research report conclusion might include:1 Suggestions about why results may not have been as expected ✔2 An explanation of your methods3 A summary of what has been learned about the theory or idea you wereresearching✔4 New data which does not appear in the main body of your study5 A statement of the value of a quantity measured ✔6 A comment about whether you met the objective of your study or not ✔7 Suggestions about future research which builds on what you havediscovered✔8 Reference to other texts9 A summary of the objective ✔6b Students compare their answers.6cSuggested answersAConclusionThe objective of this experiment was to investigate the relationship between thediameter and length of a pipe and the rate at which water flows through it. 3 Theresults suggest that the diameter of the pipe is inversely proportional to thepressure drop, while flow rate and pipe length are simply proportional to it.BConclusion5The density of water measured in this experiment was 994.936 ± 0.024 kg/m 3 .This was within the range of values in the published data. 6 The results obtained inthe experiment were accurate only to the first decimal place when compared againstpublished data. 7 A possible future experiment would ensure both that bubblesdid not enter the pipette, and readings of the water levels avoided parallax error.3It was found that the temperature of the water is inversely proportional to its density.A second variable which can affect the accuracy of water density readings was theindividual taking the reading.7 Writing a feasibility/recommendation report7a Note: Anyone struggling to remember the answers can be directed to Unit 1 Part E2,and Unit 2 Part B3.Unit 2 Part E ∙ Reporting in writing 69

Suggested answers1Feasibility reports evaluate a single proposed plan to determine whether it isadvisable or possible to carry it out; recommendation reports compare at leasttwo options before making a recommendation about which one is best.2Feasibility report:2 Background5 Evaluation of how well the plan satisfies the requirementsRecommendation report:3 Presentation of two or more options5 Comparison of all options to see how well they satisfy the requirements7bAnswersAppendix 41 Introduction2 Background3 Presentation of options (and very brief comparison of groundwater reservesand desalination)4 More detailed analysis of desalination5 Recommendations and conclusions (together)6 ReferencesAppendix 51 Introduction2 Background (including presentation of options and requirements)3 Comparison4 Conclusions5 Recommendations6 References7c Students compare their answers.7dSuggested answersInformationExplanation of the situation or contextDescription of the needs orrequirements which must be metDetailed analysis of option(s)A summary of the information whichhas been given about the optionsBrief introduction of option(s)Explanation of the aim of the reportAny general information which willhelp a reader to understand thecontext of the reportSection of reportIntroduction / BackgroundRequirements (this might also appearin the Background section)Comparison / EvaluationConclusionsPresentation of option(s) / proposedplan. (This might also appear as aparagraph in the Background section)IntroductionBackgroundUnit 2 Part E ∙ Reporting in writing 70

A final evaluation or suggestionabout what to do, based on theinformation given in the reportStatement of a problem whichneeds to be solved, or a need whichmust be satisfiedRecommendationIntroduction / Background8 Feasibility/recommendation reports – Introduction, backgroundand presentation of options8aAnswers1 IntroductionThis is a recommendation report for the supply of drinking water in theheadquarters of KVI Ltd 3 . According to the 1999 Guidelines for Health andSafety in the workplace, employers must provide a clean, reliable supplyof drinking water 2 . Though the KVI headquarters building has tap water,complaints about the water quality are frequent. The headquarters buildingis currently unserved by a dedicated drinking water supply system, and staffrely either on municipal tap water or bring their own refreshments to work 1 .Staff representatives and the Human Resources department have discussedwhether this is a suitable level of provision, and it has been decided that KVIheadquarters should investigate alternative options for the drinking watersupply. The current tap water supply is compared with a retail vending machineand a serviced water cooler 3 .The three options were compared according to the following criteria:CostAcceptability to staffPerceived taste of the waterEase of supply 42 IntroductionLack of clean household drinking water is a problem facing millions aroundthe world. Traditional means of collecting drinking water have significantdrawbacks, resulting in a need for reliable, safe alternative means of obtainingclean drinking water in areas unserved by piped water supplies. Rainwaterharvesting from rooftops has been proposed as a solution to this problem,but is limited by the fact that rainwater is often contaminated by chemicalpollutants. This report compares two methods by which rainwater harvestedfrom a rooftop may be effectively sterilized to make it safe to drink 2 .BackgroundOver 800 million people around the world live without access to a supply ofclean drinking water in the home (WHO/UNICEF, 2010). Water piped directlyinto the home is an unobtainable luxury for many in poor rural regions ofdeveloping countries, who must instead make lengthy trips each day to drawwater from remote wells, pumps or standpipes, or must even get their waterfrom unimproved (and untreated) sources such as lakes or rivers. These watersources are not recommended for a variety of reasons: the water may beuntreated and contain pollutants; even if the water is treated, if it is drawn froma source which is not maintained properly, it can easily be contaminated bypollutants entering from the air or ground. This can lead to a number of lifethreateningor debilitating diseases (UNICEF, 2009). A further problem with suchUnit 2 Part E ∙ Reporting in writing 71

water sources is that considerable time and effort must be spent collectingthe water. The time that is lost might instead have been put to more profitableeconomic or educational use (Hutton and Haller, 2004), and therefore lack ofaccess to water is not just a symptom of poverty, but may in fact perpetuate it 2 .Rainwater harvesting (i.e. collecting rainwater in tanks on the rooftop of afamily home), is one potential method of increasing supplies of domesticdrinking water. However, freshly fallen rainwater may often be contaminated bysuch things as chemicals in the atmosphere, dust blown onto the water whenit settles on the rooftop, or even bird droppings (Marston, 2006). Consequentlythe water must be sterilized before use 1 . Two possible methods of sterilizationare pump filtering, or sterilization by exposure to direct sunlight 4 . This reportcompares the two methods in order to recommend a system that is suitable foruse in poor rural communities in the developing world 3 .8bAnswersAppendix 4• Groundwater reuse and large-scale seawater desalination.• Options are mentioned briefly in the introduction, then in more detail in theseparate section ‘Options for increased water supply in arid regions’.Appendix 5• Desalination and reuse of treated waste water.• Options are mentioned briefly in the introduction. The options are thenoutlined in more detail as part of the ‘Background’ section.9 Feasibility/recommendation reports – requirements9aAnswersmust, should / should not, can, will / will not.Should occurs most frequently.9bAnswersAppendix 4The requirements are explained, to an extent, in the introduction andbackground sections. The author points out that there is a need for a reliable,sustainable water source.Appendix 5The requirements are explained in the background section.10 Feasibility/recommendation reports – comparison/evaluationof options10aAnswersExample A: the three different options (tap water, vending machine andwater cooler) are evaluated individually, with different features discussedfor each one.Example B: this is divided into sections for the features (cost, acceptability andease of supply) and each section compares the three options on that feature.Unit 2 Part E ∙ Reporting in writing 72

10bSuggested answersStructure Advantages DisadvantagesStructure byoptionStructure byfeatureClearer division of theoptionsGives a stronger overallsense of what each optionis like in itselfAllows easier comparisonof each featureMakes it more difficult tocompare them feature byfeatureMay be more difficult toget an idea of one option’sstrengths and weaknessesas a whole11 Feasibility/recommendation reports – conclusions andrecommendations11aAnswers1Appendix 4 – combinedAppendix 5 – separated2Appendix 4 – “Desalination … now appears to offer distinct economicadvantages”Appendix 5 – “From the information given above, the following conclusions canbe drawn.”3Appendix 4 – “Governments … are now able to seriously consider usingdesalination as an alternative to large-scale engineering projects and … miningdeep fossil groundwater reservoirs”.Appendix 5 – “… is to be recommended …” / “… may be possible if …”11bAnswers1 The water cooler2 They dislike it: many have complained about it3 This is arguable (and designed to contribute to the discussion in 11c), butprobably the tap water or vending machine.11c Student discussion11dSuggested answerRecommendationsIn terms of cost and reliability, the existing tap water supply is to berecommended. This option would be advantageous in terms of cost not only tothe company, but also for employees, who would not have to pay any extra fortheir refreshments. However, staff members are likely to resist this option dueto the perceived taste of the water and the belief that it is unhealthy. Despitethe fact that supplies to both the water cooler and vending machine risk beingdisrupted by delivery problems, many companies use these drinks supplieswithout problem. Given that staff might be resistant to being charged for drinks,Unit 2 Part E ∙ Reporting in writing 73

we therefore recommend that the company install and maintain a drinkingwater cooler, as it would provide a near-guaranteed supply of water, atreasonable cost to the company and no cost to the employees, and would likelymeet with high employee approval in terms of taste and perceived purity ofthe water.Unit Task: Water research projectAssignment 1abNote: Teachers should let students know how long the report must be.Students consider the best structure for their report.Students plan the report in the space provided on p.136.Assignment 2Note: Students use the results of their experiment in the Part C Unit Task tocomplete this lab report.abStudents consider the best structure for their report.Students plan the report in the space provided on p.136.Note: Ask students to turn to the checklist on p.241 and reread the tips relating toUnit 2 Parts A–D, before reading the tips to Unit 2 Part E. Encourage students to putthese tips into practice in their studies from now on. Tell them they will be asked toreport back on this in a future lesson.Unit 2 Part E ∙ Reporting in writing 74

Unit 3ProgressUnit OverviewPartAThis unit will helpyou to …Follow sequencesof ideasIn SS2 by improving yourability to …• follow descriptions of processesand sequences• follow an account of thedevelopment of ideas over time• follow a description of amanufacturing process• follow a description of a labprocedure.B Read critically • follow written processes• interpret process diagrams andflow charts• evaluate processes• critically analyze reportedstatistics.CDEDevelop and expressyour own position ona topicExplain events andtheir implicationsCompare literatureon a topic• draw conclusions from data• deal with sources of uncertainty• avoid absolute terms• protect your position throughcitation• use cautious language for yourown claims.• explain the possible implicationsof events• give an oral progress report.• explain, compare and interpretsources• synthesize sources andviewpoints• write a progress report.In LS2 by improving yourability to …• recognize and use timeexpressions to show sequence• understand the use of repetition,reformulation and rhetoricalquestions• use context to understand themeaning of new vocabulary.• use definite and indefinitearticles• recognize and use conditionalsin descriptions of a process• recognize and use prepositionswith common verbs in academicwriting.• recognize how writers useconnotation to shape opinion• recognize and use vocabulary fordescribing research methods.• use tenses to describe pastactions and experiences• use tenses to describe futureactions• use language to show a contrastbetween reality and expectation• use pausing to show attitude.• understand the use of the firstperson in academic writing• recognize and use synonyms andparallel expressions to compareand contrast other writers’ ideas.Unit 3 Progress ∙ Overview 75

Unit 3ProgressPart AUnderstanding spoken informationThe aim of this lesson is for students to improve their listening skills in lecturesthrough:• following descriptions of processes and sequences• following an account of the development of ideas over time• following a description of a manufacturing process• following a description of a lab procedure.1 Following descriptions of processes and sequences3.11aAnswers1 A laboratory procedure2 A manufacturing process3 The development of ideas on a particular topic1b Student discussion1c Group discussionSuggested answersUse clear sequencing languageMake specific reference to any supporting visual aids(Possibly) use passive voice to focus attention on processDescribe each element in the order that they occur3.21dSuggested answerThe first speaker’s description is more effective: she uses clear sequencingexpressions and describes the steps in the order that they occur.1e Students compare their answers.2 Following an account of the development of ideas over time2a Group discussion3.32bAnswersAncient EgyptBoth physical and magical explanations for the causes of headache, hencea variety of approaches to treatment, including magic, such as spells andprayers, and more rational approaches, such as the use of plant extracts.Unit 3 Part A ∙ Understanding spoken information 76

Ancient RomeAncient Rome, Scribonius Largus (physician to the emperor Claudius) usedelectric charge from torpedo fish.19th CenturyElectrical stimulation continued to be used, though it eventually fell out offavour.Sniffing nitroglycerine fumes.Development of aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) from bark of willow tree, but thiswas acidic and caused stomach upsets. In 1897, a German chemist (FelixHoffman) synthesized an improved version.20th CenturyDevelopment of other compounds – ibuprofen, paracetamol – which areeffective, though only in 1970 did scientists discover the mechanism by whichsuch compounds actually work in the body to reduce headache pain.2c Group discussion3 Following a description of a manufacturing process3a Group discussion3b Students predict the order of the steps.3.43cAnswers1 The ingredients are weighed separately.2 The ingredients are mixed and compressed.3 Air and lumps are removed from the compressed mixture by filtering.4 Lubricant is added to the mixture and blended gently together.5 The mixture is compressed into individual tablets.6 The tablets are tested for quality.7 The tablets are packaged on an assembly line.8 The tablets are labelled and a batch number and an expiry date are added tothe container.3d Students compare their answers.4 Following a description of a lab procedure4aAnswers1 test tubeA small glass tube, with one closed and rounded end, which is used in scientificexperiments2 acetyl chlorideA colourless acid chloride3 beakerA glass or plastic container used in chemistry4 salicylic acidA colourless organic acid; used for treating pain and fevers, and similar to acomponent of aspirin5 pyridineA colourless, highly flammable organic compound used as a solvent or chemicalreagentUnit 3 Part A ∙ Understanding spoken information 77

4b See 4c for answers.4cAnswers3.5StepPosition in sequencea Add 0.1 ml of acetyl chloride 4b Leave the mixture sitting in cold water for15 minutesc Place 140 mg of salicylic acid in a test tube 1d Add 0.1 ml of pyridine 3e Place the tube in a beaker of cold water and place it inthe fume hood524dAnswers1 Probably didn’t wear gloves as instructed, and the salicylic acid or pyridineirritated their skin.2 The instructor clearly said that pyridine smells bad and should be used only inthe fume hood, therefore the student probably didn’t use it in the fume hood.4eAnswers1 Büchner flask(Also known as a vacuum flask): a glass with a nozzle for attaching a pipe2 Büchner funnelA funnel with a perforated plate at the bottom, used in experiments involving suction3 rubber tubeThick, flexible rubber pipe used in science labs4 test tube (see 4a)5 aspiratorA device which uses flowing water to create a vacuum.BüchnerfunnelRubbertubeTapAspiratorBüchnerflaskUnit 3 Part A ∙ Understanding spoken information 78

4fAnswers3.6StepPosition in sequencea Set up the Büchner flask, funnel, pipe, and aspirator 1b Empty the crystals onto a piece of filter paper andleave them to dryc Shake the mixture 3d Pour the test tube mixture into the Büchner funneland apply suctione Create a vacuum in the Büchner flask 4f Add 5 ml of water to the test tube 2654g Student discussionAnswersA vacuum can be created in a Büchner flask by attaching it to a tap using alength of rubber pipe and an aspirator; water flowing through the aspiratorproduces a vacuum. The suction on the Büchner flask should be broken bydisconnecting the pipe from the flask. If the suction is broken by turning off thewater at the tap, then any water that remains in the pipe may flow back into theflask. The student probably broke the suction by turning off the water at the tapinstead of disconnecting the pipe.4h See 4i for answers.4iAnswers3.7StepPosition in sequenceLeave the solution to cool 3Heat the solution until the crystals dissolve 2Put the dry crystals into a beaker and add water 14j Students check their answers.4k Student discussionAnswersThey were only supposed to add 3 ml of water, not 30. The solution is probablytoo dilute for the aspirin to form out of it.Unit 3 Part A ∙ Understanding spoken information 79

Unit Task: Traditional, complementary and modern medicineaGroup discussionSuggested answersAssignment 11 Option 1 – use budget for complementary medicine; option 2 – use budgetfor ‘modern’ health provision2 Students’ own answersAssignment 21 No. This is a general research report. Students should give a detailedoverview of the topic, but no argument or explicit recommendation isnecessary (though tentative recommendations could be included in thediscussion or conclusion).2 Students’ own answers3.8bcdGroup discussionStudents take notes on a spare piece of paper.Students in groups share information from the listening.Note: Ask students to turn to the checklist on p.241 and read the tips relating toUnit 3 Part A. Encourage students to put these tips into practice in their studiesfrom now on. Tell them they will be asked to report back on this in a future lesson.Unit 3 Part A ∙ Understanding spoken information 80

Part BUnderstanding written informationThe aim of this lesson is for students to improve their reading and writing skillsthrough:• following written processes• interpreting process diagrams and flow charts• evaluating processes• critically analyzing reported statistics.1 Following written processes1a Group discussion1b Class compares ideas.1c Students read text to check their ideas. (See answers in 1d.)1dAnswersNoDiscoveryValidationValidationsuccessful?YesDevelopmentRefining andimproving leadsScreeningClinical trialsRegistrationMarketing /Manufacturing1e Students compare their answers.2 Interpreting process diagrams and flow charts2a Group discussion2b Class compares ideas.2cAnswers• Help to make complex processes easier to understand• Help readers to visualize the order of steps in a process• Helps to show relationship between different parts of the process• Can help the reader to critically analyze the process (e.g. identifyweaknesses, redundancies, inefficiencies in some types of process)Unit 3 Part B ∙ Understanding written information 81

2dAnswersBeginning / ending of a sequence or taskEither-or decision stageBasic step in processDirection of progress2eAnswers1 A minimum of ten, including all basic steps, start and end points, and decisionstages. If the trials aren’t successful there will be more if the drug is returnedto development.2 A minimum of three decision stages if all trials are passed.3 This depends to an extent on the students’ own opinions, but arguably thedevelopers’ confidence at Phase 1 trials stage won’t be very high becausethey are facing three chances to fail / be returned to development.Unit 3 Part B ∙ Understanding written information 82

3 Evaluating processes3aAnswersWellco ordersproduction of newadvert.Benson and Knotthired to createadvert.Wellco vice-directorof marketingdiscusses advertwith marketing team.Wellco marketingdirector draftsadvert concept.Benson and Knottcreate advertfrom design.NoDesignapproved?YesVice-director ofmarketing makescomments and passesto the marketing team.Benson and Knottpass advert to Wellcofor approvalVice-director ofmarketing discussesadvert with director ofmarketingMarketing teamcreates 3 or 4improved drafts.NoDesignapproved?NoDesignapproved?YesYesMarketing teampresents drafts tomarketing director.Benson and Knottcreate final design.Advert put forwardfor printing.NoDirector approvesdesigns?Yes3bSuggested answers1 There are several stages where the review of drafts of the advert seems tobe duplicated. For example, there are several different meetings, each onerequiring approval of the draft before progressing.2 Depends on opinion, perhaps, but the sheer number of separate approvalmeetings is likely to make the whole process quite time consuming.3 Depends on opinion, but some of the meetings could be combined.4 Depends on students’ interpretation.3c Students attempt to design a flow chart of a more efficient process with a partner.4 Critically analyzing reported statistics4a Student discussionUnit 3 Part B ∙ Understanding written information 83

4bAnswersDate Test subjects Effects of VenaloneSource Age Gender PhysicalconditionNewspaperreportResearcharticleAfter 24hoursn/g n/g n/g ‘Cure’ 80%of subjects– nosymptoms18–26 Male Healthy Eightsubjects‘feel lesspain’ /‘improvedwell-being’After 48hoursn/gEightsubjects‘feel lesspain’ /‘improvedwellbeing’After 5 daysor moren/gMostsymptomshavedisappearedcompletely /Two otherrespondentssuffer forone moreweek4c Students compare their answers.4dAnswers1 The newspaper seems to suggest that the medicine is very effective: it claimsin the title and the passage that it ‘cures’ colds in 24 hours; participants in thetrial are said to have rid themselves of most major symptoms more quicklythan with other treatments.2 80% of test subjects have no symptoms after 24 hours.3 No. 80% of the test subjects reported feeling less pain and an improvedcondition (but not complete cure) after 24–48 hours.4 The researcher tentatively claims a slight positive effect on cold symptoms,but not a complete cure. Also, the research article observes that mostcolds clear up naturally within 7–10 days, so as it took 5 days for most ofthe respondents to get over the cold, and another week for two others, theimpact of the medicine is questionable. Even at this stage, students should beable to see the discrepancy between an 80% success rate and the categoricalclaim ‘cures colds within 24 hours’, which would seem to imply that it doesthis in all cases.5 A number of limitations are apparent, including: small sample size; restrictedsample type (male and a restricted age-group); all healthy; controlledexperiment; based in part on self-report of condition (rating their own senseof well-being).4eAnswers• Is this written by the person who did the research, or is it a second-handreport?• If it is second hand, does it match the original report?• Are there any discrepancies between what the results show and what isclaimed?• Are there any weaknesses in the original research which might undermine thecertainty of any claims?Unit 3 Part B ∙ Understanding written information 84

Unit Task: Traditional, complementary and modern medicineaStudents read the text about trends in the use of traditional and complementarymedicine, taking notes on separate pieces of paper as they read. Students shouldconsider how this information relates to their assignment title.Note: Ask students to turn to the checklist on p.241 and reread the tips relating toUnit 3 Part A, before reading the tips to Unit 3 Part B. Encourage students to putthese tips into practice in their studies from now on. Tell them they will be asked toreport back on this in a future lesson.Unit 3 Part B ∙ Understanding written information 85

Part CInvestigatingThe aim of this lesson is for students to improve their researching skills through:• drawing conclusions from data• dealing with sources of uncertainty• avoiding absolute terms• protecting their position through citation• using cautious language for their own claims.1 Drawing conclusions from data1aAnswers1 A variety appear to be well-known (Source C). Source A notes that Chineseand Indian Ayurvedic medicine are well-known and enjoy ‘widespread publicacceptance’. Note that the most popular medicines (possibly indicating trust)listed in Source C are: Chiropractic / Osteopathy / Over the counter purchaseof herbal and homeopathic treatments.2 Source A claims these treatments are controversial: homeopathy / radionics.3 Source B indicates that it tends to be used slightly more by women.4 Source B indicates for men, aged 25–54; for women, age groups 25–74overall, but 45–54 and 65–74 in particular.1b Students check their answers with a partner.1c Student discussionNote: The idea of this activity is that students interpret the data for themselves,so opinions may differ about the claims. They should attempt to support theirown judgements with reference to the information given. However, some generalcomments are given below.Suggested answers1 This claim is not explicitly supported by any of the sources, though SourceA does claim that people turn to CAM because they are dissatisfied withconventional medical treatments, from which it might be inferred that this hassomething to do with side-effects, but it is uncertain.2 Source A claims that many complementary medical techniques are ancientand traditional, but it doesn’t automatically follow from this that this is thereason why people trust them now.3 This is not supported by any of the sources.4 It would be difficult to conclude anything of this sort from the data presentedhere, though it might reasonably be assumed from the data in Sources B andC that people in other regions of the UK – or other nations – are similar topeople in England.Unit 3 Part C ∙ Investigating 86

1dSuggested answersSummaries of each author’s position:Author 1The author is hostile to the idea of CAM, arguing that it is unscientific. Theauthor also maintains that claims that CAM enjoys widespread popularity arefalse, saying that the number of people using it is ‘tiny’. (This conflicts with theinformation in all three sources: Sources A/C claim that approximately 47% ofEnglish citizens will use CAM at some point in their lives; Source B found thatabout 10% of its sample used CAM.)The author also claims that use in the UK is mainly in the 45–54 age group,based on the information in Source B; however, this ignores the fact thatsimilar percentages are found in other age groups. There is no evidence for theauthor’s claim that people in that age group turn to CAM out of ‘desperation’.Author 2The author seems to accept the claim made in Source A that CAM enjoyswidespread popularity. However, they generalize from the evidence, which isbased mainly on statistics in England, to make less certain claims about theUK as a whole. Also, the author claims that because a wide variety of CAMtreatments are available in the UK, this means that the UK medical systemis one which “fairly balances both scientific, modern, medical therapies withnon-conventional approaches to treatment”, which is not supported by theevidence.1eSuggested answersStatement Agree DisagreeYou can be certain that what you read is correct if it iswritten by an expert.You should not automatically accept that claims aretrue just because they are supported by data.You cannot trust any data you read.You should not assume that your own conclusionsabout what data means are true.You should question where the data came from, whocollected it, and how it was gathered.✔✔✔✔✔1f Group discussion2 Dealing with sources of uncertainty2aSuggested answers• Claim may be based on research data for which the method is flawed.• Uncertainty may creep into a sound study if the number of observations(human sample size, number of measurements) is small.• There may be accidental misinterpretation of data when it is analyzed.• Claims made based on other people’s work are less certain becausethe original author may have used inconclusive data or it may containmisinterpretations.• There may be deliberate misrepresentation of information by a source.Unit 3 Part C ∙ Investigating 87

2bSuggested answers• Only a little over half of the original sample replied to the postalquestionnaires.• Male respondents are under-represented in the sample.• Burke’s study makes estimates for the entire UK population based on asample size of a little over 2000 people.• The respondents are only estimating how much they think they have spent onherbal medicines, so the answers are unlikely to be very accurate.2cSuggested answers1 This is problematic. No evidence is given for this, but people are likely to feelthat it is the case through common sense.2 Burke’s study isn’t really conclusive enough to warrant the claim that it is‘clear’.3 Not very accurate. Burke’s study is based on only 2,200 responses, mainlyfrom women. Saying ‘English people’ perhaps over-generalizes the findings.Saying ‘respondents’ would make the claim seem like a more objectivestatement of the findings.4 The first is more categorical, using the word ‘shows’, while the secondacknowledges uncertainty by using ‘estimates’.5 b6 Depends to an extent on students, but, as with 2 above, it is hard to say fromthis that the claim is ‘clearly’ true.2d Student discussion3 Avoiding absolute termsNote: ‘Extreme positions’ or ‘absolute terms’ is here understood to mean categoricaltruth claims that are easily disproven, or all-encompassing statements which areunlikely to apply to everything for which the claim is made. E.g.• The Western approach to medicine is the most effective. (Categorical truthclaim)• Everybody can benefit from using traditional medicine. (All-encompassingstatement)3a Students read through several pairs of passages, in the first of which the authorhas used absolute terms, and in the second of which they have used more cautiouslanguage. Students compare the use of language in the passages, then complete thetable of ‘useful expressions’ and ‘words to avoid’.Suggested answersNote: In each passage, key terms have been underlined. In the first passage of eachpair, therefore, the underlining denotes words or phrases that should be used withcare, while in the second passage it denotes alternative phrases which are morecautious.Unit 3 Part C ∙ Investigating 88

Passage 1aIndia, like all countries, has a medical system based on the modern ‘scientific’approach to healthcare. This is the ‘Western’ system (no particular phrase toavoid, but students should be aware that it’s a strong, categorical statement,even though the accuracy of the term itself is disputed). The modern Westernmedical system relies on treating patients with high-tech equipment and expensivedrugs manufactured by multinational pharmaceutical companies. This system is onlyavailable to the rich; no ordinary Indians can afford to use it. Furthermore, peoplenow understand that modern Western medicine is ineffective. However, because it isthe dominant system promoted by the government, people only use it because theyhave no choice.bLike many other nations, India’s medical system is based on the modern ‘scientific’approach to healthcare (sometimes known as the ‘Western’ system). The modernWestern medical system tends to rely on treating patients with high-tech equipmentand expensive drugs manufactured by multinational pharmaceutical companies.Consequently, it is limited to those who can afford to pay. Many ordinary Indianscannot afford to do this. A further issue with modern medicine in India is theawareness that it is not effective in every situation. However, as it is the dominantsystem promoted by the government, many Indians feel forced to use it becausethey have no cheaper or more effective option.Passage 2aIn the past, most people visiting an acupuncturist did so because they were sufferingfrom muscular or joint pain. The proportion of people visiting acupuncturists forthis reason has declined in recent years, while the proportion of people visiting anacupuncturist for other treatments (e.g. psychological, quitting smoking, or generalhealth treatments) has risen. This is due to the fact that acupuncture has becomebetter known around the world, and everybody knows that it can be used for a rangeof different treatments. In the UK, for instance, with the ban on public smoking in2007, and high tobacco prices, everyone wants to quit, and acupuncture is the mosteffective method for stopping: as a result, acupuncturists have seen large rises in thenumber of smokers visiting them.bHistorically, most visits to acupuncturists were for the treatment of muscular or jointpain. However, the proportion of people visiting acupuncturists for this reason hasdeclined in recent years, while the proportion of people visiting an acupuncturist forother treatments (e.g. psychological, quitting smoking, or general health treatments)has risen. This may be due to increasing public awareness of acupuncture; morepeople are now aware of the different range of medical problems that it can be usedto treat. In the UK, for instance, with the ban on public smoking in 2007, and hightobacco prices, increasing numbers of smokers are looking for help to quit, andacupuncture is seen as being one effective method for doing this: as a result, manyacupuncturists have seen an increase in the number of smokers visiting them.Unit 3 Part C ∙ Investigating 89

Passage 3aStudies of acupuncture all show that women like to visit acupuncturists more thanmen (for instance Macpherson et al., 2006; Thomas et al., 1988). This is becausewomen always visit doctors more than men. The survey shows that the majority ofpeople going to acupuncturists are between the ages of 35 and 70. Clearly, this isbecause everybody develops health problems as they get older, so they need to visitthe doctor more often.bSeveral recent studies of patients’ reasons for visiting acupuncturists indicate thatwomen tend to visit acupuncturists more than men (for instance Macpherson et al.,2006; Thomas et al., 1988). One possible reason for this is that women tend to visitdoctors of all types more often than men do. Another finding of the survey is that themajority of people visiting acupuncturists are between the ages of 35 and 70. Thismay have something to do with increased health problems in this age group.4 Protecting your position through citation4aSuggested answers1 Probably the first sentence: this is a non-integral citation (outside thesentence) and therefore suggests that the writer has accepted Jones’s claimas fact.2 Probably the second sentence: the writer has used ‘according to Jones’,which is more ambivalent about Jones’s claim than the citations given insentences 1 or 3.The position of the citation in sentence c along with the reporting verb ‘notes’clearly implies that the author wishes to present the information as a viewbelonging to Jones. In contrast, the non-integrated citation at the end of thesentence suggests that the author wishes to present the information as fact.4bSuggested answers1 (C) – Non-integral citations tend to accompany statements of what the authoraccepts as fact.2 (D) – Integral citation shows the writer’s stance with the expression used forthe citation. In this case ‘according to’ implies that the author may not agreewith the source, or is leaving room for doubt.3 (C) – Integral citation with the phrase ‘have proved that’, which seems toimply certainty.4 (D) – Integral citation, using the word ‘claims’ which may imply that the authordoes not agree with the source / leaves room for doubt.4cAnswers1Note: In this passage, most of the citations are non-integral (outside the grammar ofthe sentence) so only one has an introductory sentence.Unit 3 Part C ∙ Investigating 90

Herbal medicines are used widely within the UK (Benson et al., 2009). Indeed, asa recent study by Cox (2008) indicates, rising annual sales of herbal medicinessuggest that their popularity is on the increase. This popularity is probablydue to a number of factors: low price compared to the costs of conventionaldrugs (Cox, ibid); a popular notion that herbal treatments have fewer sideeffects (Lasky et al., 2005); and a growing interest in spiritual, traditional or‘holistic’ approaches to staying healthy which are not typically offered in themainstream medical system (Campbell & Ho, 2008). It seems, then, that peopleturn to herbal medicines and other similar treatments both because of typicalconsumer behaviour (sensitivity to cost and comparison of different products)as well as a rising attraction to ‘alternative’ lifestyle choices in the UK at large.2According to Quinn (2008), approximately 35% of the UK population willuse herbal remedies of some sort during their lifetime, either by visiting aherbal practitioner or by purchasing over-the-counter remedies in a shop.Numerous explanations have been given for the apparent popularity of theseremedies. Cox (2008) notes that the costs of herbal remedies are often farlower than conventional drugs (both in terms of monetary cost, and the timespent visiting a doctor to receive a prescription). However, there may be otherfactors involved besides cost. According to Fuller (1999), herbal remedieshave far fewer side effects than mainstream treatments. One study by Ponzioand Stewart (2004) suggests that this benign view of herbal medicines iswidespread among the general public, who may therefore be more inclined tochoose herbal medicines to treat less serious conditions. A further possibilityfor the widespread reliance on herbal medicines is suggested by Campbelland Ho (2008), who claim that herbal medicines fit in with a growing interest in‘alternative’ lifestyle choices in the UK. There is a growing interest in spirituality,alternative philosophies and fascination with ancient healing systems fromother nations such as India and China, and herbalism naturally falls into thatcategory of lifestyle choices.4dSuggested answers1 In 1) the writer seems more certain about the information they have used,because they use non-integral citations throughout, implying agreement. In 2)the author has used integral citations and more cautious phrases to introducethe information.2 Certain, because of the non-integral citation.3 This depends on the student. It is hard to say whether it is justified becauseno supporting evidence is presented. A reader could justly question whetherthe supporting sources were correct. (However, it might be worth pointingout that this type of unquestioned integral citation is more common – andappropriate – in the introductory section of an essay / report than it would bein a discussion section, for instance.) The use of more cautious language, andsupporting evidence, would help to make this more persuasive.Unit 3 Part C ∙ Investigating 91

4eSuggested answers1Presents factual data about historical uses of leeches, using non-integralcitations which suggests that the author is certain about this. The author isless certain about the claims for the numbers of leeches used in London andParis. The writer then presents a number of modern-day uses of leeches,again seeming to accept the information without question. Finally they endby considering the reasons for the revival of medical leeching. The author isless certain here because they only point out what supporting sources have‘suggested’ may be the reason.2Presents factual / biographical data about certain Arab and Persian medicalpioneers, seemingly without question, and also seems to accept the claim byCameron that Persian scholars are often treated as ‘Arabs’ for having writtenin Arabic. The writer also seems to accept Gorji and Ghadiri’s claims about theuse of Avicenna at the University of Brussels. The writer ends by using Gorjiand Ghadiri to support a claim that Persian physicians introduced many newscientific theories. By writing ‘As Gorji and Ghadiri have observed ...’, it seemsthat the writer accepts the truth of it.5 Using cautious language for your own claims5aSuggested answersNote: ‘Appropriateness’ here is taken to mean cautious language featuring the use ofmodal auxiliaries, adverbs, adjectives, etc., as well as avoidance of absolute terms ingeneral, and use of attributive phrases in citations.1 – Passage b2 – Passage a3 – Passage b5b Students check their answers with a partner.5cSuggested answersNote: In each passage, key terms have been underlined. In the ‘less appropriate’passage of each pair, therefore, the underlining denotes words or phrases thatshould be used with care, while in the ‘more appropriate’ passage it denotesalternative phrases which are more cautious.Passage 1aPharmaceutical manufacturing capacity is very restricted: over 92% of all new drugdevelopment takes place in the so-called high-income countries (WHO, 2004, p.5)(not a phrase to be avoided, but compared with the more cautious citationbelow, this is a more direct truth claim). The share of drugs manufactured inthe poor and middle-income countries is decreasing all the time, because thedevelopment of new drugs is a slow and costly process, requiring funding and hightechnology which are beyond the means of all but the largest corporations in thewealthy industrialized nations. This concentration of manufacturing capacity in just afew organizations, however, has serious consequences. The drug companies focuson developing only those medicines which they expect to be profitable, and havingmade them they protect them with commercial patents and charge high prices forUnit 3 Part C ∙ Investigating 92

them (no particular phrase to avoid, but compare with the more cautious versionbelow), even though other non-brand medicines are just as good. As a result, peoplein poorer countries are unable to get access to the best medicines because they aretoo expensive.bPharmaceutical manufacturing capacity is very restricted. According to the WHO(2004, p.5), over 92% of all new drug development takes place in the so-calledhigh-income countries. The share of drugs manufactured in the poor and middleincomecountries has decreased somewhat in recent years. It seems likely thatthis is because the development of new drugs tends to be a slow and costlyprocess, requiring funding and high technology which is beyond the means of allbut the largest corporations in the wealthy industrialized nations. This apparentconcentration of manufacturing capacity in just a few organizations, however, mayhave serious consequences. Evidence suggests that the drug companies focus ondeveloping only those medicines which they expect to be profitable, and havingmade them they protect them with commercial patents. Medicines manufacturedby the largest pharmaceutical corporations tend to be considerably more expensivethan non-brand medicines, even though these medicines may be equally effective.As a result, it is difficult for people in poorer countries to get access to the bestmedicines, at least in part because they are too expensive.Passage 2aEvery two years the World Health Organisation produces a list of essential medicines.These medicines are the ones which the WHO determines are absolutely criticalfor the treatment of all the medical conditions which can be influenced or cured bymedicine. The latest list identifies only 300 to 400 medicines as ‘essential’. However,there are a large number of other medicines which, though effective, may not beessential. Interestingly, a large percentage of the medicines sold in the developingworld by major pharmaceutical firms are not in the WHO’s ‘essential’ category. Thishas contributed to claims that the major pharmaceutical firms tend to ignore ThirdWorld health problems.bEvery two years the World Health Organisation produces a list of essential medicines.These medicines are the ones which are absolutely critical for the treatment of allthe medical conditions which can be influenced or cured by medicine. The latestlist proves that only 300 to 400 medicines are ‘essential’. However, there are many,many more medicines which, though effective, are not essential. Interestingly, a lotof the medicines sold in the developing world by major pharmaceutical firms arenon-essential. This shows that major pharmaceutical corporations ignore Third Worldhealth problems.Passage 3aOne study by the WHO shows that 50% of all medicines in low- and middle-incomenations are used inappropriately. The reasons for this are: improper advertising ofdrugs directly to consumers, creating demand for drugs among patients; lack oftraining for doctors and nurses; and commercial pressure from pharmaceuticalcompanies. Another reason is lack of access to critical information about the dosageand use of the drugs.Unit 3 Part C ∙ Investigating 93

One study by the WHO indicates that 50% of all medicines in low- and middleincomenations are used inappropriately. This may be due to several different factors:improper advertising of drugs directly to consumers, creating demand for drugsamong patients; lack of training for doctors and nurses; and commercial pressurefrom pharmaceutical companies. Another possible reason may be lack of access tocritical information about the dosage and use of the drugs.Unit Task: Traditional, complementary and modern medicineaSuggested answersMain idea of text: TM/CAM is widely used around the world, and its popularityis increasing in developed nations. However, there are questions about itssafety and efficacy.Sub-topic Specific claim Author’s level of certaintyTrends inthe use ofTM/CAMReasonsfor usingTM/CAMin thedevelopingworldReasonsfor usingTM/CAMin thedevelopedworldWidespread and growinguse both in developing anddeveloped nations1 People tend to use itbecause it is cheaper.2 People tend to use itbecause of easier access.3 People tend to use itbecause of tradition.1 People tend to useit because they aredissatisfied withconventional medicine.2 People tend to use itbecause it is seen asgentler / having fewer sideeffects.3 People tend to use itbecause it accords withtheir values.Seems quite certain. Makesa categorical claim that itis widely used. Presentsevidence without anyserious indication of doubtabout its certainty, thoughthe author does say that thedata for the UK and Canadaare estimates.Uses more cautiouslanguage to make theseclaims, so perhaps slightlyless certainty.The author presents severaldifferent possible reasonshere, but is quite neutralabout whether they acceptthem or not – they onlyobserve what other peoplehave claimed rather thanmaking any strong claims oftheir own, so this suggestsleaving room for doubt.Unit 3 Part C ∙ Investigating 94

Problemswith thesafety ofTM/CAMProblemswith theefficacy ofTM/CAM1 Some herbal remediesmay be contaminated.2 Problems arise from lackof regulation.1 There is little clinicalevidence for the efficacy ofmany TM/CAM treatments.2 Many conventionallytrained doctors aresceptical about TM/CAM.The author seems lesscertain about both claims,as they observe that theseclaims have been made byothers, but do not stronglyindicate whether they acceptthose claims or not. Again,the author seems quiteneutral on this.1 The author claims that thisis ‘certainly true’ (thoughthey provide no evidencefor it).2 The author appears tobelieve this is true, as theymake the claim but donot provide any citations /support for it.bBefore the next lesson students search for and read more material about traditionaland complementary medicines.Note: Ask students to turn to the checklist on p.241 and reread the tips relating toUnit 3 Parts A–B, before reading the tips to Unit 3 Part C. Encourage students to putthese tips into practice in their studies from now on. Tell them they will be asked toreport back on this in a future lesson.Unit 3 Part C ∙ Investigating 95

Part DReporting in speechThe aim of this lesson is for students to improve their speaking skills through:• explaining the possible implications of events• giving an oral progress report.Note: Until this point, most of Unit 3 has dealt with medicine of one sort or another.In this part, the focus shifts to other questions of progress. In order to preparestudents for this shift, it might be good to do a warm-up exercise in which studentsdiscuss technical / social progress and the state of human development in the world(for instance, the percentage of people that have access to clean water, or essentialmedicines).1 Explaining the possible implications of events1aSuggested answersProject AThis finding possibly implies that illness and disease, and possibly mortality, willincrease in many developing countries.Project BThe possible implications of this include improvements in health, longevity,education, and social change as secondary consequences. It may also lead toincreasing resource consumption and environmental damage.Project CA possible implication of this is increased life and health expectancy in malariaproneareas of the world.1b Student discussion1c Group discussion3.91dAnswersThe researcher claims that:• There will be increasing cultural diversity in European cities as a consequenceof increasing immigration.• Europe is increasingly seen as a safe and attractive destination for migrants.• Increasing poverty in many developing nations is pushing even more peopleto try to migrate to Europe.• Numbers of migrants will continue to rise, and European governments willbecome even stricter about immigration.1eAnswersSo I think there are some serious implications of this. Firstly, I think it’s likelythat we will see increasing cultural diversity in our cities, …Also, I think that the rising numbers of migrants suggests two things: firstly, …And the implication of that is that the numbers will continue to rise, but also ...Unit 3 Part D ∙ Reporting in speech 96

1fSuggested answers1 A dramatic rise overall in recent decades.2 According to one survey, people in many nations tend to support immigrationif they feel there are enough jobs available. The same survey also foundthat between 50% and 60% of people in developed nations feel that ethnicdiversity is beneficial for their countries.1g Group discussionNote: As this is a free discussion (on a potentially sensitive subject) and opinionsare likely to vary, no suggested answers are given here. However, students shouldbe encouraged to demonstrate the logic of their claims with reference to theinformation in 1f.1h Group discussion1i After a consensus has been reached, the group presents its ideas to the class.Note: The sequence of activities 1g–1i is based very loosely on the Delphiforecasting method, with progressive stages of argument to come to a finalprediction; therefore if there is time, activity 1i could be extended into a full classdiscussion (to come to a shared class conclusion) about the immigration topic.2 Giving an oral progress report3.102aAnswerThe student is currently recruiting participants for an experiment.2bSuggested answers1 an academic supervisor2 No. It’s behind schedule.3 The student had difficulty recruiting respondents: the initial recruitmentmethod failed so they had to begin again. However, the student doesn’t thinkit will prevent them from completing the project on time.2c Students check their answers.2d Student discussionSuggested answers• Introduction• How much is complete• What is currently being done• What remains to be done• Problems encountered• Summary of status• Points of interest which have emerged from the project• Conclusion2e Pair role-playUnit 3 Part D ∙ Reporting in speech 97

Unit Task: Traditional, complementary and modern medicineabStudents read and make notes on supplementary questions for their chosenassignment title.Group discussionNote: Ask students to turn to the checklist on p.241 and reread the tips relating toUnit 3 Parts A–C, before reading the tips to Unit 3 Part D. Encourage students to putthese tips into practice in their studies from now on. Tell them they will be asked toreport back on this in a future lesson.Unit 3 Part D ∙ Reporting in speech 98

Part EReporting in writingThe aim of this lesson is for students to improve their writing skills through:• explaining, comparing and interpreting sources• synthesizing sources and viewpoints• writing a progress report.1 Explaining, comparing and interpreting sources1aSuggested answers1 Many people would disagree with this. In some limited situations, informationmight be presented without further explanation after the citation for thesource is given (e.g. for uncontested background information), but in othercases the writer should probably add comments of their own to explain howthe information from the source is relevant.2 It is likely that most people would agree with this.3 Many people would disagree with this. With no attempt at interpretation, thewriting would presumably just be a string of quotes or paraphrases stitchedtogether, and as such would be considered bad writing.4 Probably the same answer as for the previous statement.5 Certainly in English the responsibility tends to fall on the writer rather than thereader.6 This may be the case in some other languages (‘reader responsible cultures’),but it is unlikely that this would be accepted in English.1b Students compare their answers with a partner.1c Group discussion1dAnswer‘increased human development’ (line 3); Jones also appears to agree with theUNHDR definition of progress as that towards ‘quality of life’ (line 9); ‘overallhuman well-being’ (line 13).1eSuggested answersStudent AThis seems to be a fair interpretation of Jones, as it claims that ‘progress’should be judged in terms of social improvement, not merely in terms oftechnological or economic development alone.Student BThis student incorrectly represents Jones as saying that all social progressrests on technological and economic development, which is arguably adistortion of Jones’s claims.1f Students check their answers with a partner.Unit 3 Part E ∙ Reporting in writing 99

1gSuggested answersSource A (Kirkup, 2007)cSource B (Goyal, 2010)Either a or b could be argued here: the writer has claimed that "Social progressis a myth", which would seem to suggest a) is correct. However, they do notactually claim that there has been no progress, so an argument for the lessextreme position b) could be made.Source C (Maxwell, 2010)a1h Student discussion1i Note: The passage interprets Source A (Kirkup, 2007) in exercise 1g.Suggested answersThe writer misrepresents Kirkup as claiming that “… the main results oftechnological development have been the catastrophic wars of the 20th centuryand damage to the environment”. Also, Kirkup does not deny that technologicaland economic advances have led to social progress, though the student writerclaims that Kirkup argues the opposite.1jExample answerThe evidence of progress in human affairs is everywhere: around the world,billions enjoy higher standards of living, access to nourishing food and cleanwater, better educational and employment prospects, and protections oftheir freedoms and rights. These improvements in the human condition aresafeguarded by organizations such as the United Nations, and it is arguablytrue that the ideal of human development is shared by all. However, somesceptics claim that this is not always the case. Kirkup (2007), for instance,argues that while there have been undoubted economic and technologicaldevelopments, human behaviour is often unchanged, and that this mixture oftechnical power and irrational behaviour has led to the catastrophic wars ofthe 20th century and damage to the environment. As Kirkup observes, thougheconomic and technological progress have brought many benefits, there isdanger in assuming that these alone are enough for true social progress.1kSuggested answerThe student seems to have interpreted Goyal’s stance fairly. The representationof Maxwell’s stance is unfair, however, suggesting that Maxwell agrees with Goyalin claiming that technological and economic developments do not lead to socialprogress. In fact Maxwell is quite positive, and does not hold similar views to Goyal.1lExample answerThere is a widespread view that the direction of history is a straight, upwardsprogression of ever-improving technological and social conditions. However,there is in fact some debate about the extent to which social progress reallytakes place. Goyal, for instance, claims that social progress is a “myth” (Goyal,2010, p.237). He asserts that undoubted developments in technology and thegrowth of financial markets have not helped to relieve poverty or suffering, andhave instead led to catastrophic wars and environmental breakdown.Unit 3 Part E ∙ Reporting in writing 100

Maxwell (2010) takes a different view, arguing that those who question theidea that real social progress exists at all when it is coupled with extensiveenvironmental and social breakdown are ignoring the many clear examples ofprogress. She argues that even though there have been frequent reversals ofprogress in history – such as the 1st and 2nd World Wars in the 20th century;environmental disasters such as Bhopal, Chernobyl and the BP oil spill in theGulf of Mexico – the overall trend of history is “ever upwards” (2010, p.18).1m Student discussion2 Synthesizing sources and viewpoints2a Group discussion2bSuggested answersParagraph 1: Writer questions whether scientific and technological progressequates to improvements in the human condition.Paragraph 2: 19th century and onwards sees awareness of negative effects oftechnological development.Paragraph 3: 20th century sees increasing problems associated withtechnological development.Paragraph 4: Technological development has led to both serious problems andimprovements in the human condition.2cSuggested answerAlthough the text is well written and logically structured, it is based entirely onsupport from a single source (Wirth, 2009); therefore this cannot be considereda successful example of academic writing.2d Note: There are a number of ways in which the information from these sourcescould be successfully incorporated into the essay in 2b, so the answers suggestedhere are only tentative.Suggested answersSource A: Davis, 2010.Paragraph Main idea of the paragraph Possible use in essay in 2b1 Background – people inCould be used in Para. 1.wealthier nations believetechnological progress will leadto a better world.2 There are many positives fromscience and technology.Could be used in Para. 4.3 There are also many negativeimpacts from technologicaladvances.4 Trust in economic drivers ofhuman progress / developmentis also false.Could be used to supportParas. 1 and 3.Could be used to supportPara. 3.Unit 3 Part E ∙ Reporting in writing 101

Source B: Cohen, 2009.Paragraph Main idea of the paragraph Possible use in essay in 2b1 Even though technologicaldevelopments have not alwaysled to, or even been intendedfor, the improvement of humanlife, there has been greatdevelopment in the quality ofhuman life in the 20th / early21st centuries.2 Economic and technologicaldevelopments have led togreat improvements in humandevelopment / quality of life.Negative points couldsupport Para. 2, positivescould support Para. 4.Could be used to supportPara. 4.2e Students check their answers with a partner.2fSuggested answers1 a) a general summary of Davis2 b) a direct quote from Davis3 c) a paraphrase of the last three lines of the Cohen passage2gSuggested answerAs events have shown, the course of human development has not been oneof uniform positive progress. While science and technology have brought“… many real contributions to the well-being of people around the world”(Davis, 2010, p.309), there have also been many setbacks. Therefore, tomaintain unquestioned faith in the idea of constant progress is to refuse toaccept facts (ibid).2h Students in small groups compare their paragraphs.2iSuggested answersExcerpt AAs Davies (2010) remarks, “who could argue that reductions in poverty orimprovements in healthcare were anything but positive results of technologicaldevelopment”.Excerpt BDavis (2010) draws attention to the environmental impact of the activities of bigbusiness. He asserts that the pursuit of profit causes large companies to engage inpractices which threaten the safety and livelihoods of people around the world.Excerpt CThe 1830s saw protest and unrest from farm workers, fearful of the danger to theirlivelihoods presented by mechanization (Cohen, 2009).2j Students compare their work.Unit 3 Part E ∙ Reporting in writing 102

3 Writing a progress reportNote: As formal progress reports are unlikely to be pieces of student academicwriting, this section presents the more informal type of progress report / updatewhich might be sent by letter or email to an academic supervisor. Nevertheless, itshould help to acquaint students with the key features and functions of any type ofprogress report.3aAnswers• Introduction• How much is complete• What is currently being done• What remains to be done• Problems encountered• Summary of status• Points of interest which have emerged from the project• Conclusion3bAnswersSectionTo: Dr P Hopkins From: Jean MicheletSubject: Progress on research project.PurposeN/A (Salutationand opening ofthe email)Dear Dr Hopkins.You requested an update on my research project abouttechnological developments; this email outlines myprogress so far.As I mentioned to you in our first meeting, my aim in theproject is to identify technological developments thathave been predicted to occur in the next 50 years, andto evaluate these in terms of their social, economic andenvironmental impacts. I intend to submit this as part of myportfolio for my independent research module.In my last email to you I gave the following completionschedule for my work:Selection of research question – by 21 MayCompletion of initial literature review – 11 JuneSubmission of project proposal – 18 JuneCompletion of data collection – 9 JulyAnalysis of data – 23 JulyFirst draft – 13 AugustRevision and final draft – 10 SeptemberIntroduction /overview of theaim of the workHow much iscomplete sofar and alsosome problemsencounteredUnit 3 Part E ∙ Reporting in writing 103

So far I have successfully completed each stage of theproject up to and including the collection of data. However,I feel that the information I have is slightly too basic, sosome more data would be useful. It turned out that therewas rather less information in the public domain than I hadexpected, and what was there focused more on technicalprojects. Also, there is relatively little academicallyappropriate literature on the predicted impacts oftechnology. I plan to search for more data while I continuewith the analysis over the next two weeks.I have just started the data analysis, which is going wellso far, though as mentioned above I will need to find somemore data. However, I do not expect that this will causea significant change to my intended schedule. I have alsostarted writing a first draft of the main body, and changedthe literature review from the feedback that you gave mewhen I last met you.I expect to complete the data analysis and begin work inearnest on the first draft around 18th August. As I will bemeeting you on the 22nd I will hopefully be able to presentyou with an early draft then.Despite the slight problem with the quantity of dataavailable, I believe my project is proceeding on schedule,and anticipate that I will be able to submit it withoutproblems by the original deadline of 10th September.Best wishes,Jean Michelet.What iscurrently beingdoneWhat remains tobe doneSummary ofstatusClosingvalediction3c Students create a progress report email.3d Students swap their reports with a partner and identify the sections of theirpartner’s report.Unit Task: Traditional, complementary and modern medicineabStudents are instructed to write the report appropriate to their assignment title.Students use the table in the text to help them plan out the main body.Note: Ask students to turn to the checklist on p.241 and reread the tips relating toUnit 3 Parts A–D, before reading the tips to Unit 3 Part E. Encourage students to putthese tips into practice in their studies from now on. Tell them they will be asked toreport back on this in a future lesson.Unit 3 Part E ∙ Reporting in writing 104

Unit 4Art, creativity and designUnit OverviewPartThis unit will help you to …In SS2 by improving yourability to …A Listen actively • cope with distractions• detect a speaker’s level ofcertainty• listen critically.B Read intensively • identify appropriate readingtechniques• read intensively forunderstanding• read critically.CEvaluate the strength ofresearch evidence• understand reliability andvalidity• analyze the suitability ofsamples.D Discuss research findings • describe research findings• describe and explain data• discuss research findings.E Write a formal report • use supporting informationin writing• write an abstract• avoid plagiarism.In LS2 by improving yourability to …• recognize speaker attitude• understand signpostingexpressions to improvecomprehension• understand the relationshipbetween parts of a talk.• understand registervariations in academic andnon-academic vocabulary• understand the use of affixesin academic vocabulary• understand nominalization.• recognize key researchterminology• understand the languagefeatures of research reports• write about researchlimitations.• describe and comment onresearch findings• form indirect questions• use appropriatepronunciation and languagewhen agreeing anddisagreeing.• recognize and use thestructure and grammar ofabstracts• write an abstract usingconcise language.Unit 4 Art, creativity and design ∙ Overview 105

Unit 4Art, creativity and designPart AUnderstanding spoken informationThe aim of this lesson is for students to improve their listening skills in lecturesthrough:• coping with distractions• detecting a speaker’s level of certainty• listening critically.1 Coping with distractions1a Students rate different distractors.1b Students think of other distractors.1c Group discussion2 Detecting a speaker’s level of certainty2aAnswersMore certaintyThis proves that …… definitely …It is clear that …It is not true.… obviously …In fact …Room for doubtThis suggests that …Perhaps …It tends to …The evidence indicates that …It may not always be the case.It seems to …2b Students check their answers with a partner.2c Student discussion2dAnswers4.1Speaker 11 Effectiveness of HAMs overall?HAMs are clearly only effective when matched to certainproduct types.2 Bower and Landreth 2001a) HAMs = good for: luxury goods, cars, holidaysb) NAMs = good for: furniture polish, ordinary foodUnit 4 Part A ∙ Understanding spoken information 106

Speaker 21 Effectiveness of HAMs overall?HAMs’ effectiveness may be related to product type.2 Bower and Landreth 2001a) Consumers trust HAMs?Not as much in adverts for ordinary products.b) Adverts are most effective if consumer can believe that… the model is the type of person who would usethe product.3 Kamins 1990a) Best models for clothes, jewellery, etc.: HAMsb) Best for food, furniture polish, etc.: No difference betweenHAMs/NAMs4 Effect of attractiveness overall?Attractiveness is likely to be a factor in successful adverts,but the nature of the relationship is uncertain.2eSuggested answersSpeaker 1: Sentence 3Speaker 2: Sentence 42f Students compare and explain their answers.2gAnswers4.2ClaimPeople respond positively to advertsusing highly attractive models.People from different culturalbackgrounds share ideas about whatis ‘beautiful’.Speaker’s level of certaintyNo cautious language used. Seemsquite certain of it. At the end,claims that the beauty of a model‘clearly’ influences consumers.No cautious language used. Seemsquite certain of it. The speakerclaims that the study shows‘cross-cultural agreement’.4.22hSuggested answersBased on the speaker’s apparent certainty (as seen in 2g above), the mostappropriate answer is Statement 1: ‘The speaker strongly believes that peopleare more influenced by beautiful models used for advertising’.2i Students check their ideas with a partner.3 Listening criticallyNote: Where the aim of Part 2 is for students to identify the speaker’s certaintyabout the claims they are making, the aim here is for students to decide if theyaccept the speaker’s claims (i.e. do they agree with the level of certainty that thespeaker presents?).Unit 4 Part A ∙ Understanding spoken information 107

4.23aSuggested answers1 The survey is an informal, small-scale one. There is no information aboutthe criteria that were used to select the models used. It might suggest a linkbetween the attractiveness of the models and the customers’ responses, butit cannot be said to prove anything conclusively.2 Not really academically suitable, as they are based on an informal experimentconducted by an unnamed newspaper.3 The speaker concludes a strong link between the beauty of the modelsused and consumers’ preferences, though the evidence does not supportsuch a strong link. The speaker also concludes that standards of beautyare cross-cultural because the customers included people from a range ofethnic groups; again, this study does not show very strong evidence for thatconclusion.4 People may have gone to one booth rather than the other for a number ofreasons not connected to the attractiveness of the models. For example,people may have been attracted to the drink; one of the booths may havebeen set up in a more or less popular area of the shopping centre than theother; the staff in the booth may have been more proactive about trying toentice customers into the booth.4.33bAnswersTheme of talk: How advertisers use beauty to appeal to consumersClaims:1 Notions of what a ‘beautiful’ personis clearly vary between differentcultures.2 Criteria for judging beauty vary fromplace to place.3 Advertising within a culture issimpler than advertising betweencultures.Supporting points:Claims a preference amongmany white Europeans andNorth Americans for tanned skin,compared to a preference for palerskin among East Asians. However,no evidence for this is offered.USA: more focused on the shape ofthe body and even some notion of‘sex-appeal’Taiwan and Singapore: focuses moreon facial characteristicsCites a 2005 study by Frith et al.which found that US women’smagazine advertising tendedto focus more on clothing andthe body, while in Taiwan andSingapore, women’s magazineadvertising tended to focus onfacial products and cosmetics.Gives an example of a companyneeding to adapt its brand to localconditions, but offers no otherevidence except that already given.3c Students compare their ideas with a partner.Unit 4 Part A ∙ Understanding spoken information 108

4.33dSuggested answersClaim 1 is rather weak, as it’s based only on anecdotal evidence. However, thespeaker is certain about it, as they say there is ‘clearly’ a difference in notionsof beauty between cultures.Claim 2 is slightly stronger, as it gives evidence from a study in support.However, the speaker says that it would be dangerous to conclude just fromthis one study that definitions of beauty did vary in this way, so they seemslightly less certain about this.3e Students decide their own response to the claims.3f Student discussionUnit Task: Designing buildings for human needsa & b Group discussioncAnswers4.4Main idea of the talk: That the physical features of a building (whetherarchitecture or indoor design elements) can have significant impacts on theenvironment and on the people who live and work within them. Architects,planners and designers should take these impacts into account.Sub-topic:EnvironmentalconsiderationsAffective factorsPractical factorsClaim:There are innovative techniques for designingbuildings to be more environmentally friendly (e.g.less energy hungry).The speaker seems certain of this claim, butoffers no evidence in support of it.The physical features of a building have ‘affective’qualities (they can impact the mood, emotions,psychological state, etc. of the occupants). Thisincludes effects from things like lighting, colourschemes, furnishings and building materials, etc.The speaker claims that a number of studies haveestablished a link, but that conclusive evidenceof their impacts is ‘hard to come by’. The speakerdoes make a claim for the benefits of indoorplants, citing a study by Shibata and Suzuki,which found that indoor plants helped women inparticular do well on cognitive tests. However, thespeaker says that the link is ‘possible’, so she isnot claiming it is absolutely certain.Claims that studies in ergonomics can help toimprove ease of use for workspaces, and thatthis can improve productivity and reduce injury.However, no specific evidence is offered. Thespeaker, nonetheless, seems certain of the valueof this type of research, and its importance ingood building design.Unit 4 Part A ∙ Understanding spoken information 109

defStudents listen again to judge the speaker’s level of certainty. (Answers above.)Student discussionGroup discussionNote: Ask students to turn to the checklist on p.241 and read the tips relating toUnit 4 Part A. Encourage students to put these tips into practice in their studiesfrom now on. Tell them they will be asked to report back on this in a future lesson.Unit 4 Part A ∙ Understanding spoken information 110

Part BUnderstanding written informationThe aim of this lesson is for students to improve their reading and writing skillsthrough:• identifying appropriate reading techniques• reading intensively for understanding• reading critically.1 Identifying appropriate reading techniquesNote: The definition of ‘realistic art’ given in the following sections has beendeliberately simplified for ease of understanding by non-specialist students.1a Student discussionSuggested answers1 Students’ own answers.2 Students’ own answers, but it generally means that you read very carefully sothat you understand every detail. It means that you may read slowly, questionyour understanding, and use a dictionary, all so that your understanding iscomplete and correct.1b Students read the definition of intensive reading.1c Student discussionSuggested answersSkimming: Looking briefly at a text to get a general idea of the content.Scanning: Reading quickly through a text to find a specific piece of information.Intensive reading: Careful, purposeful reading for a thorough, critical understanding.1dSuggested answers1 Scanning2 Intensive3 Intensive4 Intensive5 Intensive6 Skimming and Scanning7 Scanning and Intensive2 Reading intensively for understanding2a Group discussion2bAnswersPicture a: RenaissancePicture b: Middle AgesPicture c: ClassicalUnit 4 Part B ∙ Understanding written information 111

Note: In the next series of activities, students practise intensive reading by readingand comparing slightly different versions of otherwise identical texts. The changesare limited to one or two words in most cases, but have a potentially significantimpact on the author’s argument or apparent stance.2cAnswersMain idea:Italy produced the most realistic and beautiful art during the fifteenth andsixteenth centuries through using inspiration from classical Rome (proportion)and new scientific techniques (perspective).Supporting information:This period is called the Renaissance (revival) in reference to the rediscovery ofclassical knowledge and forms in art. Italian Renaissance artists aimed to maketheir art represent reality.How Italian artists made their paintings realistic:Italian art captured genuine images of the human form. They used classicalknowledge about proportion and contemporary scientific or mathematicaldiscoveries about perspective.The style of painting in Northern Europe:According to the writer, the Renaissance had no effect on Northern Europeanart, which was flat and less true-to-life than in Italy. Jan Van Eyck’s art in theNetherlands aimed to create realism, but was less effective and beautiful thanItalian art as he didn’t use teachings on perspective and proportion.2d Note: Changes in Text B are underlined in the text below, with the implications ofthose changes written in italics.AnswersText BEurope created beautiful, and realistic, art in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries (thewhole of Europe, not just Italy). This period is known as the Renaissance, or ‘revival’,because it moved away from the less life-like art of the Middle Ages (the periodbetween the Classical Age of ancient Greece and Rome, and the Renaissance)and revived the more true-to-life art of classical times (the language is more neutraland cautious here. It is less dismissive of art of the Middle Ages). Classical art wasthought to be more ‘real’ than art in the Middle Ages because it aimed to capturea genuine image of the human form: people looked like real people (again, morecaution used here). Renaissance artists revived this reality, or ‘truth’, in their art,with classical writing on proportion and contemporary Italian scientific discoveriesabout perspective, helping to make this possible (the other text says that proportionand perspective were the ‘only’ way this was possible; this text is more open to theidea that other techniques helped to create beautiful and realistic art). Mathematicsassisted artists in the recreation of nature’s beauty in sculpture, architectureand paintings: human beings could be represented with accurate proportions;landscapes could be recreated on flat walls as though a window had been openedto the world (more caution here, and no emphasis just on Italian artists). At the sametime, art in Northern Europe was less affected by Renaissance teachings (caution:suggestion that it was affected, but not as strongly as in other places). While someart continued to be created in a flat, less true-to-life, manner, Jan van Eyck (1390?–1441), of the Netherlands, did try to make his paintings realistic (suggestion that vanEyck not following tradition of Dutch art of the Middle Ages, whereas the other textsuggests that his art still inferior to Italian). He copied minute detail such as individualhairs in an animal’s fur and strands in a tapestry to make his images seemUnit 4 Part B ∙ Understanding written information 112

true-to-life, but did not try to recreate the world only by using the Italian techniquesof perspective or proportion (suggestion that he did also use perspective andproportion in his art). Jan van Eyck did make his painting beautiful and realisticthrough making his art colourful and detailed, with his art no less effective in terms ofbeauty and reality than his Italian counterparts’ (more definite here – text A says ‘tryto make’; certain that van Eyck’s art as effective as Italian art in terms of beauty andreality).2e Students check their answers.2f Student discussionAnswers1 Text A2 Italian renaissance art used ideas from classical Italy about proportion andnew ideas about perspective to create more realistic art; Northern Europeanart not using the same techniques and was not so effective.3 Yes, with the comment that he was not ‘only’ using Italian techniques,suggesting that he was using some Italian techniques.4 Northern European (Dutch) art focused on detail and colour to capture beautyand reality, and less on perspective and proportion.5 Text B. It is more cautious in terms of the language used. Nevertheless, theauthor’s views are strong, especially in the final sentences.Note: Activities 2f–2h give more of the same practice with intensive reading asin activities 2b–2e, and are not aiming at a different teaching point: they cantherefore be considered optional. The texts in these activities centre on the conceptof ‘contrapposto’ stance. This was first used in ancient Greek sculpture to give theimpression of life in depictions of human beings. The contrapposto stance puts theweight of the figure being represented onto one leg, with the subject’s arms andshoulders moving in the other direction to give the illusion of movement. This wasin contrast to the previously static, ‘unrealistic’, images of humans where weightwould be evenly distributed on both legs. This technique was revived during theRenaissance with the dual purpose of bringing to mind classical art, which wasundergoing a revival, and imbuing figures in art with more life, or realism.2g Student discussionSuggested answers1 Depends on students’ own opinions.2 Depends to an extent on students, but the sculpture on the left is less life-likethan the figure on the right. The figure on the left is standing in a position thatdoes not seem realistic (this is known as the Gothic ‘S-shape’ curve). The hairis unnatural, or stylized. The figure on the right is standing in a more naturalmanner, seemingly ready for movement. You can see his figure beneath theclothing, and his facial expression appears more natural.Note: The figure on the left is an example from the Middle Ages, and is typical ofdepictions of humans at that time (stylized, less true to life). The figure depictsSaint Barbara. The sculpture on the right is from Classical Rome and is a goodexample of ‘contrapposto’ (see below for more detail about this technique).Unit 4 Part B ∙ Understanding written information 113

2hAnswersDefinition of contrappostoA classical technique used in the visual arts to make a human form appearmore lifelike. In contrapposto, the weight of the subject is taken on one foot tocreate the impression of movement.The historical periods when contrapposto was used in artWas used in the Classical period and also during the Renaissance periodin Italy.The difference between Albrecht Dürer’s work before and after visiting Italy in 1495:BeforeDoes not use Classical effects (yet even so appears more natural than his workafter returning from Italy).AfterUses effects from Classical art, such as contrapposto, in his work.2iAnswersNote: Text B is reproduced below. Differences between this and Text A areunderlined; comments about the implication of the change are given in italics.Text B‘Contrapposto’ is a classical technique used in the visual arts to make the humanform appear more lifelike, or dynamic (more definite statement than Text A). Insculpture and drawings of the human body, the weight of the subject is takenon one foot, with the arms and shoulders twisting away to create movement(again, this is more certain). During the Middle Ages this technique was never used,with artists unconcerned about creating true-to-life impressions of human beings(strong statements without caution). This technique was revived in RenaissanceItaly and can be seen in the work of fifteenth- and sixteenth-century artists fromacross Europe.The German artist Albrecht Dürer first visited Italy in 1494, with his sketches fromaround the time of this visit inspired by classical art (implies all of his sketches,from before and after 1494, inspired by classical art; Text A states only after 1494are there classical influences). It is worthwhile to compare Dürer’s 1493 drawing ofa bathhouse girl with his 1495 drawing of a woman seen from the back (no explicitexplanation as to why, unlike Text A). Dürer’s 1495 drawing is of classical sculpture:it imitates classical models (again, definite about what the artist is doing, unlike TextA which is less certain). His subject is standing according to classical contrapposto:she is ready for action, with her weight taken on the right leg (again, more certainty).In spite of this technique, which creates greater realism, the pose is not natural (nocaution). In fact, compared to his 1493 drawing of a bathhouse girl, who is standingupright with no attempt to imitate classical sculpture or use contrapposto, the 1495drawing is unnatural, with an unrealistic posture (stronger claim).It is a matter of debate why the 1493 drawing, which does not attempt contrapposto,manages to create a more convincingly natural, or realistic, impression of a woman’sposture than the 1495 drawing (stronger claim). Dürer felt that he had createdcontrapposto in his 1495 drawing, and therefore a more natural look, and wished togive an impression of the classical sculpture he had seen on his travels (how doesthe writer know this? No caution and could be contested easily by the reader).Unit 4 Part B ∙ Understanding written information 114

2jAnswersSummary A:Both good points and bad points. The main point of the summary is consistentwith the author’s position in the original text (that Northern European art isas beautiful and realistic as Italian art during the Renaissance, even though itlargely used different techniques), but some information misunderstood fromthe original, e.g. Northern artists only drew animals / did not use Maths. It doessummarize the original in other words.Summary B:The best summary of the three. Accurately describes the author’s position andputs the information into other words.Summary C:The worst summary of the three. Some information not in the original text, e.g.didn’t say Art History changed dramatically; no mention of human images being‘unreal’ and ‘unattractive’, just presumed that’s what the author meant; nomention of classical ‘paintings’ in the original (as classical painting extremelyscarce); Jan van Eyck used different techniques other than ‘Italian’ techniquesto make his art beautiful and realistic. The summary doesn’t refer to theauthor’s position at all.2kAnswersThe writer seems to describe Henstock’s position, but it is not accurate. Thewriter of this text suggests that Dutch artists didn’t use any ‘Italian’ techniquesduring the Renaissance:“Henstock (2010) indicates that Northern European and Italian artists of theRenaissance were using different techniques to attain beauty and reality in theirart, with Italian artists looking to scientific teachings on proportion, and Dutchartists drawing from life and imitating detail in their art.”In fact, Henstock (in 2c) suggests that Dutch artists were not only using Italiantechniques, suggesting that they did use some of them: “… but did not tryto recreate the world only by using the Italian techniques of perspective orproportion”.2l Note: This is based on what is written in ‘Henstock, 2010’ (Text B in 2d).AnswersDefinition A: Henstock is not likely to agree with this definition: there is nothing inthe text to support this definition of beauty.Definition B: It could be argued that Henstock would agree with this definition, asthe text mentions that the Renaissance revived ‘true-to-life art of classical times’,which made it beautiful and realistic. Henstock says that Northern European artwas as beautiful as Italian art, and it copied detailed images from life. If an image isrealistic, an observer may therefore think it’s beautiful? The text doesn’t mention thesubjective nature of beauty specifically, however.Definition C: Henstock is most likely to agree with this definition, as classical writingon proportion is mentioned, with Mathematics assisting “artists in the recreation ofnature’s beauty in sculpture, architecture and paintings” in both Italy and NorthernEurope (albeit to a lesser extent).2m Students check their answers to 2j–2l with a partner.Unit 4 Part B ∙ Understanding written information 115

3 Reading critically3aAnswersAbility1 Disagreeing with everything youreadCritical reading? (Y/N)N – Critical reading must befounded on something; it is notuseful if the reader is disagreeingfor no reason.2 Accepting everything you read N – Critical readers understandthat different writers have differentmotivations and not everything thatis written is accurate or objective.3 When you are presented with anyresearch data, questioning whogathered it, how they gathered it,and how they analyzed the data4 Understanding the author’sintended meaning5 Trusting only information from thereading list which your teachergives you6 Finding negative points in otherpeople’s writing7 Questioning whether supportingdata or statistics are accurate8 Considering the logicalimplications of what the author isclaiming9 Questioning whether you agreewith the author’s intended meaning10 Comparing information and claimsfrom different sources to identifydifferences and reach your ownconclusions11 Accepting information which hasbeen written by recognized expertsYY – Question what the author istrying to make the readers think /feel by the way they have presentedtheir work.N – A text may be reliable, butthe content can still be looked atcritically.N – As above, being critical doesn’tmean you are just looking for thebad, but also differences with othertexts you have read.YY – Are their claims realistic?Y – And why.Y – Very important for their ownunderstanding and writing.N – Critical readers still questionhow these writers have reachedtheir conclusions.3b Students check their answers in groups.Unit 4 Part B ∙ Understanding written information 116

3cAnswers1 To make their art more ‘real’ and ‘beautiful’; to help them capture whatpeople really looked like; so that their art looked different from the art of theMiddle Ages.2 It is ‘unaccomplished’ or ‘near-primitive’ (very strong, subjective viewsfrom 2c, Text A); it didn’t capture a realistic image of people; it was lesstrue-to-life.3dAnswers‘Contrapposto’ is a classical technique used in the visual arts to make the humanform appear more lifelike, or dynamic.1 Students’ own answers2 No claim is made.3 Students’ own answers4 No data or supporting evidence is presented.5 N/AIn sculpture and drawing of the human body, the weight of the subject is taken onone foot, with the arms and shoulders twisting away to create movement. During theMiddle Ages this technique was never used, with artists unconcerned about creatingtrue-to-life impressions of human beings.1 Students’ own answers2 That in the Middle Ages, artists did not care about creating true-to-lifeimpressions of human beings.3 Students’ own answers4 That artists in the Middle Ages didn’t use the ‘contrapposto’ technique.5 Hard to evaluate.This technique was revived in Renaissance Italy, and can be seen in the work offifteenth- and sixteenth-century artists from across Europe.1 Students’ own answers2 That the contrapposto technique was used in countries throughout Europe.3 Students’ own answers4 That it can be seen in the work of artists from across Europe.5 If the claim is true, it would be easy to check by looking at the work of artistsin Europe at that time.The German artist Albrecht Dürer first visited Italy in 1494, with his sketches fromaround the time of this visit inspired by classical art. It is worthwhile to compareDürer’s 1493 drawing of a bathhouse girl with his 1495 drawing of a woman seenfrom the back.1 Students’ own answers2 That Albrecht Dürer first visited Italy in 1494 and that he was influenced byclassical art at that time.3 Students’ own answers4 That evidence of this influence can be seen in a work produced before hetook the trip to Italy.5 ReliableUnit 4 Part B ∙ Understanding written information 117

Dürer’s 1495 drawing is of classical sculpture: it imitates classical models. Hissubject is standing according to classical contrapposto: she is ready for action, withher weight taken on the right leg. In spite of this technique, which creates greaterrealism, the pose is not natural.1 Students’ own answers2 That despite using the contrapposto technique, the pose shown in the 1495drawing is not natural.3 Students’ own answers4 No data or supporting evidence is presented. The claim appears to be theauthor’s opinion.5 N/AIn fact, compared to this 1493 drawing of a bathhouse girl, who is standing uprightwith no attempt to imitate classical sculpture or use contrapposto, the 1495 drawingis unnatural, with an unrealistic posture.1 Students’ own answers2 That the pose shown in the 1495 drawing is less natural than that shown inthe 1493 one, despite the use of contrapposto.3 Students’ own answers4 No data or supporting evidence is presented. The claim appears to be theauthor’s opinion.5 N/AIt is a matter of debate why the 1493 drawing, which does not attempt contrapposto,manages to create a more convincingly natural, or realistic, impression of a woman’sposture than the 1495 drawing.1 Students’ own answers2 That the 1493 drawing creates a more realistic impression of a woman’sposture than the 1495 drawing.3 Students’ own answers4 No data or supporting evidence is presented.5 N/ADürer felt that he had created contrapposto in his 1495 drawing, and therefore amore natural look, and wished to give an impression of the classical structure he hadseen on his travels.1 Students’ own answers2 That Dürer felt that he had created contrapposto in his 1495 drawing, and thathe wished to give an impression of the classical structure he had seen on histravels.3 Students’ own answers4 No data or supporting evidence is presented.5 N/A3e Students check their answers with a partner.3fAnswersThe writer would probably reject it: they argue that Renaissance artistscombined techniques of classical and medieval architecture, and that withoutone medieval innovation (the flying buttress), the greatest Renaissancearchitecture would have been impossible.3g Student discussion3h Note: Teachers should ensure that students are stopping at regular points to thinkcritically about the text.Unit 4 Part B ∙ Understanding written information 118

AnswersMost of the author’s claims are not well supported and seem to be subjective,so it is difficult for the reader to accept their argument without question.Key points are underlined below, with comments given in bold and italic.The period of European history between the fifth and fifteenth centuries is still,largely, referred to as the ‘Middle’ or ‘Dark’ Ages. Both are negative terms that werecoined in Italy in the fifteenth century (reliable information? How do we knowthis?) to suggest that classical learning had been lost with the destruction of theRoman Empire in the fifth century, but was being brought back in the classicalRenaissance of the fifteenth century. These derogatory terms still affect the waymany people judge the art of this period. However, it will be suggested that art andarchitecture of this time was no less ‘learned’ than that of classical times, with artof the Middle Ages influencing that of the Renaissance (the writer’s opinion isclear here).The Roman Empire was, inevitably, a source of pride amongst many Italians.Powerful, developed and sophisticated, the empire seemed to represent a periodof learning and civilization that was lost with its destruction. Roman Italy haddominated the world, but was gradually destroyed by German tribes including the‘Goths’ and ‘Vandals’. To ‘vandalize’ entered the language after this time, meaning tomindlessly destroy beauty, and art of the Middle Ages was termed ‘Gothic’ by ItalianRenaissance writers, meaning ‘barbaric’ (Gombrich, 1995, p.162) (supported point,so likely to be reliable). The negative language that Italian Renaissance writers usedto discuss the Middle Ages has therefore influenced the way people have viewed artof this period, for centuries.Every Italian of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries felt that they were bringingback the learning of classical times in their art and architecture (‘Every’ Italian?;unreliable claim). However, art, especially architecture, of that time would not havebeen possible without the invention of Gothic artists. Cathedrals built in twelfth- andthirteenth-century France and Germany were far grander than any of the architecturebuilt during classical times (subjective view; how is the writer judging whatis grand? No proof). Entering a cathedral such as Notre Dame in Paris cannotfail to take one’s breath away (again, subjective, and a strong claim; idiomaticwhich is not a suitable academic style of writing). It was constructed using anew technique, the flying buttress, which helped to support walls, enabling them tobecome thinner and impossibly high. Columns that needed to be heavy in classicalarchitecture to support the weight of the building could now become so thin thatit seemed impossible for these buildings to stand. The flying buttress, therefore,was a Gothic invention, but it was used by the greatest Italian Renaissance artist,Brunelleschi (may be true, but using language to make Gothic art sound evenbetter, and emphasize their point: not objective).Brunelleschi (1377–1446) is famous for both his invention and use of classical Romantechniques in his architecture. He is renowned for having discovered the rules ofperspective, which so influenced the painting of Renaissance Europe. Many writersargue that his most famous work, the Dome that crowns Florence’s cathedral, usedclassical techniques to support its weight (Who? Writer needs to be specific to helpus believe him). At that time, the flying buttress was unpopular in Florence as it wasa Northern European invention and so Brunelleschi chose not to use it (this seems tocontradict the final sentence of the previous paragraph). However, even thoughhe did not use the flying buttress, he did use other Gothic techniques. Therefore, inthe Dome of Florence’s cathedral, we can see a clear example of how Gothic buildingskills inspired Renaissance architecture (very unusual claim given that the writerhas not explained the techniques he did use, and said he didn’t use the flyingbuttress: makes us question the quality of the information in this text).Unit 4 Part B ∙ Understanding written information 119

To summarize, art and architecture of the Middle Ages has been unfairly criticizedover the years due to Italian Renaissance writers’ negative attitude towards art thatwas created by the people they considered to have destroyed the Roman Empire. Yet,the invention of Gothic architecture, and the influence it continued to have during theRenaissance, prove that art during this period was inventive, forward thinking, and in noway inferior to classical and Renaissance art (not proven in main body of the text).Unit Task: Designing buildings for human needsaStudents should read and take notes from this text to help them build knowledgeabout the specific assignment they have chosen, not general notes about theentire text.bcAnswers1 Not sure – evidence is inconclusive in the section on ‘lighting’.2 Perhaps the colour blue, indoor plants, but other factors important too, suchas noise. Not much information about lighting – the writer is vague here.3 Computers not incorporated well into the home currently, just put somewherewithout thought. A smart home would have computers built into its design tohelp people in their domestic activities.Students consider the extent to which they agree with the author’s claims.Note: Ask students to turn to the checklist on p.241 and reread the tips relating toUnit 4 Part A, before reading the tips to Unit 4 Part B. Encourage students to putthese tips into practice in their studies from now on. Tell them they will be asked toreport back on this in a future lesson.Unit 4 Part B ∙ Understanding written information 120

Part CInvestigatingThe aim of this lesson is for students to improve their researching skills through:• understanding reliability and validity• analyzing the suitability of samples.Note: The aim of Part C is to give students an introduction to critically analyzingresearch evidence, and thinking about things like reliability and validity, as wellas the impact of sample sizes and type of data gathered. This section is weightedheavily towards social science / humanities research as it tends to give examplesof research involving human subjects, though arguably the same principles applyto measurements of other things – animals, physical artefacts, secondary data,and so on.As before, this is intended to give an introduction to this type of issue at a levelwhich students can understand, so it is rather basic in places (for instance thesection on validity gives only an idea of some of the types of validity) and makesno attempt to be exhaustive.1 Understanding reliability and validity1aSuggested answersResearch 1:The validity of the study is low, as the findings are based on a limited sampleof people between 19 and 23, and males are under-represented; therefore theconclusion that the universal ‘best’ height for a table is 1.2 metres is debatable.Also, there may be an issue with the test itself, as kitchen tables are not usedonly for preparing sandwiches.Research 2:The validity of this study is low. The findings only weakly suggest that thelever‐type door handles are easier to use (only about half of the respondentsfound them easier to use, and the test results suggest only a slight increase inpressure is needed). This does not support a strong claim that rounded doorknobs are ineffective.Research 3:The validity of this study is also low. A small sample size is used which doesnot support a strong claim that computers are useful in the kitchen. Also, only13 of the respondents replied ‘yes’, so the results are hardly conclusive. Finally,there is an issue with the construct being tested: ‘feeling comfortable’ havinginstructions on screen is not the same as saying that the computer screenmakes cooking the meal easier.Unit 4 Part C ∙ Investigating 121

2 Analyzing the suitability of samples2a Note: This task is intended to illustrate the problem of self-selection by researchsubjects.Suggested answersThe validity of the study is low. The conclusion that 95% of British people wouldlike to pay to live in an eco-friendly home is based on the fact that 94.8% of thepeople who responded to the survey said ‘yes’. However, 55% of the people towhom the questionnaire was sent never replied. As about 93% of the peopleresponding to the survey indicated that they were interested in environmentalissues, it might be assumed that the people who did not bother to reply to thesurvey did not hold the same views.2b Students check their ideas with a partner.2c This task is intended to make students more aware of issues with random samples.2d Students compare their ideas with a partner.2e & 2f Student discussion2gSuggested answersThe sample will include only Chinese students studying in the UK. No oneactually living in China at the time will be sampled. This will lower the validity ofthe study somewhat, as large sections of the Chinese population will be missingfrom the sample (e.g. demographic status, age, etc.). Also, as it is based onChinese people living outside China, it is possible that their attitudes will notreflect mainstream opinions among Chinese who have remained in China.2hSuggested answersStudy 1The sample seems reasonable, as it gives a cross-section of different ages andfamily types, with and without children.Study 2There are issues with the sample. It is intended to study back pain, though mostof the volunteers have never reported any episodes of back pain before, so itcannot be concluded that their absence of back pain is due to the new chairdesign.2i Students check their ideas with a partner.2jAnswersThe author claims that in ‘Asia’ and ‘the West’ there are different seatingpreferences. Though experience might tell many people that this may betrue, the evidence here does not support the conclusion, as it studied onlySingaporeans and American university students; therefore other populationgroups are not considered, and it is assumed that the situation in Singapore orAmerica holds good in other areas of Asia and the West respectively.Unit 4 Part C ∙ Investigating 122

2k Student discussionAnswers1 This is arguably untrue. The strength of a conclusion in a quantitative studymay be reduced by a small sample size, but in a case study or ethnographicstudy, a small sample size might be perfectly acceptable. Also, even thougha strong conclusion may not be possible with a small sample size, the resultscan still be suggestive, or exploratory.2 Yes. This is not to say that they are invalid, only that the certainty is reduced.3 Arguably yes. A larger number of measurements is probably more certain inmost cases, but validity does not rest on number of measurements alone.2lSuggested answersThe results suggest that the new workspace design is preferred by the peopleusing it, but not universally. The sample size (30) is relatively small for a strongconclusion. Therefore, the most suitable of the possible conclusions areprobably conclusions B or C.2m Students check their ideas with a partner.Unit Task: Designing buildings for human needsaIn pairs, students try to add search terms to a list that they could use to find onlinearticles about the assignment topic.Suggested answers• creativity: creative potential; thinking; thinking ability• physical environment: work / living space; surroundings• work productivity: work rate; output• room design: layout; arrangement• mood: feeling; emotion; emotional state / condition• study: learning; researchbcBefore the next lesson, students use the search terms to find at least one journalarticle reporting research into room / building design.Students read the sources and take notes, considering them in relation to otherinformation they have gathered, and decide how much they agree with theinformation presented in the articles.Note: If the article contains information from an experimental study, studentsshould record information in the space provided.Note: Ask students to turn to the checklist on p.241 and reread the tips relating toUnit 4 Parts A–B, before reading the tips to Unit 4 Part C. Encourage students to putthese tips into practice in their studies from now on. Tell them they will be asked toreport back on this in a future lesson.Unit 4 Part C ∙ Investigating 123

Part DReporting in speechThe aim of this lesson is for students to improve their speaking skills through:• describing research findings• describing and explaining data• discussing research findings.1 Describing research findings1a Student discussionSuggested answersElement of reportIntroductionMethod (or approach) used for gathering dataResults (findings)Discussion of findingsConclusionReferencesIn detail (D) or brief (B)?BBDDBN/A1b Students compare their ideas in groups.2 Describing and explaining dataNote: This section first gives some practice with integrating a visual aid into an oralpresentation, suggesting that three things are necessary for maximum clarity andeffectiveness:1 Clearly refer to the information on the visual aid in your speech, to draw youraudience’s attention to what you are speaking about.2 Give a summary of the key points of the information. Don’t just leave youraudience to interpret the information for themselves.3 Give a commentary about the information – what does it show, what does itsuggest, what implications can we understand from this piece of information?2a Students in pairs review information about one room-design study, and identify thekey findings. (See 2b for answers.)Unit 4 Part D ∙ Reporting in speech 124

2bSuggested answers1 The speaker’s reference to the table2 The summary of the main findings3 The speaker’s commentary on what the findings representSo, we gathered fifteen images of different rooms from a variety of differentsources. They were all work spaces, to an extent, but laid out in different ways,and, 1 as you can see from the table here, we had them grouped into fourmain categories: ‘modern’; ‘traditional’; ‘peaceful’ and ‘energetic’ – dependingon the type of decorations and furniture and so on – I’ve got the images hereif you want to have a look at them in a moment. 2 So, what does this tell usabout the ratings? What we see, of course, is that most of the answerstend to cluster around the middle of the scale, which was to be expected.However, an interesting point, I think, is that people seemed to rate the more‘conventional’ rooms as being better for creativity – the ones with a standardmodern or traditional look. They both had higher ratings at the top end of thescale than the energetic and peaceful rooms, which were the ones with moreovertly ‘creative’ features like potted plants and unconventional furnishingsand decorations. 1 If you notice here on Table 1, 2 if we combine the stronglypositive ratings of 4 and 5, we get scores of around 100 for the traditionaland modern rooms, but only around 72 for the peaceful and energeticrooms. That’s reversed if we look at the bottom end of the scale: combiningratings 1 and 2, we find that significantly more people rate the energetic andpeaceful rooms as being poor for creativity compared to the traditional andmodern ones. 3 Now of course this was quite a limited study, and there area number of possible reasons why this may be so, but the fact that we alsohave more people giving lower scores to these two unconventional roomssuggests something interesting that’s going on. One possibility is that peopletend to feel more creative, or give a higher rating, to the rooms that they’remore comfortable in – more familiar with, if you like.2c Students check their answers with a partner.2dSuggested answersPeople tend to base their judgements of whether a room is suitable forcreative thinking on furnishings and lighting, and to a lesser extent thepresence of plants.2eAnswers4.5Number or titleof graphicFindingsSpeaker’scommentsPresentation 1 Presentation 2Figure 1‘High’ rating for creativity:natural furnishings suchas wood; lighting type‘Low’ rating for creativity:colour scheme; syntheticfurnishingsPeople associate naturalelements with creativity.Not given‘High’ rating for creativity:lighting; natural furnishings‘Low’ rating for creativity:plants; bright colour schemesand synthetic furnishingsPeople prefer natural things.Unit 4 Part D ∙ Reporting in speech 125

2fAnswers1 Speaker 1 gives an explicit, numbered reference to the graphic. Speaker 2doesn’t mention the graphic at all.2 Speaker 1 presents the information more effectively, commenting on thetrends and what they suggest. Speaker 2 is briefer and less explicit. Thecomment about what the findings show is simultaneously very brief andoverly confident for what the results actually suggest.2g Group discussion2h Students read and take notes of the relationship between the two variables thatthey expect.2i Students check their answers with a partner.2j Students in pairs take turns presenting information to each other.2k Students give their partner feedback.3 Discussing research findings3a Group discussionSuggested answers1 No. It should not just be about looking for negative points.2 No. The discussion is best if as many people as possible can contribute.3 Probably true. It will at least be very difficult to contribute if the presentationis ignored.4 Yes. This helps consolidate understanding of the topic.5 Yes. Just as for point 4 above.6 Yes. Just as for point 4 above. This also helps to generate ideas aboutfuture studies.3b Student discussion3c Note: This discussion is based on the research findings about lighting in 2h.4.6Suggested answersThis seems to be a reasonable discussion: the speakers make valid pointsabout the implications of the findings, and potential limitations, giving thepresenter a chance to explain their own ideas. Between them they manage toidentify some areas where future research might be needed.3d Students think of comments or questions that they could contribute to thediscussion in 3c.Unit Task: Designing buildings for human needsabcStudents should be encouraged at this point to gather as much data as possible tobe able to share in the discussion.Students, in groups of 3–4, hold a discussion about different aspects of their chosenassignment title.After the discussion, students reflect on how much they accept the information and anyclaims they heard, and whether they have altered their own stance on the topic as a result.Note: Ask students to turn to the checklist on p.241 and reread the tips relating toUnit 4 Parts A–C, before reading the tips to Unit 4 Part D. Encourage students to putthese tips into practice in their studies from now on. Tell them they will be asked toreport back on this in a future lesson.Unit 4 Part D ∙ Reporting in speech 126

Part EReporting in writingThe aim of this lesson is for students to improve their writing skills through:• using supporting information in writing• writing an abstract• avoiding plagiarism.1 Using supporting information in writing1aAnswers1 a sentence (or sentences) giving the writer’s main idea, in their own words2 a supporting point or information, and citation, from another source3 the writer’s comment on the relevance of the supporting point / informationParagraph a1Room design features can have an impact on the mood, productivity andcreativity of individuals working and living within the room. This is potentiallysignificant in a range of areas, including work productivity, creative success inthe design industries, and education. Another area in which these findings maybe significant is healthcare. 2 A study by Karlin et al. (2006) found that colourschemes and design features in psychiatric hospitals contributed significantlyto patients’ sense of well-being. 3 Therefore, it seems reasonable that thoseinvolved in building design should pay attention to so-called ‘affective’ featureswhich influence the people who live and work within them.Paragraph b2Ergonomics, the application of knowledge about the dimensions and movementof the human body, is often associated primarily with health and safety concerns(Dul & Neumann, 2005): 1 researchers have investigated the effects of workpostures, movement, furniture and equipment on injuries at work such as lowerback pain or wrist strain. However, ergonomics also plays a key role in designingbuildings for human satisfaction. 2 Pheasant (1986) notes that architects anddesigners who use findings from ergonomics research are better able to designbuildings which are comfortable and satisfying for their occupants.Paragraph c1Student dormitory rooms require careful design, as they are a space for bothliving and study. Vital elements include enough light, sensibly designed furniturewhich assists study, and, hopefully, enough peace to be able to concentrate.2However, the student hall of residence must also give a feeling of homecomfort (Clemons et al., 2004). 3 This is important not just for user satisfaction,but also because it is likely that students who feel ‘at home’ in their residencehave a greater chance of succeeding academically.1bAnswers1 Features in the physical environment can affect creative abilities, problemsolving, work productivity, and mood.2 Natural furnishings, etc. are associated with ‘high’ creativity, and vice-versa in‘unnatural’ rooms.3 This effect can be important in terms of work success, but also in home andschool work.4 There is a link between mood and creativity, though it is not certain exactlywhat mood is best for successful creative thought.Unit 4 Part E ∙ Reporting in writing 127

1c Note: As this activity depends to an extent on opinion and likely on the resultsof a discussion in the classroom, no answers are given here. However, most ofthe paragraphs contain at least one claim which would normally require eithersupporting evidence or a citation to another author’s claim to back it up.1d Students compare their ideas in groups.1e Students decide how and where information from each text might be incorporatedinto 1b.1f Students compare their answers with a partner.1g Students use the information from any of the sources to improve selectedparagraphs from the original report.Suggested answersOriginalCreativity is often seen as being an individual personality trait, somethingwithin the individual which they either have or lack. However, there is evidencefrom a number of studies that features in the environment around an individualcan have a big impact on their ability to think creatively. Many room featureshave been associated either positively or negatively with creative abilities,problem solving, work productivity and mood.Improved versionCertain features of interior design may contribute positively to creativity.These features include the use of natural materials for furnishings andsurface materials, natural light or ‘warm’ artificial light, the presence ofother natural objects such as indoor plants, and having a busy ratherthan tranquil feel to the room (Zhou & Cameron, 2004, p.98).OriginalThe features of a room can interfere with the individual’s ability to concentrateon the task or think successfully. This is significant, of course, in theworkplace, but it is also an issue in the home or in schools, where anenvironment which fosters creativity may be important to help individualsdevelop personally rewarding interests in life.Improved versionIt is important not to forget that creativity is an important individualcharacteristic. A stimulating environment can provide a rich source ofcreative inspiration for individuals (Obe, 2009, p.26).OriginalThe relationship between mood and creativity is also worthy of note. Anumber of studies have been completed which suggest a link betweenroom design and mood, and it may logically be assumed that certain moodscontribute to creative abilities. However, there is some debate about what kindof mood – positive or negative – is best for promoting creativity. Surprisingly,it has been suggested that people in a good mood tend to think less carefully,so it is not necessarily the case that environments which make us happiest arealso best for creativity.Improved versionMood is strongly associated with creativity (Zhou, 2007, p.497) inparticular, negative moods appear to encourage focus and attention todetail and possibly greater creativity (Yates, 2003, p.15).1h Group discussionUnit 4 Part E ∙ Reporting in writing 128

2 Writing an abstract2aAnswers1 What is the context for the research? background2 Why was the research conducted? purpose3 How was the research conducted? method4 What was discovered? results5 What was the contribution of this piece of research to knowledge on the topic?importance6 What was recommended as a result of the research? recommendations2b Students check their answers with a partner.2cAnswers1 background2 purpose3 method4 results (expected)5 importance6 recommendationsExample research proposal abstract 12The aim of this study is to investigate the way that decorating an indoor spacewith plants can affect perceived creativity. 1 While a considerable amount ofresearch has been performed on the effect of indoor plants on productivityand worker mood, there is an absence of research on the relationship betweenplants and creativity. 3 An office decorated with different numbers of plantswill be used to assess participants’ responses to the room. Participants willconduct a series of creative problem-solving tasks and report their ownfeelings of the creative potential of the room. 4 We expect that participants in thestudy will report a greater sense of creativity potential in the rooms decoratedwith a larger number of plants. We also tentatively expect that higher scores onthe problem-solving test will be linked to the rooms decorated with a greaternumber of plants.Example research proposal abstract 21The so-called ‘creativity potential’ of rooms has been investigated in a numberof studies. Research suggests that individuals rate rooms as more or lesssuitable for creative thinking depending on the combination of such thingsas furnishings, colours, light level and indoor plants. 2 The aim of the presentstudy is to investigate more closely the relationship between room colourand perceived creativity potential. 3 80 randomly selected participants will beassigned to one of four offices with different colour schemes (red, yellow, greenand white), and will take part in a series of timed creative problem-solvingtasks. Results will be taken both from scores on the problem-solving tasks, anda post-activity questionnaire to determine participants’ responses to the room.Unit 4 Part E ∙ Reporting in writing 129

Example research proposal abstract 32The aim of this paper is to measure the impact of windows and window viewson perceptions of how suitable rooms are for creative thought. 1 Previousstudies have tended to find that views of natural scenes are more closelyrelated to feelings of calm and well-being among office workers, householdersand schoolchildren alike; 4 therefore it is predicted that improved problemsolvingcreativity will be linked to rooms which strongly support a sense ofwell-being. 3 In the present study, 120 participants will be assigned to one ofthree different rooms (‘natural view’, ‘urban view’ and ‘no window’), where theywill work for three days. During this period, participants will complete a rangeof individual and group problem-solving activities requiring creative thinking.Scores will be given for each of the activities, and participants’ ratings of thesuitability of the room for creative thought will be gathered by questionnaire.2dAnswers1 background2 purpose3 method4 results5 importance6 recommendationsExample completed research paper abstract 12This study examined the influence of indoor plants on perceptions ofthe suitability of indoor space for creative thought. 3 Participants includedprofessionals in a range of industries, university students, and academics.Thirty pictures of different room arrangements either featuring indoor plantsor no plants at all were shown to the participants, who rated each room for itspotential for creative thought. Lighting, furnishings and colour schemes wereall controlled. 4 The findings suggest that, overall, participants preferred roomswith plants, and that female participants in particular felt that this contributedto creativity potential. 5 This supports other similar findings in a range offields relating to physical environment and creativity. It is suggested that thepresence of indoor plants helps to improve concentration and feelings ofcreative potential.Example completed research paper abstract 21Existing theories about creativity focus on how group work and cooperationassist creative thought. 2 By contrast, this study investigates how physicalenvironment impacts individual creativity in the creative industries. 3 Twentyin-depth interviews were conducted with workers in the computer and designindustries in the UK, North America and Sweden. 2 This study examinesindividual feelings about where creative inspiration comes from and 4 finds that(1) those working in the creative industries believe that features of a workplaceare important in generating a feeling of creativity, and (2) the location of theplace where creative work occurs also has an impact.Unit 4 Part E ∙ Reporting in writing 130

Example completed research paper abstract 32This study investigates the impact of features of room interiors on creativethought. 1 A survey of previous studies in this area found that participantstended to rate rooms as having high creativity potential if they use naturalfurnishings, materials and lighting; have indoor plants; and use ‘warmer’colours in their design schemes. 3 On this basis, two rooms were constructed,one with features that are typically linked to high creativity, and one withfeatures normally rated as having low potential for creativity. Eighty participants(m=46, f=34) were assigned to either one of the rooms. They performed a seriesof timed creative problem-solving activities. 4 It was found that there was nosignificant difference between test performance in the two rooms. 5 This seemsto contradict findings from a number of other studies. This paper concludeswith a discussion of the possible reasons for this variation, and suggests thatother factors such as time of day or natural light conditions may be involved.2e Students check their answers to 2c and 2d.2fAnswersTypical featuresincludedWhen to write theabstractApproximately how longthe abstract should beAbstract for a researchproposalAll except findings,though it may includea brief indication ofexpected resultsBefore the researchis conducted (withimplications for thetense that should beused)Usually 150–250wordsAbstract for a completedresearch paperAll (though not everyabstract will include allof them)After the researchis conducted (withimplications for thetense that should beused)Usually 200–250 words2gAnswersOpinions may vary, but the abstract is intended to be a good model. It is(hopefully) concise, informative, and has most of the key features that wouldbe expected.2h Students check their answers with a partner.Unit 4 Part E ∙ Reporting in writing 131

2iExample abstractFeatures of the physical environment are known to have effects on the psychologicalstate and cognitive performance of individuals within them.In the present study, a timed creative problem-solving task was used to determinethe effects of different room decorations on 60 high school students (m=30, f=30).Three room arrangements were set up which were identical in features except one:(1) a basic room with no decorations; (2) potted plants in the room; (3) artworks onthe walls. The participants were randomly assigned to one of the three arrangementsand asked to complete a problem-solving task. After finishing the task, participantscompleted a questionnaire giving their rating of the ‘creativity potential’ of the room.It was found that the female students performed slightly better than males in therooms with any type of decoration. Both male and female students rated rooms withsome sort of decoration as being better for creative thinking than those without,though potted plants were preferred by both groups.2j Students swap and analyze their abstracts.3 Avoiding plagiarism – a reviewNote: As SS1 contains an introduction to, and definition of, plagiarism, and all threeSkills for Study texts contain sections on paraphrasing, summarizing and quoting,this section is intended to give students a chance to discuss, and hopefully develop,their understanding of the expectations of ‘good’ academic writing. Consequently,there is no actual writing practice in this section, but it is hoped that reflection onthe topic might help students write more effectively in future.3a Student discussion3b Group discussionNote: The aim here is to promote discussion, rather than give categorical rulesabout academic conduct; therefore the scenarios are in many cases ambiguous. Asdefinitions of conduct and responses to plagiarism may vary between institutions,no answers are suggested here.3c Class discussion3d Group discussionUnit Task: Designing buildings for human needsabStudents use the box to plan out the main body of their report.Students write the full report, with details about word count supplied by theteacher.Note: Ask students to turn to the checklist on p.241 and reread the tips relating toUnit 4 Parts A–D, before reading the tips to Unit 4 Part E. Encourage students to putthese tips into practice in their studies from now on. Tell them they will be asked toreport back on this in a future lesson.Unit 4 Part E ∙ Reporting in writing 132

Additional ResourcesSome notes on ‘Harvard’ as a referencingsystemHarvard referencing style has been chosen as the one which the Skills andLanguage for Study series of books will follow, in part because it is familiar to mostpeople. However, Harvard itself doesn’t actually exist as a published referencingstandard, so all of the references here are based on APA style, which is one variantof Harvard, and has the advantage of being a published style which encouragesconsistency. All the references in the series match the latest instructions in the6th Edition of the APA manual. The notes below hopefully explain the differencesbetween APA and ‘Harvard’.There are two general patterns of referencing: Parenthetical and Footnote(sometimes called Numeric or Vancouver style). In parenthetical referencingsystems, citations are enclosed in parentheses. Harvard styles of referencing areparenthetical, though these terms are not synonymous (see Figure 1).Referencing systemsParentheticalreferencingFootnote referencingAuthor-date systems(often referred to as‘Harvard’)Author-title / AuthorpagesystemsAPA (AmericanPsychologicalAssociation)MLA (ModernLanguage Association)Various othersVarious othersFig 1: Basic differences in referencing styles(Systems such as Chicago or Turabian are flexible, and allow authors to use amixture of different styles.)Additional Resources 133

The terms ‘Harvard style’, ‘Harvard system’ or ‘Harvard referencing’ are oftenused synonymously with ‘author-date’ systems. However, ‘Harvard style’ is notaffiliated with Harvard University, and no organization exists which publishes adefinitive ‘Harvard style’ guide; there is no definitive Harvard style. Consequently,many higher education institutions have developed their own in-house variationson the basic author-date system, and call these ‘Harvard style’; anyone attemptingto find out which of these versions was correct would, unfortunately, be frustrated,as ‘Harvard’ is just a general description of all author-date systems (see belowfor examples of book references written in ‘Harvard style’ according to therecommendations for different institutions).The APA and MLA styles are affiliated to a particular organization which publishesa definitive style guide for that system. In this regard, APA could be loosely termeda ‘Harvard-style system’, as it is an author-date system, but APA and Harvardshould not be taken to be synonymous.Example of an APA-style book referenceShotton, M.A. (1989). Computer addiction? A study of computer dependency.London: Taylor & Francis.Examples of book references which claim to be written in ‘Harvard’ style(note the slight differences in punctuation and layout)Anglia Ruskin UniversityAuthor, Initials/first name., Year. Title of book. Edition. (only include this if not the firstedition) Place: Publisher.Redman, P., 2006. Good essay writing: a social sciences guide. 3rd ed. London: OpenUniversity in assoc. with Sage.Baron, David P., 2008. Business and the organisation. 6th ed. Chester (CT): Pearson.University of SheffieldSeedhouse, D. (1997) Health promotion: philosophy, prejudice and practice.Chichester, John Wiley.University of GlasgowWalsh, M., 1998. Models and critical pathways in clinical nursing: conceptualframeworks for care planning. 2nd ed. London: Bailliere Tindall.University of LiverpoolHarris, A., Robinson, K., Smith, P. & Turner, G. (2006) Management skills. Oxford:Oxford University Press.The Blackwell guide ‘Citing References’DOW, D., 1964. A history of the world. 3rd ed. London: Greenfield.Please note that under the APA system, published documents, etc., retrieved onlinedo not need a retrieval date. Retrieval date may be included only for sources whichchange (such as a wiki or blog).Additional Resources 134