Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity ...

Managing Tiger ConservationLandscapes and Habitat Connectivity:Threats and Possible SolutionsManaging Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity:Threats and Possible SolutionsExperiences from Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand, and VietnamExperiences from Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Malaysia,Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand, October and 2012 VietnamOctober 2012

October 2012Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity is a compilation of reports preparedby the governments of Tiger Range Countries for presentation at the First Stocktaking Meeting of SeniorOfficials and Experts to Review Implementation of the Global Tiger Recovery Program (GTRP) in NewDelhi, India, May 15-17, 2012. The meeting was hosted by the National Tiger Conservation Authority,Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, and co-organized and co-sponsored by theGlobal Tiger Initiative (GTI) and its partners, Global Tiger Forum (GTF), and the World Bank.The report is printed by:Global Tiger Initiative SecretariatThe World Bank1818 H St., NW, MSN J-3-300Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A.www.GlobalTigerInitiative.orgsecretariat@globaltigerinitiative.orgHow to cite this document:Global Tiger Initiative Secretariat. 2012. Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and HabitatConnectivity: Threats and Possible Solutions. Experiences from Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Malaysia,Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand, and Vietnam. The World Bank, Washington, D.C.Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 2012

Table of ContentsAcronyms 1Foreword 2Acknowledgments 4Executive Summary 5Introduction 7Overview 9Tiger Range Country ReportsBangladesh 12Indonesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14Myanmar 30Nepal 36Thailand 42Vietnam 46AppendicesThe Thimphu Recommendations on Smart Green.Infrastructure in Tiger Conservation Landscapes 55Kuala Lumpur Statement on Mainstreaming Tiger Habitats 58ANNEX:Additional lessons on habitat from Tiger Range CountriesMalaysiaIndiaNepalManaging Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 2012

Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 2012

AcronymsASEAN-WENBBSAssociation of Southeast Asian Nations-WildlifeEnforcement NetworkBukit Barisan Selatan (Indonesia)NRNSAPNature ReserveNational Strategy and Action Plan for the Conservationof Sumatran Tiger (Indonesia)BSBerbak Sembilang (Indonesia)NTRPNational Tiger Recovery PrioritiesBTBukit Tigapuluh (Indonesia)PAProtected AreaCBAPOCommunity-based Anti-poaching OperationsPESPayment for Ecosystem ServicesCBNRMCFSCITESCMOCSRDNPEIAGEFGLGTIGTFGTRPHCVFHKKHVWSIDAISOIWBCKBAKSNPLELEMMISTMOECADMOFCommunity-based Natural Resource ManagementCentral Forest Spine (Malaysia)Convention on International Trade in EndangeredSpecies of Wild Fauna and FloraCommunity Management Organization (Bangladesh)Corporate Social ResponsibilityDepartment of National ParksEnvironmental Impact AssessmentGlobal Environment FacilityGunung Leuser (Indonesia)Global Tiger InitiativeGlobal Tiger ForumGlobal Tiger Recovery ProgramHigh Conservation Value ForestHuai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary (Thailand)Hukaung Valley Wildlife Sanctuary (Myanmar)International Development AssociationInternational Standards OrganizationIndian Wildlife Business CouncilKey Biodiversity Area (Myanmar)Kerinci Seblat National Park (Indonesia)Leuser Ecosystem (Indonesia)Law Enforcement MonitoringManagement Information SysTems (software)Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry(Myanmar)Ministry of ForestryPHKAPIAPMNPREDDSGISMARTTALTCLTHCTNRTPATRCTY-HKKTYETYWUMUNESCOWCSWEFCOMWKNPWRWWFYDNPPerlindungan Hutan dan Konservasi Alam (ForestProtection and Nature Conservation under the Ministryof Forestry, Indonesia)Priority Implementation ActivitiesPu Mat National Park (Vietnam)Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and ForestDegradation in Developing CountriesSmart Green InfrastructureSpatial Monitoring and Reporting ToolTerai Arc Landscape (Nepal)Tiger Conservation LandscapeTiger-Human ConflictTaninthayi Nature Reserve (Myanmar)Tiger Protection Area (Vietnam)Tiger Range CountryThung Yai-Huai Kha Khaeng (Thailand)Thung Yai Narasuan Wildlife Sanctuary East (Thailand)Thung Yai Narasuan Wildlife Sanctuary West (Thailand)Ulu Masen (Indonesia)United Nations Educational, Scientific and CulturalOrganizationWildlife Conservation SocietyWestern Forest Complex (Thailand)Way Kambas National Park (Indonesia)Wildlife ReserveWorld Wildlife FundYok Don National Park (Vietnam)MoUMemorandum of UnderstandingNGONon-governmental OrganizationManaging Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 20121

AcknowledgmentsMany people contributed to the preparation of this report and we are grateful to allof them for their inputs and encouragement. We would like to recognize and thank inparticular the Global Tiger Initiative’s Focal Points in the Tiger Range Countries for theirextraordinary dedication to advancing the work of the Global Tiger Initiative: Dr. TapanKumar Dey of Bangladesh, Mr. Lhendup Tharchen of Bhutan, Mr. Kry Masphal and Dr. KeoOmaliss of Cambodia, Mr. Weisheng Wang and Mr. Zhang Zhongtian of China, Mr. S.P.Yadav of India, Ms. Ikeu Sri Rejeki and Mr. Agus Budi Sutito of Indonesia, Mr. BouaphanhPhanthavong of Lao PDR, Mr. Kangayatkarasu Nagulendran and Dr. Sivananthan T.Elagupillay of Malaysia, Mr. Win Naing Thaw of Myanmar, Mr. Maheshwar Dhakal of Nepal,Ms. Olga Krever of Russia, Ms. Budusabong Kanchanasaka of Thailand, and Ms. Nguyen ThiVan Anh of Vietnam. We are deeply grateful for their diligence and hard work.The Global Tiger Initiative Secretariat4 Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 2012

Executive SummaryIntroduction1. Tigers continue to be threatened by habitat degradation, fragmentation,and loss, as well as human-caused mortality. Threats common to all or nearly allof the Tiger Range Countries (TRCs) that contributed to this report are conversion,encroachment, and degradation (from invasive plant species in particular) of habitats;poorly planned infrastructure development and extractive industries that fragment orencroach on tiger habitat; and killing of tigers and poaching of their prey. Based on eachTRC’s subjective evaluation of the intensity of current threats—Low, Medium, High—andprojections about how their intensity will change over the next 5 to 10 years indicatesthat most threats are expected to increase in intensity while several others are now Highand expected to remain so.2. The TRCs converge on a set of largely shared solutions to these threats.ÚÚDeterrents to conversion, encroachment, and degradation of habitats includethe use of rapid and fine-scale monitoring technologies; establishing conservationpartnerships with local communities; working with companies to expand theirCorporate Social Responsibility (CSR) policies; systematic biological monitoring;law enforcement; building awareness through media; managing vested interests ofwealthy members of communities; and, involvement of police and anticorruptionunits against organized syndicates.ÚÚResolving threats from poorly planned infrastructure development andextractive industries can be accomplished through cross-sectoral application ofSmart Green Infrastructure (SGI) principles to such projects at national, sectoral,and project levels (see Box 1), annual habitat integrity assessments, and effectiveimplementation and enforcement of Environmental Impact Assessment provisions.This is particularly important because a single major road, dam, or mine, for instance,can break the connectivity between PAs and leave small isolated populationsvulnerable to extirpation.ÚÚPreventing tiger killing and prey poaching includes application of “smart,”technology-based patrolling; expanded informant networks, and integration of globaland regional wildlife enforcement networks with national and habitat level efforts.3. Each TRC clearly defined its national priorities, possible solutions, andsteps forward.ÚÚBangladesh’s priorities are to increase law enforcement and patrolling effortsand work with communities surrounding the Sundarbans to bring them into jointmanagement of the natural resources and improve their livelihood options.ÚÚIndonesia has three priorities with well-defined steps forward at all administrativelevels to substantially reduce risks to tiger habitats, including through SGI: (i) increaseeffectiveness of key protected-area management institutions, (ii) develop intersectoralgovernance systems in priority landscapes, and (iii) establish sustainablefinancing for biodiversity management in priority landscapes.Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 20125

ÚÚMyanmar’s priority actions are to initiate SGI andsubmit a SGI Proposal to the Union Governmentvia the Ministry of Environmental Conservation andForestry, establish new protected areas (PAs) to securecritical tiger habitats and corridors, and increasehabitat patrolling efforts.ÚÚNepal’s priority actions are to secure tiger habitatsthrough promotion and application of the SGIprinciples and decisions of the National TigerConservation Committee; expansion of PAs andwildlife corridors; and systematic biological monitoringand law enforcement.ÚÚThailand’s priorities are to closely collaborate andshare relevant information for application of the SGIprinciples in related sectors; strengthen managementplans and law enforcement in tiger PAs; and developcommunity-based natural resource managementprograms.ÚÚVietnam’s major priorities are to effectivelyimplement the current MoUs with Laos and Cambodiaon cross-border wildlife trade control; pilot smartpatrolling in Yok Don National Park; implement workplan of the national Wildlife Enforcement Network;and approve overall biodiversity conservationplanning.4. Collectively, the TRCs converged on a similar setof emerging priorities for 2012-2013 at the FirstStocktaking Meeting of Senior Officials and Experts toReview Implementation of the Global Tiger RecoveryProgram (GTRP) in New Delhi, India, May 15-17, 2012.Among these are:ÚÚPrepare master plans for TCLs in terms of spatial,land use, and investment planning;ÚÚDevelop appropriate guidelines to make economicactivities, such as roads, mines, pipelines, tourism,and hydropower, wildlife-friendly; andÚÚFully equip the frontline staff in protected areas tofight and prevent poaching.5. Examples of best practices in habitat managementcome from India, Malaysia, and Nepal.6 Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 2012

IntroductionThe St. Petersburg Declaration on Tiger Conservation(2010) charged the Global Tiger Initiative (GTI) Secretariat,based at the World Bank where GTI was founded in 2008,with a coordinating role in implementing the Global TigerRecovery Program (GTRP) and supporting and encouragingthe TRCs in their effort. The declaration calls for “doingeverything possible to effectively manage, preserve,protect, and enhance habitats, including:ÚÚMainstreaming biodiversity conservation in planningand development processes in tiger habitats;ÚÚMaking critical tiger breeding habitats inviolateareas within the large tiger conservation landscapeswhere no economic or commercial infrastructuredevelopment or other adverse activities are permitted;and maintaining the landscapes and creating corridorsaround and between them where all permitteddevelopment activities are tiger- and biodiversitycompatible;ÚÚImproving protection by using systematic patrolling tosafeguard tigers, their prey, and habitats.Following the International Tiger Forum in St. Petersburg,TRCs have worked to further define specific options foroperationalizing the declaration’s statements on tigerhabitats. The Thimphu Recommendations on land-useplanning, hydropower development, construction of roads,and on sustainable tourism were developed as a result ofexperts’ deliberations during a practitioners workshop onSmart Green Infrastructure (Box 1) in Tiger ConservationLandscapes organized by the Royal Government ofBhutan and the GTI in May 2011 (Annex 1). The nexteffort—the Cross-Sectoral Executive Leadership Forumon Mainstreaming Tiger Habitats—was organized bythe Government of Malaysia with GTI, SmithsonianConservation Biology Institute, and WWF Malaysia inFebruary 2012. This forum brought together India,Indonesia, Malaysia, Nepal, Thailand, and Vietnam, andresulted in the Kuala Lumpur Statement on MainstreamingTiger Habitats (Annex 2).As part of preparation work for the First StocktakingMeeting of Senior Officials and Experts to ReviewImplementation of the GTRP in New Delhi, India, May2012, TRCs developed and reported national assessmentsof risks and opportunities for conserving tiger habitatsthat created a basis, in part, for emerging habitat prioritiesfor the next two years, as reported in the Global TigerRecovery Program Implementation Report (2012) (seeBox 2). Six of the most comprehensive reports werefurther revised by the TRCs and form the main part ofthis document. Three relevant presentations from thegovernments of Malaysia and India and Neapl (whichsupplements Nepal’s report), are provided in their originalformat in Annex 3. These are provided as examples of bestpractices in habitat management in Tiger ConservationLandscapes to maintain connectivity among protectedareas.Box 1Smart Green InfrastructureThe principles of SGI involve following a hierarchy ofoptions at the levels of national policy, sectoral decisionmaking,and project implementation. The first and bestoption is complete avoidance of adverse impacts on tigerhabitat, such as by careful placement of infrastructureor mines. This is also the required option in criticaltiger habitats, given the commitment made in the St.Petersburg Declaration on Tiger Conservation to makecritical habitats inviolate. If complete avoidance is notpossible, minimizing impacts to reduce their duration,intensity, and/or extent is the next best option. Forexamples, overpasses or underpasses along roads canmaintain connectivity in a landscape. Rehabilitationor restoration of habitats unavoidably degraded byinfrastructure or mining is the next option. Finally,measures should be taken to offset, or compensate for,any significant adverse impacts that cannot be avoided,minimized, or restored. Offsets may include, for example,providing resources to improve management of affectedlandscapes or another conservation activity.Reference: Quintero, J. et al. 2010. Smart Green Infrastructure inTiger Range Countries: A Multi-Level Approach. The World Bank,Washington, D.C.Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 20127

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OverviewTigers are threatened primarily by habitat fragmentation,degradation, and loss, and by human-caused mortality.Historically, logging, clearing for agriculture, and humanencroachment were responsible for most habitat loss. Morerecently, poorly planned construction of roads and othertransportation networks and of hydroelectric dams andexpansion of extractive activities, such as coal mining, haveemerged as major contributors to habitat loss across thetiger’s range, while logging and clearing continue to taketheir toll as well.This is clearly demonstrated in the threats reported byBangladesh, Indonesia, Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand, andVietnam and summarized in Table 1. Notable also in Table 1is that most threats are expected to increase in intensity overthe next 5 to 10 years and, of those not expected to increasein intensity, most are already high and expected to remain so.While killing of tigers and poaching of prey and traditionalthreats to habitat are serious problems, approaches tosolving them are fairly well known. For instance, amongthe emerging priorities for TRCs is fully equipping frontlinestaff in protected areas so they are more effective inpreventing poaching and encroachment.Here we focus primarily on the growing threats to tigerhabitats from poorly planned infrastructure developmentand extractive industries.Table 1Summary of current (first score) and projected in 5 to 10 years (second score) levels of threats to tiger habitatsin six Tiger Range Countries and possible solutions.Tiger Range CountryThreatsBangladesh 1 Indonesia 2 Myanmar 3 Nepal 4 Thailand 5 Vietnam 6InfrastructureRoads na 2.3 ->2.8 1 ->3 3-> 3 1.3 ->2 1.5 -> 2.5Mining of mineral resources na na 1 -> 3 1 ->1 1.3 ->1.3 1 ->1Hydropower dam 3 -> 3 na 1 -> 3 2 -> 2 1.3 ->1.3 1.5 -> 2OtherAgriculture, plantations na na 2 -> 3 2 -> 3 1.6 -> 1.6 1 -> 3Deforestation 7 na 1.8 -> 2 1.5 -> 3 3 -> 3 1 -> 1.6 2 -> 3Human encroachment 8 2 -> 3 2.2 -> 2.8 2 -> 3 3 -> 3 1.6 -> 2.3 2 -> 3Invasive species 1 -> 3 na 1 -> 2 3 -> 3 1.6 -> 1.6 1 -> 2Prey poaching na na 2 -> 3 3 -> 3 1.6 -> 2 2 -> 3Tiger killing ? -> 3 1.5 -> 2.5 3 -> 3 3 -> 3 2 -> 1.6 3 -> 3Key: 1 = Low; 2 = Medium; 3 = High. Threat levels expected to increase are shown in red, threat levels expected to remain the same are show in black.1. One protected area2 Average of six landscapes3. Average of two protected areas4. Entire Terai Arc Landscape5. Average of three protected areas6. Average of two protected areas7. This is referred to as “extractive industries” in Indonesia’s report.8. Including over-exploitation of forest resourcesManaging Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 20129

All Tiger Range Countries (TRCs) have created protectedareas (PAs) for tigers. Although restrictions on activities inPAs vary, generally dams and mines cannot be constructedand roads are minimized (some roads are necessary forpatrolling, tourism, etc.), on paper if not always in practice.However, not all tiger habitat is in PAs nor can tigers persistover the long term only in PAs. Few of the PAs in TRCs can,by themselves, support more than 25 adult females—theminimum number scientists consider necessary for a viablepopulation—and many can support only as few as fiveadult females.At present, most tiger PAs are embedded in largerlandscapes with enough remaining habitat for tigers tolive and breed outside the PAs, often in so-called bufferzones at the periphery of PAs. In other landscapes, thereis at least good enough habitat to enable tigers to movebetween PAs through forest corridors. This means thatthe tigers in several interconnected PAs may form a singlepopulation with sufficient numbers for viability. Nepal’sTerai Arc Landscape is an excellent example (see page Xand Annex 3), with six PAs linked through buffer zones andforest corridors now supporting a total tiger population ofabout 155, but with as few as 4 to 10 adults in three ofthe PAs. Connectivity among PAs also means that, shouldtigers be extirpated in a PA by poachers or disease oranother calamity, tigers from one or more connected PAscould naturally repopulate the area.It is the buffer zones and corridors in tiger conservationlandscapes (TCLs) that are most threatened byinfrastructure development and extractive industries. Asingle major road, dam, or mine, for instance, can breakthe connectivity between PAs and leave small isolatedpopulations vulnerable to extirpation.All six of the TRCs that provided the reports in thisdocument expect threats from infrastructure and/orextractive industries to increase in the next 5 to 10 years(Table 1). While this information comes from a sample ofTRCs, other TRCs are in similar situations. For example,India, Lao PDR, and the Russian Federation cite significantthreats to tiger habitat from infrastructure developmentand extractive industries in the Global Tiger RecoveryProgram Implementation Report 2012.Economic development activities will continue. Theyare essential to maintain the growing prosperity that isimproving the lives of billions of people in Asia. The TRCs’shared challenge is to manage these activities in such away that TCLs remain intact—and not only to ensure thesurvival of wild tigers. These natural landscapes provide ahost of ecosystem services that are invaluable but seldomproperly valued in economic decision-making.Box 2Emerging Thematic Priorities for 2012-2013: Threatsto Habitats and ConnectivityLand-use planning of Tiger Conservation Landscapesand guidelines for industry to make economic activitieswildlife-friendly are needed to change the dynamics ofrange-wide habitat loss, fragmentation, and degradation.Threats to tiger habitats remain significant and arepredicted to intensify with continued rapid infrastructuredevelopment and investment in extractive industries.Tiger core areas and especially connecting forest corridors(both of which, if not yet done, need to be clearlydemarcated and legally notified) are under threat. Thebuffer areas, where multiple-use activities are permitted,continue to be threatened as a result of human-wildlifeconflict and development activities that are unfriendlyto wildlife. While an effective Environmental ImpactAssessment requirement for projects can avoid the worstoutcomes, a well-developed, and, if possible, legallybinding land-use plan can better avert future conflict andhabitat fragmentation. To address this, is it is vital to:ÚÚPrepare master plans for TCLs in terms of spatial,land use, and investment planning;ÚÚPilot Malaysia’s physical plan model in Nepal and India;ÚÚDevelop appropriate guidelines to make economicactivities, such as roads, mines, pipelines, tourism,and hydropower, wildlife-friendly; andÚÚEnsure that financing agencies give due importance toavoiding fragmentation of buffer zones and corridors.Excerpted from: Global Tiger Initiative Secretariat. 2012. GlobalTiger Recovery Program Implementation Report 2012. The WorldBank, Washington, D.C.10 Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 2012

As is evident in the country reports and additional materialpresented here, there are also shared solutions to thischallenge that TRCs are working together on to define thesolutions and begin to address them.One of these is implementing tiger-friendly or wildlifefriendlyplanning, design, construction, and operation intiger landscapes following the principles of SGI (see Box 1).Malaysia, for example, is already implementing SGI in itsCentral Forest Spine project, as outlined in Annex 4, andother TRCs, as reported here and elsewhere, include SGI asa solution to threats to the integrity of their TCLs.The Kuala Lumpur Statement on Mainstreaming TigerHabitats (Appendix 2) recommends that TRCs develop SGIto minimize adverse impacts and maintain the connectivityof fragmented populations of tigers within and acrosslandscapes and suggests ways to do this. How the SGIprinciples can be applied to land-use planning, hydropowerdevelopment, roads, and tourism in TRCs is outlined in TheThimphu Recommendations on Smart Green Infrastructurein Tiger Conservation Landscapes (Appendix 1).The Kuala Lumpur Statement also recommends that allTRCs conduct cross-sectoral strategic spatial planningto mainstream biodiversity conservation into economicdevelopment planning. In this regard, it is very importantthat TRCs delineate and legally define inviolate criticaltiger habitat and buffer zones and corridors where someappropriate economic activities may be undertakenfollowing the SGI principles. Subsequently, closecoordination between national policy makers and localproject implementers is necessary to ensure laws andpolicies are strictly followed. Again, Malaysia is a leader inthis area, as is India.Emerging priorities outlined in the Global Tiger RecoveryProgram Implementation Report 2012 extend theserecommendations to include developing appropriateguidelines, or performance standards to make economicactivities wildlife-friendly and ensuring that financingagencies give due importance to avoiding fragmentation ofbuffer zones and corridors (Box 2).It is also necessary and important to engage with industry,which is investing in and building infrastructure andnatural resource extraction. This may include encouragingcorporations to expand their corporate social responsibility(CSR) activities, as several TRCs suggest in their reports inthis volume. It also involves wildlife and conservation officialsand private sector officials coming together to agree on winwinsolutions, such as those advocated by SGI.This is an opportune moment to pursue these objectives. Toooften in the past, both conservationists and developers havetaken sledgehammers to land-use conflicts so the outcomeswere either protection or destruction of natural habitat. WithSGI we can take a scalpel to these conflicts so conservationand sustainable development go hand in hand.Global Tiger Initiative SecretariatManaging Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 201211

Tiger Range CountryReportsBangladesh1. IntroductionThe Sundarbans is the only tiger reserve in Bangladesh andadjoins the Indian Sundarbans Tiger Reserve. It is a WorldHeritage Site and a Ramsar site. The total area is 6,017km 2 , including three wildlife sanctuaries covering about 24percent of the area (Figure 1). At present, various threatsto this Tiger Conservation Landscape (TCL) are increasing.The Government of Bangladesh has taken several steps tosolve them.2. Current conservation level in TCLs andprotected areasAt present, law enforcement has been strengthened.Tigers have been monitored on a regular basis since 2007.A co-management approach to forest management hasbeen introduced with the participation of representativesfrom different sections of local people. The “StrengtheningCooperation for Wildlife Protection Project” funded by IDAhas begun. Conservation awareness-raising programs havebeen undertaken.3. Current numbers of wild tigersrecorded in SundarbansAccording to the 2004 Tiger Census, which used thepugmark method, there are 440 tigers in the Sundarbans.Since 2007, tiger abundance surveys have been carried outat two-year intervals.Figure 1. The Sundarbans Tiger Conservation Landscape in Bangladesh.4. Current and projected (5 to 10 years)threats to TCLs and TPAsCurrent levels of threats to connectivity in the TCL and tigersource site and their projected levels over the next 5 to 10years are listed in Table 2. Possible solutions to these threatsare also provided in the table and details are discussed in theSection 5.5. Possible solutions to maintain theconnectivity of TCL5.1. Reinforcing law enforcement and patrollingLaw enforcement has been reinforced and regular patrolshave been conducted at the Indo-Bangladesh border. PilotMIST-based patrolling system and M-Stripes are planned tobe launched in the Sundarbans.12Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 2012

Habitat Connectivity, Threats, and Solutionsin the Tiger Conservation LandscapePrepared by the Bangladesh Forest DepartmentTable 2:Current and projected (5 to 10 years) threats to TCLs and TPAs, and possible solutions.ProjectedThreatsCurrent Level (5 to 10 years) Level SolutionsPower plant construction near theSundarbansIncreasing salinity or shortage of freshwater due to sea-level riseHighHighOver-exploitation of resources Medium HighInvasive species Low MediumPrey poaching, snaring, etc. High HighTiger killing Unknown HighAwareness raising among all concernedFull functioning of ETPSmart Green InfrastructureMedium High Transboundary cooperationEnsuring limited permit holdersLaw enforcementProvide alternative income-generating activities to forest-dependent peopleEnsuring effective functioning of Co-management OrganizationsLaw enforcementSystematic biological monitoringAwareness raising through mass mediaProviding logistics to Wildlife Division staffLaw enforcementSystematic biological and law enforcement monitoringAwareness raising through mass mediaProviding logistics to Wildlife Division staffLaw enforcementSystematic biological and law enforcement monitoringAwareness raising through mass media5.2. Awareness raising and conservation educationEducation and awareness-raising programs have beenconducted in areas surrounding the Sundarbans. Differenteducational media such as talks and village dramas have beenadapted to suit local needs.5.3. Community-based natural resource managementCo-management Committees and Co-managementCouncils have been formed in all four of the Sundarbans’ranges (ranges are shown in Figure 1). Half of revenue fromecotourism in the Sundarbans will be returned to CommunityManagement Organizations (CMOs). These CMOs consist ofgovernment officers, local government representatives, publicleaders, and representatives from different sections of people.ReferencesBangladesh Tiger Action Plan (BTAP)DPP of Sundarbans Environmental and Livelihood SecurityProject (SEALS)DPP of Strengthening Regional Co-operation for WildlifeProtection (SRCWP) ProjectNational Tiger Recovery Program of BangladeshManaging Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 201213

Indonesia1. IntroductionThe majority of wild Sumatran tigers persist in 12 TigerConservation Landscapes (TCLs) covering approximately88,000 km² (Sanderson et al. 2006). Despite these large areasof forest, an increase in the rate of habitat fragmentationand loss in recent years threatens the integrity of theselandscapes. In addition, continued demand for tigerbody parts (Nowell 2000), non-selective ungulate snares,authorized removal of problem tigers (Seidensticker et al.1999), and retaliatory killing of tigers due to conflict withvillagers are the main factors depleting the Sumatran tigerpopulation (Sheppart & Magnus 2004). Strict protection oftiger core areas along with the conservation and restorationof connectivity among TCLs are believed to be the keystrategies to conserve tigers and their ecosystem (Walstonet al. 2010, Wikramanayake et al. 2011). The IndonesianNational Tiger Recovery Program (NTRP) lists three keystrategies to double the population of Sumatran tigers by2022: strengthen law enforcement, implement science-basedadaptive management, and improve the legal basis of prioritytiger landscapes outside of protected areas (PAs).2. Priority Tiger Conservation LandscapesA global assessment of tiger landscapes selected 12 TCLsin Sumatra, including two class I, two class II, and five classIII. In addition, the assessment also defined three class IV ofundefined landscapes due to data deficiency including theLeuser landscape (Sanderson et al. 2006). Between 2007 and2009, a collaborative island-wide survey provided the firsteversystematic survey of tiger population status in the Leuserand Ulu Masen landscape. Both together are now categorizedas a TCL class I and have become a global priority for tigerconservation covering a total of more than 34,500 km 2 ofcontiguous landscape. The NTRP provides key actions todouble tiger population in six priority TCLs: Leuser Ecosystem(LE)–Ulu Masen (UM), Kerinci Seblat (KS), Bukit Tigapuluh(BT), Kampar–Kerumutan (KK), Berbak Sembilang (BS), andBukit Barisan Selatan (BBS)–Bukit Balai Rejang Selatan (BBRS)(Figure 2). These six TCLs were selected based on landscapesize, the presence of protection status and infrastructurewithin the landscape, potential for mid- to long-term survivalof the tigers, existing conservation commitment of NGOpartners, and high potential for stakeholder engagementthrough various collaboration options (Table 3).3. Status of Sumatran tiger populationIn 1978, the Sumatran tiger population was estimated at1,000 individuals, based on responses to a questionnairesurvey (Borner 1978). In 1985, Santiapillai & Ramono (1987)identified a total of 26 PAs across Sumatra containingapproximately 800 tigers. In 1992, based on a Populationand Habitat Viability Analysis, the Government of Indonesiaestimated that between 400 and 500 tigers lived in sevenPAs (Tilson et al. 1994). In 2010, the Global Tiger RecoveryProgram estimated 325 (250-400) tigers remaining inSumatra (GTRP 2010). However, tigers living outside of theseareas were not estimated, and the basis for the estimate wasnot given.Between 2007 and 2009, an island-wide detection/nondetectionsurvey of Sumatran tiger distribution was carriedout by nine organizations following a robust patch occupancyframework (McKenzie et. al. 2002), covering 59 percent ofthe remaining tiger habitat across the island (Wibisono et al.2011). The survey provided cause for optimism for Sumatrantigers, with an estimated occupancy rate of 0.72 (+/-0.048)(Table 4). However, a significant negative correlation betweenoccupancy and recent deforestation was found (Wibisonoet al. 2011). While counting tigers with confidence over avast tiger landscape is quite challenging, the detection/nondetectiontechnique following patch occupancy multi-seasonapproach, can provide a reliable estimate of tiger populationstatus over time. This survey provides a baseline value forSumatran tiger population status in the priority TCLs.Figure 2. Priority Tiger Conservation Landscapes, the National Tiger RecoveryProgram of Indonesia.14Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 2012

The Status of the Sumatran Tiger Population andHabitat: Lessons and Solutions from SumatraPrepared by Hariyo T. Wibison, 1 Deborah Martyr, 2Iding Achmad Haidir 3 for The Ministry of Forestry of Indonesia 4Table 3Priority Tiger Conservation Landscapes for population recovery in Sumatra. (Unless stated otherwise, the total area of eachPriority Tiger Conservation Landscape follows Sanderson et al. 2006.)LandscapeTCLClassTotal TCL Area(km 2 ) RemarksLeuser–Ulu Masen I 41,537 --The largest tiger landscape in Sumatra.--Protection status and infrastructure available in Gn. Leuser National Park (NP).--Healthy tiger population, good potential for long-term survival (>100 individuals).--Gn. Leuser NP is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.--Strategic Areas, within spatial plan, for Leuser (national level) and Ulu Masen (provincial level).--Low deforestation rate (< 1%/yr.).--Long-term commitment from NGO partners.--Threatened by road development and extractive industries.Kerinci Seblat–Batang HariI 28,182 --The second largest tiger landscape in Sumatra.--Healthy tiger population, potential for long-term survival (>100 individuals).--Protection status and infrastructure available in Kerinci Seblat NP.--UNESCO World Heritage Site.--Low deforestation rate (< 1%/yr.).--Long-term commitment from NGO partners.--Long-term biological and threats monitoring datasets.--Threatened by road development.Bukit Tigapuluh I 7,106 --Protection status and infrastructure available for Bukit Tigapuluh NP.--Healthy tiger population, potential for long-term survival (>100 individuals).--Low deforestation rate.--Long-term commitment from NGO partners.--Threatened by the presence of extractive industries.Kampar–Kerumutan II 9,835 --Unique tiger landscape of mixed peat swamp habitats.--More than 2,000 km 2 is proposed as protected and reforestation areas.--Multi-management regimes, mostly managed by extractive industries.--High potential to pilot multi-stakeholders engagement through Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), Payment forEcosystem Services (PES), and REDD+.--Highly threatened by infrastructure development and extensive human activities.Bukit Barisan–Bukit Balai RejangIII 5,991 --Healthy tiger population, potential for medium-term survival (>50 individuals).--UNESCO World Heritage Site.--Largely protected by Bukit Barisan Selatan NP.--Highly manageable.--Long-term commitment of NGO partners.--Long-term biological and threats monitoring datasets.Berbak–Sembilang III 5,817Area followsWibisono& Pusparini(2010).--Healthy tiger population, potential for medium-term survival (>50 individuals).--Long-term commitment from NGO partner.--Unique tiger landscape of mixed peat and freshwater swamp habitat.--The first Ramsar site in Indonesia.--Largely protected by Berbak and Sembilang NPs.--Highly manageable.--High potential to pilot multi-stakeholders engagement through CSR, PES, and REDD+.--Threatened by forest fire and poaching (potentially by an international syndicate) as the parks directly face the Straitsof Malacca.1.HarimauKita, the Sumatran Tiger Conservation Forum (www.harimaukita.org)2Fauna & Flora International - Indonesia Programme, Sungai Penuh, Jambi3.Kerinci Seblat National Park, Sungai Penuh, Jambi4.Contributors: Ikeu Sri Rejeki (Ministry of Forestry of Indonesia), Matt Linkie (Fauna & FloraInternational - Indonesia Programme), Dolly Priatna (Zoological Society of London)Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 201215

Table 4.Sumatran tiger site occupancy ( ) estimates for the bestmodel, averaged for each study area (Wibisono et al. 2011).Study Area NTRP's Priority TCLs^ψKerinci Seblat - Batang Hari Kerinci Seblat - Batang Hari 0.83 (0.037)Southern Sumatra Bukit Barisan Selatan 0.64 (0.048)Way Kambas - 0.52 (0.069)Leuser - Ulu Masen Leuser and Ulu Masen 0.70 (0.042Northern Riau Kampar - Kerumutan 0.33 (0.055)Central Sumatra Bukit Tigapuluh 0.78 (0.048)Eastern Sumatra Berbak - Sembilang 0.77 (0.041)Overall 0.72 (0.039)4. Threats to tiger and habitatA simple questionnaire to assess threats was distributed tomajor NGO partners working in six priority TCLs, includingthe HarimauKita (BBS, BBRS, LE, KK, BT), Fauna and FloraInternational (KS, UM), and Zoological Society of London (BS).The results were verified by the Directorate of BiodiversityConservation of the Indonesian Ministry of Forestry (MoF).The pooled questionnaires indicated that the long-termsurvival of Sumatran tigers in these six priority TCLs facefive major threats, including road and infrastructuredevelopment, killing of tigers, extractive industries, habitatdisconnectivity, and encroachment (Table 5). Here we describepossible solutions to each threat with respect to the prioritylandscapes.4.1 Road constructionRoads have been identified as having a 1,700 km 2 negativeimpact on several wildlife species (Bennett & Robinson2000; Kerley et al. 2002; Linkie et al. 2006) especially largemammals (Bennett & Robinson 2000). More than 400 kmof public road lay within the Sumatran PAs and more than6,400 km of roads close to tiger habitats across Sumatra area possible danger to tigers (Wibisono & Pusparini 2010). InSumatra, almost all TCLs are threatened by road construction.However, LE and KS, the two largest tiger landscapes on theisland, face the highest threat from road development. Aroad network called LADIA GALASKA, consisting of 450 kmof main road and 1,200 km of minor road networks, hasbeen proposed by the local governments of Aceh province(Anonymous 2004) (Figure 3). Although there have beenmany protests from various conservation groups to the centralgovernment, the proposal continues to stand at present,threatening 2.7 million hectares of the LE. In early 2011,part of LADIA GALASKA, consisting of three road segmentsof more than 141 km, was reinitiated by the Grand Body ofNational Road Executive I of the Indonesian Ministry of PublicWorks (Anonymous 2011).Figure 3. Map of LADIA GALASKA road network crossing the LeuserEcosystem landscape. (2010)In 2011, four road segments of approximately 100 km wereproposed by the district governments of Jambi, Bengkulu, andWest Sumatra provinces (Figure 4) (Martyr & Cullen 2011)16Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 2012

crossing two tiger source sites in KS (Walston et al. 2010).The proposal had drawn intensive protests from variousconservation groups such as HarimauKita and AKAR Network,and led the Association of Tropical Biology and Conservation(ATBC) to release a resolution Opposing Road Constructionthrough Kerinci Seblat National Park, Indonesia (ATBC 2011).As a consequence, the IUCN World Heritage Commission(WHC) inscribed the park on the list of World Heritage inDanger sites. In response, the Minister of Forestry issued aletter No. S.143/Menhut-IV/2012 rejecting the proposedroads along 40 km while the rest is still under an impactassessment. Both the WHC and the MoF addressed the valueof KS as an important refuge for the critically endangeredSumatran tiger.Possible solutionsAs long as there are demands for road constructions, onesolution is nature engineering and implementing SGI inselected and priority areas, with national park officers andtiger specialists involved as core members in all pilot studies.Habitat integrity assessments should be implemented ona yearly basis in the project area. Opportunities shouldbe sought to discuss conservation and public transportconnectivity and best practices with local governments.Where green infrastructure has been initiated andapproved, district and provincial governments assume alegal and financial liability for supporting the protected-areamanagement to monitor and protect forest and species inthe surrounding area. However, strict implementation of theIndonesian Law No. 26/2007 should be attempted to avoidinfrastructure development initiatives in priority TCLs. Forthe existing roads, law enforcement patrol and road-blockmechanisms should be strengthened. Many road proposalsrest on poverty issues. Thus, payment for ecosystem services(PES) mechanisms addressing local communities as thebeneficiaries can be a way to avoid new road construction.4.2 Killing of tigersKilling of Sumatran tigers as a consequence of poaching andretaliatory killing due to conflict with humans has long beenthe major reason for the rapid decrease in Sumatran tigernumbers. Sheppard and Magnus (2004) estimate at least253 tigers were removed from their natural habitat between1998 and 2002, the majority for illegal trade. Recent data ontiger trade in Sumatra showed a significant increase in tigerseizures (Figure 5) (TRAFFIC 2011). This might show anFigure 4. Proposed roads in Kerinci Seblat landscape.1098765432102000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009Figure 5. Reported tiger seizures in Sumatra. Data source: WCS Indonesia, WWF(Verheij, Foley, and Engel 2010).Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 201217

Table 5Conservation challenges and possible solutions for the recovery of Sumatran tiger populations in six priority TigerConservation Landscapes. (Unless stated otherwise, the total area of each Priority Tiger Conservation Landscape follows Sanderson etal. 2006.)LandscapeTotalTCL Area(km 2 )DeforestationRate (%)Threat TypeLeuser – Ulu 41,537 0.8 Roads andMasen * infrastructureCurrentLevel10-YearLevelPossible SolutionsHigh High Policy improvement. Implement nature engineering and SGI. Implementrapid monitoring technique for habitat integrity. Establish strongcommunication with local governments on conservation, publictransport connectivity, and best practices. Implement road block and lawenforcement patrol mechanism for existing roads. Promote PES.Killing of tigers Low Medium Extend and strengthen specialist ranger patrol groups’ presence inkey locations where tiger or habitat is under threat. Implement smartpatrol, informant networks, and law enforcement. Full implementationand funding support through state and provincial budgets for conflictmitigation. ASEAN-WEN agreements regarding tiger crime cascaded fromNational Police Authority to Provincial and District Police Authorities.Biological and threat monitoring. Thematic awareness.ExtractiveindustriesMedium High Implement robust biological and threat monitoring. Implement rapidmonitoring technique for habitat integrity. Guidance by national andprovincial ESDM units regarding coordination with relevant forestryagencies before granting of exploration licenses. Draft BMP guidelinesfor collaborative buffer-area management in areas where extractiveindustry permits are granted with Environment Ministry working withForestry agencies to monitor AMDAL compliance. Promote REDD+, CSR,and PES.Disconnectivity High High Policy improvement through designating tiger priority and inviolateareas, with district and provincial governments clearly aware of theirresponsibilities for maintaining connectivity. SGI forms the basis oflong-term spatial planning in and around forest areas. Robust, technicallygrounded, and scientifically sound population monitoring in existing areasof disconnectivity, especially of population dispersal and connectivity.Implement rapid monitoring technique for habitat integrity. Clearstatements by BAPPENAS and Public Works Ministry at national levelregarding connectivity. Provincial and district governments aware oflegal obligations and responsibilities for upholding best spatial-planningprinciples. Promote PES.Encroachment Low Medium Rapid responses to developing encroachment before serious problemsoccur. Establish inter-agency cooperation to implement comprehensiveencroachment handling and mitigation. Microeconomic development forsmallholders. Implement rapid monitoring technique for habitat integrity.Implement scientific monitoring of edge effect. Implement smart patrol,informant networks, and law enforcement. Conduct thematic awareness.Promote REDD+ and PES.18Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 2012

Table 5Conservation challenges and possible solutions for the recovery of Sumatran tiger populations in six priority TigerConservation Landscapes. (Unless stated otherwise, the total area of each Priority Tiger Conservation Landscape follows Sanderson etal. 2006.)LandscapeBukit Barisan– Bukit BalaiRejangTotalTCL Area(km 2 )DeforestationRate (%)Threat Type5,991 1.2 Road andInfrastructureCurrentLevel10-YearLevelPossible SolutionsMedium High Policy improvement. Implement nature engineering and SGI. Implementrapid monitoring technique for habitat integrity. Establish strongcommunication with local governments on conservation, publictransport connectivity, and best practices. Implement road block and lawenforcement patrol mechanism for the existing roads. Promote PES.Killing of tigers Low Medium Extend and strengthen specialist ranger patrol groups’ presence in keylocations where tiger or habitat is under threat. Throughout the landscapeimplement smart patrol, informant networks, and law enforcement. Fullimplementation and funding support through state and provincial budgetsfor conflict mitigation. ASEAN-WEN agreements regarding tiger crimecascaded by National Police Authority to Provincial and District PoliceAuthorities. Biological and threat monitoring. Thematic awareness.ExtractiveindustriesImplement robust biological and threat monitoring. Implement rapidmonitoring technique for habitat integrity. Guidance by national andprovincial ESDM units regarding coordination with relevant forestryagencies before granting of exploration licenses. Draft BMP guidelinesfor collaborative buffer-area management in areas where extractiveindustry permits are granted, with Environment Ministry working withForestry agencies to monitor AMDAL compliance. Promote REDD+, CSR,and PES.Disconnectivity High High Policy improvement through designating tiger priority and inviolateareas, with district and provincial governments clearly aware of theirresponsibilities for maintaining connectivity. SGI forms the basis oflong-term spatial planning in and around forest areas. Robust, technicallyground, and scientifically sound population monitoring of existingdisconnectivity, especially of population dispersal and connectivity.Implement rapid monitoring technique for habitat integrity. Clearstatements by BAPPENAS and Public Works Ministry at national levelregarding connectivity. Provincial and district governments aware oflegal obligations and responsibilities for upholding best spatial-planningprinciples. Promote PES.Encroachment High High Improve the protection status of Bukit Balai Rejang Selatan. Rapidresponses to developing encroachment before serious problems occur.Establish inter-agency cooperation to implement comprehensiveencroachment handling and mitigation. Microeconomic development forsmallholders. Implement rapid monitoring technique for habitat integrity.Implement scientific monitoring of edge effect. Implement smart patrol,informant networks, and law enforcement. Habitat restoration. Conductthematic awareness especially targeting voluntary resettlement. PromoteREDD+ and PES.Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 201219

Table 5Conservation challenges and possible solutions for the recovery of Sumatran tiger populations in six priority TigerConservation Landscapes. (Unless stated otherwise, the total area of each Priority Tiger Conservation Landscape follows Sanderson etal. 2006.)LandscapeKerinci Seblat –Batang HariTotalTCL Area(km 2 )DeforestationRate (%)Threat Type28,182 0.8 Road andInfrastructureCurrentLevel10-YearLevelPossible SolutionsHigh High Policy improvement. Implement nature engineering and SGI. Implementrapid monitoring technique on habitat integrity. Establish strongcommunication with local governments on conservation, publictransport connectivity, and best practices. Implement road block and lawenforcement patrol mechanism for the existing roads. Promote PES.Killing of tigers High High Extend and strengthen specialist ranger patrol groups’ presence in keylocations where tiger or habitat is under threat. Throughout the landscapeimplement smart patrol, informant networks, and law enforcement. Fullimplementation and funding support through state and provincial budgetsfor conflict mitigation. ASEAN-WEN agreements regarding tiger crimecascaded by National Police Authority to Provincial and District PoliceAuthorities. Biological and threat monitoring. Thematic awareness.ExtractiveindustriesHigh Medium Implement robust biological and threat monitoring. Implement rapidmonitoring technique for habitat integrity. Guidance by national andprovincial ESDM units regarding coordination with relevant forestryagencies before granting of exploration licenses. Draft BMP guidelinesfor collaborative buffer-area management in areas where extractiveindustry permits are granted with Environment Ministry working withForestry agencies to monitor AMDAL compliance. Promote REDD+, CSR,and PES.Disconnectivity Medium High Policy improvement through designating tiger priority and inviolateareas, with district and provincial governments clearly aware of theirresponsibilities in maintaining connectivity. SGI forms the basis of longtermspatial planning in and around forest areas. Robust, technicallygrounded, and scientifically sound population monitoring of existingdisconnectivity, especially of population dispersal and connectivity.Implement rapid monitoring technique for habitat integrity. Clearstatements by BAPPENAS and Public Works Ministry at national levelregarding connectivity. Provincial and district governments aware oflegal obligations and responsibilities for upholding best spatial-planningprinciples. Promote PES.Encroachment Medium High Rapid responses to developing encroachment before serious problemsoccur. Establish inter-agency cooperation to implement comprehensiveencroachment handling and mitigation. Microeconomic development forsmallholders. Implement rapid monitoring technique for habitat integrity.Implement scientific monitoring of edge effect. Implement smart patrol,informant network and law enforcement. Habitat restoration. Conductthematic awareness especially targeting voluntary resettlement. PromoteREDD+ and PES.20Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 2012

Table 5Conservation challenges and possible solutions for the recovery of Sumatran tiger populations in six priority TigerConservation Landscapes. (Unless stated otherwise, the total area of each Priority Tiger Conservation Landscape follows Sanderson etal. 2006.)LandscapeKampar –KerumutanTotalTCL Area(km 2 )DeforestationRate (%)Threat Type9,835 9.8 Road andInfrastructureCurrentLevel10-YearLevelPossible SolutionsHigh High Introduce and implement nature engineering and SGI. Implement roadblock and law enforcement patrol mechanism for the existing roads.Killing of tigers Low High Extend and strengthen specialist ranger patrol groups’ presence in keylocations where tiger or habitat is under threat. Throughout the landscapeimplement smart patrol, informant network and law enforcement. Fullimplementation and funding support through state and provincial budgetsfor conflict mitigation. ASEAN-WEN agreements regarding tiger crimecascaded by National Police Authority to Provincial and District PoliceAuthorities. Biological and threat monitoring. Thematic awareness.ExtractiveindustriesHigh High Establish a multi-stakeholders working group on wildlife managementconsisting of private sectors, governments, and conservationists.Implement rapid and intensive monitoring technique on high conservationvalue forest (HCVF). Implement robust landscape-level biologicalmonitoring of wildlife distribution patterns and threats. Draft BMPguidelines for collaborative wildlife management for endorsement by thegovernment. Promote REDD+, CSR, and PES.Disconnectivity High High Strengthen management and protection of riparian habitat and HCVF.Introduce and implement nature engineering and SGI wherever neededto maintain connectivity between wildlife corridor (riparian, HCVF, andwildlife reserves). Robust, technically grounded, and scientifically soundpopulation monitoring in existing disconnectivity, especially of wildlifedispersal and connectivity.Encroachment High High Rapid responses to developing encroachment before serious problemsoccur. Establish inter-agency cooperation to implement comprehensiveencroachment handling and mitigation in wildlife corridor (riparian,HCVF, wildlife reserves). Microeconomic development for smallholders.Implement rapid monitoring technique on habitat integrity. Implementsmart patrol, informant networks, and law enforcement. Conduct thematicawareness. Promote REDD+ and PES.Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 201221

Table 5Conservation challenges and possible solutions for the recovery of Sumatran tiger populations in six priority TigerConservation Landscapes. (Unless stated otherwise, the total area of each Priority Tiger Conservation Landscape follows Sanderson etal. 2006.)LandscapeTotalTCL Area(km 2 )DeforestationRate (%)Threat TypeBukit Tigapuluh 7,106 Road andInfrastructureCurrentLevel10-YearLevelPossible SolutionsMedium High Policy improvement. Implement nature engineering and SGI. Implementrapid monitoring technique on habitat integrity. Establish strongcommunication with local governments on conservation, publictransport connectivity and best practices. Implement road-block and lawenforcement patrol mechanism for the existing roads. Promote PES.Killing of tigers Medium High Extend and strengthen specialist ranger patrol groups’ presence in keylocations where tiger or habitat is under threat. Throughout the landscapeimplement smart patrol, informant network and law enforcement. Fullimplementation and funding support through state and provincial budgetsfor conflict mitigation. ASEAN-WEN agreements regarding tiger crimecascaded by National Police Authority to Provincial and District PoliceAuthorities. Biological and threat monitoring. Thematic awareness.ExtractiveindustriesMedium High Implement robust biological and threat monitoring. Implement rapidmonitoring technique on habitat integrity. Guidance by national andprovincial ESDM units regarding coordination with relevant forestryagencies before granting of exploration licenses. Draft BMP guidelinesfor collaborative buffer area management in areas where extractiveindustry permits are granted with Environment Ministry working withForestry agencies to monitor AMDAL compliance. Promote REDD+, CSR,and PES.Disconnectivity Medium High Policy improvement through designating tiger priority and inviolateareas, with district and provincial governments clearly aware of theirresponsibilities for maintaining connectivity. SGI forms the basis oflong-term spatial planning in and around forest areas. Robust, technicallygrounded, and scientifically sound population monitoring in existingdisconnectivity, especially of population dispersal and connectivity.Implement rapid monitoring technique for habitat integrity. Clearstatements by BAPPENAS and Public Works Ministry at national level.Provincial and district governments aware of legal obligations andresponsibilities for upholding best spatial-planning principles. PromotePES.Encroachment Medium High Rapid responses to developing encroachment before serious problemsoccur. Establish inter-agency cooperation to implement comprehensiveencroachment handling and mitigation. Microeconomic development forsmallholders. Implement rapid monitoring technique for habitat integrity.Implement scientific monitoring of edge effect. Implement smart patrol,informant networks, and law enforcement. Habitat restoration. Conductthematic awareness especially targeting voluntary resettlement. PromoteREDD+ and PES.22Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 2012

Table 5Conservation challenges and possible solutions for the recovery of Sumatran tiger populations in six priority TigerConservation Landscapes. (Unless stated otherwise, the total area of each Priority Tiger Conservation Landscape follows Sanderson etal. 2006.)LandscapeBerbak –SembilangArea followsWibisono &Pusparini (2010)TotalTCL Area(km 2 )DeforestationRate (%)Threat Type2.2 Road andInfrastructureCurrentLevel10-YearLevelPossible SolutionsLow Medium Policy improvement. Implement nature engineering and SGI. Implementrapid monitoring technique on habitat integrity. Establish strongcommunication with local governments on conservation, publictransport connectivity, and best practices. Implement road block and lawenforcement patrol mechanism for the existing roads. Promote PES.Killing of tigers Low Medium Extend and strengthen specialist ranger patrol groups’ presence in keylocations where tiger or habitat is under threat. Throughout the landscapeimplement smart patrol, informant networks, and law enforcement. Fullimplementation and funding support through state and provincial budgetsfor conflict mitigation. ASEAN-WEN agreements regarding tiger crimecascaded by National Police Authority to Provincial and District PoliceAuthorities. Biological and threat monitoring. Thematic awareness.ExtractiveindustriesLow Low Implement robust biological and threat monitoring. Implement rapidmonitoring technique for habitat integrity. Guidance by national andprovincial ESDM units regarding coordination with relevant forestryagencies before granting of exploration licenses. Draft BMP guidelinesfor collaborative buffer area management in areas where extractiveindustry permits are granted with Environment Ministry working withForestry agencies to monitor AMDAL compliance. Promote REDD+, CSR,and PES.Disconnectivity Medium High Policy improvement through designating tiger priority and inviolateareas, with district and provincial governments clearly aware of theirresponsibilities for maintaining connectivity. SGI forms the basis oflong-term spatial planning in and around forest areas. Robust, technicallygrounded, and scientifically sound population monitoring in existingdisconnectivity, especially of population dispersal and connectivity.Implement rapid monitoring technique for habitat integrity. Clearstatements by BAPPENAS and Public Works Ministry at national levelregarding connectivity. Provincial and district governments aware oflegal obligations and responsibilities for upholding best spatial-planningprinciples. Promote PES.Encroachment Medium High Rapid responses to developing encroachment before serious problemsoccur. Establish inter-agency cooperation to implement comprehensiveencroachment handling and mitigation. Microeconomic development forsmallholders. Implement rapid monitoring technique for habitat integrity.Implement scientific monitoring of edge effect. Implement smart patrol,informant networks, and law enforcement. Habitat restoration. Conductthematic awareness especially targeting voluntary resettlement. PromoteREDD+ and PES.Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 201223

improvement in law-enforcement capacity and efforts ofthe Government of Indonesia and major NGO partners intackling tiger trade over the past 10 years. For examples,in collaboration with the Kerinci Seblat National Park anddistrict police offices, FFI has improved its investigations oftiger poaching and law enforcement patrols by increasingthe number of Tiger Protection and Conservation Unitsfrom three to five between 2000 and 2004. In 2003, WCSIndonesia, in collaboration with the provincial BiodiversityConservation Agency, established an anti-wildlife tradeWildlife Crime Unit in Lampung Province. After severalsuccessful operations, in 2008, the unit was expanded tocover Southern Sumatran and Northern Sumatra. Anotherinvestigation unit has also been operated by the WWFIndonesia in Central Sumatra.Time series data on Tiger-Human Conflict (THC) showedthat THC increased over the past 13 years, with a total of136 human and 81 tiger casualties in 638 THC incidents(HarimauKita 2011, unpubl.). However, the data shouldbe treated with caution mainly due to unequal monitoringefforts across years. Since 2004,THC mitigation effort hasbeen strengthened by the MoF and major NGO partners inpriority TCLs, which makes the THC dataset fairly equal andcomparable across years since then. While this eight-yeardataset showed an increasing number of THC incidents, thenumber of human and tiger casualties have decreased since2004 and 2007 respectively (Figure 6).Possible solutionsExpand and strengthen the presence of specialist rangerpatrol groups where tiger or habitat is under threat. Smartpatrol should be implemented across priority TCLs. Thereshould be full implementation and funding support throughstate and provincial budgets for conflict mitigation as perInstruction No 48/2007 of MoF. Information networks andlaw enforcement should be extended and strengthened.ASEAN-WEN agreements regarding tiger crime shouldcascade from the National Police Authority to Provincialand District Police Authorities. Biological and threatmonitoring should be conducted to allow robust evaluationof law-enforcement efforts. Thematic awareness for localcommunities, especially on THC and poaching issues, shouldbe intensively carried out.4.3 Extractive industriesThe deforestation rate in Sumatra was five times fasterthan that in other humid tropical forests throughout therest of the world (Achard et al. 2002). Since the late 1970s,the main causes of deforestation in Sumatra have shiftedfrom subsistence agriculture to large-scale production of oilpalm and rubber, widespread logging by timber industries(Laumonier et al. 2010), and transmigration programs(Fearnside 1997; Laumonier et al. 2010). Between 1985and 2009, Sumatra lost its natural forest at a rate of 2.1percent per year (Uryu et al. 2010). Another study revealedthat Sumatra lost its natural forest at a rate of 2.6 percentper year between 2000 and 2009, the second-highest rateof forest loss among the Indonesian islands (Forest WatchIndonesia 2011). The allocation of former logging concessionsto transmigration areas became common practice in Sumatrabetween late 1970s and early 1980s (Laumonier et al. 2010).A recent study showed that the deforestation rate in Sumatrais much lower (0.5 percent per year) inside PAs compared121086420121086420THCTigerTHCHuman32101,61,41,210,80,60,40,202,51,50,5Figure 6. Trend of human and tiger casualties corresponds to the number ofTiger-Human Conflict incidents between 1998 and 2011. Numbers were averagedper month. Data source: MoF, WCS, FFI, WWF, ZSL.24Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 2012

to adjacent non-PAs (4.1 percent per year) (Gaveau et al.2009). However, only 29 percent of the remaining forestpatches in Sumatra are protected (Laumonier et al. 2010;Wibisono & Pusparini 2010). Currently, there are morethan 1.5 million hectares of active concessions in Sumatra(Ministry of Forestry of Indonesia 2011). While Aceh Provincecurrently holds the largest intact forest cover compared to allother provinces in Sumatra, it also contains the largest areaallocated for forest concessions, leading to a significant threatto the Leuser–Ulu Masen tiger mega-landscape (Figure 7).In 2010, the Government of Indonesia and the Governmentof the Kingdom of Norway signed a letter of intent onCooperation on Reducing the Green House Gas Emissionfrom Deforestation and Forest Degradation. Following theLetter of Intent, the Government of Indonesia issued aPresidential Regulation No. 10/2011 on the Suspension ofNew Concession Permit on Natural and Peat Forests.Possible solutionsPolicy improvement such as guidance by Forestry andEnvironment ministries to Ministry of Mining andNatural Resources and its provincial units regardingcoordination with relevant forestry agencies before grantingexploration licenses. A guideline of best working practicesto be endorsed by a joint decree of the Ministers of Forestry,Mining and Natural Resources, Agriculture, Transmigration,and Environment should be drafted for collaborative bufferareamanagement in areas where extractive industry permitsare granted. The Minister of Environment should work withthe district forestry agencies to monitor environmental impactassessment (AMDAL) compliance of the extractive industries.Promote multi-stakeholder engagement through CorporateSocial Responsibility (CSR) and the Carbon Initiative (REDD+).For Kampar–Kerumutan, effective collaborative adaptivemanagement should be developed based on a robustbiological and monitoring scheme.4.4 Habitat disconnectivityRoad and infrastructure development has been the majorcause of habitat fragmentation in Sumatra (Linkie et al.2006; Wibisono & Pusparini 2010). As a new road developsthrough a tiger habitat, various illegal human activities follow,leading to significant disconnectivity in the bisected habitat.A study revealed that forest encroachment also contributedsignificantly to fragmentation and reduced the core forestArea (x 1,000 km 2 )403530252015105-AcehNorth WestSumatra SumatraConcessionRiau Jambi South Bengkulu LampungSumatraFigure 7. Forest cover and natural forest concessions in Sumatra. Datasource: FWI for forest cover (Forest Watch Indonesia 2010), MoF for concessions(MoF 2011).area for wide-ranging endangered large mammals, such asSumatran tigers (Kinnaird et al. 2003). Habitat disconnectivityalready exists in four of the six priority TCLs, mainly due toroad networks. SGI solutions, such as wildlife underpasses,offer some best options to facilitate tiger movements acrossthe existing road networks. However, wildlife underpassescould also bring tigers in danger as hunters could easily usethe tunnel as their hunting points. A road alone, if it must bebuilt, may not necessarily be harmful to tigers if the intensityof use is limited and strong traffic control and protection areundertaken. A study reported a tiger crossing a district roadthat bisects two tiger habitats in Batang Gadis National Park(Wibisono et al. 2009). Close attention should be given tothe existing corridors between LE and UM as well as KS andBH. An attempt should be made to maintain these corridors.A recent camera-trap study indicated that the LE–UMcorridor might have facilitated tiger movements betweenthese two landscapes (FFI & WCS, unpubl.). In this case, roadconstruction should be completely avoided.Possible solutionsPolicy improvement to assign tiger priority and inviolateareas, with district and provincial governments clearly awareof their responsibilities for maintaining connectivity. SGIforms the basis of long-term spatial planning in and aroundforest areas. Robust, technically-grounded, and scientificallysoundpopulation monitoring should be initiated alongManaging Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 201225

existing roads, especially on tiger population dispersal andhabitat connectivity. Endorse clear statements by BAPPENASand Public Works Ministry at the national level regardingconnectivity, citing Presidential Regulation No: 3/2012.Provincial and district governments should be made awareof legal obligations and responsibilities for upholdingthe best spatial-planning principles. Stronger routine lawenforcement patrols and road block mechanisms should becarried out along the existing roads. PES mechanisms aimedat local communities as the beneficiaries can be a solution topreventing encroachment along habitat corridors.4.5 EncroachmentIn many cases encroachment becomes much morechallenging because it often relates to human rights andpoverty issues. Moreover, encroachment is very difficultto detect by foot patrols because it usually starts with avery small area inside the forest. Encroachment has alsopromoted THC incidents in many areas. An official reportof Forestry Statistics records a total of more than 39,000hectares of encroachment within the PAs in Sumatra (MoF2011). However, the actual size of encroachment within thePAs is believed to be much larger than the official report.For example, while the report notes no encroachment inLampung Province, certainly more than 66,100 hectaresof BBS NP alone has been encroached (Kinnaird et al.2003). Significant improvement in law enforcement in theearly 1980s proved to be effective in slowing down thedeforestation rate in the park. However, law enforcementwas weak in remote areas (Gaveau et al. 2009). While localcommunities are often blamed for encroachment, in manyPAs and state forests, encroachment is also orchestrated bywealthy people or political players or those who work forwealthy individuals. For example, more than 50 percent of thepeople named as ‘owners’ of croplands in KS were identifiedas businessmen, informal leaders, or local and nationalgovernment officers. Fewer than 20 percent were identifiedas landless farmers from local communities who needed toclear forest for subsistence purposes (AKAR Network 2009,unpubl.).Possible solutionsA major weakness in maintaining habitat integrity is theabsence of a rapid, fine-scale, and extensive technique formonitoring forest cover over shorter periods of time. Thus, aneffective monitoring technique should be invented and put inplace for rapid responses to newly developing encroachmentbefore serious problems occur. Smart patrol, informantnetworks, and law enforcement should be strengthenedor implemented wherever absent. The National Police andNational Anti-Corruption Commission needs to be involvedin investigations and law enforcement against organizedencroachment syndicates. PES mechanisms aimed at localcommunities as the beneficiaries can be a major solution topreventing encroachment in tiger habitats. Microeconomicdevelopment for smallholders and alternative sources ofelectric powers, such as hydro, wind, and biogas, can improvelivelihoods in local communities. Inter-agency cooperationshould be established to implement comprehensive handlingand mitigation of encroachment. Thematic awareness forthe local communities, especially on ecosystem services andwildlife management, should be intensively and regularlycarried out.5. Next stepsIn 2007, the Government of Indonesia released the NationalStrategy and Action Plan for the Conservation of SumatranTiger: 2007–2017 (NSAP). In 2010, the MoF launched theNTRP, a practical synthesis of the NSAP, which outlinesthree key actions: 1) replicating the specialized tiger lawenforcement and conflict mitigation units able to protecttiger and prey populations; 2) creating a Sumatran-wide tigeradaptive management system based on robust monitoring oftigers and their prey and effective management interventions;and 3) creating a legal basis to protect tiger habitats outsideof PAs and implementing this within and among the priorityTCLs. The NTRP targets six TCLs as pilot sites to double thetiger population by 2022, including three TCL I (Leuser–Ulu Masen, Kerinci Seblat and Bukit Tigapuluh), one TCL II(Kampar–Kerumutan), and two TCL III (Berbak–Sembilang andBukit Barisan Selatan).Since it was launched, the NTRP has accomplished severalkey activities as highlighted in the Global Tiger RecoveryProgram Implementation Report 2012 (Global Tiger InitiativeSecretariat 2012) including: publishing a baseline value ofSumatran tiger population status (Wibisono et at. 2011),strengthening law enforcement against tiger trafficking(Verheij et al. 2010), implementing more effective responsesto THC (this report), and improving government policies (Table6, Global Tiger Initiative Secretariat 2012). In early 2012, aconceptual project proposed by the MoF and major partnerstitled Transforming effectiveness of biodiversity conservation26Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 2012

in priority Sumatran landscapes was approved by theGlobal Environmental Facility and is now entering a ProjectPreparation Grant phase. The project aims to deliver threekey components over a five-year implementation period,including: 1) increasing effectiveness of key PA managementinstitutions, 2) developing inter-sectoral governance systemsin priority landscapes, and 3) sustainable financing forbiodiversity management in priority landscapes. This projectwill provide a strong framework for the overall conservationmeasures needed to achieve the target of doubling thepopulation of Sumatran tigers by 2022.BibliographyAnonymous (2004). Ladia Galaska road network: constructioncontinues, controversy rages. Accessed in 2012 at URL: http://www.downtoearth-indonesia.org/story/ladia-galaska-roadnetwork-construction-continues-controversy-rages.Anonymous (2011). Expose review of Environmental ImpactAssessment on LADIA GALASKA Road Project. Accessed inMay 2012 at URL: http://leuserecosystem.org/en/news/recentnews/99-expose-review-eia-of-ladia-galaska.html.Achard F, Eva HD, Stibig HJ, Mayaux P, Gallego J, Richards T,Malingreau JP (2002). Determination of deforestation rates ofthe world’s humid tropical forests. Science 297, 999–1002.Association of Tropical Biology and Conservation. 2011.Resolution Opposing Road Construction through KerinciSeblat National Park, Indonesia. Accessed in May 2012 atURL: http://www.tropicalbio.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=494:resolution-opposing-roadconstruction-through-kerinci-seblat-national-park-indonesia&catid=51:resolutions&Itemid=79.Bennett EL, Robinson JG (2000). Hunting of wildlife intropical forests: Implications for biodiversity and forestpeoples. Toward Environmentally and Socially SustainableDevelopment, Environment Department Paper No. 76(Biodiversity Series: Impact Studies). The World Bank,Washington, DC.Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 201227

Borner M (1978). Status and conservation of the Sumatrantiger. Carnivore 1, 97–102.Fearnside PM (1997). Transmigration in Indonesia: Lessonsfrom its environmental and social impacts. EnvironmentalManagement 21, 553–70.Forest Watch Indonesia. 2011. Potret Keadaan HutanIndonesia Periode Tahun 2000 - 2009: Edisi Pertama.Gaveau DLA, Linkie M, Suyadi, Levang P, Leader-Williams N(2009). Three decades of deforestation in southwest Sumatra:Effects of coffee prices, law enforcement and rural poverty.Biological Conservation 142(3), 597-605.Global Tiger Initiative Secretariat. 2012. Global Tiger RecoveryProgram Implementation Report 2012. The World Bank,Washington, D.C.Global Tiger Recovery Program (2010). Global Tiger RecoveryProgram: 2010 - 2022. The World Bank 1818 H Street, NW,Washington, DC 20433, U.S.A.Kerley LL, Goodrich JM, Miquelle DG, Smirnov EN, QuigleyHB, Hornocker MG (2002). Effects of roads and humandisturbance of Amur tigers. Conservation Biology 16, 97–108.Kinnaird MF, Sanderson EW, O’Brien TG, Wibisono HT,Woolmer G (2003). Deforestation trends in a tropicallandscape and implications for endangered large mammals.Conservation Biology 17, 245–57.Laumonier Y, Uryu Y, Stüwe M, Budiman A, Setiabudi B,Hadian O (2010). Eco-floristic sectors and deforestationthreats in Sumatra: Identifying new conservation areanetwork priorities for ecosystem-based land use planning.Biodiversity Conservation doi: 10.1007/ s10531-010-9784-2.http://www.springerlink.com/content/ c77376k574051178/.Linkie M, Chapron G, Martyr DJ, Holden J, Leader-WilliamsN (2006). Assessing the viability of tiger subpopulations ina fragmented landscape. Journal of Applied Ecology 43,576–86.Martyr D, Cullen J. 2011. Briefing Note: Multiple activeproposals for roads to cut through Kerinci Seblat NationalPark.MacKenzie DI, Nichols JD, Lachman GB, Droege S, Royle JA,et al. (2002). Estimating site occupancy rates when detectionprobabilities are less than one. Ecology 83, 2248–2255.Ministry of Forestry of Indonesia (2011). Forestry Statistics ofIndonesia. Ministry of Forestry of Indonesia, Jakarta.Nowell K (2000). Far from a cure: The tiger trade revisited.TRAFFIC International Cambridge, UK.Sanderson E, Forrest J, Loucks C et al. (2006). SettingPriorities for the Conservation and Recovery of Wild Tigers:2005–2015: The Technical Assessment. WCS, WWF,Smithsonian, and NFWF-STF, New York and Washington, DC.Santiapillai C, and Ramono WS (1987). Tiger numbers andhabitat evaluation in Indonesia. In: Tilson RL ed. Tigersof the World: The Biology, Biopolitics, Management, andConservation of an Endangered Species. Noyes Publications,Park Ridge, NJ, USA, pp. 85–91.Seidensticker J, Christie S, Jackson P (1999). Introducing thetiger. In: Seidensticker J, Christie S, Jackson P, eds. Riding theTiger: Tiger Conservation in Human-Dominated Landscapes.Cambridge University Press, UK, pp. 1–3.Sheppard CR, Magnus N (2004). Nowhere to hide: The tradein Sumatran tiger. TRAFFIC Southeast Asia.Tilson RL, Soemarna K, Ramono WS, Lusli S, Traylor-HolzerK, Sea US (1994). Sumatran Tiger Populations and Habitat28Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 2012

Viability Analysis. Indonesian Directorate General ofForest Protection and Nature Conservation, and IUCN/SSCConservation Breeding Specialist Group, Apple Valley, MN.Verheij, PM, Foley, KE, Engel, K. (2010). Reduced to skin andbones. An analysis of tiger seizures from 11 Tiger RangeCountries (2000–2010). TRAFFIC International, Cambridge, UK.Walston J, Robinson JG, Bennett EL et al. (2010). Bringing thetiger back from the brink—the six percent solution. PLoS Biol.8, e1000485 doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.1000485.Wibisono HT, Figel JJ, Arief SM, Ario A, Lubis AH (2009).Assessing the Sumatran tiger Panthera tigris sumatraepopulation in Batang Gadis National Park, a new protectedarea in Indonesia. Oryx 43, 634–8.Wibisono HT, Pusparini W. (2010). Sumatran tiger (Pantheratigris sumatrae): A review of conservation status. IntegrativeZoology 5, 313-323.Wibisono HT, Linkie M, Guillera-Arroita G et al. (2011).Population status of a cryptic top predator: An island-wideassessment of tigers in Sumatran rainforests. PLoS ONE 6(11),e25931 doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0025931.Wikramanayake E, Dinerstein E., Seidensticker J. et al. (2011).A landscape-based conservation strategy to double the wildtiger population. Conservation Letters 00, 1–9.Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 201229

Myanmar1. IntroductionThere are two main Tiger Conservation Landscapes (TCLs)(No. 37 and 19) in Myanmar (Figure 8) and both TCLs havebeen identified as “Global Priority” which is the highestpriority for tiger conservation (Dinerstein 2006). Two mainprotected areas (PAs)—Hukaung Valley Wildlife Sanctuary(HVWS) and Taninthayi Nature Reserve (TNR)—have beenidentified as tiger source sites in the Myanmar NTRP(MOECAF 2010). Connectivity in these TCLs is still threateneddespite the fact that there have been reinforced conservationefforts in the landscapes and the source sites. This documentprovides potential national-level solutions to these threats toconnectivity in TCLs in Myanmar.Figure 9. Hukaung Valley Wildlife Sanctuary, whose area is 21,890 km 2 .The habitat is tropical broadleaved forest and grasslands in lowland areas,broadleaved forest on hills, and temperate broadleaved and coniferous forests orshrubs at higher elevations. HVWS is the largest protected area on mainland Asia;it is contiguous with Namdapa National Park in India.2. Current conservation level in TCLs andprotected areasIn both tiger source sites, conservation activities such asdeveloping management plan, law enforcement, biologicalmonitoring, education and awareness raising, andcommunity-based natural resource management have beenimplemented. The management plans of HVWS and TNR havebeen reviewed by Ministry of Environmental Conservation andForestry (MOECAF).Figure 8. Myanmar’s Tiger Conservation Landscapes.3. Current numbers of wild tigers recordedin two tiger protected areas (TPAs)The baseline tiger population was reported as 50 inHVWS and 35 in TNR in the NTRP of Myanmar (MOECAF2010). In HVWS, the Forest Department (FD) and theWildlife Conservation Society Myanmar Program (WCSMP)collaboratively conducted opportunistic Global Tiger RecoveryProgram tiger surveys to generate estimates of the minimumnumber of tigers in the targeted area. In both 2010 and2011, the minimum number of tigers in HVWS was estimatedto be four in an effective survey area of about 4,000 km 2 .In TNR, National Consultant conducted a survey of tigersand their prey in 2010. Although the survey confirmed thepresence of tigers, the data did not allow an estimation of thetiger population to be generated. In addition, the 2,150-km 2Htamanthi WS in TCL No. 37 was estimated to have a tigerpopulation of about 5 to 10.30Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 2012

Habitat Connectivity, Threats, and Solutions inTiger Conservation LandscapesPrepared by Myanmar Nature and Wildlife Conservation Divisionand the Wildlife Conservation Society4. Current and projected (5 to 10 years)threats to TCLs and TPAsCurrent levels of threats to connectivity in TCLs and tigersource sites and their projected levels over the next 5 to 10years are listed in Table 5. Possible solutions to these threats arealso provided in the table and details are discussed in section 5.5. Possible solutions to maintain theconnectivity of TCLs5.1 Establish new protected areas to serve as corridorsTo maintain the connectivity of TCLs, new PAs to serve ascorridors between tiger source site PAs can be created. InMyanmar’s 30-Year Forestry Master Plan, the targets werea 5 percent expansion of PAs in the period 2001-02 to2005-06 and a 10 percent expansion in the period 2007-08 to 2016-17 to fulfill the 1994 Forest Policy (MOF 2001).In January 2012, MOECAF and WCS collaboratively held aworkshop and identified new Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs)necessary for a more representative and comprehensive PAsystem. As shown in Figure 11, proposed new KBAs serveas corridors between PAs to maintain connectivity in TCLs. ,INSERT MISSINGIMAGES FOR FIGURE 3Figure 10. Taninthayi Nature Reserve, with an area of 1,700 km 2 . The habitat istropical rainforest. TNR is contiguous with Thailand’s Western Forest Complex.Figure 11. Important corridors in Tiger Conservation Landscape No. 37.Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 201231

Table 6Current and projected (5 to 10 years) threats to TCLs and TPAs, and possible solutions.ThreatsCurrent LevelProjected (5 to 10years) LevelHVWS TNR HVWS TNRRoads and infrastructure Low Low High HighMining of mineral resources, oiland gas drillingLow Low High HighHydropower dam Low Low Medium MediumAgriculture, plantations Medium Medium High HighForest concessions, illegal logging,other types of deforestationLow Medium High HighHuman encroachment Medium Medium High HighInvasive species Low Low Medium MediumPrey poaching, snaring, etc. Medium Medium High HighTiger killing High High High HighPossible SolutionsInitiate Smart Green Infrastructure (SGI) (under/overpasses along roads)Law enforcement and regular joint check/ investigation of implementation process inconjunction with supervisory committeePromote Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and Payment for Ecosystem Services(PES) among companies, source agenciesEstablish new protected areas (PAs) or corridorsRaise awareness through media and environmental workshops/forumsSGI (building design and responsible means of waste disposal)Law enforcement and regular joint check/ investigation of implementation process inconjunction with supervisory committeePromote CSR and PES among companiesEstablish new (PAs) or corridorsSGI (dam design)Promote CSR and PES among companiesLaw enforcement and regular joint check/investigation of implementation process inconjunction with supervisory committeePromote CSR and PES among companiesCommunity-based natural resource managementREDD+Establish new (PAs) or corridorsLaw enforcement and regular joint checks of implementation process in conjunctionwith supervisory committeePromote CSR and PES among companiesCommunity-based natural resource managementREDD+Establish new (PAs)Step up law enforcement using SMART Patrol systemPartnership with community developmentAwareness raising through mass mediaEstablish new (PAs) or corridors or buffer zonesArrange research activities with the use of distribution maps and annual eradicationplans species-wideLaw enforcementSystematic biological monitoringAwareness raising through mass mediaStep up law enforcement using SMART Patrol system with an emphasis on informationcollection on offenders, buyers, towns, and placesSystematic biological and law enforcement monitoringAwareness raising through mass mediaStep up law enforcement using SMART Patrol system with an emphasize oninformation collection on offenders, buyers, towns, and placesSystematic biological monitoringAwareness raising through mass media32Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 2012

A new KBA, Corridor 2, serves as veryimportant corridor between HVWSand Htamanthi WS, where park staffconfirmed tiger presence. Similarly, newPAs in Corridors 4 and 5 are important toconnect TNR tiger source site with otherPAs and maintain the connectivity in TCLNo. 19 as shown in Figure 12.5.2 Establishing Smart GreenInfrastructure corridorsThe Ledo Road Development Projectin HVWS and the Dawei Deep SeaPort Project in TCL No. 19 have beenunder development. The Ledo RoadDevelopment Project will bisect HVWSand the Dawei Deep Sea Port Project willbisect TCL No. 19. Well-designed greeninfrastructure corridors are necessary tomaintain connectivity in HVWS and TCLNo. 19. As demonstrated in Figures 13,14, and 15, a series of well-designedunderpass and overpass corridors shouldbe established in both projects. Thesegreen infrastructure corridors shouldbe established in Corridors 1 and 3,as shown in Figures 11 and 12. Multistakeholderconsultation and collectivedecision-making processes will benecessary to come up with sensibleoutcomes.5.3 Reinforcing law enforcement andpatrollingIn both tiger source sites, lawenforcement has been reinforced andregular patrols have been conducted.Management Information System(MIST) has been applied to enhance theefficiency of law-enforcement planningand the threat-monitoring system.Figure 12. Important corridors in Tiger Conservation Landscape No. 19.5.4 Enhancing Corporate Social Responsibility and Payment for Ecosystem Services among businessA PES system currently is being applied in TNR in a collaboration between the Forest Department and Total Company. Other types of PESprojects have not been developed. Potentially, commercial-scale plantation companies and infrastructure and development companiesare suitable candidates for applying PES in HVWS and TCL No. 19.Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 201233

Figure 13. A model for Smart Green Infrastructure corridors (underpass) recommended for HVWS and TCL No. 19.Source: Adapted from Singh, E. A. P., Negi, A. S. & Rasaily, S. S. 2011.Figure 14. A model with specifications for Smart Green Infrastructure corridor (underpass) recommended for HVWS and TCL No. 19.Source: Adapted from Singh, E. A. P., Negi, A. S. & Rasaily, S. S. 2011.Figure 15. A model for Smart Green Infrastructure corridor (overpass-tunnel) recommended for HVWS and TCL No. 19.Source: Adapted from Singh, E. A. P., Negi, A. S. & Rasaily, S. S. 2011.34Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 2012

5.5. Awareness raising and conservation educationEducation and awareness-raising programs have beenconducted in priority tiger source sites. Different educationalmedia such as talks and village dramas have been adaptedand evolved to suit local needs.5.6 Community-based natural resource managementCommunity-based natural resource management has beenimplemented in HVWS and a community forestry-basedcommunity participation approach has been initiated in TNR.6. Next stepsTable 7Next steps needed to begin to implement solutionsSolutionsInitiate Smart Green Infrastructure(SGI) (under/overpasses along roads)Strengthen law enforcementEstablish new protected areas (PAs)or corridorsPromote Corporate SocialResponsibility (CSR) and Paymentfor Ecosystem Services (PES) amongcompaniesCommunity-based natural resourcemanagement (CBNRM)REDD+Partnership with communitydevelopmentAwareness raising through massmediaSystematic biological and lawenforcement monitoringNext StepsSubmission of SGI proposal to theUnion Government via the MinistryDraw up regularly revised monthly andannual patrol plansPropose and submit new PAs orcorridors to the Union Government viathe MinistryMake the Myanmar EnvironmentalConservation Law and related domesticlegislation an integral part of promotingCSR and PES among companies/agencies through workshops/ seminars/correspondence with relevant agencies.If needed, enact a rule or amend theexisting law.Submit annual implementation planson CBNRM and Community Forestry forTCLs and arrange roundtable discussionwith community for further developmentAssign a partner NGO to initiate REDD+Obtain agreements with NGOs throughderegulation of joint implementation ofcommunity development projectsArrange site visits to TCLs forrepresentatives of various media groupsDraw, submit, and initiate publicationsof annual monitoring plans for each TCLReferencesDinerstein, E., Loucks, C., Heydlauff, A., Wikramanayake, E., Bryja,G., Forrest, J., Ginsberg, J., Klenzendorf, S., Leimgruber, P.,O’Brien, T., Sanderson, E., Seidensticker, J. & Songer, M. 2006.Setting Priorities for the Conservation and Recovery of WildTigers: 2005–2015. A User’s Guide, WWF, WCS, Smithsonian,and NFWF-STF, Washington, D.C. – New York.Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry (MOECAF)2010. National Tiger Recovery Program Myanmar, Ministryof Environmental Conservation and Forestry, Nay Pyi Taw,Myanmar.Ministry of Forestry (MOF) 2001. 30 Year Forestry Master Plan(2001-2002 to 2030-2031), Ministry of Forestry, Yangon,Myanmar.Singh, E. A. P., Negi, A. S. & Rasaily, S. S. 2011. Eco EngineeringReport 2011: Facilitating movement of wild life, especiallywild Asian elephants, in Rajaji-Corbett elephant Range,Uttarakhand, India by restoring corridors between RiverYamuna and River Kosi, Uttarakhand Forest Department,Wildlife Savers Society, Tiger Protection Group, New Delhi,India.Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 201235

Nepal1. IntroductionThe tiger conservation landscape (TCL) in Nepal is representedby the Terai Arc Landscape (TAL) stretching over an area of23,199 km 2 between the Bagmati River in the east and theMahakali River bordering India in the west. The topographyis dominated by flat productive lands and part of the Shiwalikor Churia range that abruptly rises from the Terai in thenorth to reach a maximum elevation of 1,500 m. The majorrivers traversing the landscape are the Bagmati, Narayani,Rapti (east and west), Babai, Karnali, and Mahakali. Nearlyhalf a century ago, the TAL area was covered with vastexpanse of dense forests and tall alluvial floodplain grasslandsthat provided suitable breeding habitat for a diverse faunaincluding tigers and their prey species (Figures 16 and 17).The TAL encompasses two of WWF’s Global 200 Ecoregions.The highly productive Terai-Duar savannas and grasslandsof the TAL support one of the highest tiger densities in theworld. Apart from its biodiversity significance, the TAL regionis also economically important as it is considered the “ricebowl” of the country for its contribution to the nationalfood supply. Currently, the TAL is one of the most highlypopulated regions of Nepal, creating a constant threat to theremaining habitat of tigers.2. Current conservation level inTiger Conservation Landscape andprotected areasNepal is endowed with rich biodiversity spread over differentaltitudinal gradients ranging from the lowland Terai in thesouth to mid-hills and high mountains in the north. Theprotected area (PA) network was established to conserverepresentative ecosystems and occupies nearly 24 percentof country’s landmass. Of the 20 PAs in the country, six arein the TAL: Parsa Wildlife Reserve (WR), Chitwan NationalPark (NP), Banke NP, Bardiya NP, Shuklaphanta WR, andBlackbuck Conservation Area. Together they cover anarea of 5,414 km 2 , which is more than 15 percent of thenational protected area coverage (Figure 18). All PAs inNepal are managed by the Department of National Parksand Wildlife Conservation; all PAs have been implementingprograms in conservation, research, community awareness,and community development based on approved PAmanagement plans, species conservation action plans, andbuffer zone management plans. To put special emphasison tiger conservation, the Government of Nepal has beenimplementing the Tiger Conservation Action Plan (2008-2012) for Nepal.Figure 16. A view of Chitwan National Park. Source: Chitwan National Park36Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 2012

Habitat Connectivity, Threats, and Solutions inthe Tiger Conservation LandscapePrepared by the Nepal Department of National Parksand Wildlife ConservationFigure 17. A view of Bardia National Park. Source: Bardia National ParkFigure 18: Tiger Conservation Landscapes and existing protected areas in NepalManaging Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 201237

3. Current numbers of wild tigers recordedin the TALThe most recent complete tiger census in 2010 revealed thatthere were 155 wild tigers in Nepal. However a survey inBardia NP in 2012 reported 37 tigers, up from 18 previously,and a census in Suklaphanta WR indicated an increase in tigernumbers, from 8 tigers in 2010 to 10 adult tigers and 2 cubsin 2012. The tiger populations are particularly confined withinPAs, with the highest number (125) of tigers in Chitwan NP,one of the very few national parks having more than 100tigers, and the fewest in Parsa WR, where there are 4.4. Current and projected (5 to 10 years)threats to TCL and tiger protected areasCurrent levels of threats to connectivity in the TCL and tigersource sites and their projected levels over the next 5 to 10years are listed in Table 7. With few exceptions, threat levelsare high and expected to remain high. Possible solutions tothese threats are also provided in the table.5. Possible solutions to secure tigerpopulations5.1 Improved management of corridors/bottlenecksoutside of PAsA significant proportion of tiger habitat in the TAL is alreadyunder the PA system. However, there are still some veryimportant corridors maintaining north-south and east-westconnectivity that need focused conservation programs toensure their functions. These programs, in addition to wildlifeconservation, should include restoration through plantation andnatural regeneration, reducing pressure from livestock grazingand unsustainable use of the corridor resources, and communityengagement focusing on conservation awareness andalternative livelihood options. Partnership among a wide rangeof stakeholders is the key to the success of such programs.The Bhramadev corridor northwest of Suklaphanta WR, theKarnali corridor stretching along the western branch of theKarnali River, the Kamdi corridor stretching along the westRapti, Laljhadi, and Basanta in Kalilali, and the Barandabharcorridor in Chitwan NP are under immense anthropogenicpressure and need immediate intervention (Figure 19). Allof these corridors are of transboundary importance and linkPAs across the border with India. Some bottleneck areas,particularly in Dobhan and Lamahi, also need continuousintervention through community engagement. And anupcoming high-tension power line and a road from thenorthern stretch of Barandabhar will have devastatingimpacts on the overall function of the corridor. As in otherforest areas, all of these corridors and bottlenecks also sufferfrom invasive alien plant species, mainly Lantana camera, andrequire effective and practical measures to minimize theirspread and impact on natural ecosystems.5.2 Afforestation in barren lands/degraded forestsAfforestation in barren lands and natural regeneration indegraded forest lands could help expand existing habitats andalso improve habitat quality, especially outside the PAs. Publicbarren lands and open river banks and nearby barren areaswould be among the priority areas for restoration. Areas forafforestation and natural regeneration exist along all riversystems in the TAL including Karnali, west and east Rapti, andBabai rivers.5.3 Law enforcement and patrollingLaw-enforcement agencies, particularly the frontlinepark staff and Nepalese army staff deputed in PAs, needfurther strengthening of their capacity including in theuse of innovative technologies. Inadequate all-weatherroad networks have greatly limited effective patrolling ofprime tiger habitats areas during the monsoon. A networkof patrol roads inside the PAs is imperative to ensureeffective patrolling of these important areas. Furthermore,accommodation facilities and good communication systemsfor enforcement units also need significant improvements.Management Information System Technology (MIST) needs tobe integrated as a regular activity of PA management.5.4 Promoting Social Responsibility and PES among businessCorporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and Payments forEnvironmental Services (PES) need to be promoted anddeveloped as a mechanism for sustainable financing of tigerPAs. The existing provision of returning 50 percent of parkrevenue to the community through buffer-zone managementprograms needs to be made regular. An increase in theroyalty rate may also have greater effect in engaging localcommunities in tiger conservation. Promotion of REDDprograms in communities and collaboratively managedforest areas is also an opportunity for financing conservationprograms and promoting alternative livelihoods for localcommunities residing in the vicinity of PAs.38Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 2012

Table 8Current and projected (5 to 10 years) threats to the Terai Arc Landscape and protected areas, and possible solutionsThreatsCurrent LevelProjected (5 to 10years) Level Possible SolutionsRoads and infrastructure High High Promote Smart Green Infrastructure (SGI) (e.g. underpass/overpass)Strict follow up of provisions of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and InitialEnvironmental Examination (IEE)Monitoring at different phases of constructionPromote Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES)Mining of mineral resources,oil and gas drillingLow Low Strict follow up / implementation of provisions of EIA/IEEPromote CSR and PESHydropower dam Medium High Ensure SGIStrict follow up of provisions of EIA/IEEMonitoring at different phases of constructionPromote CSR and PESAgriculture, plantations Medium High Strict follow up of land-use policyAwareness raisingAlternative livelihood optionsPromote community forestry programsPromote CSR, PES, and REDDForest concessions, illegallogging, other types ofdeforestationHigh High Law enforcementAwareness raisingAlternative livelihood optionsPromote community forestry programsPromote CSR, PES, and REDDHuman encroachment High High Law enforcementAwareness raisingAlternative livelihood optionsInvasive alien plant species High High Understand ecology and dynamics of invasivesTest and pilot eradication/control measuresStudy ecological impact of invasive species on native flora and animals dependent on themPromote growth and diversity of native speciesPrey poaching, snaring, etc. High High Smart monitoring/patrolling systemLaw enforcementAwareness raisingAlternative livelihood optionsTiger killing High High Smart monitoring/patrolling systemLaw enforcementCoordinated anti-poaching and trade control effortsTransboundary cooperationAwareness raisingAlternative livelihood optionsManaging Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 201239

Figure 19. Important corridors in the Tiger Conservation Landscape.5.5 Awareness raising and conservation educationAwareness and education are fundamental for natureconservation in the long term, and tiger conservation is noexception. Education and public awareness is ongoing, witha particular focus on the buffer zone areas of the parks.Community-Based Anti-Poaching Operations (CBAPO),youth-based anti-poaching, and awareness-raising activitiesare found to be effective and need further strengthening andreplication. Community-level institutions could be trained toconduct awareness-raising activities in the buffer zones.5.6 Promoting alternative livelihoodsCreation and promotion of alternative livelihood optionsfor the marginalized communities dependent on naturalresources could divert them from degrading the forest andfrom poaching tigers and destroying the prey base. Fundsgenerated from CSR, PES, REDD, and the wildlife premiumcould be channeled to promote alternative livelihoods,therefore promotion of a workable mechanism is deemednecessary.40Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 2012

5.7 Strengthening research units/activitiesTo understand the potential impacts of climate change andinvasive species and their interaction on tigers and their habitat,research units should be expanded and strengthened. Researchwork needs to be immediately initiated to understand and tacklethe threats posed by invasive species and climate change. Of thetiger PAs, Parsa and Suklaphanta WRs are poorly studied andplans are underway to initiate long-term research to understandecosystem dynamics in these important tiger habitats.6. Next stepsTable 9Next steps needed to begin to implement solutions.SolutionsInitiate Smart Green Infrastructure(under/overpasses along roads)Strong law enforcementEstablish new protected areas orcorridorsPromote Corporate SocialResponsibility (CSR) and Paymentfor Ecosystem Services (PES) amongcompaniesCommunity-based natural resourcemanagementREDD+Partnership with communitydevelopmentAwareness raising through mass mediaSystematic biological and lawenforcement monitoringNext StepsNational Tiger Conservation Committeemeeting requested to harmonizeconservation and development in orderto secure intact tiger habitat. Sufficientmitigation measures will be promotedwhile conducting EIA and IEE.Wildlife Crime Control CoordinationCommittee, Wildlife Crime ControlBureau, and Wildlife Crime ControlUnits are working closely together.Revision of some laws is in process.Expansion of Parsa WR is in processand strengthening of corridors’connectivity will be continued.The royalty rate has recently beenincreased and the involvement of localcommunities will be promoted.Feasibility study of PES will be carriedout.Community-based anti-poachingand conservation activities will bepromoted.Pilot study will be carried out underREDD Cell and TAL program.Partnership with conservation partnerssuch as TAL program and NationalTrust for Nature Conservation andlocal governance bodies such VillageDevelopment Committees and DistrictDevelopment Committees will bestrengthened.Local and national media will be usedto promote better understandingof natural resources and createawareness.Nationwide tiger census and prey-basemonitoring will be carried out.Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 201241

Thailand1. IntroductionRigorous monitoring systems revealed that wild tigers aresurviving in protected landscapes with a history of strongprotection. Thailand’s National Tiger Recovery Priorities (NTRP)cite three main tiger conservation landscapes (TCLs) in which toincrease the tiger population by 50 percent: the Western ForestComplex, Krang Kra Chan Forest Complex, and Dong Pra YaYen-Khao Yai Complex. However, three protected areas (PAs)of a total of about 6,500 km 2 in the Western Forest Complex,known collectively as the Thung Yai-Huai Kha Khaeng (TY-HKK)World Heritage Site, form the core tiger source site (Figures20 and 21). Since 2005, almost 100 tigers have been cameratrapped in the HKK-TY landscape. This represents nearly halfof the country’s total tiger population. This document providespotential national-level solutions to the threats to habitatconnectivity and threats in this core tiger source site.2. Current conservation level in TCL andprotected areasThis tiger source site has been recognized as the best PAin Thailand. Management plans have been draw up. TheDepartment of National Parks, Wildlife and Plant Conservation(DNP) and NGOs work closely to support effective activitiesto strengthen conservation measures in this area. Effectivepatrolling, known as SMART Patrolling, has been implementedand strengthened by the collaboration between the DNPand NGOs, in particular WCS. A tiger and prey monitoringprogram has been implemented in these three PAs for morethan five years and has acted as a warning system to ensureeffective protected area management. Education programssuch as “Teacher for Tiger” were implemented in the schoolsaround HKK to educate and raise awareness.3. Current number of wild tigers recordedin three PAsA camera-trapping study to estimate the density of the tigerpopulation in 2011 showed that Huai Kha Khaeng WildlifeSanctuary (HKK) has the highest density of tigers in thecountry (2.3 tigers per 100 km 2 ) while the density of tigers inthe Thung Yai Narasuan Wildlife Sanctuary West (TYW) andThung Yai Narasuan Wildlife Sanctuary East (TYE) has beenestimated to be 1.1 and 0.68 tigers per 100 km 2 , respectively.Therefore, the number of tigers in these three PAs isestimated at about 100. Khao Nang Rum Wildlife ResearchFigure 20. The map shows the Thung Yai-Huai Kha Khaeng World Heritage Site composed of three protected areas: Thung Yai Naresuan Wildlife Sanctuary West, Thung YaiNaresuan Wildlife Sanctuary East, and Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary.42Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 2012

Habitat Connectivity, Threats, and Solutions in theCore Tiger Conservation LandscapePrepared by Budusabong Kanchanasaka, Thailand Department of National Parks,Wildlife and Plant Conservation, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmentstation has collaborated with WCS to monitor the tigerpopulations every year from 2006 to 2012 in HKK and everytwo years in TYW and TYE from 2007 to the present.4. Current and projected (5 to 10 years)threats to TCLCurrent levels of threats to TCLs, especially in the core tigersource site, and their projected levels over the next 5 to 10years are listed in Table 9. Possible solutions to these threatsare provided in the table and discussed in Section 5. Nextsteps toward implementing the solutions are shown inTable 10.Overall, the level of all threats is low in HKK and expected toremain low. In TYE and TYW, the levels of the threats fromroads, deforestation, and human encroachment are expectedto increase, either from low to medium or medium to high.At present and in the future, roads are a greater threat inTYE and mining and hydropower lesser ones; the opposite istrue in TYW. Human encroachment appears to the greatestthreat in TYE and TYW, where the threat level is expected toincrease from medium to high in the future. Steps to helpavert this are outlined in Section 5.2.In terms of solutions, improved law enforcement is seenas among the solutions to eight of nine of the threats, soimproving law enforcement should have a strong impact andbe a priority.5. Possible solutions to maintainconnectivity in TCL5.1 Strengthening law enforcement, national policy innatural resources conservation, and Thailand’s NTRPThe Wildlife Preservation and Protection Act B.E. 2535 doesnot allow people to live in the wildlife sanctuary. However,people of the Karen ethnic group occupy many villages inTYE and TYW and claim they lived there before the wildlifesanctuary was gazetted and that their livelihood is a partof nature, saying that they earn their living from naturalresources and grow crops only in sufficient quantities tosustain their life. The government tried to compromise,working with the local people to draw the boundariesof the villages and their plantations in order to stop landdegradation and encroachment. Recently, however, thesecommunities have been asking the government to developFigure 21. Thung Yai-Huai Kha Khaeng World Heritage Site is contiguous withMyanmar’s Taninthayi Nature Reserve. Its area is about 6,500 km 2 . The habitatvaries. Very high slopes are covered with hill evergreen forest and lower slopeswith dry semi-evergreen forest. The remainder is primarily mixed deciduous andbamboo forest and dry dipterocarp forest. Evergreen gallery forest is found alongsome rivers and streams. Thung Yai includes a large grassland plain surrounded bysavanna forest.convenient transportation from their village to the city so theycan use a road to transport their products to sell there. Bettertransportation will change their livelihood, leading them toincrease agricultural production beyond what they need tosurvive. As a result, land reclamation will increase. Therefore,national policy will play an important role in the conservationof the TY-HKK tiger landscape. If the government wouldlike to conserve the best habitat for tigers, as presented inthe NTRP, any development projects in the TY-HKK WorldHeritage Site must be considered carefully.5.2 Promoting sustainable economies and REDD+Human encroachment is a significant threat to theconnectivity of TY-HKK tiger source site. Although HKKhas no human settlements, there are at least 12 villagesettlements in TYE and TYW (Figure 20). The areas occupiedby the villages will eventually lead to the isolation of forestarea between HKK and the eastern portions of TYE andTYW. One solution to maintain the connectivity in theTCL is to decrease the destruction and degradation offorest caused by the expansion of villages and plantations.Planners of community-development programs must bemade aware that good roads and modernized livelihoodswill lead to the exploitation of natural resources. Promotingsustainable economies and the villagers’ traditional lifeManaging Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 201243

Table 10Current and projected (5 to 10 years) threats to Tiger Conservation Landscape and Protected Areas, and possible solutions.ThreatsRoads andinfrastructureMining of mineralresourcesCurrent LevelProjected (5 to 10 years) LevelHKK TYE TYW HKK TYE TYWLow Medium Low Low High MediumLow Low Medium Low Low MediumHydropower dam Low Low Medium Low Low MediumAgriculture, plantations Low Medium Medium Low Medium MediumForest concession,illegal logging, othertypes of deforestationLow Low Low Low Medium MediumHuman encroachment Low Medium Medium Low High HighInvasive species Low Medium Medium Low Medium MediumPrey poaching Low Medium Medium Low High MediumTiger killing Low High Medium Low Medium MediumSolutionsStrengthen law enforcementPromote cooperation among government organizations innatural resource conservationIncrease public interest in conserving the best habitat for tigerStrengthen protected-area (PA) management plans andNatural World Heritage Site regulationsStrengthen law enforcementPromote Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and Paymentfor Ecosystem Services (PES) among companiesStrengthen PA management plans and Natural World HeritageSite regulationsPromote CSR and PES by companiesGreen infrastructureStrengthen law enforcementPromote cooperation among government organization innatural resource conservationCommunity-based natural resource managementREDD+Strengthen law enforcementIncrease public interest in conserving the best habitat for tigersCommunity-based natural resource managementStrengthen law enforcementIncrease public interest in conserving the best habitat for tigersPartnership with community developmentStrengthen law enforcementPromote cooperation among government organization innatural resource conservationAwareness campaignSystematic biological monitoringStrengthen law enforcementPromote cooperation among government organization innatural resource conservationAwareness campaignStrengthen law enforcementPromote cooperation among government organization innatural resource conservationStrengthen protected-area management plans and NaturalWorld Heritage Site regulationsAwareness campaign44Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 2012

style will be an appropriate way to prevent them fromexpanding their plantations and degrading the forest aswell as from poaching wildlife. During 2008-2010, the SeubNakasatien Foundation conducted the Joint Management ofProtected Areas Project in TYE and TYW with a grant fromDANIDA. Land demarcation of Karen villages was conductedunofficially to stop the expansion of villages and agriculturalland. The project also created an education programto change the cultivation method from monoculture topolyculture. Poultry raising was introduced to the Karento decrease hunting of wildlife for food. The grant willsupport this project until the end of 2012. Therefore, fundsgenerated from CSR, REDD+, and/or the Wildlife Premiumcould be channeled to increase incentives for the Karen toconserve the forest.5.3 Awareness raising and conservation educationPublic awareness campaigns and environmental educationprograms have been conducted in TYE and TYW by thegovernment and NGOs for more than 10 years. However,strengthening incentives for natural resource conservation willbe a challenging and hard job for both government officersand NGO staff.6. Next stepsTable 11Next steps needed to begin to implement solutions.SolutionsSmart Green InfrastructureStrengthen law enforcementPromote cooperation amonggovernment organizations in naturalresource conservationIncrease public interest in conservingthe best habitat for tigersStrengthen protected-areamanagement plans and NaturalWorld Heritage Site regulationsPromote Corporate SocialResponsibility (CSR) and Paymentfor Ecosystem Services (PES) amongcompaniesCommunity-based natural resourcemanagementREDD+Partnership with communitydevelopmentAwareness campaignSystematic biological monitoringNext StepsClosely collaborate and shareinformation with related sectorsWork closely with other organizationto strengthen the Forest’s Law, WildlifeConservation and Protection Act, etc.Share information and introducetiger conservation to promote publicawarenessCampaign through many mediaProposed Protected Area Committee tofollow directives in the PA managementplan and the Natural World HeritageregulationsIntroduce these measures to allstakeholdersWork closely with Seub Foundation tocampaign on this issueWork with the World Bank to seekfunding from GEFHead of PA to work closely withcommunityIntroduce this issue into the formaleducation programCooperate with research institute toconduct systematic surveysManaging Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 201245

Vietnam1. IntroductionIn 2011, an initial basic survey of potential tiger PAs inVietnam was conducted to assess the wild tiger’s population,distribution, and habitat. The PAs were Muong Nhe NatureReserve, Pu Mat National Park (PMNP), Vu Quang NationalPark, Song Thanh Nature Reserve, Chu Mom Ray NationalPark, and Yok Don National Park (YDNP). The survey resultsshowed that two areas, PMNP and YDNP (Figure 22), retainhigh levels of biodiversity and large areas of forest coverand have the most tigers. They were also identified as thepotential tiger source sites in the Vietnam National TigerRecovery Priorities (NTRP) (MOECAF 2010). These TigerConservation Landscapes (TCLs) with the most potentialwere identified as “National Priority” for establishing tigerconservation PAs and for restoration of wild tigers in Vietnam;more intensive surveys of these two areas are planned. Theconnectivity of these TCLs is still threatened despite reinforcedconservation efforts in tiger landscapes and source sites. Thisdocument provides potential national-level solutions to thesethreats to connectivity in the TCLs in Vietnam.2. Current conservation level in TCLs andprotected areasIn both tiger source sites, conservation activities such asdeveloping management plan, law enforcement, biologicalmonitoring, education and awareness raising and communitybasednatural resource management have been implemented.The management plans of both national parks have beenreviewed by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Developmentand the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment.3. Current numbers of wild tigers recordedin two Tiger Protection Areas (TPAs)The baseline tiger population was reported to be 10 in PMNPand 10 in YDNP (CITES Vietnam, 2011). In 2010-2011, CITESVietnam under the General Forest Protection Departmentand the Institute of Ecology and Biological Resourcescollaboratively conducted the baseline surveys of the wildtiger population to generate an estimate of the minimumnumber of tigers in the targeted areas. In both 2010 and2011, the minimum number of tigers in PMNP was estimatedto be five individuals in an effective survey area of about911 km 2 ; this national park shares a border with Lao PDR.In YDNP, the survey estimated three to four individuals; thisnational park borders Cambodia. The estimated total numberof individuals in the two parks is 8 to 17 (Table 11).Figure 22: Selected sites for key study of TLCs of Vietnam.Table 11Suitable area for tigers in Pu Mat and Yok Don NationalParks and estimated tiger numbers.SitePark Area(km 2 )Suitable Area(km 2 )MinimumNumberMaximumNumberPu Mat 901 709 5 10Yok Don 1,115 988 3-4 746Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 2012

Habitat Connectivity, Threats, and Solutions in TigerConservation LandscapesPrepared by Global Tiger Initiative–Vietnam and Global Tiger Forum–Vietnam4. Current and projected (5 to 10 years)threats to TCLs and TPAsThreats to the tiger are a decline in prey, hunting, habitat loss,and habitat disturbance.4.1 The threats to tiger prey speciesThreats to tiger prey species were assessed in the twonational parks. Criteria used for the assessment are shownin Table 12. A species with a score of 9 to 12 points wasconsidered Endangered; 6 to 8 points was Vulnerable; 4 to5 was Medium; and 0 to 3 was Normal. In PMNP, five ofnine species ranked as Vulnerable and four of nine ranked asMedium (Table 13). In YDNP, six of ten are Vulnerable, threeare Medium, and one is Normal (Table 14).4.2 Threats to connectivityCurrent levels of threats to tigers, habitats, and connectivityin TCLs and tiger source sites and their projected levels overthe next 5 to 10 years are listed in Table 15. Most threatsare predicted to increase in intensity. The exception ismining, predicted to remain a low threat, and tiger killing,which is currently a high threat and expected to remainso. Agriculture, plantations, illegal logging, other types ofdeforestation, and human encroachment are predicted tomove from low or medium threats to high threats years soaverting these threats should be a high priority. Possiblesolutions to these threats are also provided in the table andnext steps in Section 5. Law enforcement is seen as one ofthe solutions to 9 of 10 of the threats, so improving lawenforcement should have a strong impact.Figure 23. A View of Pu Mat National Park in Nghệ An Province at. coordinates:18 o 46’ - 19 o 12’N, 104 o 24’ - 104 o 56’E. Other names for the park are Anh Son,Thanh Chuong, and Thanh Thuy. Habitat is lowland evergreen forest, with somelower montane evergreen forest at higher elevations close to the Laos border.Table 13Criteria for assessing the threats to tiger prey speciesin Vietnam.ThreatLevel Hunting Habitat LossEndangered4 pointsVulnerable3 pointsMedium2 pointsLow0-1 pointImpact on thepopulationDecreaseddistribution areaThe speciesis becomingendangeredImpact on thepopulationDecreaseddistribution areaImpact to thepopulation over alimited timeThe species canrecover in thehabitatNormalPoachingcontrolledLoss of foodsourcesEcologicalconditionschanged andcannot beconverted to theoriginal conditionsThe species hasbeen removedfrom the areaLoss of foodsourcesEcologicalconditionschanged, butcan be recoveredto the originalcondition within 5to 10 years if careis takenTemporary lossof foodSpecies has beenfeeding in otherhabitats but stillreturns to thehabitatsLow impact onhabitatsSpecies is innormal conditionHabitatDisturbanceConstantdisturbanceImpact on theanimals’ behaviorImpact on thebreeding of thespeciesThe species doesnot return to thedisturbance areaSeasonaldisturbanceImpact on theanimals’ behaviorThe species couldreturn to thedisturbance areaafter a long timeSeasonaldisturbanceSpecies will returnwhen disturbanceceasesNormal, does notimpact the speciesManaging Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 201247

Table 16Current and projected (5 to 10 years) threats to TCLs and protected areas and possible solutionsThreatsCurrent LevelProjected (5 to 10years) LevelPMNP YDNP PMNP YDNPRoads and infrastructure Low Medium Medium HighMining of mineral resources, oiland gas drillingLow Low Low LowHydropower dam Low Medium Medium MediumAgriculture, plantations Low Low High HighForest concessions, illegallogging, other types ofdeforestationMedium Medium High HighHuman encroachment Medium Medium High HighInvasive species Low Low Medium MediumPrey poaching, snaring, etc. Medium Medium High HighTiger killing High High High HighPossible SolutionsInitiate Smart Green Infrastructure (SGI) (under/overpasses along roads)Strong law enforcementEstablish new PAs or corridorsSGI (building design and responsible means of waste disposal)Law enforcementEstablish new PAs or corridorsSGI (dam design)Promote Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and Payment for Ecosystem Services(PES) among companiesLaw enforcementPromote CSR and PES among companiesCommunity-based natural resource managementREDD+Establish new PAs or corridorsLaw enforcementPromote CSR and PES among companies Community-based natural resourcemanagementREDD+Establish new PAsLaw enforcementPartnership with community developmentAwareness raising through mass mediaEstablish new PAs or corridors or buffer zonesLaw enforcement: strengthening control and elimination of invasive speciesSystematic biological monitoringAwareness raising through mass mediaLaw enforcementSystematic biological and law enforcement monitoringAwareness raising through mass mediaLaw enforcementSystematic biological and law enforcement monitoringAwareness raising through mass mediaManaging Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 201249

Figure 24. Core zone in Pu Mat National Park.50Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 2012

ThreatsdirectionCorridorCorridorFigure 4: Landscape Figure 25: Landscape corridor corridor for tiger for tiger conservation in Pu in Mat Pu National Mat National Park. The core Park. area and The buffer core zone area is 1,200 and km 2 buffer . Core area zone is 707 is km1,200 2 , km 2 .77 percent ofCore area is 707 km 2 the core zone of the PMNP., 77 percent of the core zone of the PMNP.Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 201251

Figure 26. A View of Yok Don National Park in Đak Lak Province at coordinates: 12 o 45’ – 13 o 10’ N, 107 o 29’ –107 o 48’ E. The habitat is tropical dry forest with some evergreen forest; along with Mondulkiri Protected Forest inCambodia, one of the largest expanses of this forest type in Asia.Figure 27. Tiger habitat in Yok Don National Park.52Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 2012

CorridorHydro powerimpactThreatsdirectionFigure Figure 7: Landscape 28: corridor for for tiger tiger conservation conservation in Yok Don National in Yok Park. Don The National core zone area Park. is about The 922 core km 2 zone , 90 percent area of is the about area of 922 YDNP. km 2 , 90percent of the area of YDNP.4. Current and projected (5 to 10 years) threats to TCLs and TPAsThreats to the tiger are a decline in prey, hunting, habitat loss, and habitat disturbance.4.1 The threats to tiger prey speciesThreats to tiger prey species were assessed in the two national parks. Criteria used for the assessment are shown in Table2. A species with a score of 9 to 12 points was considered Endangered; 6 to 8 points was Vulnerable; 4 to 5 wasMedium; and 0 to 3 was Normal. In PMNP, five of nine species ranked as Vulnerable and four of nine ranked as Medium(TableManaging4). In YDNP,Tiger Conservationsix of ten are Vulnerable,Landscapesthreeand Habitatare Medium,Connectivityand one|isOctoberNormal (Table20125).53

5. Possible solutions to maintain theconnectivity of TCLsÚÚEvaluate and extend pilot MIST application.ÚÚCarry out intensive assessment and survey on the mostpotential areas for restoration of wild tiger.ÚÚStrengthen transboundary, regional and global cooperation.ÚÚResearch and develop a coordinated, science-based plan fortranslocation, reintroduction, and rehabilitation of tigers tohabitats from which they have been extirpated, or nearly so.6. Next stepsTable 17Next steps toward implementing the solutions to threats.SolutionsInitiate smart patrollingStrong law enforcementEstablish new PAs or corridorsREDD+Awareness raising through massmediaStrengthen transboundarycooperation on illegal wildlifetrade control.Next StepsPilot application of MIST in YDNPEvaluate the pilot application of MIST in YDNPSeek support and extend training on MISTapplication to other PAsDevelop and implement the work plan ofVietnam-WENContinue to carry out law-enforcementcapacity training for relevant enforcementagencies especially in the cross-border PAsPlan to develop and distribute enforcementmanual as well as other materials in supportof enforcement to officials especially thefrontline staffDevelop and submit for approval the overallbiodiversity conservation planning until 2020toward 2030Establish the national steering committee onthe REDD+ national action program basedon the Decision 799/QĐ-TTg dated June 27,2012, on approval of the national actionprogram on REDD+ period 2011-2020Develop and implement the annual and fiveyearnational REDD+ program based on theDecision 799/QĐ-TTg dated June 27, 2012 onapproval of the national action program onREDD+ period 2011-2020Develop and issue instructions on REDD+implementationPilot REDD+ with participation of relevantparties, safeguards, and develop REDD+databaseDevelop and implement mass-scaleawareness campaign on wildlife trade andsustainable use of wildlifeImplement effectively the MoUs with Laosand Cambodia on cross-border wildlife tradecontrol54Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 2012

AnnexesAppendix 1.The Thimphu Recommendations on Smart GreenInfrastructure in Tiger Conservation LandscapesThimphu, Bhutan | May 30-31, 2011On May 30-31, 2011, in Thimphu, Bhutan, representativesfrom diverse ministries, civil society, and the private sector inBhutan, national experts from other Tiger Range Countries(TRCs) and international experts met to discuss how to ensuretiger conservation amid accelerating development pressures intiger conservation landscapes (TCLs). The outcome of ‘SmartGreen Infrastructure in Tiger Conservation Landscapes: APractitioner’s Workshop’, which was jointly organized by the RoyalGovernment of Bhutan and the Global Tiger Initiative, is a set ofrecommendations for planning and implementing Smart GreenInfrastructure (SGI) tools with application to land-use planning,hydroelectric power, roads and ecotourism development that canpotentially impact TCLs. These recommendations may have wideapplicability in TRCs.1. Recommendations on Land-Use PlanningRecommendations at the policy levelÚÚDevelop TCL Master Plans encompassing core habitats,buffer zones, corridors and the wider production landscape toensure inviolability of core habitats and compatible land usein the remaining landscape under available national or subnationalland-use policies or relevant physical/spatial planningacts.ÚÚAdopt comprehensive national physical/spatialplanning legislation wherever enabling land-use planninglegislation is absent to ensure hierarchical land-use planningcovering economic, social, environment and natural resourceconservation, as well as infrastructure and urban and ruraldevelopment.ÚÚInclude SGI principles in environmental compliancelegislation through the development of tools and guidelines.ÚÚFinance the incremental cost of SGI through the designand adoption of innovative business models building on thenotion of Corporate Environmental Responsibility and offsetbanking, including include economic and ecosystem valuationmethodologies to support SGI.Recommendations at the TCL levelÚÚAdopt core principles of SGI, i.e. that tiger range areasare inviolate and that infrastructure in the remainder of thelandscape incorporates engineering solutions for biodiversity.ÚÚPrepare an annual State of the TCL Report based on atransparent monitoring framework using the best availablescience to report on changes in tiger habitat. This Report willalso build awareness of SGI principles and hold stakeholdersaccountable for their actions to implement these principles.ÚÚShare responsibility for ensuring SGI across publicagencies, the private sector, and civil society. Conservingtiger landscapes is not the sole responsibility of forest andwildlife departments, but a shared responsibility. Humancapital and technical capacity to design, implement andsupervise SGI must be built within infrastructure, planningand financial institutions. All sectors must contribute theresources necessary for this.ÚÚIdentify and map critical biological/ecological corridorslinking TCLs and linking tiger habitats within TCLs. Theirmanagement must be mainstreamed in both land-useplanning and TCL master plans to ensure tiger mobilitywhile allowing for sustainable livelihoods and smart greeninfrastructure.ÚÚTRCs, including Bhutan, are undergoing an intensive paceof urbanization. Cities are expanding and mushrooming inan unregulated manner. It is critical to regulate unplannedurban sprawl through a strict compliance with land useplanning and zoning and to contain the ecological footprintof cities, particularly those in the contiguities of TCLs andother sensitive and high-value ecosystems.2. Recommendations on HydropowerDevelopmentÚÚDevelop an overall hydropower developmentstrategy that takes into account sensitive environmentalareas, including core tiger breeding zones. Such a strategyshould build on Strategic Environmental Assessment of thehydropower sector and make upfront choices of what, whenand where projects should be developed.ÚÚDefine, delineate and designate No-Go Areas for coretiger habitats as soon as possible.ÚÚA framework for establishing baselines environmentalstatus and regular monitoring processes should beestablished and implemented.ÚÚInstitutional arrangements should be establishedinvolving national and sub-national entities, and betweensectors for planning specific projects, managing social andenvironmental risks and promoting adaptive managementduring the implementation of the project.Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 201255

ÚÚAccelerate skill enhancement and human resourcecapacity building in order to enable the development andimplementation of SGI in the hydropower sector.ÚÚPromote the principle of the developer meeting the fullenvironmental and social costs of the project, includingpaying for the value of ecosystem services provided to theproject and making contributions to environmental offsets asappropriate to the project and country.ÚÚUse independent panels on dam safety/constructionand social-environmental issues which are accountable tothe government to ensure expert monitoring and establishcommon ground between developers and government.ÚÚPromote the use of voluntary, industry-adoptedcorporate toolkits among developers for defining goodpractices and a framework for sustainability assessments.ÚÚHighlight the right of Least Developed Countries (LDCs)to compensation for foregone opportunity costs of nondevelopmentin No-Go Areas in favor of Global PublicGood values.3. Recommendations on RoadsObjectivesTo manage road construction, operation and maintenanceto support viable populations of tigers in each landscape inwhich roads and their ancillary infrastructure intersect. By2022, a demographically stable meta-population of tigers inBhutan to co-exist compatibly with rural livelihoods.Building the processÚÚCapacity-building, institutional coordination and financialresources (from partnerships, public purse, etc.) toconstruct, operate and maintain roads in TCLs, andsupervise implementation of Environmentally-Friendly RoadConstruction (EFRC).RecommendationsÚÚUse and enhance existing in-park road guidelines*throughout TCLs to apply minimum standards to all roadconstruction, maintenance and operation in TCLs. (Leadresponsibility: Department of Forests and Park Services)ÚÚDevelop monitoring tools/indicators for supervisingimplementation of guidelines in EIA process. This shouldinclude developing the unit cost of environmentalspecifications, including supervision and monitoring. Thesetools would apply to both contractors in their EMPs andagencies that supervise road operation and maintenancefollowing the construction phase. (Lead responsibility:Department of Roads with Department of Quality andStandards).ÚÚDistill lessons learned from pilot approaches in the on-goingnational highway project.ÚÚDevelop bidding documents that capture the unit cost ofenvironmental mitigation and monitoring as part of thesubmitted bid (estimate/km). (Lead responsibility: Ministry ofFinance).ÚÚClearly map and instill mitigation measures with principles ofavoidance and SGI to existing and proposed infrastructure inTCLs to maintain tiger populations. This needs to link withMaster Plans for TCLs and be integrated into the NationalRoad Plan.4. Recommendations on SustainableTourismObjectiveTo promote sustainable tourism in TCLs, recognizing thatcontrolled and managed tourism can help support andprotect globally significant biodiversity, tigers and theirhabitat.Priority recommendationsÚÚDevelop guidelines to regulate tourism in and around TCLs.ÚÚInclude a tourism and visitor management component in allTCL Master Plans.ÚÚAcknowledge that conservation comes first, and thatsustainable tourism is a tool to help fund TCLs, not a panaceafor protection.ÚÚDevelop tourism as a complementary rather than analternative livelihood for rural communities in and aroundTCLs.ÚÚMaximize the use of smart green technologies in all tourismfacilities (e.g. buildings, water supply, waste management,renewable energy, etc.).ÚÚRecognize that commercial viability is vital for thesustainability of private sector and other partners whomanage tourism operations.*Guidelines already exist for roads in protected areas.56Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 2012

ÚÚEnforce legal regulations and zoning to control ad hoc privatesector development in and around TCLs.Building the processÚÚCapacity-building, institutional coordination and financialresources for SGI to facilitate sustainable tourism in andaround TCLs.ÚÚBuild community and host capacity to engage in responsibletourism, to reap livelihood benefits, and to manage financialflows in and around TCLs.ÚÚForge partnerships among TCL tourism stakeholders to ensurecoordination and responsible stewardship.ÚÚDevelop interpretation and guide standards for eachTCL to enrich visitor experience and create awareness ofconservation issues.ÚÚDevelop products and amenities to match the range of targetmarket segments (high-end to budget, including domestic) inand around TCLs.ÚÚBe careful not to raise tourism and conservation expectationsat a community and national level that cannot be met.ÚÚDevelop indicators to monitor and evaluate visitor impacts inTCLs.Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 201257

APPENDIX 2.Kuala Lumpur Statement onMainstreaming Tiger HabitatsWe, the participants of the Cross Sectoral Executive Leadership Forum on Mainstreaming Tiger Habitats held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, on20-22 February 2012, representing governments, private sector and civil society from Tiger Range Countries (TRCs),RECOGNISE that the tiger and its prey in the wild face the threat of imminent extinction due to habitat loss, poaching, the illegal wildlifetrade, and human-tiger conflict.REITERATE our support for the St. Petersburg Declaration on Tiger Conservation adopted in November 2010 and the Global Tiger Recoveryprogram.APPRECIATE the efforts undertaken by TRCs and their partners in protecting the remaining population and securing tiger habitats.CALL UPON national, subnational and local governments, private sector and civil society stakeholders across TRCs to adopt and promotethe following practical approaches to mainstreaming tiger habitats.Spatial PlanningAll TRCs shall undertake strategic spatial planning that enable biodiversity conservation to be mainstreamed into economic developmentplanning. Such spatial plan shall be integrated across all sectors and across all levels of government and developed with the collaborationof key stakeholders.Strategic spatial plans at the national level shall define sensitive environment/ ecosystems and be supported by specific plans thatidentify priority areas for habitat connectivity and restoration and wildlife corridors. The Central Forest Spine initiative in PeninsularMalaysia to create a contiguous forest network linked with specific ecological corridors is an example that could be emulated by otherTRCs.Engagement and participatory planning with local communities in and adjacent to tiger habitats shall be strengthened to build aconstituency and value for live wild tiger and minimise negative impacts on tigers, their prey, and habitats, and reduce the incidence ofhuman-tiger conflict. The livelihood and the well-being of such local communities shall be enhanced through capacity building, financialsupport and the development of alternative sources of income.Smart Green InfrastructureTRCs shall plan and develop Smart Green Infrastructure that will minimise the adverse impacts and provide means for connectivity offragmented populations of tigers within and across landscapes. It is crucial to ensure the integrity of tiger conservation landscapes byensuring the connectivity of corridors.The viaducts/tunnels or other similar infrastructure to facilitate wildlife movement shall be based on a comprehensive plan and shall not bean excuse for building roads and other infrastructure through critical habitats which could otherwise be avoided. The integrity of core tigerhabitats shall be protected at all times.The viaducts/tunnels or other similar infrastructure that are built to facilitate wildlife movement shall be designed and managed holisticallywith emphasis on management of adjacent land use and continuous monitoring.The planning and implementation of Smart Green Infrastructure shall be based on the best available science. The science-research-policyinterface shall also be strengthened for better decision-making by all stakeholders.58Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 2012

Capacity BuildingTRCs, together with GTI, shall develop capacity building and awareness raising programmes for all stakeholders on landscape levelplanning and smart green infrastructure.TRCs shall share their unique knowledge and experience with each other, through the establishment of a mechanism for effectiveinformation-sharing and exchange on plans or activities or best practices that may be of interest to other TRCs. The South-South dialoguecould potentially be a tool to facilitate this exchange.Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 21 February 2012Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes and Habitat Connectivity | October 201259

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